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 CONTENTS

1. TEACHING APTITUDES

2. RESEARCH APTITUDE

3. READING COMPREHENSION

4. COMMUNICATION

5. REASONING (INCLUDING MATHEMATICAL)

6. LOGICAL REASONING

7. DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

8. INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

9. PEOPLE AND ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION

10. HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM

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 TEACHING APTITUDE

Introduction
The progress and prosperity of a nation depends upon the development of its human
resources. For this purpose we need highly competent teachers.
Teaching aptitude is basically evaluating candidates who want to enter teaching
profession on the basis of their knowledge and skills. It refers to basic qualities required to
become a successful teacher. This includes qualification, intelligence, attitude and many other
qualities expected from a person who wants to become a successful teacher.
Apart from teaching concepts, teaching objectives, teaching methods and teaching
aids which are specifically mentioned in the syllabus, many questions have been asked on
classroom situations in NET Exam. The ensuing discussion can help candidates to
comprehend these types of questions correctly.

Concept of Teaching
Teaching can be formal as well as informal. Informal Teaching is carried out within
the family or in community, during initial years of life.

Teaching can be defined in the following ways:

1. Teaching is the purposeful direction and management of the learning process.
2. Teaching is skillful application of knowledge, experience, and scientific principles with
an objective to set-up an environment to facilitate learning.
(a) How clearly the students understand
(b) How accurately their learning can be measured
3. Teaching is a process in which the learner, teacher, and school, principle aids are
organized in a systematic way to attain some predetermined goals.
4. Teaching is an activity that causes the child to learn and acquire the desired knowledge
and skills and also the desired ways of living in the society.

Nature or Characteristic Features of Teaching

1. It has different levels of teaching
2. It takes place in a dynamic environment
3. It is essentially an intellectual activity
4. It tends towards self-organisation
5. It is a social service
6. Autonomy freedom
7. It is a continuous process
8. Teaching is a profession

Different levels of Teaching

 Memory level of teaching (MLT)
 Understanding level of teaching (ULT)
 Reflective level of teaching (RLT)

Memory level of teaching (MLT)

1. Herbart is the main proponent of Memory Level of Teaching.

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2. Memory is the initial stage of teaching
3. The teaching-learning process is basically 'Stimulus-Response' (S-R) in MLT.
4. The evaluation system mainly includes oral, written, and essay-type examination.

Understanding level of teaching (ULT)

1. Morrison is the main proponent of Understanding Level of Teaching.
2. It is 'memory plus insight' as it goes beyond just memorizing of facts.
3. It provides more and more opportunities for the students to develop the 'intellectual
behaviour'.
4. The evaluation system mainly includes both essay and objective-type questions.

Reflective level of teaching (RLT)

1. Hunt is the main proponent of Reflective Level of Teaching.
2. It includes ULT and MLT.
3. It is problem-centred teaching.
4. The students are assumed to adopt some sort of research approach to solve the problem.
5. Classroom environment is to be sufficiently 'open and independent'.
6. The pupil occupies the primary place and teacher assumes the secondary place.
7. Mostly essay-type test is used for evaluation Attitude, belief, and involvement are also
evaluated.

Effective Teaching Practices

The Maxims of Teaching
1. From simple to complex – Simple things should be taught first followed by complex
things. This method of teaching creates interest among learners to acquire new knowledge
and helps in gradually building up the concepts.
2. From known to unknown – Retention is always better if new knowledge can be
linked with the known one.
3. From seen to unseen – The students should impart knowledge about the present and
then they can understand the past and the future better.
4. From concrete to abstract – The mental development of students happens with the
concrete objects and afterwards they gain micro-words for them eg. Astelonomy.
5. From whole to part – Gestalt psychologists have proved that we first see the
whole object and then its parts. For example, we first perceive the tree and then its
trunk, branches, leaves, etc. Thus, introduction or overview of the topics is
important.
6. From psychological to logical – During initial stages, psychological order is more
important, whereas for grown up learners, logical order is emphasized more.
7. From analysis to synthesis – Initially, the knowledge of students is vague.
Analysis means dividing problems into its constituent parts and then these are
studied.
8. Training of senses – Senses like sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch are
gateways to knowledge.

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Classification of Teaching and Instructional Objectives
There are two ways of classifying instructional objectives. One classification is given
by Bloom et al, whereas another classification is given by Gagne and Briggs.

Bloom's Classification of Teaching and Instructional Objectives

According to Bloom's classification, instructional objectives fall under one of the
following three categories:
1. Cognitive domain : It is related to development of intellectual capability and it is the
core learning domain. The other domains least some cognitive components. It functions at
six levels, which are as follows:
(a) Knowledge : It is basically about recalling information or contents.
(b) Comprehension : It is the ability to grasp the meaning of a material.
(c) Application : It is applying the gained knowledge in practical situations, that is,
converting abstract knowledge into practice.
(d) Analysis : It involves breaking down a communication into its constituent parts in
such a manner that relationship of ideas is understood better.
(e) Synthesis : It is basically about combining the constituent parts to make it a whole. It
is antonym of analysis.
(f) Evaluation : It involves judgement made about the value of methods and materials
for particular purposes.
2. Affective domain : It deals with attitude, motivation, willingness to participate, valuing
what is being learned, and ultimately incorporating the values of discipline into a way of
life. It asks for better student participation. It includes the following levels of affective
domain.
(a) Receiving: Willing to listen
(b) Responding : Willing to participate
(c) Valuing : Willing to be involved
(d) Organizing : Willing to be an advocate of an idea
(e) Characterization : Willing to change one's behaviour, lifestyle, or way of life.
3. Psychomotor domain : It is mainly concerned with the acquisition of technical skills.
Following are the five different levels of instructional objectives in psychomotor domain:
(a) Imitation : Demonstration of a skill by another individual is essential for imitation.
An individual performs the act under the guidance of a skilled person.
(b) Manipulation : A learner tries to experiment with various aspects like manipulating
machinery, equipment, etc.
(c) Precision : Accuracy in performing various acts increases with practice.
(d) Articulation : Achieving a desired level of efficiency and effectiveness through
practice.
(e) Naturalization : Skill is internalized and an individual is able to adapt, modify, or
design new techniques, methods, or procedures according to the requirements of a
situation.

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Gagne and Briggs classification of Teaching and Instructional Objectives
According to Gagne and Briggs classification, the learning outcomes fall under one of
the following categories:
1. Intellectual skills : These skills are crucial for dealing with the environment. They
include concept learning, rule learning, and problem solving.
2. Cognitive strategies : These include methods and techniques for one's own learning,
remembering, and thinking skills.
3. Verbal information : It refers to organized bodies of knowledge that an individual
acquires.
4. Motor skills : They are basically about motions carried out when the brain, nervous
system and muscles work together.
5. Attitudes : They refer to an internal state of an individual.

Methods of Teaching
The teacher has a number of methods at his disposal to select from. These methods
are as follows:
1. Large group teaching methods
2. Small group teaching methods
3. Individualized teaching methods

Large Group Teaching Methods

Lecture methods
The use of lecture method mainly depends on -
(i) the topic to be discussed
(ii) teaching philosophy of the teacher
(iii) the overall learning situation (such as size of the group)
Lectures can be either one-way or two-way depending upon the presence or absence
of the facility to seek further information, clarification, and explanation.

Team Teaching methods

Team teaching is an innovative approach in teaching large groups in which two or
more teachers are involved in planning, executing, and evaluating the learning experiences of
a group of students.

TV or Video Presentation
Television or video presentation is an improved presentation of radio or audio
presentation, and it can virtually bring the whole world inside the classroom.

Small Group Teaching Methods

Most of the methods of instructional delivery for the learning of smaller groups
numbering between 3 and 12 trainees lean towards trainee-centred approach.

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 RESEARCH APTITUDE
Research is the lifeblood of any institute of higher learning worth its name. It is a
habit of questioning what you do and a systematic examination of the observed information
to find answers. Research is more than a set of specific skills; it is a way of thinking; it
examines critically the various aspects of any professional work.
(1) The term research comprises of two words, namely ‘re’ and’ search’. Generally, re
means again and search means to find out. According to Advanced Larner’s Dictionary.
‘Research is a careful investigation or inquiry specially to search for new facts in any branch
of knowledge’. According to Creswell. ‘Research is a process of steps used to collect and
analyze information to increase our understandings of a topic or issue’.

(i) is a process of enquiry and investigation, (ii) is systematic and methodical, and (iii)
increases the knowledge

Research Objectives
Research adds to the existing stock of knowledge, making for its advancement. It is the
pursuit of knowledge with the help of study, observation, comparison, and experiment. The
main purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures. The purpose of research is to find out the truth that is hidden and not
discovered so far.
The typical objectives of research can be summarized as follows:
1. Gain familiarity with a new phenomenon or develop new insight into a phenomenon.
2. Review and synthesize the existing knowledge.
3. Investigate some existing situation or problem.
4. Offer solution to a problem.
5. Explore and analyze more general issues.
6. Construct or create a new procedure or system.
7. Generate new knowledge.

Some important terms

Epistemology is a branch of philosophy that deals with the origin, nature, methods to acquire
knowledge, validity, and limits of human knowledge.

Positivist paradigm is mostly associated with quantitative research strategies.

Interpretive paradigm is usually associated with qualitative research strategies. It is
specifically applicable in social sciences like sociology, political science, etc.
Theory A theory is a set of systematically related statements, including some law-like
generalizations that can be tested empirically. These generalization provide hypotheses and
these hypotheses determine what must be measured.
Construct Construct is popularly termed as the concept. A construct is an abstract entity, that
is, it is not something physical.

Research characteristics
Objectivity: It is crucial for a successful research. We should rather say that all other
characteristics are built around it. Researchers usually take utmost precautions that results are
not affected by their own presence, behaviour, and attitude.

