•1

14.11 Polymer Crystallinity

For copolymers, as a general rule, the more irregular and random the repeat unit
arrangements, the greater is the tendency for the development of noncrystallinity. For
alternating and block copolymers there is some likelihood of crystallization. On the other
hand, random and graft copolymers are normally amorphous.

Computations of the Density and Percent Crystallinity of Polyethylene

(a) Compute the density of totally crystalline polyethylene. The orthorhombic
unit cell for polyethylene is shown in Figure 14.10; also, the equivalent of two
ethylene repeat units is contained within each unit cell.
(b) Using the answer to part (a), calculate the percent crystallinity of a branched
polyethylene that has a density of 0.925 g/cm3. The density for the totally amorphous
material is 0.870 g/cm3.

Solution
(a) Equation 3.5, utilized in Chapter 3 to determine densities for metals, also applies
to polymeric materials and is used to solve this problem. It takes the same form—
viz.
nA
r
VCNA
where n represents the number of repeat units within the unit cell (for polyethylene
n 2), and A is the repeat unit molecular weight, which for polyethylene is

A 2 1 A C 2 4 1 AH 2

1 2 2 1 12.01 g/mol 2 1 4 2 1 1.008 g/mol 2 28.05 g/mol

Also, VC is the unit cell volume, which is just the product of the three unit cell edge
lengths in Figure 14.10; or

VC 1 0.741 nm 2 1 0.494 nm 2 1 0.255 nm 2

 1 7.41 108 cm 2 1 4.94 108 cm 2 1 2.55 108 cm 2

9.33 1023 cm3/unit cell

To some extent, the physical properties of polymeric materials are influenced by the
degree of crystallinity. Crystalline polymers are usually stronger and more resistant to
dissolution and softening by heat. Some of these properties are discussed in subsequent
chapters.

Concept Check 14.5

(a) Compare the crystalline state in metals and polymers. (b) Compare the noncrystalline
state as it applies to polymers and ceramic glasses.
[The answer may be found at www.wiley.com/college/callister (Student Companion Site).]

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 14.2

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512 • Chapter 14 /
Now, substitution into Equation 3.5, of this value, values for n and A cited above, as
well as NA, leads to
nA
r
VCNA

1 2 repeat units/unit cell 2 1 28.05 g/mol

2
3
/unit cell repeat units/mol 2
cm
0.998 g/cm3
(b) We now utilize Equation 14.8 to calculate the percent crystallinity of the
branched polyethylene with rc 0.998 g/cm3, ra 0.870 g/cm3, and rs 0.925 g/cm3. Thus,

rc 1 rs ra 2
% crystallinity 100
rs 1 rc ra 2

0.998 g/cm3 1 0.925 g/cm3 0.870 g/cm3 2

3 10
1 0.998 g/cm0.870g/cm32
0.925 g/cm
46.4%
14.12 POLYMER CRYSTALS

crystallite Keller, R. H. Doremus, B. W. Roberts, and D. Turnbull

(Editors), Growth and Perfection of
Crystals. General
Electric Company and John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 1958, p. 498.]
It has been proposed that a semicrystalline polymer consists of small crystalline regions
(crystallites), each having a precise alignment, which are interspersed with amorphous
regions composed of randomly oriented molecules. The structure of the crystalline regions
chain-folded model may be deduced by examination of polymer single crystals, which may be grown from
dilute solutions.These crystals are regularly shaped, thin platelets (or lamellae),
approximately 10 to 20 nm thick, and on the order of 10 m long. Frequently, these platelets
Figure 14.11 will form a multilayered structure, like that shown in the electron micrograph of a single
Electron micrograph of crystal of polyethylene, Figure 14.11. The molecular chains within each platelet fold back
a polyethylene and forth on themselves, with folds occurring at the faces; this structure, aptly termed the
single crystal. chain-folded model, is
20,000. [From A.
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14.12 Polymer Crystals • 513

illustrated schematically in Figure 14.12. Each platelet will consist of a number of

