Indian Pre history

The Prehistory means ‘before history’, it is used to denote both the times and the cultural
events before which man had invented writing of any form.
In Indian prehistory we have different phases they are Palaeolithic Age, Mesolithic Age,
Neolithic Age, and Chalcolithic Age. During these ages humans didn’t know how to write and lived in
very primitive stage. Also the human fossils are rarely available beyond 10000 BC. and therefore we
have to deduce their living style and culture from the artefacts they used (These artefacts are found
in various excavations and then studied by different experts). These artefacts generally contain the
tools, weapons, pottery, art/crafts and other relics which are largely made up of stones and this is
the reason why prehistoric cultures are known as lithic cultures.

Palaeolithic Age
It is also known as Old Stone Age. It covers a long period of time and has undergone many
climatic changes. According to the type of the stone tools used by these people this period has been
classified into three sub periods viz.
Lower Palaeolithic or Early Old Stone Age: 6,00,000 – 1,50,000 BC., This date are given to Bori
artefacts of Maharashtra as this site is considered to be the earliest Lower Palaeolithic site in India.
Middle Palaeolithic: 1,50,000-35,000 BC.
Upper Palaeolithic: 35,000 – 1,500 BC.

Lower Palaeolithic
It is the earliest period of human existence and continued from the end of the First Ice
Age (Gunz Glaciation) up to the end of Third Ice Age (Riss Glaciation). The climate during this phase
was very extreme and man had to struggle with the nature along with the wild animals. The Indian
Lower Palaeolithic culture can be better understood if we take survey of the sites from where the
tools are found and then taking a view of the possible usages of these tools and the techniques
employed in developing them. We will now geographically divide the sites to better understand
them.

North India: (Also known as Sohan culture)

Sites of this phase are found in valley of Son or Sohan River in Punjab, now in Pakistan.
Several sites are found in Kashmir and tools of this phase are also found in the Belan valley of UP.
The chief tools of this period as far as North is concerned are chopper and chopping tools
prepared on pebbles. Choppers are made by unifacial flaking while Chopping are made by bifacial
flacking. The flaking is mostly primary and the blow being delivered by block on block technique or
by stone hammer.
Tools Used by Lower Palaeolithic People

Central India:
The region consists of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Rajasthan. The banks of river Narmada is
the important tract along which sites are found. Important sites are as follows,
Bhimbhetka: This is a group of around 700 caves and about 40 Km north of river Narmada in Raisen
district of MP.
Adamgarh: it is a rock shelter a few kilometres south of river Narmda in Hoshangabad.
Nagari and Chittorgarh: Both are rich in artefacts and lie in Rajasthan.
Didwana: It is yet another important site in Rajasthan, and lie dry region.
This region exhibits a mixture of pebble tools of Chopper/Chopping variety and Hand Axes of
southern India.

South India: (Also Known as Madrasian culture)

This region comprises of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra.
Of these Kerala has so far not yielded any Lower Palaeolithic artefact.
Tamil Nadu: Attirampakkam and Vadamadurai on Kortalayar river near Madras.
Karnataka: Kibhanahalli, Malprabha and Ghatprabha basin, Anagwadi, Shorapur Doab.
Andhra Pradesh: Banks of Gundlokamma river in Kurnool district, Nagarjunkonda on river Krishna.
Maharashtra: Nasik, Navesa, Pune.