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 Reliability in context of research is consistency. It refers to the extent to which an
investigation produces consistent results. Reliability means that whatever you conclude on
the basis of your findings is correct and can be verified by the researcher and also by others.
Validity: Validity in research mainly stands for accuracy of procedures, research
instruments, tests etc.
Validity is defined as the extent to which a measuring device measures what it intends
or purports to measure.
Validity means that research must be unbiased and fee from any systematic error as
these may impact the applicability of research.
Accuracy: It is closely related to validity. It is also the degree to which research processes
instruments, and tools are related to each other.
Credibility: It is the use of best source of information and the best procedures in the
research. Most of the times, it will become a questions of excessive reliance on secondary
data when the option of primary data is available.
Generalizability: It is closely related to validity. It refers to the degree to which research
findings can be applied to a larger population.
Empirical research: It is based on real-life experiences, direct experiences or observation
by the researcher.
Systematic: For a research to be effective, it has to be systematic. It is the only approach to
undertake any research work, and each step must follow the other.
Cyclical: Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a problem and ends with a
problem.
Logical: The statement, a good research is logical, implies that research is guided by the
rules of logical reasoning. Logical processes of induction and deduction are of great value in
carrying out the research.

S.No. Basis of classification Types

1. Descrive
2. Correlational
1. Objectives
3. Explanatory
4. Explaratory
1. Basic
2. Outcome
2. Applied
1. Deductive
3. Logic
Inductive
1. Quantitative
4. Process
2. Qualitative
1. Structured
5. Inquiry mode
2. Unstructured
1. Conceptual
6. Idea or concept
2. Empirical

Classification of Research on the Basis of Objectives

1. Descriptive research
2. Correlational research
3. Explanatory research
4. Experimental research

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Descriptive Research
1. It is description of a ;situation as it exists atpresent.
2. It includes surveys and fact-finding enquires with adequate interpretation.
3. It just involves data gathering.
4. A researcher no control over the variables.
5. It attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem, or phenomenon.
6. It can provide information about, say for example, living condition of a community, or it
can describe the attitudes towards an issue.
7. It can be further cross-sectional or longitudinal. The cross-sectional study can be field
study or field survey at a point of time, and in longitudinal research, the data may be
collected at more than one point of time.

Examples: 1. Ministry of Agriculture would like to know about the crop patterns across
different states in India. 2. School principal may be interested to know about the result of his
own school in comparison to other schools in the district.

Ex post facto research

1. It is mostly used in social sciences and business.
2. It is conducted in context of a phenomenon after it has occurred or at the time of its
occurrence.
3. It basically deals with non-manipulated variables of a phenomenon.

Historical research
1. It is another dimension of description research and somewhat similar to ex post facto
research.
2. It usually focuses on the historical aspect of an issue of interest or problem.
3. Examples are growth of trade unions in India, evolution of modern education system in
India, etc.

Analytical research
1. In this method, the researcher uses facts or information already available.
2. It attempts to make critical evaluation of the material.
In field study, the depth of the study is greater and the sample size is usually small,
whereas in field survey, there is greater coverage of population but the depth of study
may not be great.

Correlational studies
1. It is undertaken to discover or establish relationship or interdependence between two
aspects of a situation.
2. It may identify factors leading to a certain situation.

Explanatory Research
Explanatory research attempts to answer how and why between two aspects of a
situation or a phenomenon.

Exploratory Research
1. It is generally done on starting a research. It is undertaken to explore an area where
little is known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research
study and is akin to feasibility study or pilot study.

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 2. Purpose of exploratory research is to gain background information, to define terms, to
clarify the problems, to develop hypotheses, to establish research priorities and
objectives, and to develop questions to be answered.
3. It mostly makes use of secondary data (mainly literature review), experience sur-
verys, case studies, interviews (mainly focus groups’ interviews), projective
techniques, and Delphi techniques.

Experimental Research or Causal Studies

1. It is cause-and-effect finding research; it seeks to uncover cause-and-effect
relationships.

Classification of Research on the Basis of Application

Pure(or Basic)Research
1. The main purpose of basic research is to add to the existing stock of
knowledge and, thus, can be intellectually challenging.
2. The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add
to the existing body of research methods.

Applied Research
1. Applied research is done to solve specific, practical questions facing the organizations
or society.
2. It can be used for policy formulation, administration, and understanding of a
phenomenon
3. It can be exploratory but is usually descriptive.
4. It is always done on the basis of basic research and can be carried out by academic or
industrial institutions. For example, an academic institution such as a university will
have specific applied research program funded by an industrial partner interested in
that program.

Classification of Research on the Basis of Logic

In research, conclusions are based on two methods known as the deduction method
and the induction method. Both are widely used in research projects, and this helps the
researchers to understand, explain, or predict business phenomena. Deduction follows an
approach which is top-down or from general to specific. On the other hand, induction is
bottom-up in nature or from specific to general.

Deductive Approach
In deduction, we start from a theory and try to prove it right with the help of available
information. The deductive method involves the following three steps:
1. State the hypotheses (based on theory or research literature).
2. Collect data to test the hypotheses.
3. Make decision to accept or reject the hypotheses.

Examples
1. All men are mortal (general fact and not specific to just one man)
2. Socrates is a man.
3. (Therefore,) Socrates is mortal(specific).

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Inductive Approach
In inductive research, we more from specific to general. This approach also involves
three steps:
1. Observe the different phenomena in the world.
2. Make a search for a pattern in what is observed.
3. Make a generalization about what is occurring.

Examples
1. This ice is cold (as this observation is based on a direct observation, it is specific).
2. All ice is cold (general and can be applied to any ice).

Classification of Research on the Basis of Inquiry Mode

Structured Approach
1. The structured approach to inquiry is usually classified as quantitative research.
2. Everything that forms the research process, such as objectives, design, sample, and
the questions that a researcher plans to ask of respondents, is predetermined.

Unstructured Approach
1. The unstructured approach to inquiry is usually classified as qualitative research.
2. It allows flexibility in all aspects of the research process.

Quantitative Research
It is similar to deductive research. It is also termed as linear research as it typically follows a
linear path.
1. Stating with testable hypotheses
2. Collection of data
3. Analyzing the data
4. Accepting or rejecting the hypotheses.

Qualitative Research
This is basically an approach and not just a method to conduct research.
Wright describes qualitative research to mean any research were number counting and
statistical techniques are not the central issues, where an attempt is made to get close to the
collection of data in its natural setting.
Qualitative research is basically inductive or spiral in nature and has a very different
structure. The nature and has a very different structure. The researcher starts with a tentative
idea or question; these questions become more specific with progress in research.
The important methods for data collection in qualitative research are as follows:
In this method, a researcher brings together a small number of subjects to discuss the
topic of interest. The group size is kept deliberately small so that the members express
themselves more openly and also get more time as well.
Direct observation:
In-depth interviews: It is unstructured and has face-to-face interviews.
Diary method
Role play and simulation
Case study
Approaches in qualitative research
1. Narrative research
2. Ethnography.

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 READING COMPREHENSION

Comprehension Passage:-
According to Wren and Martin, comprehension exercise can be defined as a passage,
upon which question are set to test the students' upon which questions are set to test the
students' ability to understand the content of the given text and to infer information and
meaning from it. To put it in simple terms, reading comprehension is the act of understanding
what you are reading.
It mainly requires tow inputs from the reader, that is, vocabulary knowledge and text
the comprehension. In order to understand a text, the reader must be able to comprehend the
vocabulary used in piece of writing.

1- Identification of key ideas:- There are always certain key sentences that determine the
flow of the ideas in a passage. To make comprehension simpler, these sentences are
supposed to be identified during the first reading of the passage. The paragraph/s should
be read fairly quickly to get a general idea. It should be read again, a little slowly so as to
know the details. They key idea can also be underlined.
2- Summarize the paragraph:- While reading the passage, develop a habit of mentally
summarizing each paragraph and keep linking them as you proceed.
3- Determine sentence links:- Usually, the sentences within a passage are directly or subtly
linked. Here, practice helps a lot in identifying such links, failing which the major ideas
could be missed out.
4- Ask questions:- Why has the author mentioned this example? What is the purpose of the
second paragraph? This kind of reflection helps in developing a deeper perspective about
the main ideas.

Main Question Categories:-

These type of question are based on the passage as a whole; they are typical in nature
as they reflect upon the author's motive to write the passage.

Solution Approach:-
Usually, the answers to such type of question lie in the introductory of the first or both
the paragraphs is helpful.
1- Cause and effect words- as a result, therefore.
2- Time words- meanwhile, before
3- Contrast words- in contrast conversely
4- Addition words- also, in addition
5- Emphasis words- more important, remember

Exercise 1
Alfred Nobel, the inventor of dynamite, is known to have died an unhappy man. He saw his
wonderful invention being used, not in the service of man as he wanted it to be. Dynamite was being
used for purposes of war. The power of the atom-to-day replaces dynamite in this respect. It has all
the potential to destroy the world twice or thrice over. It has all the power to make this world a better
place to live in. It is our choice what we make of it.
What the atom can do for a better future for us tomorrow, has been demonstrated to us time
and again right in our own country. We have nuclear power stations that use a few tones of uranium to
generate enormous power that normally would have needed millions of tones of coal. Take the

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Madras Atomic power project at Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu. Its two reactors will together generate
heat enough to produce 410 MW (Megawatts) of power. As against some 40 tonnes of fuel needed to
run these reactors, a coal fired power station of this magnitude would have required several thousand
tones of coal to be hauled all the way from Bihar or Andhra over thousand and odd kilometers day
after day. From the used Uranium in this reactor we can separate Plutonium. A mixture of this
Plutonium and spent Uranium could again be used in what is called a fast breeder reactor as a fuel.
And that is not the end either. Because this type of breeder reactors would produce more of Plutonium
than is put in, then we have the phenomenon of a power house which generates more fuel than it uses.
From there, a third stage could also be seen. In this third stage, India's rich deposits of Thorium could
be used in the fast breeder to produce yet another Uranium based fuel for use in the third generation
reactor. In this way all that we need for taking care of our future electricity needs would be a few
thousand tonnes of Uranium and Thorium. This would suffice, theoretically at least, for the next 100
years or more.

