Mathematics Notes: Class 9th (2016) Page No.

Chapter No. 1: Matrices and Determinants (xii) Identity Matrix: A scalar matrix is called identity (unit) matrix, if all
⍟The idea of matrices was given by Arthur Cayley, an English 1 0 0 
mathematician of nineteenth century, who first developed, ―Theory of diagonal entries are 1. It is denoted by I. 0 1 0  , 1 0 
Matrices‖ in 1858. 0 0 1  0 1 
Matrix: A rectangular array or a formation of a collection of real Note:
(i) A scalar identity matrix is a diagonal matrices.
numbers, say 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 7, such as 1 3 4 and then enclosed (ii) A diagonal matrix may not be a scalar / identity matrix.
7 2 0
by brackets ‘[ ]‘ is said to form a matrix. (a) Commutative Law under Addition: If A and B are two matrices of
Rows: In matrix A, the entries presented in the same order, then A + B = B + A is called commutative law under
horizontal way are called rows. In matrix A, addition.
there are three rows as shown by R1, R2 and (b) Associative Law under Addition: If A, B and C are three matrices
R3 of the matrix A. of same order, then
Columns: In matrix B, all the entries presented in (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) is called associative law under addition.
vertical way are called columns of the matrix B. In Additive Identity of a Matrix
matrix B, there are three columns as shown by C1, If A and B are two matrices of same order and
C2 and C3. A + B = A = B + A, then matrix B is called additive identity of matrix A.
Order of a Matrix: The number of rows and columns in a matrix Additive Inverse of a Matrix
specifies its order. If a matrix M has m rows and n columns, then M is If A and B are two matrices of same order such that A+B=O=B+A, then
said to be of order m-by-n. For example, A and B are called additive inverses of each other.
Equal Matrices: Two matrices A and B be equal (A = B), if and only if; Multiplication of Matrices: Two matrices A and B are conformable for
(i) the order of A = the order of B multiplication, if the number of columns of A is equal to the number of
(ii) their corresponding entries are equal. rows of B.
1.2 Types of Matrices Associative Law under Multiplication
(i) Row Matrix: A matrix is called a row matrix, if it has only one row. If A, B and C are three matrices conformable for multiplication then
e.g., the matrix M = [2 –1 7] associative law under multiplication is given as (AB)C = A(BC)
(ii) Column Matrix: A matrix is called a column matrix, if it has only one Distributive Laws of Multiplication over Addition and Subtraction
(a) Let A, B and C be three matrices. Then distributive laws of
1 
column. e.g., M = 9  multiplication over addition are given below:
 5  (i) A(B + C) = AB + AC (Left distributive law)
(ii) (A + B)C = AC + BC (Right distributive law)
(iii) Rectangular Matrix: A matrix is called rectangular, if the number of
(b) Similarly the distributive laws of multiplication over subtraction are as
rows of is not equal to the number of its columns. e.g.,
follow.
1 2  (i) A(B - C) = AB -AC (ii) (A - B)C = AC - BC
1 2 3 and 3 4 
 4 5 6 23 5 6  32 Multiplicative Identity of a Matrix: Let A be a matrix. Another matrix B
is called the identity matrix of A under multiplication if AB = A = BA
(iv) Square Matrix: A matrix is called a square matrix, if its number of
Determinant of Matrix: If A = [ ] then determinant of A will be
rows is equal to its number of columns. 511 ,  a b 
 c d  22
(v) Null or Zero Matrix: A matrix is called a null or zero matrix, if each equal to det. A = |A| and |A| = a×c – b×d
Singular and Non-Singular Matrix: A square matrix A is called
of its entries is 0. e.g.  0 , 0 , 0 0 singular, if the determinant of A is equal to zero. i.e., |A|= 0.
0 0 0
A square matrix A is called non-singular, if the determinant of A is not
(vi) Transpose of a Matrix
equal to zero. i.e., |A| ≠ 0.
A matrix obtained by changing the rows into columns or columns into
Adjoint of a Matrix: Adjoint of a square matrix A = [ ] is obtained
rows of a matrix is called transpose of that matrix. If A= 1 2  is a
3 4  by interchanging the diagonal entries and changing the signs of other
1 3  . entries. Adjoint of matrix A is denoted as Adj A.
matrix, then its transpose is denoted by
 2 4  Adj A =[ ]
(vii) Negative of a Matrix:
Chapter No. 2: Real and Complex Numbers
Let A be a matrix. Then its negative, –A is obtained by changing the
signs of all the entries of A, i.e., Natural Numbers:
The numbers 1, 2, 3, ... which we use for counting certain
objects are called natural numbers or positive integers. The set of
natural numbers = N = {1,2,3,. . . . . .}
Whole Numbers:
(viii) Symmetric Matrix: A square matrix A is symmetric, if At = A. If If we include 0 in the set of natural number, set of whole
M= 13 42 then 1 3 
 2 4 
numbers, denoted by W, W = {0,1,2,3,. . . . .}
  Integers:
(ix) Skew-Symmetric Matrix: A square matrix A is said to be skew- The set of integers consist of positive integers, 0 and negative
symmetric, if At = –A. integers and is denoted by Z i.e.,
 0 2 3  0 2 3 Z = { ..., –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ... }
If B=  2 0 1  then  2 0 1 = Rational Numbers:
 3 1 0   3 1 0  All numbers of the form where p, q are integers and q is not
(x) Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix A is called a diagonal matrix if at zero are called rational numbers. The set of rational numbers is,
least any one of the entries of its diagonal is not zero and non-diagonal
Q = { | p,q∈Z∧q≠0}
1 0 0 
entries are zero. 0 2 0  , 1 0  Irrational Numbers:
0 0 3 0 4  The numbers which cannot be expressed as quotient of
(xi) Scalar Matrix: A diagonal matrix is called a scalar matrix, if all the integers are called irrational numbers. The set of irrational numbers is
denoted by Q'.
k 0 0 
diagonal entries are same  0 k 0  ,  3 0 (a) Rational Numbers:
 0 0 k  0 3