The south Indian sites majorly contain the hand axes and cleavers as a tool. Their precise
function is yet to be ascertained but some inferences can be made.
The chopper/chopping tools of north show that the Sohan people were simple food
gatherers and not warlike. And the Hand axes of the southern India were all purpose tools that could
have been used for hunting and digging roots. The raw material for these tools was mainly quartzite
and at some points jasper was also used. It can be said that Lower Palaeolithic people were nomadic
hunters and food gatherers and were organized in very small groups.
Middle Palaeolithic
 There are not much sites available for the study of this phase and the key sites remain
restricted to some regional pockets of India. The main region for the sites of this phase is in the
western and the southern India while there are some small sites in the north of India.
The most important feature of Middle Palaeolithic is the complete change of the raw material
in nearly 90% of the cases, as compared to Lower Palaeolithic from Quartzite to Chalcodemy, Chert
and Jasper. Many of the sites of this phase coincide with the sites Lower Palaeolithic phase and the
first site of Middle Palaeolithic was found in Maharashtra at place called Nevesa. The other sites are
as follows,
Karnataka: Sites are at Taminhal, Bagalkot and Anagwadi.
Andhra Pradesh: Sites are at Chittor, Kurnool, and Nalgonda.
Madhya Pradesh: Sites are at Bhimbetka caves, Gonchi, Damoh and Sihora.
Other small sites are found in Luni valley of Rajasthan, Kangra Valley of Punjab, Belan Valley of U.P

The tools of this phase are called flake tools as these very small and made out of flakes.
The tools used were Blades, Point, Borers, and Scrappers. In some quantities bifacial Hand axes and
chopper/chopping tools are also found. The tools on flake are in majority, and so the Middle
Palaeolithic phase has been called a Flake culture. The presence of many varieties of scrapers leads
us to infer that some of them may be used to scrape animal skin for clothing also.

Tools of Middle and Upper Palaeolithic Phase

Upper Palaeolithic
The presence of the Upper Palaeolithic phase in India has been doubtful until the tools of
this phase were discovered in many sites of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. There are total of 566
sites in India of Upper Palaeolithic phase. At this time of prehistory the climate was less humid, as it
was coinciding with the last phase of the ice age. The important sites of this phase are as follows,
Muchchatla Chintamanu Gavi, it is cave site in Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh. Here the bone
component of tool is about 90% and that of stone only 10%.
Renigunta, is a site on the banks of river Rallakalva in Chittor district of Andhra Pradesh. Here blades
and burins form the largest group of tools and are made of fine grained olive green quartzite.
Bhimbetka caves, is a cave site containing around 700 caves and rock shelters in Raisen district of
Madhya Pradesh.
Bellan Valley, is a site in Uttar Pradesh.
Baghor II, is a site on the Son river in Uttar Pradesh.
In the Upper Palaeolithic phase the new tools like blades and burins were formed.

Art in the Palaeolithic Age

There are not enough evidences available of the art works of these people and the earliest
form of art by humans also belongs to Upper Palaeolithic period in the form of rock paintings. The
caves of Bhimbetka have some of the rock paintings of this phase. The subjects of the painting were
different birds, animals, and human beings. The purpose of the painting is still not clear as they
didn’t have much of the time left for painting owing to their nomadic life. But still an opinion could
be made that these people depicted various wild animals to ensure control over them, as they
needed to hunt them for their survival.

The society in Palaeolithic Age

In those times climate was very harsh and food availability was scare. The food was
needed to be hunted or gathered through much of hard work, so the society in those times tended
to be small. Specifically they were small groups of around 25 people who used to roam around for
food. Their prime occupation was hunting and food gathering and the produce was distributed
equally among all the members of the group.

Importance of this Phase

A major climatic change occurred during this phase and these people adjusted to this
change in very good manner and survived against the natural odds. Since then not much changes
have occurred in the climate and so it was not difficult for the later people to make progress. The
progress in tool design and raw materials used was remarkable. The mode of communication was
improved because of the use of language and this facilitated a smooth working of the small society.
In this phase fire was also discovered which protected them from the wild animals and from the cold
climate and helped them to sustain their lives.

Limitations of this Phase

The majority of the tools were made from the stones and therefore they were required
to live near the rocks and mountains for the raw material. So they had limited availability of food
and other resources as they needed to be near the mountains. They lived a nomadic life which
couldn’t result in a better organized society and so the division of labour was practically lacking. They
would live in the caves and rock shelter which were riddled with dangers of life. All this made their
life span a bit shorter compared to the later people.
 Mesolithic Age (9,000 BC. - 4,000 BC.)