Q.1 The atom has all the potential

(I) To make the world a better place to live in. (II) To destroy the world many times over.
(III) To establish world peace.
Codes:
(a) I only is correct (b) II only is correct
(c) III only are correct (d) I and III only are correct
Answer : (D)

Q.2 Which of the following is not true about the Atomic power project at Kalpakkam?
(a) It has four or five reactors
(b) Its reactors together generate heat enough to produce 410 MW of power
(c) It is associated with Madras
(d) It needs about 40 tonnes of fuel to produce an amount of power which a coal-fired power
station would have needed several thousand tonnes of coal to produce
(e) From the used Uranium in this reactor we can separate Plutonium
Answer : (A)

Q.3 The author in the passage implies all of the following except
(a) Atomic power can be used both for destructive and peaceful purposes
(b) Atom can build a better future for mankind
(c) exploitation of atom can revolutionize generation of electricity at most cheap rates
(d) India has registered good progress in the use of atom for generation of power
(e) India intends to put atomic power to the manufacture of atomic weapons some day
Answer : (E)

Q.4 From what has been stated in the passage it is not difficult to infer that?
(a) The world is sitting on explosive material waiting to be annihilated by atomic weapons of war
(b) The world has made phenomenal progress in the exploitation of atom for peaceful purposes
(c) Man's constructive genius is as powerful as or rather more powerful than his destructive genius
(d) Both (B) and (C)
(e) None of these
Answer : (D)

Q.5 The title that best expresses the ideas of the passage may be
(a) Alfred Nobel, the Great Inventor (b) India's Achievements in the Nuclear Research
(c) Production of Uranium and Thorium (d) Multifarious Uses of Uranium and Thorium
(e) Nuclear Power Stations in India
Answer : (E)

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 COMMUNICATION

Concept and definition:-

Communicate is most integral part of human nature. Human beings have a
compulsive urge to communicate with each other as more than 70% of their time is spent in
communicating with other. No meaningful understanding is possible without
communications. Of all creatures, man has the ability and power to express in words. The
evolution of mankind is basically the story of his/her progress in communication methods.
There are many definitions of communication. According to oxfords dictionary,
communication is transferring or conveying of meaning.
According to Wilbur Schramm, Communication is sharing of experience on the basis
of commonness.
Berlo tried to explain commutation a S-R Model or sender receiver model where
Sender stands for stimulus and Receiver stands for response.
This was later extended to S-M-C-R Model that stands for sender Message Channel
Receiver. It is the basic communication process.

Functions and objectives of communication:-

1. Information to keep oneself updated and for decision making
2. Education and instruction
3. Smooth functioning of groups
4. Motivation and morale
5. Control
6. Cultural promotion
7. Integration

Nature and Characteristic of communication:-

1. Communication is continuous;-It is not a random exercise, it is always with some
purpose. It is predictable and dependable.

2. Communication is all pervasive:-Communication is omnipresent: it exists at all levels

of organizations. The top level conveys information to the middle level and vice versa.
Similarly the middle level conveys information to the supervisory staff and vice versa.
There is flow of communication in all directions in a workplace.

3. Effective communication is a two way process:-Communication can occur only when

there are at least two individuals.

4. Communication is always with content and a relationship aspect:- Both in terms of (i)
what you say and (ii) how you say the matter. Same message can be communicated
authoritatively or politely.

5. Communication exchanges are based on symmetry and complementary:-Symmetry

refers to similarity and complimentary refers to the differences in characteristics.

6. Common language:- To increase the possibility of effectual communication senders

must speak in a language the receiver is familiar with.

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7. Communication always has a context:- Communication always takes place with a
context. According to Bateson, without context, words and action don't carry and
meaning at all. The context of communication has four dimensions.

a. Social context:- It refers to the place where communication is taking place in public
conference room, class room, etc. It may refer to the ambience of the place as well.
b. Social context:- If refers to the parties involved in communication process. What role,
status and relationship exist between them? What are the norms and the culture of the
society in which they communicate?
c. Psychological context:- Is the environment characterized by formality or informality
friendliness or unfriendliness.
d. Temporal context:- It refers to the time factor in communication such as at what time of
the day communication is taking place.
Communication skills;-
Communication skills include the following.
1. Listening skill
2. Speaking skill
3. Writing skill
4. Reading skill

Elements in Basic communication Process;-

1. Source/sender:- A person, thing or event that provides verbal or non verbal clues to
which someone can respond.
2. Receiver:- A person who interprets a message sent by a source.

3. Message:- A set of verbal or non- verbal cues sent by a source. Message can be
spoken or written in words, gestures, movement, etc.

4. Symbols:-A symbol is something that represents something else, it cab be verbal or

non verbal.

5. Channel:-A channel is the means used to convey stimuli. The most common channels
are visual and auditory, and other channels utilize tactile (touch), gustatory (taste) and
olfactory (smell) senses.

6. Encoding:-Encoding is the process of selecting symbols to express an idea or feeling

that the source wishes to communicate.

7. Decoding:- It is the process by which the receiver translates the symbols provided by
the source.

8. Feedback:- It is response a receiver gives to sender as a result of sender's massage.

9. Noise:- Noise is anything that distorts or interferes with the message; it can be
external.

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Process of classroom communication (Cole and Chan Model)

Communication is an integral part of any teaching learning process and its

effectiveness is one of the factors that determine the degree to which the intended learning
outcomes are achieved.
According to Cole and Chan, typical process of classroom communication (and
communication in general as well) includes five distinct stages.
1. Formulations of message
2. Encoding of message
3. Transmission of message
4. Decoding and interpretation of message
5. Feedback and evaluation

Formulation of message:-
1. All communication starts with an idea or a message that is to be transmitted to target
audience (individual) with a motive to get a positive response. Communicator (sender or
encoder) is the one who initiates the communication process.
2. A message is a set of verbal or non verbal cues sent by a source.
3. An effective communication depends on the communication skill, knowledge level and
attitude of the communicator and how he/she desires to affect his/her receiver.
4. As far as teachers are concerned, they conceptualize ideas to be conveyed to student by
arranging them in coherent and meaning full sequence.

Message Encoding:-
1. The internal shaping, sorting and sifting or ideas for clarification and organization is
called message formulation. Its purpose is to create a clear and meaningful message.
2. Encoding involves converting an idea into a form that can be transmitted to receives.
3. The communicator not only translates his/her purpose (ideas, thoughts or information)
into a message but also decides on the medium to communicate his/her planed message.
4. The communicator must choose the media (speech, writing signaling, or gestures) that
5he receiver can comprehend well. For instance, an illiterate receiver may fail to
understand a written message but can understand it well if told orally.
5. Teachers encode their ideas in different ways according to the demand of the various
curricula. It is the teacher's responsibility to use appropriate symbolic forms for each
subject and to teach student to use these forms.

Message Transmission:-
1. It is a critical stage in the communication process, and it answers haw a message is
delivered.

[16]
Message Decoding and interpretation:-
1. Decoding is interpretation of the message by the receiver. Actually the receiver looks for
meaning in the message that is common to both the receiver and the communicator.
2. If the receiver possesses the background information and is familiar with the form of
language used, it becomes easier for him/her to decode and comprehend the message.
3. If the receiver does not have the ability to listen read and think he/she will not be able to
receive and decode the messages in the manner the communicator wants him/her to.
4. For effective communication the receiver is the most important link in the communication
process.

Feedback and Evaluation:-

Feedback is the response or acknowledgement of the receive to the communicator's
message. The exchange is possible only if the receiver responds.

Noise:-
Noise is an interruption that can creep in at any point of time in the communication
process and make it ineffective.

1. Physiological noise: It is distraction cause by hunger, fatigue, headache medication

etc.

[17]
 2. Physical noise: It is interference in our environment.
3. Psychological noise: It refers to the qualities in us that affect how we communicate
and interpret other.
4. Semantic noise: It occurs when word themselves are not mutually understood.

Types of communication:-
Formal communication follows a hierarchy the official channel established. Informal
communication does not follow the official channel.

Types of Communication on the Basis of Relationship Element

Intrapersonal Communication;-
1. It is communication within an individual almost all the times, including talking to one self
listening to oneself and relating one to oneself.
Muttering 'Oh My god' 'Oh No' (when in trouble), 'Wow' 'Thank God' are few
common example of intrapersonal communication.

Interpersonal communication
1. It is also termed as dyadic communication.
2. It is universal form of face to face routine communication between two persons. Both
sending and receiving messages.
3. It may be formal or informal, verbal or non verbal.
4. It is an effective communication situation because you can get immediate feedback.
Group communication
1. It is an extension of interpersonal communication where more than two individual are
involved in exchange or ideas, skills and interests.
2. It provides an opportunity for people to come together to discuss and exchange view
of common interest.
Mass Communication
1. It is also termed as mediated communication.
2. It is a special kind of communication with mass audiences and hence the name mass
communication.
Communication Types on the Basis of Channels
On the basis of channels communication is of two types.
1. Verbal communication
2. Nonverbal communication
Verbal communication
Verbal means the use of words in communication process and in design and
formulation of messages.
a. Oral communication
b. Written communication

[18]
 REASONING (INCLUDING MATHEMATICS)

Reasoning is of two types, namely, verbal and non-verbal. Verbal reasoning is

basically about words rather than things. Verbal reasoning tests use words, letters, and
numbers and require logical reasoning and a reasonable knowledge of English. It is also
necessary to be familiar with simple, basic mathematical operations such as addition,
subtraction, division, and multiplication. Non-verbal is basically about figures.
As far as UGC NET Exam pattern is concerned, mathematical reasoning is covering
mainly verbal and basic mathematical skills such as series completion, coding and decoding,
classification (odd man out, and so on), and analogical relationship. Questions on direction
sense and seating arrangement also appear regularly in the exam.
Some topics such as Direction Sense and Venn Diagrams combine both verbal and
non-verbal skills.

Series Completion
A series may be a number series or letter series. There are several kinds of series such
as finding the missing numbers, replacing the wrong numbers, finding the missing letters,
finding the wrong group of numbers or letters, etc.

NUMBER SERIES

Prime Number Series

Example-1
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, …
a) 18 (b) 19 (c) 15 (d) 17
Solution: This series is a prime number series. So the next number in series is (d) 17.

