Indus Valley Civilisation PDF
Indus Valley Civilisation PDF
Indus Valley Civilisation PDF
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age
civilisation (3300–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1900 Indus Valley Civilisation
BCE, preHarappan cultures starting c.7500 BCE[3][4])
mainly in Pakistan, northwest India[5] and also in some
regions in northeast Afghanistan.[6][1] Along with
Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, it was one of three
early civilisations of the Old World, and the most
widespread among them,[7] covering an area of
1.25 million km2.[8] It flourished in the basins of the
Indus River, one of the major rivers of Asia, and the now
dried up Sarasvati River,[9][10] which once coursed
through northwest India and eastern Pakistan [6] together
with its tributaries flowed along a channel, presently
identified as that of the GhaggarHakra River on the
basis of various scientific studies.[11][12][13] Due to the
spread of the civilization along both the river valleys, Geographical range South Asia
some scholars use the term IndusSarasvati Period Bronze Age
Civilisation.[14][15][16] Dates c. 3300 – c. 1700 BCE[1][2]
At its peak, the Indus Civilization may have had a Followed by Vedic period
population of more than 5 million. [17][18] Inhabitants of
the ancient Indus river valley developed new techniques in
handicraft (carnelian products, seal carving) and metallurgy (copper,
bronze, lead, and tin). The Indus cities are noted for their urban
planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water
supply systems, and clusters of large nonresidential buildings.[19]
The Indus Valley Civilization is also known as the Harappan
Civilization, after Harappa, the first of its sites to be excavated in
the 1920s, in what was then the Punjab province of British India,
and is now in Pakistan.[20] The discovery of Harappa, and soon
afterwards, MohenjoDaro, was the culmination of work beginning
in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India in
the British Raj.[21] Excavation of Harappan sites has been ongoing
since 1920, with important breakthroughs occurring as recently as
1999.[22] There were earlier and later cultures, often called Early
Harappan and Late Harappan, and preHarappan cultures, in the
Ceremonial vessel, Harappan, 2600–
same area of the Harappan Civilization. The Harappan civilisation is
2450 BCE. LACMA
sometimes called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it
from these cultures. Bhirrana in Haryana, India may be the oldest
preHarappan site, dating back to 75706200 BCE.[3][23]
By 1999, over 1,056 cities and settlements had been found, of which 96 have been excavated,[24] mainly in
the general region of the Indus and the Sarasvati River[25] and their tributaries. Among the settlements were
the major urban centres of Harappa, Mohenjodaro (UNESCO World Heritage Site), Dholavira,
Kalibangan, Ganeriwala, Lothal, and Rakhigarhi.[26] Rakhigarhi in Haryana, India, being the largest Indus
Valley Civilization site with 350hectare (3.5 km2) area.[3][27][28][29]
The Harappan language is not directly attested and its affiliation is uncertain since the Indus script is still
undeciphered. A relationship with the Dravidian or ElamoDravidian language family is favoured by a
section of scholars,[30][31] while others suggest an Austroasiatic language related to Munda.[32]
Contents
1 Discovery and history of excavation
2 Chronology
3 Geography
4 Early Harappan
5 Mature Harappan
5.1 Cities
5.2 Authority and governance
5.3 Technology
5.4 Arts and crafts
5.5 Trade and transportation
5.6 Subsistence
5.7 Possible writing system
5.8 Religion
6 Collapse and Late Harappan
7 Legacy
8 Historical context and linguistic affiliation
9 See also
10 Notes
10 Notes
11 References
12 Bibliography
13 External links
Discovery and history of excavation
The ruins of
Harappa were
first described
in 1842 by
Charles
Masson in his
Narrative of
Various
Journeys in
Balochistan, Early Harappan Period, c. 3300–2600
Afghanistan, BCE
Excavated ruins of Mohenjodaro, with the Great and the
Bath in the front Punjab, where
locals talked of
an ancient city
extending "thirteen cosses" (about 25 miles), but no archaeological
interest would attach to this for nearly a century.[note 1]
In 1856, General Alexander Cunningham, later director general of
the archaeological survey of northern India, visited Harappa where
the British engineers John and William Brunton were laying the
East Indian Railway Company line connecting the cities of Karachi
and Lahore. John wrote: "I was much exercised in my mind how we Mature Harappan Period, c. 2600–
were to get ballast for the line of the railway". They were told of an 1900 BCE
ancient ruined city near the lines, called Brahminabad. Visiting the
city, he found it full of hard wellburnt bricks, and, "convinced that there was a grand quarry for the ballast
I wanted", the city of Brahminabad was reduced to ballast.[34] A few months later, further north, John's
brother William Brunton's "section of the line ran near another ruined city, bricks from which had already
been used by villagers in the nearby village of Harappa at the same site. These bricks now provided ballast
along 93 miles (150 km) of the railroad track running from Karachi to Lahore".[34]
In 1872–75 Alexander Cunningham published the first Harappan seal (with an erroneous identification as
Brahmi letters).[35] It was half a century later, in 1912, that more Harappan seals were discovered by
J. Fleet, prompting an excavation campaign under Sir John Hubert Marshall in 1921–22 and resulting in the
discovery of the civilisation at Harappa by Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni and Madho Sarup Vats,
and at Mohenjodaro by Rakhal Das Banerjee, E. J. H. MacKay, and Marshall. By 1931, much of Mohenjo
Daro had been excavated, but excavations continued, such as that
led by Sir Mortimer Wheeler, director of the Archaeological Survey
of India in 1944. Among other archaeologists who worked on IVC
sites before the independence in 1947 were Ahmad Hasan Dani, Brij
Basi Lal, Nani Gopal Majumdar, and Sir Marc Aurel Stein.