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Mathematics Notes: Class 9th (2016) Page No. 2

The decimal representations of rational numbers are of two (a) a  b  a  c  b  c (b) a  b  a  c  b  c

types, terminating and recurring. (a) a  b  c  a  c  b (b) a  b  c  a  c  b
(i) Terminating Decimal Fractions (iv) Multiplicative Property:
The decimal fraction in which there are finite numbers of digits
(a) a, b, c  R ‫ اور‬c  0 (b) a, b, c  R ‫ اور‬c  0
in its decimal part is called a terminating decimal fraction.
2 3 (i) a  b  ac  bc (i) a  b  ac  bc
For example  0.4, and  0.375 (b) a  b  ca  cb (b) a  b  ca  cb
5 8
(ii) a  b  ac  bc (ii) a  b  ac  bc
(ii) Recurring and Non-terminating Decimal Fractions:
(b) a  b  ca  cb (b) a  b  ca  cb
The decimal fraction (non-terminating) in which some digits
are repeated again and again in the same order in its decimal part is (v) Multiplicative Inverse Property:
called a recurring decimal fraction. a, b  R  a  0, b  0
2 4 1 1 1 1
For example  0.2222... and  0.3636... (a) a  b   (b) a  b  
9 11 a b a b
(b) Irrational Numbers: It may be noted that the decimal Concept of Radicals and Radicands
representations for irrational numbers are neither terminating nor If n is a positive integer greater than 1 and a is a real number, then any
repeating in blocks. The decimal form of an irrational number would real number x such that xn = a is called the nth root of a, and in symbols
continue forever and never begin to repeat the same block of digits. 1
is written as x  n a or x  (a) n
2  1.414213562... ,   3.141592654... and e  2.718281829... .
Properties of Real Numbers In the radical n a the symbol is called the radical sign, n is called
(i) Closure Property: a  b  R, a, b  R , if 3,5  R then the index of the radical and the real number a under the radical sign is
3  5  2  R . called the radicand or base.
Laws of Exponents / Indices:
(ii) Commutative Property: a  b  b  a, a, b  R , if 2,3  R
then 2  3  3  2  5  R . (i) am an  am n
(iii) Associative Property: (a  b)  c  a  (b  c), a, b, c  R , if (ii) (a m )n  a mn
5,7,3  R then (5  7)  3  5  (7  3)  15  R .
(iii) (ab)n  a nbn
(iv) Additive Identity: There exists a unique real number 0, called n