molecules; however, the average chain length will be much greater than the thickness of
the platelet.
Many bulk polymers that are crystallized from a melt are semicrystalline and
spherulite form a spherulite structure. As implied by the name, each spherulite may grow to be roughly spherical
in shape; one of them, as found in natural rubber, is shown in the transmission electron
micrograph,the chapter-opening photograph for this chapter. The spherulite consists of an
aggregate of ribbon-like chain-folded crystallites (lamellae) approximately 10 nm thick
that radiate outward from a single nucleation site in the center.In this electron
micrograph,these lamellae appear as thin white lines. The detailed structure of a spherulite
is illustrated schematically in Figure 14.13.
Shown here are the individual chain-folded lamellar crystals that are separated by

Direction of Figure 14.13 Schematic

spherulite growth representation of the detailed
1496T_c14_489-522 12/7/05 16:41 Page 514

514 • Chapter 14 /

Figure 14.14
A transmission
photomicrograph
(using cross-polarized light)
showing the
spherulite structure of
polyethylene.
Linear boundaries form
between adjacent
spherulites, and within each
spherulite appears a
Maltese cross. 525.
(Courtesy F. P. Price,
General Electric
Company.)

amorphous material. Tie-chain molecules that act as connecting links between adjacent lamellae
pass through these amorphous regions.
As the crystallization of a spherulitic structure nears completion, the extremities of adjacent
spherulites begin to impinge on one another, forming more or less planar boundaries; prior to this
time, they maintain their spherical shape. These boundaries are evident in Figure 14.14, which is a
photomicrograph of polyethylene using cross-polarized light.A characteristic Maltese cross pattern
appears within each spherulite. The bands or rings in the spherulite image result from twisting of
the lamellar crystals as they extend like ribbons from the center.
Spherulites are considered to be the polymer analogue of grains in polycrystalline metals and
ceramics. However, as discussed above, each spherulite is really composed of many different
lamellar crystals and, in addition, some amorphous material. Polyethylene, polypropylene,
poly(vinyl chloride), polytetrafluoroethylene, and nylon form a spherulitic structure when they
crystallize from a melt.

14.13 DEFECTS IN POLYMERS

The point defect concept is different in polymers than in metals (Section 4.2) and ceramics (Section
12.5) as a consequence of the chain-like macromolecules and the nature of the crystalline state for
polymers. Point defects similar to those found in metals have been observed in crystalline regions
of polymeric materials; these include vacancies and interstitial atoms and ions. Chain ends are
considered to be defects because they are chemically dissimilar to normal chain units. Vacancies
are also associated with the chain ends (Figure 14.15). However, additional defects can result from
branches in the polymer chain or chain segments that emerge from the crystal. A chain section can
leave a polymer crystal and reenter it at another point creating a loop, or can enter a second crystal
to act as a tie molecule (see Figure 14.13). Screw dislocations also occur in polymer crystals (Figure
14.15). Impurity atoms/ions or groups of atoms/ions may be incorporated in the molecular structure
as interstitials; they may also be associated with main chains or as short side branches.
 Furthermore, the surfaces of chain-folded layers (Figure 14.13) are considered to be interfacial
defects,as are also boundaries between two adjacent crystalline regions.
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14.14 Diffusion in Polymeric Materials • 515

Figure 14.15
Schematic
representation of
defects in polymer
crystallites.