Following the independence, the bulk of the archaeological finds
were inherited by Pakistan where most of the IVC was based, and
excavations from this time include those led by Wheeler in 1949,
archaeological adviser to the Government of Pakistan. Outposts of
Late Harappan Period, c. 1900–1300
the Indus Valley civilisation were excavated as far west as Sutkagan
BCE
Dor in Pakistani Balochistan, as far north as at Shortugai on the
Amu Darya (the river's ancient name was Oxus) in current
Afghanistan, as far east as at Alamgirpur, Uttar Pradesh, India and as far south as at Malwan, in modern
day Surat, Gujarat, India.[14]
In 2010, heavy floods hit Haryana in India and damaged the archaeological site of Jognakhera, where
ancient copper smelting furnaces were found dating back almost 5,000 years. The Indus Valley Civilization
site was hit by almost 10 feet of water as the Sutlej Yamuna link canal overflowed.[36]
Chronology
The mature phase of the Harappan civilisation lasted from c. 2600 to
1900 BCE. With the inclusion of the predecessor and successor
cultures — Early Harappan and Late Harappan, respectively — the
entire Indus Valley Civilization may be taken to have lasted from
the 33rd to the 14th centuries BCE. The early Harappan cultures are
preceded by the Mehrgarh (c.70003300 BCE), with Bhirrana even
dating back to 75706200 BCE, according to a December 2014
report by the Archaeological Survey of India.[3][4]
Two terms are employed for the periodisation of the IVC: Phases
and Eras.[37][38] The Early Harappan, Mature Harappan, and Late
Harappan phases are also called the Regionalisation, Integration,
and Localisation eras, respectively, with the Regionalization era
reaching back to the Neolithic Mehrgarh II period, the discovery of
which "changed the entire concept of the Indus civilization",
according to Ahmad Hasan Dani, professor emeritus at Quaide
Azam University, Islamabad. "There we have the whole sequence, Indus Valley pottery, 2500–1900
right from the beginning of settled village life."[39] BCE
Dates Phase Era
7570– Bhirrana (aceramic
6200
Neolithic)[3]
BCE Early Food
7000– Producing Era
preHarappan Mehrgarh I (aceramic
5500
Neolithic)
BCE
5500– Mehrgarh IIVI (ceramic
3300 Neolithic)
3300–
Harappan 1 (Ravi Phase) Regionalisation Indus valley seal with Bull, Elephant,
2800
Era and Rhinoceros, 2500–1900 BC
Early Harappan Harappan 2 (Kot Diji
2800–
Phase, Nausharo I,
2600
Mehrgarh VII)
2600– Harappan 3A (Nausharo
2450 Mature II)
2450– Harappan
Harappan 3B Integration Era
2200 (Indus Valley
2200– Civilization)
Harappan 3C
1900
1900– Late Harappan
Harappan 4
1700 (Cemetery H); Localisation
1700– Ochre Coloured Era
Harappan 5
1300 Pottery
Painted Gray Ware,
Vedic period,
1300– Northern Black Polished
PostHarappan Second
300 Ware (Iron Age), Indo
urbanisation
Gangetic Tradition
Geography
The Indus Valley Civilization encompassed most of Pakistan and parts of western India, and Afghanistan,
extending from Pakistani Balochistan in the west to Uttar Pradesh in the east, northeastern Afghanistan to
the north and Maharashtra to the south.[40] The geography of the Indus Valley put the civilisations that
arose there in a highly similar situation to those in Egypt and Peru, with rich agricultural lands being
surrounded by highlands, desert, and ocean. Recently, Indus sites have been discovered in Pakistan's
northwestern Frontier Province as well. Other IVC colonies can be found in Afghanistan while smaller
isolated colonies can be found as far away as Turkmenistan and in Gujarat. Coastal settlements extended
from Sutkagan Dor[41] in Western Baluchistan to Lothal[42] in Gujarat. An Indus Valley site has been found
on the Oxus River at Shortughai in northern Afghanistan,[43] in the Gomal River valley in northwestern
Pakistan,[44] at Manda,Jammu on the Beas River near Jammu,[45] India, and at Alamgirpur on the Hindon
River, only 28 km from Delhi.[46] Indus Valley sites have been found most often on rivers, but also on the
ancient seacoast,[47] for example, Balakot,[48] and on islands, for example, Dholavira.[49]
There is evidence of dry river beds overlapping with the Hakra channel
in Pakistan and the seasonal Ghaggar River in India. Many Indus
Valley sites have been discovered along the GhaggarHakra beds.[50]
Among them are: Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Sothi, Kalibangan, and
Ganwariwala.[51] According to J. G. Shaffer and D. A. Lichtenstein,[52]
the Harappan Civilization "is a fusion of the Bagor, Hakra, and Koti
Dij traditions or 'ethnic groups' in the GhaggarHakra valley on the
borders of India and Pakistan".[50]
According to some archaeologists, more than 500 Harappan sites have
been discovered along the dried up river beds of the GhaggarHakra
River and its tributaries,[53] in contrast to only about 100 along the
Indus and its tributaries;[54] consequently, in their opinion, the
appellation Indus GhaggarHakra civilisation or IndusSaraswati
civilisation is justified. However, these politically inspired arguments Diorama reconstruction of
are disputed by other archaeologists who state that the GhaggarHakra everyday life in Indus Valley
desert area has been left untouched by settlements and agriculture since Civilization.