Example-2
2, 5, 11, 17, 23, 31, 37, ….
a) 29 (b) 31 (c) 43 (d) 39
Solution: The prime numbers are written alternately. (c) 43

Difference Series
Example-3
2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, ….., 23, 26
a) 19 (b) 21 (c) 20 (d) 18
Solution: The difference between the numbers is (c) 2. (17+3=20)

Multiplication Series
Example-4
2, 6, 18, 54, ….., 486, 1458
a) 152 (b) 182 (c) 162 (d) 108
Solution: The numbers are multiplied by 3 to get the next number. (54 x 3 = 162) (c)

Example-5
3, 12, 48, ……, 768, 3072
a) 192 (b) 216 (c) 512 (d) 72
Solution: The numbers are multiplied by 4 to get the next number. (48 x 4 = 192) (a)

[19]
Division Series
Example-6
32, 48, 72, …., 162, 243
a) 84 (b) 96 (c) 108 (d) 132
Solution: Each number is being multiplied by 3/2 to get the next number. (c)

N2 Series
Example-7
1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, …., 64
a) 42 (b) 44 (c) 45 (d) 49
Solution: The series is squares of 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on. (d)

Example-8
0, 4, 16, 36, 64, ….., 144
a) 100 (b) 84 (c) 96 (d) 120
Solution: The series is squares of even number such as 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12. So, the answer is
102 = 100. (a)

N2 – 1 Series
Example-9
0, 3, 8, 15, 24, 35, 48, 63, ….
a) 80 (b) 82 (c) 83 (d) None of these
Solution: The series is 12 – 1, 22 – 1, 32 – 1, and so on. The next number is 92 – 1 = 80. (a)
Alternative Solution: The differences between the numbers across the series are 3, 5, 7, 9, 11,
13, 15, and 17. The next number is 63 + 17 = 80.

N2 + 1 Series
Example-10
2, 5, 10, 17, 26, 37, ……, 65
a) 50 (b) 48 (c) 49 (d) 51
Solution: The series is 12 + 1, 22 + 1, 32 + 1, and so on. The next number is 72 + 1 = 50. (a)

N2 + N Series and N2 – N Series

Example-11
0, 2, 6, 12, 20, 30, …..., 56
a) 36 (b) 40 (c) 42 (d) None of these
Solution: The series is 0 (square) +0, 1 (square) + 1, 2 (square) + 2, 3 (square) + 3 and so on.
The missing number is 6 (square) + = 42. The next number is 62 + 6 = 42. (c)
First Alternative Solution: The series is 0 x 1, 1 x 2, ….. 1 x 2, 2 x 3, 3 x 4, 4 x 5 and 5 x 6 =
30. The next number is 6 x 7 = 42.
Second Alternative Solution: The series is 12 – 1, 22 – 2, 32 – 3, 42 – 4, 52 – 5, 62 – 6, 72 – 7,
82 – 8, and so on.

[20]
N3 Series
Example-12
1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, ….
a) 256 (b) 343 (c) 365 (d) 400
Solution: The series is 1 , 2 , 3 , etc. The missing number is 73 = 343. (b)
3 3 3

N3 + 1 Series
Example-13
2, 9, 28, 65, 126, 217, 344, ….
a) 512 (b) 362 (c) 369 (d) 361
Solution: The series is 13+1, 23+1, 33+1, and so on. Thus, the missing number is 83+1 = 513. (a)

[21]
 LOGICAL REASONING
Reasoning is an important section in aptitude tests and the one the student needs to
master necessarily. To seek accurate explanation, we have to apply logic. Logic is applying
principles of reasoning to obtain valid inferences. Logical reasoning is largely about adopting
complete rational approach to solve a problem, with no chance for ambiguity.

Deductive and inductive reasoning

In deductive reasoning or inferencing, it is asserted that the conclusion is guaranteed
to be true if the premises are true in the deductive inference, the conclusion cannot be more
general than premises(s).
On the contrary, in inductive reasoning or inferencing, the conclusion has a high
probability of being true if the premises are true. Thus, in inductive inference, the conclusion
is more general than the premises(s)
In inductive reasoning, we can generalise beyond the known facts, but we can never
be sure that the generalization is correct. It also means that true premises never guarantee
truth of conclusion. Here, conclusion is just a likelihood.

Deductive Inference
Statement I: All vegetables contain vitamins.
Statement II: Carrot is a vegetable.
Conclusion: So carrot contains vitamins.

Inductive Inference
Statement I: Most vegetables contain vitamins.
Statement II: Carrot is a vegetable
Conclusion: So carrot contains vitamins.
Deductive inferences are further categorized into (i) immediate- where conclusion is
drawn from a single statement and (ii) mediate (where conclusion is drawn from two
statements, called syllogism).
Types of syllogism:
1. Categorical: Here, the relationship between the subject and the predicate is without any
condition.
2. Hypothetical: The relationship between the subject and the predicate is asserted
conditionally. For example, if it rains he will not attend.
3. Disjunctive: I. Either he is courageous or he is strong.
4. Relational : Here the relation between the various terms is shown in an order.

Structure of Arguments
Structure of arguments deals with basic terms, validity of arguments, converting
sentences into their logical form depending on the requirement, and then application of rules
follows so as to arrive at a conclusion.

Proposition
A proposition is a sentence that makes a statement and gives a relation between two
or more terms. In logical reasoning, any statement is termed as a proposition.

[22]
 A premise is a statement or proposition that is assumed to be true and from which a
conclusion can be drawn.

Quantifier + Subject + Copula + Predicate

Thus, the proposition consists of four parts:
1. Quantifier: All, no, and some. They specify a quantity. ‘All’ and ‘no, are universal
quantifier and ‘some’ is a particular quantifier.
2. Subject (S): About which something is being said.
3. Predicate(P): Something that affirms or denies about the subject.
4. Copula : Relation between subject and predicate.
Examples:
All bats are boys
Some players are doctors.

Classification of Propositions
Propositions are basically of two types, namely, universal and particular. universal
proposition is further divided into two parts:
1. Universal Positive or affirmative (A); It denotes inclusion.
Form: All S is P where S is the subject and P is the predicate. Example: ‘All cats are
animals’. It is basically about inclusion.
Distribution: It distributes the subject only. In the above statement, cats are distributed in
animals.
Predicate is not interchangeable with the subject while maintaining the validity of a
proposition. We cannot say that all animals are cats.

2. Universal Negative (E): It denotes exclusion.

Form: No S is P. Example: ‘No fish are birds’ would be a universal negative.
Distribution: Both subject and predicate. Here, an entire class of predicate term is denied
to the entire class of the subject term.

Particular Propositions: A particular proposition can also be divided into two parts.
1. Particular Positive (I):It denotes ‘partial inclusion’.
Form: Some S is P. Example: Some men are foolish.
Distribution: Neither the subject nor the predicate. In the example, subject term, men is
used not for all but only for some men and similarly the predicate term, foolish is affirmed
for a part of subject class. So, both are undistributed.

Foolish
Men

[23]
2. Particular Negative (O):It denotes ‘partial exclusion’.
Form: Some S is not P or Not every S is P.
Example: Some bird are not carnivores’.
Distribution: Only of predicate.

Validity of Arguments
Deductive arguments may be either valid or invalid. If an argument is valid, it is a
valid deduction, and if its premises are true, the conclusion must be true. A valid argument
cannot have true premises and a false conclusion

Types and Main characteristics of Prepositions:

Sign Statement form Examples Quantity Quality Distributed
A All S are P All politicians are liars Universal Positive Only subject
E No S are P No politicians are liars Universal Negative Both subject and
predicate
I Some S are P Some politicians are liars Particular Positive Neither subject
nor predicate
O Some S are not P Some politicians are not liars Particular Negative Only predicate
The conclusion of a valid argument with one or more false premises may be either true
or false.
Logic seeks to discover the valid forms, the forms that make arguments valid A form of
argument is valid if and only if the conclusion is true under all interpretations of that
argument in which the premises are true. Since the validity of an argument depends solely
on its form, an argument can be shown to be invalid by showing that its form is invalid. This
can be done by giving a Counterexample of the same form of argument with premises that
are true under a given interpretation, but a conclusion that is false under that interpretation.
In informal logic, this is called a counterargument.
Certain examples would help in better clarification about validity of arguments.
1. Some Indians are logicians; therefore some logicians are Indians.
Valid argument: It would be self contradictory to admit that some Indians are
logicians but deny that some (any) logicians are Indians.
2. All Indians are human and all humans are mortal; therefore, all Indians are mortal.
Valid argument: If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.
3. Some Indians are logicians and some logicians are tiresome; therefore, some Indians
are tiresome.
Invalid argument: For example, the tiresome logicians might all be Chinese.
Remember that this does not mean the conclusion has to be true; it is only true if the
premises are true, which they may not be.
The following examples would help to clarify this aspect about structure of arguments:
Premises:
I: Some men are lawyers
II: Some lawyers are rich.
Conclusions: Some men are rich.
This argument is invalid. There is a way where you can determine whether an argument is
valid and give a counterexample with the same argument form.
Note: Logical strength and soundness are properties of statements (or premises or
conclusions).Never say that argument is false’ or that ‘premise is logically strong’.
What is a counterexample? In logic, a counter example is an exception to a proposed general rule.
For example, ’all students are (laziness) holds for all students, even a single example of diligent
student will prove it false. Thus, any hardworking student is a counter-example to’ all students are
lazy’. More precisely, a counterexample is a specific instance of the falsity of a universal
quantification.
[24]
Parts of Categorical Propositions
There are three parts of statements in categorical syllogism-major premise, minor
premise, and conclusion, Each of the premise has one term in common with the conclusion.