14.14 DIFFUSION IN POLYMERIC MATERIALS

For polymeric materials, our interest is often in the diffusive motion of small foreign
molecules (e.g., O2, H2O, CO2, CH4) between the molecular chains, rather than in the
diffusive motion of chain atoms within the polymer structure. A polymer’s permeability
and absorption characteristics relate to the degree to which foreign substances diffuse into
the material. Penetration of these foreign substances can lead to swelling and/or chemical
reactions with the polymer molecules, and often a degradation of the material’s mechanical
and physical properties (Section 17.11).
Rates of diffusion are greater through amorphous regions than through crystalline
regions; the structure of amorphous material is more “open.” This diffusion mechanism
may be considered to be analogous to interstitial diffusion in metals— that is, in polymers,
diffusive movements occur through small voids between polymer chains from one open
amorphous region to an adjacent open one.
Foreign molecule size also affects the diffusion rate: smaller molecules diffuse faster
than larger ones. Furthermore, diffusion is more rapid for foreign molecules that are
chemically inert than for those that react with the polymer.
One step in diffusion through a polymer membrane is the dissolution of the molecular
species in the membrane material.This dissolution is a time-dependent process, and, if
slower than the diffusive motion, may limit the overall rate of diffusion. Consequently, the
diffusion properties of polymers are often characterized in terms of a permeability
coefficient (denoted by PM), where for the case of steady-state diffusion through a polymer
membrane, Fick’s first law (Equation 5.3), is modified as
 ¢P
J PM (14.9)
¢x
In this expression, J is the diffusion flux of gas through the membrane [(cm3
STP)/(cm2-s)],PM is the permeability coefficient, ¢ x is the membrane thickness,and
¢ P is the difference in pressure of the gas across the membrane. For small molecules in nonglassy
polymers the permeability coefficient can be approximated as
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516 • Chapter 14 /
Case Study: “Chemical Protective Clothing,” Chapter 22, which may be found at www.wiley.com/ college/callister (Student
Companion Site)
Table 14.6 Permeability Coefficients PM at 25C for Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon Dioxide, and Water
Vapor in a Variety of Polymers

PM
[ 1013 (cm3 STP)(cm)/(cm2-s-Pa)]
Polymer Acronym
O2 N2 CO2 H2O
Polyethylene (low density) LDPE 2.2 0.73 9.5 68
Polyethylene (high density) HDPE 0.30 0.11 0.27 9.0
Polypropylene PP 1.2 0.22 5.4 38
Poly(vinyl chloride) PVC 0.034 0.0089 0.012 206
Polystyrene PS 2.0 0.59 7.9 840
poly(vinylidene chloride) PVDC 0.0025 0.00044 0.015 7.0
Poly(ethylene terephthalate) PET 0.044 0.011 0.23 —
Poly(ethyl methacrylate) PEMA 0.89 0.17 3.8 2380
Source: Adapted from J. Brandrup, E. H. Immergut, E. A. Grulke, A. Abe, and D. R. Bloch
(Editors), Polymer Handbook, 4th edition. Copyright © 1999 by John Wiley & Sons, New York. Reprinted by permission of
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

the product of the diffusion coefficient (D) and solubility of the diffusing species in the polymer (S)—i.e.,
PM DS (14.10)
Table 14.6 presents the permeability coefficients of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and water vapor in several
common polymers.12
For some applications, low permeability rates through polymeric materials are desirable,as with food and
beverage packaging and automobile tires and inner tubes. Polymer membranes are often used as filters, to
selectively separate one chemical species from another (or others) (i.e., the desalinization of water). In such
instances it is normally the case that the permeation rate of the substance to be filtered is significantly greater than
for the other substance(s).

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 14.3

Computations of Diffusion Flux of Carbon Dioxide Through a Plastic Beverage Container
and Beverage Shelf Life
The clear plastic bottles used for carbonated beverages (sometimes also called “soda,” “pop,” or “soda pop”)
are made from poly(ethylene terephthalate)(PET). The “fizz” in pop results from dissolved carbon dioxide
(CO2);

12 The
units for permeability coefficients in Table 14.6 are unusual, which are explained as follows: When the diffusing
molecular species is in the gas phase, solubility is equal to

CS
P

where C is the concentration of the diffusing species in the polymer [in units of (cm3 STP)/cm3 gas] and P is the partial
pressure (in units of Pa). STP indicates that this is the volume of gas at standard temperature and pressure [273 K (0°C)
and 101.3 kPa (1 atm)]. Thus, the units for S are (cm3 STP)/Pa-cm3. Since D is expressed in terms of cm2/s, the units for
the permeability coefficient are (cm3 STP)(cm)/(cm2-s-Pa).