the end of the Indus period and hence shows more sites than those
found in the alluvium of the Indus valley; second, that the number of
Harappan sites along the GhaggarHakra river beds has been exaggerated and that the GhaggarHakra,
when it existed, was a tributary of the Indus, so the new nomenclature is redundant.[55] "Harappan
Civilization" remains the correct one, according to the common archaeological usage of naming a
civilisation after its first findspot.
Early Harappan
The Early Harappan Ravi Phase, named after the nearby Ravi River, lasted from circa 3300 BCE until 2800
BCE. It is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the GhaggarHakra River Valley to the west, and
predates the Kot Diji Phase (2800–2600 BCE, Harappan 2), named after a site in northern Sindh, Pakistan,
near Mohenjo Daro. The earliest examples of the Indus script date to the 3rd millennium BC.[56][57]
Latest discoveries from Bhirrana, Haryana, in India since 2012 onwards, by archaeologist K. N. Dikshit
indicate that Hakra ware from this area dates from as early as 7500 BCE,[1][2][4] which makes Bhirrana the
oldest site in Indus Valley civilization.[3]
The mature phase of earlier village cultures is represented by Rehman Dheri and Amri in Pakistan.[58] Kot
Diji represents the phase leading up to Mature Harappan, with the citadel representing centralised authority
and an increasingly urban quality of life. Another town of this stage was found at Kalibangan in India on
the Hakra River.[59]
Trade networks linked this culture with related regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials,
including lapis lazuli and other materials for beadmaking. By this time, villagers had domesticated
numerous crops, including peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton, as well as animals, including the water
buffalo. Early Harappan communities turned to large urban centres by 2600 BCE, from where the mature
Harappan phase started. The latest research shows that Indus Valley people migrated from villages to
cities.[60][61]
Mature Harappan
By 2600 BCE, the Early Harappan communities turned into large
urban centres. Such urban centres include Harappa, Ganeriwala,
MohenjoDaro in modernday Pakistan, and Dholavira, Kalibangan,
Rakhigarhi, Rupar, and Lothal in modernday India.[62] In total,
more than 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in
the general region of the Indus Rivers and their tributaries.
Cities
MohenjoDaro
A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is
evident in the Indus Valley Civilization making them the first urban
centres in the region. The quality of municipal town planning
suggests the knowledge of urban planning and efficient municipal
governments which placed a high priority on hygiene, or,
alternatively, accessibility to the means of religious ritual.
As seen in Harappa, MohenjoDaro and the recently partially
excavated Rakhigarhi, this urban plan included the world's first
known urban sanitation systems: see hydraulic engineering of the
Indus Valley Civilization. Within the city, individual homes or
groups of homes obtained water from wells. From a room that View of Granary and Great Hall on
appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was directed Mound F in Harappa
to covered drains, which lined the major streets. Houses opened
only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes. The housebuilding in
some villages in the region still resembles in some respects the
housebuilding of the Harappans.[63]
The ancient Indus systems of sewerage and drainage that were
developed and used in cities throughout the Indus region were far
more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the
Middle East and even more efficient than those in many areas of
Pakistan and India today. The advanced architecture of the
Harappans is shown by their impressive dockyards, granaries,
Computeraided reconstruction of
warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. The massive
coastal Harappan settlement at Sokhta
walls of Indus cities most likely protected the Harappans from
Koh near Pasni, Pakistan
floods and may have dissuaded military conflicts.[64]
The purpose of the citadel remains debated. In sharp contrast to this civilisation's contemporaries,
Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt, no large monumental structures were built. There is no conclusive
evidence of palaces or temples—or of kings, armies, or priests. Some structures are thought to have been
granaries. Found at one city is an enormous wellbuilt bath (the "Great Bath"), which may have been a
public bath. Although the citadels were walled, it is far from clear
that these structures were defensive. They may have been built to
divert flood waters.
Most city dwellers appear to have been traders or artisans, who lived
with others pursuing the same occupation in welldefined
neighbourhoods. Materials from distant regions were used in the
cities for constructing seals, beads and other objects. Among the
artefacts discovered were beautiful glazed faïence beads. Steatite
seals have images of animals, people (perhaps gods), and other
types of inscriptions, including the yet undeciphered writing system
of the Indus Valley Civilization. Some of the seals were used to
stamp clay on trade goods and most probably had other uses as well.