Parts Example
Major premise All humans are mortal
Minor premise All Greeks are humans
Conclusion All Greeks are mortal
1. Major premise: Predicate of the conclusion is called as the major term. The premise
containing major term is called major premise. In the example, mortal is the major
term.
2. Minor premise: Subject of the conclusion is called minor term. The premise
containing minor term is called minor premise. In the example, Greeks is the minor
term.
3. Middle Term: One term common in both the premises is called middle term. It is not
a part of conclusion. In the example, humans is the middle term.
Converting Common Language Statements into their Logical Forms
4. InConclusion: In conclusion
logical reasoning statement,
or syllogism first term
problems, or (subject)
the common is thesentences
language subject ofmay
thehave
first to
propositioninto
be converted and second term (or
their logical predicate)
form before iswe
the apply
predicate of the
logic second
rules proposition.
on them to draw a
conclusion.
The rules of reduction can help in solving these types of questions.
1. A-type propositions: Statements starting with words ‘each’, ‘every’, ‘any’ etc. are to be
treated as A-type propositions (starting with all)
Original sentence Logical form
Every man is All men are persons
liable to commit who are liable to
error commit mistakes
Each student All students are persons
participated in the event who participated in the event
Any one of the Indians is laborious All Indians are laborious
Only Indians are students of this college All students of this college are Indians
The honest alone are successful All successful persons are honest.
2. E-type propositions: Sentences with singular term or definite singular term with the sign
of negation are to be treated as E-type propositions. Sentences beginning with the words like
‘no’, ‘never’. and ‘none’ are to be treated as E-type propositions.
‘Never men are perfect’ it ‘No men are perfect’ in its logical form.
3. I-type propositions: Affirmative sentences with words like ‘a few’, ‘certain’, ‘most’, and
‘many’ are to be treated as I-type propositions.
Sentence Logical form
A few men are present Some men are present
Most of the students are laborious Some students are laborious
Few men are not selfish Some men are selfish
Certain books are good Some books are good
Man Indians are religious Some Indians are religious
All students of my class, except a few, are Some students of my class are well
well prepared prepared
The poor may be happy Some poor people are happy

[25]
 4. O- type propositions: A negative can sentence that begins with a word like
‘every’, ‘any, ‘each’, or ‘all’ is to be treated as an O-type proposition.
Sentence Logical form
Every man is not rich Some men are not rich
Certain books are not readable Some books are not readable
Most of the students are not rich Some students are not rich
Some men are not above temptation Few men are above temptation

5. Exclusive proposition
(a) In exclusive propositions, the subject is qualified with words like ‘only’, ‘along’, ‘none
but’, or not one else but’.
(b) Here, the quantity is not explicitly stated.
(c) They can be reduced to A , E or-types by first interchanging the subject and worlds like
‘only’ or ‘alone’ with ‘all’.

1. Exercise:
Statements
1. Intelligent alone are laborious.
2. Most of the girls are intelligent.
These statements should first be converted into logical forms according to the rules
for logical form.
1. All intelligent are laborious. This is in the form B to C.
2. Some girls are intelligent. This is in the form A to B.
Just by changing their order, we can align them. After aligment is done, we move to Step it.
2. Exercise:
Statements
1. Some pens are books.
2. Some stationary are books
As books is the common term, they are in the form A to B and C to B. The first
statement does not require any change. As the second statement is in Particular Positive (I-
type), this can be changed to I-type only according to conversion table given earlier. The
second statement will become, ‘Some books are stationary’.
Now propositions are properly aligned that is, ‘Some pens are books’ and ‘Some
books are stationary’. We now move to Step II.

Rule of Syllogism
Proposition I(A to B) Proposition II(B to C) Conclusion Summarized
form
Universal Positive(A) UniversalPositive (A) A+A=A
Universal Positive(A)
Universal Negative(E) Universal Negative(E) A+E=E
Universal Positive(A) Particular negative(O) E+A=O*
Universal Negative(E)
Particular Positive(I) Particular Negative(O) E+I=O*
Universal Positive(A) Particular Positive(I) I+A=I
Particular Positive(I)
Universal Negative(E) Particular Negative(O) I+E=O

[26]
 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATIONS

Data Interpretation:-
Data interpretation is one of the easiest sections of UGC/CBSE Paper I. It is basically
about drawing conclusions and inferences from a comprehensive data presented numerically
in a tabular or graphical form by means of an illustration, namely, graphs, pie charts, and so
on. Thus, the act of organizing and interpreting data to get meaningful information is data
interpretation. The important aspects of data sources their acquisitions, and interpretation
have been covered in Unit II on Research Aptitude. In this unit, the focus is one solving
practical problems as per questions asked in the UGC/CBSE Net pattern.

Tables:-
A table is a systematic arrangement of data into vertical columns and horizontal rows.
The process of arranging data into rows and columns is called tabulations.

Purpose:-
The purpose of tabulation is to present the data in such a way that it becomes more
meaningful and can be easily understood by a common man. However, in case of voluminous
data, it may require closer reading than graphs of charts and hence is difficult and time
consuming to interpret.

Essential Parts of a Table:-

A Statistical table is divided into eight, parts, which are explained below;

1- Title of the table:- A title is a heading at the top of the table describing its contents. It
mainly reflects upon the nature of the data, where the data is what time period the data
covers, and how the data is classified.
2- Caption:- The headings for various columns and rows are called column captions and
row captions.

3- Box head:- The portion of the table containing column caption is called box head.

4- Stub:- The portion of the table containing row caption is called stub.

5- Body of the table:- The body of the table contains the statistical data which has to be
presented in different rows and columns.

6- Prefatory notes or head notes:- Prefatory notes appear between the title and the body of
the table and are enclosed in brackets. They are used to throw some light about the units
of measurements, in lakhs, in thousands, and so on.

7- Footnote:- A footnote is always given at the bottom of the table but above the source
note. A footnote is a statement about something which is not clear from heading, title
stubs, captions and so on.

8- Source note:- A source note is placed immediately below the table but after the footnote.
It refers to the source from where information has been taken.

[27]
 Circle Graphs (or Pie Charts):-
Circle graphs are used to show how various sectors are in the whole. Circle graphs are
sometimes called pie charts, circle graphs usually give the percent that each sector receives.
In such representation the total quantity in question is distributed over a total angle of
360o. While using pie chart to find the ratios of various sectors, there is no need to find the
amounts each sector received and then the ratio of the amount. Find the ratio of the percents,
which is much easier.

Simple Bar Graphs:-

Bar charts are one of the easiest, graphically attractive, and hence most commonly
used methods of presenting all types of data. Given quantities can be compared by the height
or length of a bar graph. A bar graphs cab either have vertical or horizontal bars.
The width of the bars is largely inessential and is used only for clarity of presentation.
We can compare different quantities or the same quantity at different times.

Examples:

During the year

State A B C D E F
Year Pre- Passed Pre- Passed Pre- Passed Pre- Passed Pre- Passed Pre- Passed
sented sented sented sented sented sented
1994 1200 105 1400 125 1650 140 1450 160 1700 185 1800 165
1995 1450 110 1250 130 1500 125 1600 145 1850 170 1650 170
1996 1100 120 1300 115 1400 150 1250 120 1400 160 1550 140
1997 1350 125 1100 120 1550 145 1300 140 1550 155 1700 155
1998 1400 135 1550 105 1750 155 1400 155 1650 175 1750 160
1999 1500 140 1450 110 1700 130 1500 165 1500 165 1600 175

Q.1 What is the approximate percentage of the passed candidates jointly from all the six
states to the presented candidates in the year 1994?
(a) 15 (b) 10 (c) 7 (d) 12 (e) 14

Q.2 Which one of the following states has maximum percentage of the passed candidates
to the presented candidates in 1996?
(a) B (b) D (c) C (d) E (e) None of these

Q.3 What is the percentage of passed candidates jointly from the state 'C' in the year 1995
and 1998 to the presented candidates jointly from the state 'B' in the year 1994 and
1997?
(a) 12.5 (b) 10.8 (c) 10.2 (d) 12.4 (e) None of these

Q.4 What is the approximate average number of passed candidates from state 'D' in the
given years?
(a) 148 (b) 158 (c) 142 (d) 154 (e) 140

Q.5 Which one of the following years has least percentage of passed candidates to the
presented candidates from the state 'F'?
(a) 1998 (b) 1997 (c) 1996 (d) 1994 (e) None of these

[28]
 Solution

1. Total number of all presented candidates of all six states in the year 1994
= 1200 + 1400 + 1650 + 1450 + 1700 + 1800
= 9200
Total number of passed candidates of all six states in the year 1994
= 105 + 125 + 140 + 160 + 185 + 165
= 880
Requires percentage = = 10% (Approx.)
Therefore, the answer is (B).

2. The percentage of passed candidates to presented candidates of state A in 1996

The percentage of passed candidates to presented candidates of state 'B' in 1996

The percentage of passed candidates to presented candidates of state 'C' in 1996

The percentage of passed candidates to presented candidates of state 'D' in 1996

The percentage of passed candidates to presented candidates of state 'E' in 1996

The percentage of passed candidates to presented candidates of state 'F' in 1996

The percentage of state 'E' is the highest. Hence, the answer is (D).

3. The number of passed candidates of state (C) jointly in the year 1995 and 1998
= 125 + 155 = 280
The number of presented candidates of state 'B' jointly in the year 1994 and 1998
= 1400 + 1100 = 2500

Requires percentage = = 111.2

Hence, the correct answer is (E).

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4. Required average number
=
Therefore, the correct answer will be (A).

5. The percentage of passed candidates to the presented candidates from state 'F' in 1994

The percentage of passed candidates to the presented candidates of state 'F' in the 1995

The percentage of passed candidates to the presented candidates of state 'F' in 1996

The percentage of passed candidates to the presented candidates of state 'F' in 1997

The percentage of passed candidates to the presented candidates of state 'F' in 1998

And the percentage of passed candidates to the presented candidates of state 'F' in 1999

The least percentage is in 1996.

The correct answer will be (C).

[30]
 INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

Introduction:-
The optimum use of ICT in India' higher education system can propel the country to become a
knowledge superpower. The innovative use of information technology (IT) in higher education
addresses the three fundamental challenges that are access equity and quality.

Meaning of information and Communication Technologies:-

Information to United Nations Development programme (UNDP) definition, ICTS are
basically information handling tools- a varied set of goods, applications and services that are used to
produce, store, and process, distribute, and exchange information.
ICT includes both old and new tools. Old ICT tools mainly include radio. TV and telephone.
New ICT Tools mainly include computers satellite, wireless technology and the internet.

ICT and Education:-

Liberalization privatization and globalization (LPG) coupled with the advancement in IT,
have opened up a new demand for skilled manpower, especially in the services sector. In this kind of
scenario, education has been indentified ass one of the 12 main services under General Agreement on
Trade in Services (GATS), which needs to be opened up for free flow of trade between countries.