Around 10,000 BC. a transitory phase in the stone age culture begun, this phase is known as
Mesolithic Age. At this point of time the last ice age came to an end and the climate became warm
and rainy. This resulted in the growth of new flora and fauna. The forests and bushes had a
tremendous growth of impassable undergrowth and the big animals gave place to the smaller and
faster animals. All this led to new challenges for these people as they had to get through these dense
forests to gather food and had to hunt new fast animals. And thus they invented new tools
(Microliths) and new techniques to overcome these challenges. Their new ways of living and hunting
can be understood by the sites found in different regions, some of these sites are mentioned below

Bagor, is a site situated on the banks of river Kothari near Bhilawara, Rajasthan. The Microliths found
here are the tiniest ones in India and majority of them are of length around 1.5-2 cm.

Tilwara, is a site in Rajasthan forming the western most limit of the Mesolithic Age in India.

Langhnaj, is a site on the western banks of river Sabarmati in Gujarat.

Sarai Nahar Rai, is a site situated in Uttar Pradesh.

Birbhanpur, is a site on river Damodar in West Bengal.

Bhimbetka caves, is a cave site containing around 700 caves and rock shelters in Raisen district of
Madhya Pradesh.

Tinneyvellly or Teri is a site along Tambrapani river in Tinneyvelly district of Tamil Nadu.

Sangankallu, is a site situated in Karnataka.

The characteristic feature of Mesolithic Age is the nature of the tools which were small in
dimensions. These were 2-6 cm. in length and 0.5-1.5cm. in breadth. These tools were mostly fitted
into wood, bone or jaws of large animals and were used as compound tools. These tools can be
divided into two broad categories on the basis of their shape, 1.Geometric 2.Non- Geometric. It is
opined that geometric tools denote an advanced stage of tool making in this age.

Main tools of this period are:

1. Trapeze
2. Lunate or Crescent
3. Retouched blade
4. Obliquely blunted blade or pen knife
5. Flake-points
6. Triangle – scalene
7. Microburin

Tools from the Mesolithic Age

Art in Mesolithic Age

 The caves of Bhimbetka have many rock paintings of this phase. The subjects of the
painting were different birds, animals, and human beings and most of the animals and birds are the
one which are hunted. Perching birds that live on the grains do not figure in the earliest group of
paintings as people from this age were largely hunters and food gathers.

Society in Mesolithic Age

The people from Mesolithic Age lived on hunting, fishing, and food gathering (honey and
wild seed collection) and at a later stage they started domesticating animals. Bands were formed for
the hunting, which generally not had people more than 25. There could have been a form of alliance
between various bands for mutual aid and there might have been enmity among various bands. This
eventually led band turning into an exogamous group which was called clan in Neolithic age. This
gives a picture that partial sedentary life, as well as feud and warfare might have become the part of
their culture.

Importance of Mesolithic Age

Mesolithic people adjusted well towards the abrupt changes in climate and made a great
stride towards tackling the new challenges. They developed new tools (Microliths) to deal with
challenges of hunting. They are pioneers in the field of domestication of the animals. They are also
the first people to start the cultivation. All this led towards a more sedentary life and made a base
for further evolution of society which we witness in Neolithic Age.

Limitations of Mesolithic Age

Mesolithic people used to produce only for their subsistence and not for other purposes.
Society was not much evolved and existed in Band group form.

Neolithic Age ( 5000 BC. – 1000 BC.)

The Neolithic Age means New Stone Age. It is a period in the history in which man finally
altered his relationship with nature, from being dependent on the nature for survival to its
exploiters. Here he started producing cereals and other grains, domesticated cattle, adopted more
sedentary life style. Neolithic people invented pottery, weaving and developed permanent house
construction. On basis of technological developments a Neolithic site is characterized by the
presence of the following

a. Celts ( polished and ground tools collectively called Celts)( They are a kind of axes)
b. Pit dwelling
c. Pottery

The Neolithic sites are divided into 3 zones based on the types of axes used by the settlers, these are

1. North-Western, it is distinguished by the use of rectangular axes with curved cutting edges.
2. North-Eastern, it is distinguished by the use of polished stone axes with rectangular butt and
occasional shoulder hoes
 3. Southern, it is distinguished by the use of the axes with oval sides and pointed butt.