Although some houses were larger than others, Indus Civilization
cities were remarkable for their apparent, if relative, egalitarianism.
All the houses had access to water and drainage facilities. This gives Socalled "Priest King" statue,
the impression of a society with relatively low wealth concentration, MohenjoDaro, late Mature Harappan
though clear social levelling is seen in personal adornments. The period, National Museum, Karachi,
prehistory of IndoIranian borderlands shows a steady increase over Pakistan
time in the number and density of settlements. The population
increased in Indus plains because of hunting and gathering.[65]
Authority and governance
Archaeological records provide no immediate answers for a centre of power or for depictions of people in
power in Harappan society. But, there are indications of complex decisions being taken and implemented.
For instance, the extraordinary uniformity of Harappan artefacts as evident in pottery, seals, weights and
bricks. These are the major theories:
There was a single state, given the similarity in artefacts, the evidence for planned settlements, the
standardised ratio of brick size, and the establishment of settlements near sources of raw material.
There was no single ruler but several: Mohenjodaro had a separate ruler, Harappa another, and so
forth.
Harappan society had no rulers, and everybody enjoyed equal status.
Technology
The people of the Indus Civilization achieved great accuracy in
measuring length, mass, and time. They were among the first to
develop a system of uniform weights and measures. A comparison
of available objects indicates large scale variation across the Indus
territories. Their smallest division, which is marked on an ivory
scale found in Lothal in Gujarat, was approximately 1.704 mm, the
smallest division ever recorded on a scale of the Bronze Age.
Harappan engineers followed the decimal division of measurement Unicorn seal of Indus Valley, Indian
for all practical purposes, including the measurement of mass as Museum
revealed by their hexahedron weights.[66]
These chert weights were in a ratio of 5:2:1 with weights of 0.05,
0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 units, with each
unit weighing approximately 28 grams, similar to the English
Imperial ounce or Greek uncia, and smaller objects were weighed in
similar ratios with the units of 0.871. However, as in other cultures,
actual weights were not uniform throughout the area. The weights
and measures later used in Kautilya's Arthashastra (4th century
BCE) are the same as those used in Lothal.[67] Elephant seal of Indus Valley, Indian
Museum
Harappans evolved some new techniques in metallurgy and
produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin. The engineering skill of the
Harappans was remarkable, especially in building docks.
In 2001, archaeologists studying the remains of two men from
Mehrgarh, Pakistan, discovered that the people of the Indus Valley
Civilization, from the early Harappan periods, had knowledge of
protodentistry. Later, in April 2006, it was announced in the
scientific journal Nature that the oldest (and first early Neolithic)
evidence for the drilling of human teeth in vivo (i.e., in a living
person) was found in Mehrgarh. Eleven drilled molar crowns from
Indus Valley seals, British Museum
nine adults were discovered in a Neolithic graveyard in Mehrgarh
that dates from 7,500–9,000 years ago. According to the authors,
their discoveries point to a tradition of protodentistry in the early farming cultures of that region.[68]
A touchstone bearing gold streaks was found in Banawali, which was probably used for testing the purity of
gold (such a technique is still used in some parts of India).[69]
Arts and crafts
Various sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewellery, and anatomically detailed figurines in terracotta, bronze,
and steatite have been found at excavation sites.
A number of gold, terracotta and stone figurines of girls in dancing poses reveal the presence of some dance
form. These terracotta figurines included cows, bears, monkeys, and dogs. The animal depicted on a
majority of seals at sites of the mature period has not been clearly identified. Part bull, part zebra, with a
majestic horn, it has been a source of speculation. As yet, there is insufficient evidence to substantiate
claims that the image had religious or cultic significance, but the prevalence of the image raises the
question of whether or not the animals in images of the IVC are religious symbols.[70]
Sir John Marshall reacted with surprise when he saw the famous Indus bronze statuette of a slenderlimbed
dancing girl in MohenjoDaro:
The "dancing girl of
Mohenjo Daro"
When I first saw them I found it difficult to believe that
they were prehistoric; they seemed to completely upset
all established ideas about early art, and culture.
Modeling such as this was unknown in the ancient
world up to the Hellenistic age of Greece, and I
thought, therefore, that some mistake must surely have
been made; that these figures had found their way into
levels some 3000 years older than those to which they
properly belonged .... Now, in these statuettes, it is just
this anatomical truth which is so startling; that makes us
wonder whether, in this allimportant matter, Greek
artistry could possibly have been anticipated by the
sculptors of a faroff age on the banks of the Indus.[71]
Chanhudaro. Fragment of Large Deep
Vessel, circa 2500 B.C.E. Red pottery
Many crafts "such as shell working, ceramics, and agate and glazed with red and black slippainted
steatite bead making" were used in the making of necklaces, decoration, 415/16×6⅛ in.
bangles, and other ornaments from all phases of Harappan sites and
(12.5×15.5 cm). Brooklyn Museum
some of these crafts are still practised in the subcontinent today.[72]
Some makeup and toiletry items (a special kind of combs (kakai),
the use of collyrium and a special threeinone toiletry gadget) that were found in Harappan contexts still
have similar counterparts in modern India.[73] Terracotta female figurines were found (ca. 2800–2600 BCE)
which had red colour applied to the "manga" (line of partition of the hair).[73]
Seals have been found at MohenjoDaro depicting a figure standing on its head, and another sitting cross
legged in what some call a yogalike pose (see image, the socalled Pashupati, below).