Target community of IT in India:-

As far as India's demographic profile is concerned almost half of India's population is below
25 years of age, 70% people live in rural areas literacy rate is around 60% and people speak 15 major
language. The demand for education outstrips other conventional system's ability to provide it, leaving
no alternative for the use of technology in education.

Objectives of using ICT in Higher Education:-

The objectives of using ICT are the following:-
1. Improving access to the system through online education.
2. Improving the quality of teaching especially across remote locations.
3. Increasing transparency and strengthening systems processes, and compliance norms in higher
education institutes.
4. Measuring the students learning participation and effectiveness.
5. Analyzing students behavior to maximize students involvement, optimizing retentions and
improving
6. Analyzing student's performance, placement Application volume website analytics and social
media metrics for brand audit.

Strengths and Weaknesses of ICTs:-

Strengths:-
1. Individualization of learning:- Individualization of learning means that people learn as individual
and not as a homogenous group.
2. Interactivity:- through interactivity feature, the learner can relate to the content more effectively
go forward and backward in the content.
3. Distance and climate insensitive:- Teaching and learning could be taken out of the conventional
education system of schools and colleges.

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4. More economical higher speed of delivery and wider reach
5. Multiple teaching functions and diverse audiences
6. Uniform quality:- if content is well produced and is of good quality the same quality can be
delivered to the rich and the poor, the urban and the rural equally at the same low cost.

Weakness:-
1. High infrastructure and start up costs.
2. Little attention towards individual differ ences in order to achieve economies of scale
3. Accessibility issue
4. ICT is basically a delivery system
5. Difficulty in performance evaluation
6. Continuous training requirement
7. Call for attitudinal change to understanding of teaching and learning.

Major ICT Learning Categories:-

1. E- learning
2. Blended learning
3. Distance learning

E-learning or Electronic Learning:-

It is also known as online learning and is commonly associated with the field of advanced
learning technology (ALT) which deals with both the technologies and associated methodologies in
learning using networked and/or multimedia technologies. It overcomes timing attendance and travel
difficulties. It also allows higher participation and greater interaction.

Blended Learning:-
It refers to learning that occurs in a traditional classroom setting where a faculty member
delivers instructions to a group of learners.

Self –to- face learning:-

It provides the flexibility to learn according to the availability of learners own time and pace.

Online collaborative learning:-

It involves interaction between the learners and the faculty member through the web. This
interaction can occur in one of the following modes (i) synchronous interaction and (ii) asynchronous
interaction, which have been discussed earlier.
Distance learning:-
It is a type of education, where students work on their own at home or at office and
communicate with the faculty and other students via email electronic forums, video conferencing chat
rooms, instant messaging and other forms of computer based communication.

Recent ICT initiatives in Higher Education:-

1. National mission on Education through information and communication Technology (NMEICT)
NMEICT is a centrally sponsored scheme to realize the potential of ICT in teaching learning
process for benefit of all the learners in higher education institutions anytime anywhere.
Under the N-list program of INFLIBNET (under NMEICT), lakhs of e books and thousands
of high quality paid e journals have been made available to colleges and universities with a view
to inculcate research culture in teachers and students.
2. National programme on Technology Enhanced learning (NPTEL)
3. National Knowledge

[32]
Major Initiatives in India for providing E- content for different Courses:-
1. Lekhika 2007:- it was developed by the centre for the Development of advanced computing (C-
DAC) under India's IT ministry and Israel's FTK Technologies. The objective of this project is to
spread computer literacy to the masses in India who do not know English.
2. National Programme of Technology Enhanced learning (NPTEL):- IT is a joint initiative of ht
IITs (Indian Institute of Technology and IISc (Indian Institute of Science) to provide e learning
through online web and video courses in engineering science, and humanities stream.
3. National Knowledge Network (NKN) and connected Digital:- An initiative has been
undertaken to cover 1000 institutions besides providing digital campuses, video conference
classrooms, wireless hotspots, laptops/ desktops to all students of professional/science courses,
and Wi-Fi connectivity in hostels.
4. Centre for Distance Engineering Education Program (CDEEP):- CDEEP is an emulated
classroom interaction programme by using real time interactive programme by using real time
interactive satellite technology. This was launched by the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT)
Bombay.
5. EDUSAT:- The launch of EDUSAT brought satellite connectivity to large parts of rural India.
India Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) is leveraging satellite, TV, and the Interned
Technologies satellite, TV and the Internet Technologies to offer online course.
6. IIMS: IIM-C, IIM-B, IIM-K, XLRI, and other management institutes have started offering
courses (in association with private players like Hughes Global Education, Reliance, NIIT and so
on). After the distance Education council (DEC) allowed them to do so in 2007.
7. Birhaspati:- This open source el learning platform has been developed by IIT- Kanpur.
8. Gyan Darshan:- Launched in 2000, Gyan Darshan is a joint effort of IGNOU and the IITs. Is is a
bouquet of channels that broadcasts educational programmes for school kids, university students,
and adults. Courses are contributed by IGNOU, UGC consortium for Educational communication
(UGC-CEC), IITs, and so on. CEC is an inter university centre of UGC.
9. Gyan Vani:- It is a bouquet of frequency modulation (FM) radio channels which broadcast
programs contributed by institutions such as IGNOU and IITs. Under UGC countrywide
Classroom initiative, education progrmmes are telecast on Gyan Darshan and Doordarshan's
National Channel (DD1) every day.
10.Sakshat Portal:- Launched in 2006 Sakshat is a one stop education portal for addressing all the
education and learning related needs of students scholars, teachers, and lifelong learners.
11.GRID GARUDA:- It is India first national grid bringing together academic scientific are research
communities for developing their data and other applications.
12.Shruti Drishti:- It is basically for visually impaired women empowerment (VIWE).
13.IIT Madras:- It has been assigned the task to develop e contents for 996 courses.
Mobility:-
The mobile phones are rich in the feature that they provide more than just voice calls.
Smartphone's, iphones, kindly etc., which have the internet access, allow students and faculty to
perform a wide range of assignments. Tasks like administration, sharing class notes, downloading
lectures, instant messaging, and so on, are possible wherever cell phone services are available.
Concept of social learning:-
Web 2.0 social networking such as blogs and wikis, you tube, iTunes, and Big Think are
influencing a new trend in higher education. The emergence of smart phones such as the iPhone and

[33]
other intelligent devices has enhanced mobile learning (referred to as m-leaning). These technologies
create new channels for content delivery online video expansion, and podcasting.

E-journal consortia:-
AICTE-INDEST is a consortium set up by the Ministry of Human Resource to enhance
greater access and generate annual savings in access of bibliographic databases.

PAL, NTSC, and SECAM:-

1. Phase Alternating Line (PAL):- It is the analogue TV format used in much of western Europe
and other major areas such as china, India Australia, and South America.
2. National Television System committee (NTSC):- It is mainly used in the north American
countries such as USA and Canada. This was the first coloured TV broadcast system.
3. Sequential couleur Avec Memoire (SECAM):- It is also known as sequential colour with
memory. It is used mainly in France and many other western European countries. SECAM uses
the same bandwidth as PAL but transmits the colour information sequentially.
4. Sequential couleur Avec Memoire (SECAM):- It is also known as sequential colour with
memory. It is used mainly in France and many other western European countries. SECAM uses
the same bandwidth as PAL but transmits the colour information sequentially.

Frequency Modulation:-
Frequency Modulation (FM) is a form of modulation that coveys information over a carrier
wave by varying its frequency (contrast this with amplitude modulation, in which the amplitude of the
carrier is varied while its frequency remains constant.

Prasar Bharati:-
It is a statutory autonomous body established under the Prasar Bharati Act. The Board came
into existence in 1997. Prasar Bharati is public service broadcaster of the country.

All India radio (AIR):-

Broadcasting started in India in 1927 with two privately owned transmitters, one at Bombay
and the other at Calcutta, which were taken over by the Government in 1930.

Doordarshan:-
The experimental telecast started in Delhi in September 1959 with a small transmitter and a
makeshift studio. The regular daily transmission started in 1965. The TV service was extended to a
second city, Bombay, only in 1972. Till 1975, only seven cities were covered by the TV.

Indian space programme:-

Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) has established two major space systems. Firstly,
it is India National Satellite System (INSAT) that is Geo-stationary satellites for communication, TV
broadcasting. Secondly it is Indian Remote Sensing Satellites, used for resource monitoring. A
transponder is a wireless communication device that picks up and responds to incoming signals.
India's first EDUSAT (GSAT-3) was launched in 2007. Ku bandwidth (12-18 Ghz) is mostly used for
satellite TV and VSAT systems. Ka-bandwidth (26.5-40Ghz) is used in high definition satellite TV.
D Band has the highest bandwidth and L-band has the lowest bandwidth. India's first moon mission
Chandrayan I was launched in the year 2003. Meteorological satellites (METSAT-I, II etc.) have been
named after kalpana Chawla. (kalpana-I, Kalpana-II).

[34]
 PEOPLE AND ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION
Deals with people and environment, Population is a near permanent group of
interbreeding individuals of a species found in a space or geographical area at a particular
point.

The main factors affecting population are as follows:

(2) Natality (birth rate)
(3) Martality (death rate)
(4) Population dispersal (emigration, immigration, and migration)
(5) Age distribution (pre-reproductive, reproductive, and post-reproductive)
(6) Population growth rate
(7) Carrying resources mainly food, water, space-there are limited resources to support all
life forms.
Population density is number of individuals divided by space. The term environment
is derived from the French word environner. It means ‘to surround’. According to the
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, environment includes all the physical and biological
surroundings of an organism and their interactions. Environment is defined as the sum of
water, air, and land, and the interrelation-ships that exist among them and with the human
beings, other living organisms, and materials.

ECOLOGY
The term ecology was coined by Ernst Haeckel in 1869. Ecology deals with the study
of organisms in their natural home.
It is the scientific study of the relations that living organisms have with respect to
each other and their natural environment the ecosystems.

It is present at three levels, which are as follows:

(1) The individual organism (how individuals are affected by the environment and how they,
in turn, affect the environment)
(2) The population
(3) The community.
Ecology is defined as the study of ecosystems.