(iv)    n ,
additive identity, such that a  0  a  0  a, a  R a an
b0
(v) Additive Inverse b b
For every a d R, there exists a unique real number –a , called the a m

additive inverse of a, such that (v) n  bm  n , wherem  n, a0

b
a + (–a) = 0 = (–a) + a. e.g., additive inverse of 3 is –3 since 3 + (–3) = 0
= (-3) + (3) (vi) a0  1, where a0
Properties of real numbers under multiplication are as follows: 1
(i) Closure Property: ab  R, a, b  R , if 3,5  R then (vii) a  n  where a  0
an
3  5  15  R . Complex Numbers: A number of the form z = a + bi where a and b are
(ii) Commutative Property: ab  ba, a, b  R , if 2,3  R then real numbers and i √ is called a complex number and is
2  3  3 2  6  R . represented by
(i) Associative Property: (ab)c  a(bc), a, b, c  R , if z i.e., z = a + ib
5,7,3  R then (5  7)  3  5  (7  3)  105  R . Conjugate of a Complex Number: If we change i to –i in z = a + bi, we
obtain another complex number a – bi called the complex conjugate of z
(ii) Multiplicative Identity: There exists a unique real number 1, called and is denoted by z (read z bar).
the multiplicative identity, such that a 1  a  1 a, a  R The numbers a + bi and a – bi are called conjugates of each other.
(iii) Multiplicative Inverse: For every non-zero real number, there Chapter No. 3: Logarithms
1 Scientific Notation:
exists a unique real number a-1 or called multiplicative inverse of a,
a A number written in the form a × 10n, where 1 ≤ a ≤ 10 and n is an
such that aa-1 = I = a-1a integer, is called the scientific notation.
Multiplication is Distributive over Addition and Subtraction: For all Logarithm of a Real Number:
a, b, c d ∈ R The relations ax = y and logay = x are equivalent. When one relation is
a(b + c) = ab + ac (Left distributive law) given, it can be converted into the other. Thus ax = y ⇔ logay = x
(a + b)c = ac + bc (Right distributive law) Characteristics:
(b) Properties of Equality of Real Numbers The integral part of the common logarithm of a number is called the
(i) Reflexive Property: a  a, a  R Mantissa:
(ii) Symmetric Property: a  b  b  a, a, b  R The decimal part of the common logarithm of a number is called
(iii) Transitive Property: a  b, b  c  a  c, a, b, c  R Mantissa.
Common logarithm: if the base of logarithm is always taken as 10.
(iv) Additive Property: a  b  a  c  b  c, a, b, c  R These logarithms are called common logarithms or Briggesian
(v) Multiplicative Property: a  b  ac  bc, a, b, c  R logarithm.
(vi) Cancellation Property for Addition: Natural logarithm: if the base of logrithm is taken as e then it is known
a  c  b  c  a  b, a, b, c  R as natural or Naperian logarithm.
(vii) Cancellation Property for Multiplication: Anti-logarithm: The number whose logarithm is given is called
ac  bc  a  b, a, b, c  R antilogarithm.
Laws of Logarithm:
(c) Properties of Inequalities of Real Numbers
(i) loga(mn) = logam + logan
(i) Trichotomy Property: if a, b  R then a>b or a=b or a<b.
m
(ii) log a 
(ii) Transitive Property: a, b, c  R  = log a m -log a n
(a) a  b  b  c  a  c n
(iii) loga(mn) = nlogam
(b) a  b  b  c  a  c
(iii) Additive Property: a, b, c  R (iv)