This figure, sometimes known as a Pashupati, has been variously identified. Sir John Marshall identified a
resemblance to the Hindu god, Shiva.[74] If this can be validated, it would be evidence that some aspects of
Hinduism predate the earliest texts, the Veda.
A harplike instrument depicted on an Indus seal and two shell objects found at Lothal indicate the use of
stringed musical instruments. The Harappans also made various toys and games, among them cubical dice
(with one to six holes on the faces), which were found in sites like MohenjoDaro.[75]
Trade and transportation
The Indus civilisation's economy appears to have
depended significantly on trade, which was
facilitated by major advances in transport
technology. The IVC may have been the first
civilisation to use wheeled transport.[76] These
advances may have included bullock carts that are
identical to those seen throughout South Asia today,
as well as boats. Most of these boats were probably
small, flatbottomed craft, perhaps driven by sail,
similar to those one can see on the Indus River
today; however, there is secondary evidence of sea
going craft. Archaeologists have discovered a
The docks of ancient Lothal as they are today
massive, dredged canal and what they regard as a
docking facility at the coastal city of Lothal in
western India (Gujarat state). An extensive canal network, used for irrigation, has however also been
discovered by H.P. Francfort.
During 4300–3200 BCE of the chalcolithic period (copper age), the Indus Valley Civilization area shows
ceramic similarities with southern Turkmenistan and northern Iran which suggest considerable mobility and
trade. During the Early Harappan period (about 3200–2600 BCE), similarities in pottery, seals, figurines,
ornaments, etc. document intensive caravan trade with Central Asia and the Iranian plateau.[77]
Judging from the dispersal of Indus civilisation artefacts, the trade networks, economically, integrated a
huge area, including portions of Afghanistan, the coastal regions of Persia, northern and western India, and
Mesopotamia. Studies of tooth enamel from individuals buried at Harappa suggest that some residents had
migrated to the city from beyond the Indus valley.[78] There is some evidence that trade contacts extended
to Crete and possibly to Egypt.[79]
There was an extensive maritime trade network operating between the Harappan and Mesopotamian
civilisations as early as the middle Harappan Phase, with much commerce being handled by "middlemen
merchants from Dilmun" (modern Bahrain and Failaka located in the Persian Gulf).[80] Such longdistance
sea trade became feasible with the innovative development of plankbuilt watercraft, equipped with a single
central mast supporting a sail of woven rushes or cloth.
Several coastal settlements like Sotkagendor (astride Dasht River, north of Jiwani), Sokhta Koh (astride
Shadi River, north of Pasni), and Balakot (near Sonmiani) in Pakistan along with Lothal in western India,
testify to their role as Harappan trading outposts. Shallow harbours located at the estuaries of rivers opening
into the sea allowed brisk maritime trade with Mesopotamian cities.
Subsistence
Some post1980 studies indicate that food production was largely indigenous to the Indus Valley. It is
known that the people of Mehrgarh used domesticated wheats and barley,[81] and the major cultivated cereal
crop was naked sixrow barley, a crop derived from tworow barley (see Shaffer and Liechtenstein 1995,
1999). Archaeologist Jim G. Shaffer (1999: 245) writes that the Mehrgarh site "demonstrates that food
production was an indigenous South Asian phenomenon" and that the data support interpretation of "the
prehistoric urbanization and complex social organization in South Asia as based on indigenous, but not
isolated, cultural developments". Others, such as Dorian Fuller, however, indicate that it took some 2000
years before Middle Eastern wheat was acclimatised to South Asian conditions.
Possible writing system
Between 400 and as many as 600 distinct Indus symbols[82] have been found on seals, small tablets,
ceramic pots and more than a dozen other materials, including a "signboard" that apparently once hung over
the gate of the inner citadel of the Indus city of Dholavira.
Typical Indus inscriptions are no more than four or five characters in
length, most of which (aside from the Dholavira "signboard") are tiny;
the longest on a single surface, which is less than 1 inch (2.54 cm)
square, is 17 signs long; the longest on any object (found on three
Ten Indus Signs, dubbed different faces of a massproduced object) has a length of 26 symbols.