Ecological Footprint: The ecological footprint measures human consumption of natural

resources in comparison to Earth’s ecological capacity to regenerate them. Calculation of the
footprint takes into account our consumption habits both at (i) micro (individual) level. The
objective of its calculation is also to educate people about the need to change our
consumption behaviour to make it more sustainable. Ecological footprint is measured in
global hectares (gha)

Community
A community is an assemblage of all the interacting populations of different species
in a geographical area. It is a complex interacting network of plants, animals, and
microorganisms.

Ecosystem
The term ecosystem was defined by Arthur Tansley in 1935. Ecosystem is a self-
regulating community of living organisms (populations of species), interacting with each

[35]
other and their nonliving, physical environment, for example, forest ecosystem and ocean
ecosystem.

Ecotone: An ecotone is the transitional area of vegetation between two different plant
communities, such as forest and grassland. The influence of the two bordering communities
on each other is known as the edge effect.

Biotic Components (Living Components)

Living components in an ecosystem are either the producers or the consumers. They
are also called the biotic components. Producers produce organic components, for example,
plants produce starch, carbohydrates, and cellulose by a process called photosynthesis.
(1) Producers (or Autotrophs) These produce their own food. Green plants produce
food. Green plants produce food through photosynthesis, by combining carbon
dioxide and water with the help of energy in the form of sunlight.
(2) Consumers: Consumers depend upon producers for their food, for example, human
beings and other animals.

They are of the following types:

(a) Herbivores feed on plants, for example, rabbit and insects.
(b) Carnivores are those animals that eat other animals.
(i) Secondary carnivores feed on herbivores, for example, a frog and a small fish.
(ii) Tertiary carnivores feed on other carnivores for example, a snake and a big fish.
(c) Omnivores feed on both plants and animals, for example, humans, rates, and many
species of birds.
(d) Detrivores feed on dead organisms, for example, earthworms, crabs, and ants. The living
beings that feed on dead or decayed organic matter are also called saprophytes. The are
fungi and bacteria.

(3) Decomposers: These are microorganisms that break down organic matter into
inorganic compounds and in this process, derive their nutrition.
In ecology, abiotic components are non-living chemical and physical factors in the
environment that affect the ecosystems.
Examples are water, light, wind, soil, humidity, minerals, and gases.

Trophic Levels and Ecological Pyramids

The trophic levels form a pyramid, with producers at the bottom, then primary
consumers (herbivores), secondary consumers(carnivores), and tertiary carnivores.

Ecological Pyramids-Trophic Levels

The concept of ecological pyramid was developed by Charles Elton. All ecologial
pyramids begin with producers like plants at the bottom and proceed through various trophic
levels such as herbivores (consume plants), carnivores (prey on herbivores), and so on. The
highest level is at the top of the food chain.

There are three types of ecological pyramids, which are as follows:

 Pyramid of energy

[36]
  Pyramid of numbers
 Pyramid of biomass

(1) Pyramid of Energy

The pyramid of energy or the energy pyramid describes the overall nature of the
ecosystem. During the flow of energy form one organism to other, there is considerable loss
of energy in the form of heat.
 The energy pyramid is always upright and vertical.
 This pyramid shows the flow of energy at different trophic level and is maximum at
the lowest trophic level.
 It depicts the energy is minimum at the highest trophic level and is maximum at the
lowest trophic level.

(2) Pyramid of Numbers

The pyramid of numbers depicts the relationship in terms of the numbers of
producers, herbivores, and the carnivores at their successive trophic levels. There are three
types of pyramid of numbers, which are as follows:
 Upright pyramid of number
 partly upright pyramid of number
 Inverted pyramid of number

Upright Pyramid of Number This type of pyramid number is found in the aquatic and
grassland ecosystems.

Partly Upright Pyramid of Number It is seen in the forest ecosystem where the
number of producers are lesser in number and support a greater number of herbivores and
which in turn support a fewer number of carnivores.

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Inverted Pyramid of Number
This type of ecological pyramid is seen in parasitic food chain where one primary
producer supports numerous parasites, which in turn support more hyperparasites.

(3) Pyramid of Biomass

The pyramid of biomass is more fundamental. They represent the quantitative
relationships of the standing crops.
There are two types of pyramid of biomass, which are as follows:
 Upright pyramid of biomass
 Inverted pyramid of biomass.

Related to Trophic Levels

Eutrophic: Water bodies having good quantity of minerals and hence supra optimum growth
of plants.
Oligotrophic: Water bodies deficient in minerals and organic growth.
Dystrophic: Water bodies rich in undecomposed organic matter, e.g., bogs and marshy lakes.

Biosphere
There are different types of ecosystems around us, which involve living organisms and
non-living things. If we combine all the ecosystems present on earth, it is called biosphere.

Biomes
The terrestrial portion of biosphere is divided into biomes. They usually have distinct
climates and life forms adapted to that climate.

Habitat
The area or natural environment in which an organism or population normally lives is
called habitat.

[38]
 HIGHER EDUCATION SYSTEM

Introduction to higher education:-

Higher education provides people with an opportunity to reflect on the critical, social
economical, cultural moral and spiritual issues facing humanity. It contributes to the national
development though dissemination of specialized knowledge and skills. It is therefore, a
crucial factor for survival. Being at the apex of the educational pyramid, it also has a key role
in producing teachers for the educational system Higher Education is a key element in
demographic dividend and also that it intends to make optimum utilization of human
resources specifically in age group of 15-95 years.
Formal education system can be categorized into three, namely primary, secondary
and tertiary education. Tertiary education is a wider term it is higher education plus
vocational education. According to the perspective of the NET paper I focus is on higher
education.
Secondary education begins to expose students to the varied roles or science,
humanities, and social sciences and also to vocational streams. This is also an appropriate
stage to provide children with a sense of history and national perspective and give them
opportunities of understand their constitutional duties and rights as citizens. Board of
Secondary Education plays the main role in importing this education. Elementary or primary
education adopts child-centred approach. It continues up to 14 years.
There are three principle levels of qualification in higher education.
1. Undergraduate level leading to bachelors'
2. Postgraduate level leading to master degree
3. Research level leading to Ph.D. Fellowship, or Post doctorate

Evolution of Higher Education System in India

The origin of education in India can be traced to the Vedic age. Our ancient literature,
namely Vedas, Brahman as, and Upanishads revealed the highest knowledge to mankind
through our ancient rishis.

[39]
1. During the Gupta period India became a centre of higher learning with Nalanda (all
branches of knowledge), Takshila (study of medicine), and Ujjain (Study of astronomy)
among other.
2. During the advent of Buddhism Sarnath University became a great centre of learning to
study Buddhism. Ajanta was also a great place of learning to study Buddhism. Ajanta was
also a great place of learning art, architecture and painting. Indian society thrived and its
economy also dominated the world under this kind of education system.
3. Mughal education system consisted of primary and secondary schools and even colleges.
Colleges were established at Fatehpur Sikri, Agra, Delhi and other places. Education
system based on Hindu Philosophy also existed side by side.
4. In 2006 Singapore China India Japan, and other nations announced a proposed plan to
restore and revive the ancient site as Nalanda International University.

Key Developments of Modern Education System

CHARTER ACT (1813):- The objective was to spread scientific knowledge in British India.
The Christian missionaries were allowed in the country to preach their religion. In 1817,
Hindu College was established in Calcutta which later became Presidency College in 1855
and Presidency University in 2010.

ELPHINSTONE REPORT (1823):- It recommended the appointment of district

Examination officers, School supervisors, and training to teachers.
Elphinostone Institution was set up in 1834 in Bombay which marked the beginning
of new developments in the field of higher education. It is one of the oldest colleges of
Bombay University.

MACAULAY'S MINUTES (1835):- It suggested diffusion of English education in the

country. However these initiatives were mainly directed at elementary and secondary
education. Lord Macaulay wanted to build and education system that was secular and
scientific, free of age old prejudices and at par with the Western world. In this way, he played
his part in building the modern India.

WOOD DISPATCH (1854):- It was the first policy measure regarding higher education. It
recommended setting up of three universities namely at Madras, Calcutta and Bombay which
were set up in 1857.

HUNTER COMMISSION (1882-1883):- It emphasized the segregation of primary

education and higher education. It proposed that universities would have to manage the
affiliated colleges.

UNIVERSITIES COMMISSION (1902):- Lord Curzon was the first person to appoint a
commission on university education. On January 27, 1902, the Indian Universities Act, 1904-
India University Commission was appointed under the Chairmanship of Sir Thomas Raleigh
to enquire into conditions and prospects of the universities established in British India and to
consider and report upon the proposals of the universities established in British India and to
consider and report upon the proposals for improving their constitution and working.
The Indian Universities Act of 1904, passed on March 21 was formulated on the basis
of the recommendations of the India University commission of 1902.

[40]
NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATION:- After partition of Bengal in 1905, national
council of education was set up by swadeshi nationalist leaders, which developed into
Jadavpur University after independence.

RESOLUTION ON EDUCATIONS POLICY (1913):- This policy recommended that a

university should be established for each province the teaching activities of universities
should be encouraged, and that the colleges located in mofussil towns should be developed
into teaching universities in due course.

SADDLER COMMISSION (1917):- It is also popular as the Calcutta University

commission.
1. It recommended the separation of intermediate education from Degree College and
suggested a special selection committee for selection of university teachers.
2. Calcutta university commission suggested the setting up of Central Advisory Board of
Education (CASE) CABE was set up in 1920 but was abolished in 1993 due to
financial crisis.
3. Under the Government of India Act, 1919 education was made a provincial subject
so as to minimize the control of central government in the education system.

HARTOG COMMITTEE (1929):- The committee focused on improving the quality and
standard of university level education. It again recommended the setting up of CABE, which
was again established in 1935 and has been in existence since.

SAPRU COMMITTEE:- the committee appointed in 1934 by the United province (largely
present Uttar Pradesh) Government to enquire into the causes of unemployment in U.P came
to the conclusion that the system of education commonly prevalent prepared pupils only for
examination and degrees and not for any avocation in life.

ABBOT WOOD REPROT (1937):- It proposed the English should be the medium of
instruction at university level. It recommended vocational training through polytechnics and
setting up of vocational teacher's training colleges.