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Mathematics Notes: Class 9th (2016) Page No. 3

Chapter No. 4: Algebraic Expressions and Algebraic Formulas Least Common Multiple (L.C.M): The Least Common Multiple (L.C.M)
Algebraic Expressions: When operations of addition and subtraction is the product of common factors together with non-common factors of
are applied to algebraic terms we obtain an algebraic expression. For the given expressions.
2 3 Finding H.C.F: We can find H.C.F of given expressions by the following
instance, 5 x 2  3x  and 3xy  ( x  0) are algebraic two methods.
x x (i) By Factorization (ii) By division
expressions. ⍟Working Rule to find L.C.M. of given Algebraic Expression:
Polynomials: (i) Factorize the given expressions completely i.e., to simplest form
A polynomial in the variable x is an algebraic expression of the (ii) Then the L.C.M. is obtained by taking the product of each factor
form appearing in any of the given expressions, raised to the highest power
P( x)  an x n  an 1 x n 1  an 2 x n  2  ...  a2 x 2  a1 x1  a0 with which that factor appears.
Where n¸ the highest power of x, is a non-negative integer Note:
called the degree of the polynomial and each coefficient an is a real p ( x)  q ( x) p ( x)  q ( x)
number. (1) L.C.M = or H.C.F =
H.C.F L.C.M
p( x)
Rational Expression: The quotient of two polynomials p( x) (2) If L.C.M, H.C.F and one of p( x) or q( x) are known, then
q( x)
L.C.M  H.C.F L.C.M  H.C.F
and q( x) , where q( x) a non-zero polynomial is, is called a rational p( x )  q( x ) 
q( x ) p( x )
expression.
Square Root of Algebraic Expression: The square root of a given
2 x 1
For example, expression p( x) as another expression q( x) such that q( x) .
3x  8 q( x) = p( x) .As 5×5 = 25, so square root of 25 is 5
Value of Algebraic Expression
If specific numbers are substituted for the variables in an Chapter No. 7: Linear Equation and Inequalities
algebraic expression, the resulting number is called the value of the Linear Equations:
expression. A linear equation in one unknown variable x is a first degree
Surd: An irrational radical with rational radicand is called a surd. Hence equation of the form ax + b = 0, where a,b R and a  0.
n A solution to a linear equation is any replacement or
the radical a is a surd if substitution for the variable x that makes the statement true. Two linear
(i) a is rational (ii) the result
n
a is irrational. equations are said to be equivalent if they have exactly the same
solution.
3 4
e.g., 3, 2 / 5, 7, 10 are surds. Radical equation :
When the variable in an equation occurs under a radical, the
But  is not surd because  is not rational.
equation is called a radical equation.
Note: Every surd is an irrational number but every irrational number
⍟Extraneous solutions: The procedure to solve a radical equation is
is not surd
to eliminate the radical by raising each side to a power equal to the
Chapter No.5: Factorization index of the radical. When raising each side of the equation to a certain
Factorization: If a polynomial can be expressed as the multiple factors power may produce a nonequivalent equation that has more solutions
is called factorization. than the original equation. These additional solutions are called
Multiple Factors: If a polynomial p(x) can be expressed as p(x) = g(x) h extraneous solutions.
(x), then each of the polynomials g(x) and h(x) is called a factor of p(x). Definition of Absolute value:
The process of finding the factors is called factorization. The absolute value of a real number ‗a‘ denoted by |a|, is
Remainder Theorem: If a polynomial p(x) is divided by a linear divisor defined as
( x  a) , then the remainder is p(a).
Zero of a polynomial: If a specific number x  a is substituted for a
variable x in a polynomial p( x) so that the value p(a) is zero, then
|a| =  a,
 a,
if a  0
if a  0 
e.g., |6| = 6, |0| = 0 and |6| = (6) = 6
x  a is called a zero of the polynomial p( x) . Some properties of Absolute Value: If a, b  R, then
Factor Theorem: The polynomial ( x  a) is a factor of the (i) |a|  0
(ii) |a| = |a|
polynomial p( x) if and only if p(a)  0 . (iii) |ab| = |a|. |b|
Now if p(a)  0, then p( x)  ( x  a)q( x) a |a|
(iv)  , b 0
i.e., ( x  a) is a factor of p( x) b |b|
(ii) Conversely, if ( x  a) is a factor of p( x) , then the remainder ⍟Comparability is of primary importance in many applications. We may
upon dividing p( x) by ( x  a) must be zero i.e., p(a) = 0. compare prices, heights, weights, temperatures, distances, costs of
manufacturing, distances, time etc.
Linear Equation: An equation which has degree of variable not more The inequality symbols < and > were introduced by an English
than one. e.g., ax+b=0 mathematician Thomas Harriot (1560 — 1621).
Types of Equations: Definition of inequality When algebraic expression contains any
1. Universal or Identity: An equation that is satisfied by every number inequality sign (<,>,≤,≥), then it is said to be inequality. ax2+bx>c
for which both sides are defined e.g., x+3 = 3+x
Chapter No. 8: Linear Graphs & their Application
2. Conditional Equation: An equation that is satisfied by every number
for which at least one number but is not an identity e.g., 2x+1=9 An Ordered Pair of Real Numbers
3. Inconsistent Equation: An equation whose solution set is the empty An ordered pair of real numbers x and y is pair (x, y) in which elements
set e.g., x = x+5, because no value of x satisfies it. are written in specific order. i.e.,
(i) (x,y) is an ordered pair in which first element is x and second is y
Chapter No. 6: Algebraic Manipulation
such that (x, y)  (y, x) for example:
Highest Common Factor (H.C.F): If two or more algebraic expressions (2, 3) and (3, 2) are two different ordered pairs.
are given then their common factor of highest power is called the H.C.F (ii) (x, y) = (m, n) if and only if x = m and y = n.
p ( x)  q ( x) Cartesian plane: If in a plane two mutually perpendicular straight lines
of the expressions. H.C.F =
L.C.M are drawn. The lines are called the coordinate axes. The point O, where