Dholavira Signboard
While the Indus Valley Civilization is generally characterised as a
literate society on the evidence of these inscriptions, this description
has been challenged by Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel (2004)[83] who argue that the Indus system did not
encode language, but was instead similar to a variety of nonlinguistic sign systems used extensively in the
Near East and other societies, to symbolise families, clans, gods, and religious concepts. Others have
claimed on occasion that the symbols were exclusively used for economic transactions, but this claim
leaves unexplained the appearance of Indus symbols on many ritual objects, many of which were mass
produced in moulds. No parallels to these massproduced inscriptions are known in any other early ancient
civilisations.[84]
In a 2009 study by P. N. Rao et al. published in Science, computer scientists, comparing the pattern of
symbols to various linguistic scripts and nonlinguistic systems, including DNA and a computer
programming language, found that the Indus script's pattern is closer to that of spoken words, supporting
the hypothesis that it codes for an asyetunknown language.[85][86]
Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel have disputed this finding, pointing out that Rao et al. did not actually compare
the Indus signs with "realworld nonlinguistic systems" but rather with "two wholly artificial systems
invented by the authors, one consisting of 200,000 randomly ordered signs and another of 200,000 fully
ordered signs, that they spuriously claim represent the structures of all realworld nonlinguistic sign
systems".[87] Farmer et al. have also demonstrated that a comparison of a nonlinguistic system like
medieval heraldic signs with natural languages yields results similar to those that Rao et al. obtained with
Indus signs. They conclude that the method used by Rao et al. cannot distinguish linguistic systems from
nonlinguistic ones.[88]
The messages on the seals have proved to be too short to be decoded by a computer. Each seal has a
distinctive combination of symbols and there are too few examples of each sequence to provide a sufficient
context. The symbols that accompany the images vary from seal to seal, making it impossible to derive a
meaning for the symbols from the images. There have, nonetheless, been a number of interpretations
offered for the meaning of the seals. These interpretations have been marked by ambiguity and
subjectivity.[88]:69
Photos of many of the thousands of extant inscriptions are published in the Corpus of Indus Seals and
Inscriptions (1987, 1991, 2010), edited by Asko Parpola and his colleagues. The final, third, volume,
republished photos taken in the 1920s and 1930s of hundreds of lost or stolen inscriptions, along with many
discovered in the last few decades. Formerly, researchers had to supplement the materials in the Corpus by
study of the tiny photos in the excavation reports of Marshall (1931), MacKay (1938, 1943), Wheeler
(1947), or reproductions in more recent scattered sources.
Religion
The religion and belief system of the Indus valley people have
received considerable attention, especially from the view of
identifying precursors to deities and religious practices of Indian
religions that later developed in the area. However, due to the
sparsity of evidence, which is open to varying interpretations, and
the fact that the Indus script remains undeciphered, the conclusions
are partly speculative and largely based on a retrospective view
from a much later Hindu perspective.[89][90] An early and influential
work in the area that set the trend for Hindu interpretations of
archaeological evidence from the Harrapan sites[91] was that of John
Marshall, who in 1931 identified the following as prominent
features of the Indus religion: a Great Male God and a Mother
Goddess; deification or veneration of animals and plants; symbolic The socalled Pashupati seal,
representation of the phallus (linga) and vulva (yoni); and, use of showing a seated and possibly
baths and water in religious practice. Marshall's interpretations have ithyphallic figure, surrounded by
been much debated, and sometimes disputed over the following animals.
decades.[92][93]
One Indus valley seal shows a seated, possibly ithyphallic and tricephalic, figure with a horned headdress,
surrounded by animals. Marshall identified the figure as an early form of the Hindu god Shiva (or Rudra),
who is associated with asceticism, yoga, and linga; regarded as a lord of animals; and often depicted as
having three eyes. The seal has hence come to be known as the Pashupati Seal, after Pashupati (lord of all
animals), an epithet of Shiva.[92][94] While Marshall's work has earned some support, many critics and even
supporters have raised several objections. Doris Srinivasan has argued that the figure does not have three
faces, or yogic posture, and that in Vedic literature Rudra was not a protector of wild animals.[95][96]
Herbert Sullivan and Alf Hiltebeitel also rejected Marshall's conclusions, with the former claiming that the
figure was female, while the latter associated the figure with Mahisha, the Buffalo God and the surrounding
animals with vahanas (vehicles) of deities for the four cardinal directions.[97][98] Writing in 2002, Gregory
L. Possehl concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognise the figure as a deity, its association
with the water buffalo, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as a protoShiva would be
going too far.[94] Despite the criticisms of Marshall's association of the seal with a protoShiva icon, it has
been interpreted as the Tirthankara Rishabha by Jains & Dr. Vilas Sangave[99] or an early Buddha by
Buddhists.[91] Historians like Heinrich Zimmer, Thomas McEvilley are of the opinion that there exists some
link between first Jain Tirthankara Rishabha & Indus Valley civilisation.[100][101]
Marshall hypothesized the existence of a cult of Mother Goddess worship based upon excavation of several
female figurines, and thought that this was a precursor of the Hindu sect of Shaktism. However the function
of the female figurines in the life of Indus Valley people remains unclear, and Possehl does not regard the
evidence for Marshall's hypothesis to be "terribly robust".[102] Some of the baetyls interpreted by Marshall
to be sacred phallic representations are now thought to have been used as pestles or game counters instead,