WARDHA SCHEME OF ECUCATION (1937):- It is also known as Nai Talim or Basic

Education or buniyadi Talim (Shiksha) or basic shiksha. The scheme is an outcome of the
philosophy of Gandhi ji. It was given a definite shape by the committee under the
chairmanship shape by the committee under the chairmanship of Dr Zakir Hussain who later
on become the president of India.

SARGENT REPORT (1944):- The Sargent report is also called scheme of post war
Educational development in India.

HIGHER EDCATION AFTER INDEPNEDENCE:- Government of India took several

initiatives to improve and promote higher education in the country after independence.

RADHAKRISHNAN COMMISSION (1948-1949):- Radhakrishnan commission also

known as university Education commission suggested the integration of secondary education
and higher education by setting up of UGC. It also recommended the setting up of rural
universities.

[41]
MUDALIAR COMMISSION (1952-1953):- It is also popular as the Secondary Education
commission. It recommended introducing a three year secondary and a four year higher
education system. I also advocated setting up of multipurpose schools and vocational training
institutes.

COMMITTEE ON EMOTIONAL INTEGRATION (1961):- It was set up under the

chairmanship of Dr Sampurnanand to study the role of educational programmes for youth, in
general and students in schools and colleges, in particular in order to strengthen the process
of emotional integration.

KOTHARI COMMISSION (1964-1966):- The commission was titled as Education and

National Development report. Ti is a very progressive report. It proposed a three year degree
course and a four year honour degree course. Establishment course and a four year honours
degree course. Establishment of Indian Education Service (IES)to improve the quality of
India higher education with emphasis on quality teaching faculties to vocationalize secondary
education was recommended. It recommended the 6% of the national income should be spent
on education.

EDUCATION SUBJECT IN CONCURRENT LIST (1976):- India has a federal setup and
education is the concurrent responsibility of both the centre as well of states. Post
independence, education (including university education) was the responsibility of the states,
while the centre was given the function of coordination and determination of standards.
However, in 1976, through Entry 25 (42nd list of the constitutional Amendment) in the
concurrent list of the responsibility along with the states for all levels of education.

SAM PITRAODA COMMITTEEE (1917):- It was set up in 2007. It is also popularly

known as national knowledge commission (NKC). It recommended restructuring of curricula
to meet the demand for multidisciplinary professionals and criteria based resource allocation
to ensure maintenance of standards and strategic preferences to promote excellence in higher
education.

YASHPAL COMMITTEE:- It suggested scrapping of all higher education, regulatory or

monitoring bodies and creation of a super regulator, that is a seven member commission for
higher education and Research (CHER). State Higher Education councils would form the
second tier of the system.
It also recommended that the deemed university statues be abandoned and that all
deserving deemed varsities be either converted into full fledged universities or scrapped. The
committee stressed the need for more attention to undergraduate gropgrammes and a
multidisciplinary approach to learning. Yashpal Committee also strongly recommended
reducing the burden of affiliation of colleges on the universities and a GRE like test be
evolved for university education.

SHARMA COMMITTEE:- Set up under Prof MM Sharma, it deliberated upon the

development of science and technology education in India. The committee suggested
establishment of India Institute of Science, Education, and Research (IISER). It also
recommended expansion of technical education, assuring quality and providing acces and
affordability for technical education.

[42]
REGULATORY AND POLICY FRAMEWORK STRUCTURE OF
HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA:-
Education is in concurrent list where both central and state governments can legislate.

REGULATORY FRAMEWORK OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA

While the centre coordinates and determines the standards in higher and technical
education, school education is primarily the responsibility of the state. The key policy making
agencies for higher education are as follows.

1. Central government:- It lays down the national Policy on Education. It provides

grants of the UGC and establishes central Universities/Institution of national
importance in the country. It is also responsible for declaring an educational on the
recommendation of the UGC.
2. State government:- many states have also set up councils and advisory boards to
provide guidelines for proper functioning of higher education institution in the states.
State councils for higher education coordinates the roles of government universities,
and apex regulatory agencies in higher education within the state.
3. Central advisory board of education (CABE) was set up for coordination and
cooperation between the union and the states in the field of education including policy
making.

[43]
APEX LEVEL BODIES :- There are eight Apex Level Bodies (Regulatory Bodies/Research
Councils) under the Department of Higher Education, which are responsible for higher
education in India. These bodies can be broadly divided into two categories (i) Regualtory
Bodies and (ii) Research Councils.
REGULATORY BODIES:- There are three regulatory Bodies- University Grants
commission, all India council for technical Education, and council of Architecture – to
regulate higher education in India.

UNIVERSITY GRANTS COMMISSION:-

UGC governs universities in India and came into existence on 28 December 1953. It
became a statutory organization established by an act of Parliament in 1956.
1. According to section 12 of UGC Act, the main function of UGC is coordination,
determination and maintenance of standards in universities
2. It also disburses funds within the university education system. Most importantly, it
only acts as are commendatory body since it does not have any power to establish ro
derecognize any university.
3. UGC consists of the chairman, vice chairman, and 10 other remembers appointed by
the central government. Secretary is the Executive Head. It functional from New
Delhi as well as its six regional offices located in Bangalore, Bhopal, Guwahati,
Hyderabad, Kolkata and Pune.
4. UGC also implements various schemes aimed at improving the quality of higher
education like Universities with Potential for Excellence (UPE), colleges with
Potential for Excellence (CPE) centre with potential for excellence and a particular
Area (CPEPA) special assistance Programme (SAP) Basic scientific research (BSR),
etc.
5. Dr C.D Deshmukh was the first chairman of UGC.

CATEGORIZATION OF UNIVERSITIES: -
Universities can be set up only through legislation or the deemed route. At present the
main constituents of universities of university level institutions are listed below.
Universities Number
Central Universities 46
State Universities 344
Deemed Universities 125
Private Universities 232
Total Universities 747

CENTAL UNIVERSITIES:-
A central university or a union university in India is established by act of parliament
and are under the purview of the Department of Higher education in the Union Human
Resource Development Ministry. In general universities in India are recognized by UGC,
which draws its power from the University Grants commission act, 1956.

[44]
1. There are 46 central universities under the purviews of MHRD. Out of them, 16 new
central universities were established in 2009 by an act of Parliament namely central
universities Act 2009.
2. IGNOU, New Delhi is funded directly by the MHRD.
3. President of India is the Visitor of all central universities. In that capacity, he nominates
some members to important committees of the university for their effective functioning.
He also exercises power in various legal matter and relevant amendments.
The state UT wise list of central universities is given below.

Arunachal Pradesh (1)

1. Rajiv Gandhi University Itranagar (2007- formerly Aruncachal University)

Assan (2)
2. Assam University, Silchar (1994)
3. Tezpur University Tezpur (1994)

Bihar (3)
4. Central university of south Bihar, Patna (established 2014 territorial jurisdiction south of
river Ganges in Bihar)
5. Mahatma Gandhi Central University, Patna (established 2014 territorial jurisdiction north
of river Ganges in Bihar)
6. Nalanda University, Rajgir, Nalanda (2010- established under Central Act)

Chhattisgarh (1)
7. Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalay, Bilaspur (2009 converted from State University,
originally set up in 1983)

Gujarat (1)
8. Central University of Gujarat Gandhi Nagar (2009)

Haryana (1)
9. Central University of Haryana Mahendragarh (2009)

Himachal Pradesh (1)

10. Central of university of Kashmir, Srinagar (2009)

Jammu and Kashmir (2)

11. Central of University of Kashmir, Srinagar (2009)
12. Central university of Jammu, Jammu (2011)

Jharkhand (1)
13. Central University of Jharkhand Renchi (2009)

Karnataka (1)
14. Central university of Karnataka Gulbarga (2009)

[45]
Kerala (1)
15. Central University of Kerala, kasargod (2009)

Madhya Pradesh (2)

16. Dr Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar (2009 converted from state University to
central University originally set up in 1946)
17. India Gandhi national Tribal University, Amarkantak (2007)

Maharashtra (1)
18. Mahatma Gandhi Antarrashtriya Hindi Vishwavidyalaya wardha (1997)

Manipur (2)
19. Central Agricultural University Imphal (1993)
20. Manipur University, Canchipur, Imphal (2005)

Meghalaya (1)
21. North Eastern Hill University shilling and Tura (1973)

Mizoram (1)
22. Assam University, Silchar (1994)

Nagaland (1)
23. Nagaland University Kohima (1994)

Odisha (1)
24. Central University of Orissa, Koraput (2009)

Punjab (1)
25. Central university of Punjab Bathinda (2009)

Rajasthan (1)
26. Central university of Rajasthan Ajmer (2009)

Sikkim (1)
27. Sikkim University, Gangtok (1997- Dr M.S Swaminathan the father of Green Revolution
in India and first winner of world food Prize was the VC of Sikkim University)

Tamil Nadu (1)

28. Central University of Tamil Nadu, Thiruvarur (2009)

Tamil Nadu (1)

29. Indian Maritime University Chennai (2008)

Telangana (3)
30. Hyderablad central university, Hderabad (1974)
31. Maulana Azad National Urdu University, Gachibowli Hyderbad (1998)
32. The English and Foreign languages University, Hyderabad (2007)

[46]
Tripura (1)
33. Tripura University Agartala (2007)]

Uttar Pradesh (5)

34. Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh (Originally MAO College, was incorporated as a
central University by an Act of parliament in 1920)
35. University of Allahabad, Allahabad (set up in 1887 it is one of the oldest universities in
India)
36. Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow (1996)
37. Banaras Hindu University Varanashi (1916, is one of oldest and largest central
universities).
38. Rajive Gandhi National Aviation University, Raebareli (2014)

Uttarakhand (1)
39. Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University Srinagar, (2009 converted from State
University to central university originally set up in 1973)

West Bengal (1)

40. Vishwa Bharati, shantiniketan (1951)

Nct of Delhi (5)

41. University of Delhi, Delhi (1922)
42. Indira Gandhi National open University, New Delhi (1985)
43. Jamia Millia Islamia Jamia Nagar new Delhi (1988)
44. Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi (1969)
45. South Asian University, New Delhi (established under central Act, sponsored by the eight
Member states of the south Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). The
eight countries are Afghanistan, Bangladesh Bhutan India Maldives, Nepal Pakistan and
Sri Lanka)

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