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Mathematics Notes: Class 9th (2016) Page No. 4

the two lines meet is called origin. This plane is called the coordinate Chapter No. 10: Congruent Triangles
plane or the Cartesian plane. Congruency of Triangle: Two A D

Abscissa and Ordinate: The x-coordinate of any point (x,y) is called triangles are said to be congruent
abscissa and its y-coordinate is called Ordinate. written symbolically as, ≅, if there
The formula relating degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius is exists a correspondence between
B C E F

9 them such that all corresponding sides and angles are congruent i.e.,
F  C  32
5  AB  DE  A  D

Chapter No. 9: Introduction to Coordinate Geometry if  BC  EF and  B  E then △ABC≅△DEF
⍟Coordinate Geometry:  CA  FD C  F

The study of geometrical shapes in a plane is called plane S.A.S Postulate: In any correspondence of two triangles, if two sides
geometry. Coordinate geometry is the study of geometrical shapes in and their included angle of one triangle are congruent to the
the Cartesian plane (coordinate plane). corresponding two sides and their included angle of the other, then the
Distance Formula: Let P( x1, y1 ) and Q( x2 , y2 ) be two points in triangles are congruent.
the coordinate plane where d is the length of the line segment PQ. i.e. In  ABC   DEF, shown in the following figure.

|PQ| = d. d  | x2  x1 |  | y2  y1 | since d > 0 always.