while the ring stones that were thought to symbolise yoni were determined to be architectural features used
to stand pillars, although the possibility of their religious symbolism cannot be eliminated.[103] Many Indus
Valley seals show animals, with some depicting them being carried in processions, while others show
chimeric creations. One seal from Mohenjodaro shows a halfhuman, halfbuffalo monster attacking a
tiger, which may be a reference to the Sumerian myth of such a monster created by goddess Aruru to fight
Gilgamesh.[104]
In contrast to contemporary Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilisations, Indus valley lacks any monumental
palaces, even though excavated cities indicate that the society possessed the requisite engineering
knowledge.[105][106] This may suggest that religious ceremonies, if any, may have been largely confined to
individual homes, small temples, or the open air. Several sites have been proposed by Marshall and later
scholars as possibly devoted to religious purpose, but at present only the Great Bath at Mohenjodaro is
widely thought to have been so used, as a place for ritual purification.[102][107] The funerary practices of the
Harappan civilisation is marked by its diversity with evidence of supine burial; fractional burial in which
the body is reduced to skeletal remains by exposure to the elements before final interment; and even
cremation. [108][109]
Collapse and Late Harappan
Around 1800 BCE, signs of a gradual decline began to emerge, and
by around 1700 BCE, most of the cities were abandoned. In 1953,
Sir Mortimer Wheeler proposed that the decline of the Indus
Civilization was caused by the invasion of an IndoEuropean tribe
from Central Asia called the "Aryans". As evidence, he cited a
group of 37 skeletons found in various parts of MohenjoDaro, and
passages in the Vedas referring to battles and forts. However,
scholars soon started to reject Wheeler's theory, since the skeletons
belonged to a period after the city's abandonment and none were
found near the citadel. Subsequent examinations of the skeletons by
Kenneth Kennedy in 1994 showed that the marks on the skulls were Late Harappa figures from a hoard at
caused by erosion, and not violent aggression.[110] Today, many Daimabad
scholars believe that the collapse of the Indus Civilization was
caused by drought and a decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia.[111] It has also been suggested that
immigration by new peoples, deforestation, floods, or changes in the course of the river may have
contributed to the collapse of the IVC.[112] The Cemetery H culture was the manifestation of the Late
Harappan over a large area in the south, and the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture its successor.
Previously, it was also believed that the decline of the Harappan civilisation led to an interruption of urban
life in the Indian subcontinent. However, the Indus Valley Civilization did not disappear suddenly, and
many elements of the Indus Civilization can be found in later cultures. David Gordon White cites three
other mainstream scholars who "have emphatically demonstrated" that Vedic religion is partially derived
from the Indus Valley Civilizations.[113]
Current archaeological data suggests that the material culture classified as Late Harappan may have
persisted until at least c. 1000–900 BCE and was partially contemporaneous with the Painted Grey Ware
culture.[114] Harvard archaeologist Richard Meadow points to the late Harappan settlement of Pirak, which
thrived continuously from 1800 BCE to the time of the invasion of Alexander the Great in 325 BCE.[111]
Recent archaeological excavations indicate that the decline of Harappa drove people eastward. After 1900
BCE, the number of sites in India increased from 218 to 853. Excavations in the Gangetic plain show that
urban settlement began around 1200 BCE, only a few centuries after the decline of Harappa and much
earlier than previously expected.[111] Archaeologists have emphasised that, just as in most areas of the
world, there was a continuous series of cultural developments. These link "the socalled two major phases
of urbanization in South Asia".[114]
A possible natural reason for the IVC's decline is connected with climate change[115] that is also signalled
for the neighbouring areas of the Middle East: The Indus valley climate grew significantly cooler and drier
from about 1800 BCE, linked to a general weakening of the monsoon at that time. Alternatively, a crucial
factor may have been the disappearance of substantial portions of the Ghaggar Hakra river system. A
tectonic event may have diverted the system's sources toward the Ganges Plain, though there is complete
uncertainty about the date of this event, as most settlements inside GhaggarHakra river beds have not yet
been dated. The actual reason for decline might be any combination of these factors. A 2004 paper
indicated that the isotopes of sediments carried by the GhaggarHakra system over the last 20 thousand
years do not come from the glaciated Higher Himalaya but have a SubHimalayan source. They speculated
that the river system was rainfed instead and thus contradicted the idea of a Harappantime mighty
"Sarasvati" river.[116] Recent geological research by a group led by Peter Clift investigated how the courses
of rivers have changed in this region since 8000 years ago, to test whether climate or river reorganisations
are responsible for the decline of the Harappan. Using UPb dating of zircon sand grains they found that
sediments typical of the Beas, Sutlej and Yamuna rivers (Himalayan tributaries of the Indus) are actually
present in former GhaggarHakra channels. However, sediment contributions from these glacialfed rivers
stopped at least by 10,000 years ago, well before the development of the Indus civilisation.[117]
A research team led by the geologist Liviu Giosan of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution also
concluded that climate change in the form of the easterward migration of the monsoons led to the decline of
the IVC.[118] The team's findings were published in PNAS in May 2012.[119][120] According to their theory,
the slow eastward migration of the monsoons across Asia initially allowed the civilisation to develop. The
monsoonsupported farming led to large agricultural surpluses, which in turn supported the development of
cities. The IVC residents did not develop irrigation capabilities, relying mainly on the seasonal monsoons.