We will see the sites of each zone now.

North-Western Zone:
Burzahom, is a site in Jhelum Valley near Srinagar. These people used coarse grey pottery and
domestic dogs were buried with their masters in their graves.

Gulfkral, is also a site in Jhelum Valley near Srinagar. They practised both agriculture and animal
husbandry.

Martand, is yet another site located in Jhelum Valley.

North-Eastern Zone:
Deojali, Hadling are the sites located in the North Cachar Hills of Assam

Chirand, is a site located at the confluence of the Ghaghra and Ganga river near Chapra in Bihar.
Chirand is not a hill like other sites, it is an alluvial plain. A peculiarity of Chirand is the presence of
terracotta figurines of birds, bulls and snakes.

Koldihwa, is site near Allahabad and famous for its oldest remains of Rice.

Southern Zone:
People here settled on the tops of the granite hills or on the plateaus near the river banks. South
India has the largest number of Neolithic settlements because of the easy availability of the stone.

Tekkalakota, is a site situated in the Bellary district of Karnataka. This site is atop a granite hill.The
other sites inn Karnataka are Maski, Brahamgiri, Hallur, Kodekal, Piklihal.

Paiyampalli is a site in Tamil Nadu.

Utnur is a site in Andhra Pradesh.

The tools found from these sites are of various shapes and sizes. Axes, Adzes, Chisels,
Querns, Mace head or Ring Stones, Wedges, Hoe, Pick are the different tools which were made up of
dolerite or sand-stone. The bone and antlers also were used to make harpoons, arrowhead,
scrapers, needle with eye and points.

The mace heads/ ring stones were used to till the ground and seeds were sown into ground.
Neolithic people followed slash and burn type of cultivations as evident from the site of Piklihal.
Stone querns were then used for the grinding of grains. Some important crops grown by them were
wheat, barley, and corn. They also domesticated cattle, sheep, goats etc. Neolithic people were the
first to have a relatively permanent residence. They used live in the natural pits, here they lived on
the floor of the pit and covered the mouth of the pit with thatched covering resting on post-holes.
These people had also made advances in the field of pottery too. The potsherds show a gradual
evolution from hand-made unfired variety to wheel-made and fired one. Pots were used for storing
food grains, for cooking,
eating and drinking.

Tools Of Neolithic Age

Tools Of Neolithic Age

Importance of Neolithic Age

These people laid the foundation for the civilizations to prosper. They developed the techniques of
cultivation, weaving, pot-making, house building, stock raising, writing and etc. The development of
these techniques created a tremendous change in mode of subsistence. Now the Neolithic people
no longer depended only on hunting, fishing, and gathering, they had cultivation and cattle
husbandry providing them with food.
Limitations of the Neolithic Age

As most of the tools of these people were made up of stones, they could not find
settlements far away from the hilly areas. They were also not able to produce more than what was
needed for their subsistence.
 Chalcolithic Age(2800 BC.-700 BC.)
Chalcolithic Age means the copper stone phase. Copper was the first metal to be used by
the humans. Chalcolithic people mostly used stone and copper objects, but at sometimes they also
used the bronze and iron objects too. They lived in the hilly lands and along the rivers and were
primarily a rural in composition. The sites of the chalcolithic culture are discovered almost all over
India, except the alluvial plains and thickly forested areas. The regions around which sites of this
culture are found are as follows,

South-eastern Rajasthan: Here two sites are very important one is Ahar and other is Gilund. They
both lie in the dry zones of Banas Valley. The people of Ahar practised smelting and metallurgy and
the original name of Ahar is Tambavati or a place that has copper. Also a mention may be made of
Amri and Kot Diji in Sindh; Kalibagnan and Ganeshwar in Rajasthan. In Ganeshawar we find the
Ochre- Coloured Pottery (OCP) which is a red slipped ware often painted in black and largely in vase
forms.