2 2 AB  DE A D

If A  D
Collinear or Non-collinear Points in the Plane:
AC  DF
Two or more than two points which lie on the same straight B C E F
line are called collinear points with respect to that line; otherwise they
are called non-collinear. Then ABC  ADEF (S.A.S. Postulate)
R In any correspondence of two triangles, if one side and any two angles
m of one triangle are congruent to the corresponding, side and angles of
P Q
the other, then the triangles are congruent.
Use of Distance Formula to show the Collinearity of Three or more
In any correspondence of two triangles, if one side and any two angles
Points in the Plane: Let P, Q and R be three points in the plane. They of one triangle are congruent to the correspondence side and angles of
are called collinear If |PQ| + |QR| = |PR|, otherwise they are non-
the other, then the triangles are congruent. (S.A.A  S.A.A.)
collinear.
In a correspondence of two triangles, if three sides of one triangle are
Definition of Triangle: A three sided closed figure in a plane obtained
congruent to the corresponding three sides of the other, then the two
by joining three non-collinear points is called a triangle.
Kinds of Triangle: There are six types of triangles. triangles are congruent. (S.S.S.  S.S.S.)
If in the correspondence of the two right-angled triangles, the
With respect to Sides With respect to Angels
(i) Equilateral triangle (i) Right angled triangle hypotenuse and one side of one triangle are congruent to the
(ii) Isosceles triangle (ii) Acute angled triangle hypotenuse and the corresponding side of the other, then the triangles
(iii) Scalene triangle (iii) Obtuse angled triangle are congruent. (H.S  H.S)
Chapter No. 11: Parallelograms and Triangles

Equilateral Triangle: In which lengths of all the Supplementary angles: If the sum of the angles of
three sides of a triangle are same one side of line is 180o.
Isosceles Triangle: A triangle which has two of such that mA + mB = 180o.
its sides with equal length while the third side has Complementary angles: If the sum of the two
a different length. angles with common arm is 90o the angles are said
to be complementary angles.
Scalene Triangle: A triangle in which measures
of all the three sides are different. Medians of a triangle: The medians of a triangle are concurrent and
their point of concurrency is the point of trisection of each median.
Right Angle Triangle: A triangle in which one of ⍟Trapezium: A quadrilateral which has two
the angle is 90o non-parallel sides and two parallel sides; non
parallel sides equal in length while parallel sides
Square: A square is a closed figure in the plane are different in lengths.
formed by four non – collinear points such that
lengths of all sides are equal and measure of ⍟Rhombus: Any parallelogram which has all
each angle is 90o. four sides equal in length.
Rectangle: A four sides closed figure formed in a
plane by four non-collinear points is called
rectangle if its opposite sides are equal in length Chapter No. 12: Line Bisectors and Angle Bisectors
the angle at each vertex is of measure 90o. Right Bisector of a Line Segment: 
Parallelogram: A four sided closed figure formed A line ℓ is called a right bisector of a line
by four non-collinear points in the plane is called segment if ℓ is perpendicular to the line B
a parallelogram if segment and passes through its mid-point.
A

(i) its opposite sides are of equal length

(ii) its opposite sides are parallel ⍟ A line segment has two end points while ray
(iii) measure of none of the angles is 90o has one end point.
Mid-Point: Recognition of the Mid-Point Formula for any two Points in Bisect: bisect means divide into two equal parts.
the Plane: Bisector of an Angle: A ray BP is called the bisector of ABC if P is a
Let P1 ( x1 , y1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 ) be any two points in the plane and point in the interior of the angle and ABP = PBC.
R( x, y) be a mid-point of points P1 and P2 on the line-segment
x x y y
P1P2 Thus the point R( x, y) = R  1 2 , 1 2 
 2 2  Acute angle triangle: if all the angles of a triangle are less than .