As the monsoons kept shifting eastward, the water supply for the agricultural activities dried up. The
residents then migrated towards the Ganges basin in the east, where they established smaller villages and
isolated farms. The small surplus produced in these small communities did not allow development of trade,
and the cities died out.[121] There is also a Harappan site called Rojdi in Rajkot district of Saurashtra. Its
excavation started under archaeological team from Gujarat State Department of Archaeology and
University of Museum of the University of Pennsylvania in the year 1982 – 83.[122]
Legacy
In the aftermath of the Indus Civilization's collapse, regional cultures emerged, to varying degrees showing
the influence of the Indus Civilization. In the formerly great city of Harappa, burials have been found that
correspond to a regional culture called the Cemetery H culture. At the same time, the Ochre Coloured
Pottery culture expanded from Rajasthan into the Gangetic Plain. The Cemetery H culture has the earliest
evidence for cremation; a practice dominant in Hinduism today.
Historical context and linguistic affiliation
The IVC has been tentatively identified with the toponym Meluhha
known from Sumerian records; the Sumerians called them
Meluhhaites.[123] It has been compared in particular with the
civilisations of Elam (also in the context of the ElamoDravidian
hypothesis) and with Minoan Crete (because of isolated cultural
parallels such as the ubiquitous goddess worship and depictions of
bullleaping).[124] The mature (Harappan) phase of the IVC is
contemporary to the Early and Middle Bronze Age in the Ancient
Near East, in particular the Old Elamite period, Early Dynastic to Ur
III Mesopotamia, Prepalatial Minoan Crete and Old Kingdom to
First Intermediate Period Egypt.
After the discovery of the IVC in the 1920s, it was immediately
associated with the indigenous Dasyu inimical to the Rigvedic tribes
in numerous hymns of the Rigveda. Mortimer Wheeler interpreted
the presence of many unburied corpses found in the top levels of
MohenjoDaro as the victims of a warlike conquest, and famously Female figure, possibly a fertility
stated that "Indra stands accused" of the destruction of the IVC. The goddess, Harappan Phase, BCE.
association of the IVC with the citydwelling Dasyus remains 25001900
alluring because the assumed timeframe of the first IndoAryan
migration into India corresponds neatly with the period of decline of
the IVC seen in the archaeological record. The discovery of the advanced, urban IVC however changed the
19thcentury view of early IndoAryan migration as an "invasion" of an advanced culture at the expense of
a "primitive" aboriginal population to a gradual acculturation of nomadic "barbarians" on an advanced
urban civilisation, comparable to the Germanic migrations after the Fall of Rome, or the Kassite invasion of
Babylonia. This move away from simplistic "invasionist" scenarios parallels similar developments in
thinking about language transfer and population movement in general, such as in the case of the migration
of the protoGreek speakers into Greece, or the IndoEuropeanization of Western Europe.
It was often suggested that the bearers of the IVC corresponded to protoDravidians linguistically, the
breakup of protoDravidian corresponding to the breakup of the Late Harappan culture.[125] Today, the
Dravidian language family is concentrated mostly in southern India and northern and eastern Sri Lanka, but
pockets of it still remain throughout the rest of India and Pakistan (the Brahui language), which lends
credence to the theory. Finnish Indologist Asko Parpola concludes that the uniformity of the Indus
inscriptions precludes any possibility of widely different languages being used, and that an early form of
Dravidian language must have been the language of the Indus people. However, in an interview with the
Deccan Herald on 12 August 2012, Asko Parpola clarified his position by admitting that "Sanskrit has also
preserved a very important part of the Indus heritage" and that even Sangam Tamil had possible influences
of the Brahmins.[126]
ProtoMunda (or ParaMunda) and a "lost phylum" (perhaps related or ancestral to the Nihali language)[127]
have been proposed as other candidates for the language of the IVC. Michael Witzel suggests an
underlying, prefixing language that is similar to Austroasiatic, notably Khasi; he argues that the Rigveda
(composed by the IndoAryans after the decline of the Harappans) shows signs of this hypothetical
Harappan influence in the earliest historic level, and Dravidian only in later levels, suggesting that speakers
of Austroasiatic were the original inhabitants of Punjab and that the IndoAryans encountered speakers of
Dravidian only in later times.[32]
See also
List of Indus Valley Civilization sites
List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilization
Cradle of civilization
Bronze Age
Iron Age India
Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures
Notes
1. Masson: "A long march preceded our arrival at Haripah, through jangal of the closest description.... When I
joined the camp I found it in front of the village and ruinous brick castle. Behind us was a large circular mound,
or eminence, and to the west was an irregular rocky height, crowned with the remains of buildings, in fragments
of walls, with niches, after the eastern manner.... Tradition affirms the existence here of a city, so considerable
that it extended to Chicha Watni, thirteen cosses distant, and that it was destroyed by a particular visitation of
Providence, brought down by the lust and crimes of the sovereign."[33] Note that the coss, a measure of distance
used from Vedic period to Mughal times, is approximately 2 miles (3.2 km).
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External links
Harappa and Indus Valley Civilization at harappa.com
(http://www.harappa.com/) Wikivoyage has a travel
guide for Mohenjodaro.
An invitation to the Indus Civilization (Tokyo Metropolitan
Museum) (http://pubweb.cc.u
tokai.ac.jp/indus/english/index.html) Wikimedia Commons has
Cache of Seal Impressions Discovered in Western India media related to Indus
(http://www.upenn.edu/researchatpenn/article.php?674&soc) Valley Civilization.
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