Western Madhya Pradesh: Here sites such as Malwa, Kayatha and Eran have been excavated.

Western Maharashtra: This region had witnessed the most extensive excavations and several
important sites lie in this region. Sites such as Jorwe, Nevesa, Daimabad, in Ahmadnagar district;
Chandoli, Songaon and Inamgaon in Pune district; Nasik and Navdatoli on Narmada river have been
excavated.

Eastern India: Here several chalcolitihic sites can be found in the Vindhyan region of Allahabad
district, Chirand situated on river Ganges, Pandu Rajar Dhibiand and Mahishdal in West Bengal.
Some other sites have also been found in Sonpur and Taradih of Bihar.

The chalcolithic people used tiny tools and weapons made of stone. Flat, rectangular
copper axes have found in Jorwe and copper chisels in Chandoli of Maharashtra. The Ganeshwar
excavations have revealed these copper objects arrowheads, spearhead, fish hooks, colts etc. there
are also many Microloths found which belong to chalcolithic culture. Chalcolithic people used
different types of pottery, one of which is called black-and-red which was widely prevalent.

They domesticated animals and reared cows, sheep, goats, pigs and buffaloes and hunted
deer. They were also acquainted with the camels, but their knowledge about horse is eluding. They
practised agriculture and produced wheat, rice, bajra. They also produced pulses such as lentil, black
gram, green gram, and grass pea. On the black cotton soil of Deccan cotton was produced along with
rai, bajra and other millets. They also consumed beef and pork.

Art in Chalcolithic Age

They were expert coppersmith and skilful workers in stone. Tools, weapons, and bangles
of copper have been unearthed. They manufactured beads of semiprecious stones such as carnelian,
steatite, and quartz crystal. These people knew the art of spinning and weaving (this could be
inferred from discovery of spindle whorls in Malwa). Inamagaon in Maharashtra had potters, smiths,
ivory cravers, lime makers, and terracotta artisans.
Society in Chalcolithic Age
The chalcolithic society was the first in human history to show stratification. The settlement
pattern and burial practices suggest the social inequalities. This is seen in Jorwe settlements, where
some house are as large as twenty hectares and others only of five haters and even less. This implies
two-tier habitations. These people also started worshiping and this is substantiated by the findings
of Terracotta figures of women, which is supposed to be venerated as mother goddess. In Malwa
and Rajasthan, the findings of stylized bull terracotta figures show that the bull was the symbol of a
religious cult.

The Chalcolithic cultures in central and western India disappeared by 1200 BC., only Jorwe
culture continued until 700 BC. The major reason for the decline of this culture in Western India and
western MP was due to the decline of the rainfall. And in the other areas this culture was
superseded by the Iron Age.

Importance of Chalcolithic Age

They were the first people to know about the copper smelting and metallurgy, this knowledge
was later used to make bronze and purify other metals such as iron. Almost all of them used wheel
turned black and red pots, they were the first to use painted pottery. They were the first to build
first large village on peninsular India and cultivated far more cereals than were known to the
Neolithic communities.

Limitations of Chalcolithic Cultures

The chalcolithic people were not able to make full use of animals they domesticated as they
slaughtered them for food and didn’t use them to get milk and dairy products from them. They
didn’t practise cultivation on large and intensive scale, instead they used slash and burn type of
cultivation. There was a physical weakens prevailing among these people which is evident from the
large burials of children in western Maharashtra. They despite being the food producing economy
the rate of infant mortality were very high.

The chalcolithic culture inherently was of rural background. They were not acquainted with burnt
bricks and they used mud bricks for contractions and at times stones were also used. They were
unaware of the art of mixing tin with copper to form bronze.