Ali Usman (SST Science) 0311 – 7791228 Govt. High School, Chiniot
Mathematics Notes: Class 9th (2016) Page No. 5

Obtuse angle triangle: if one of the angles of triangle is greater relationship in the form of a theorem called ‗Pythagoras Theorem‘ after
than . his name.
Right angle triangle: if one angle of a triangle is equal to . Pythagoras Theorem: In a right angled triangle, the square of the
length of hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of
the other two sides.
In right triangle ABC; | | | | | | where ∠ACB=
Right angle triangle Obtuse angle triangle Acute angle triangle Converse of Pythagoras’ Theorem: If the square of one side of a
Note: triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides then
⍟ The right bisectors of the sides of an acute triangle intersect each the triangle is a right angled triangle.
other inside the triangle. Corollary: Let c be the longest of the sides a, b and c of a triangle.
⍟ The right bisectors of the sides of a right triangle intersect each other If a2 +b2 =c2, then the triangle is right.
on the hypotenuse. If a2 + b2 > c2, then the triangle is acute.
⍟ The right bisectors of the sides of an obtuse triangle intersect each If a2 + b2 < c2, then the triangle is obtuse
other outside the triangle. Chapter No. 16: Theorems Related with Area
Chapter No. 13: Sides and Angles of a Triangle Area of a Figure: The region enclosed by the bounding lines of a
⍟If two sides of a triangle are unequal in length, the longer side has an closed figure is called the area of the figure. The area of a closed region
angle of greater measure opposite to it. is expressed in square units (say, sq. m or m2) i.e., a positive real
⍟Two angles of a triangle are unequal in measure; the side opposite to number.
the greater angle is longer than the side opposite to the smaller angle. Triangular region: The interior of a triangle is the
⍟The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is greater than part of the plane enclosed by the triangle. A A

the length of the third side. triangular region is the union of a triangle and its
⍟From a point, out-side a line; the perpendicular is the shortest interior i.e., the three line segments forming the
distance from the point on the line. triangle and its interior. By area of a triangle, we B C

⍟The distance between a line and a point on it is zero. mean the area of its triangular region.
Chapter No. 14: Ratio and Proportion Rectangular Region: The interior of a rectangle is C
the part of the plane enclosed by the rectangle.
D

⍟a line parallel to one side of a triangle, intersecting the other two

A rectangular region is the union of a rectangle and A
sides, divides them proportionally. B
it‘s interior.
⍟a line segment intersects the two sides of a triangle in the same ratio,
Between the same Parallels:
then it is parallel to the third side.
⍟(i) Two parallelograms are said to be between
⍟the internal bisector of an angle of a triangle divides the side opposite
the same parallels, when their bases are in the
to it in the ratio of the lengths of the sides containing the angle.
same straight line and their sides opposite to these
a bases are also in a straight line; as the
⍟Ratio and Proportion: We defined ratio a :b  as the
b parallelograms ABCD, EFGH in the given figure.
comparison of two alike quantities a and b, called the elements (terms) ⍟(ii) Two triangles are said to be between the
of a ratio. (Elements must be expressed in the same units). Equality of same parallels, when their bases are in the same
two ratios is defined as proportion. straight line and the line joining their vertices is
That is, if a : b  c : d , then a, b, c and d are said to be in parallel to their bases; as the ∠ABC and ∠DEF in
the given figure.
proportion.
⍟(iii) A triangle and a parallelogram are said to be
⍟Knowledge of ratio and proportion is necessary requirement of many
between the same parallels, when their bases are
occupations like food service occupation, medications in health,
in the same straight line, and the side of the
preparing maps for land survey and construction works, profit to cost
parallelogram opposite the base, produced if
ratios etc.
necessary, passes through the vertex of the triangle
Similar: a photographer can develop prints of different sizes from the
as are the ∠ABC and the parallelogram DEFG in
same negative. In spite of the difference in sizes, these pictures look like
the given figure.
each other. One photograph is simply an enlargement of another. They
Altitude of Parallelogram: If one side of a parallelogram is taken as its
are said to be similar in shape.
base, the perpendicular distance between that side and the side parallel
Similar Triangles: corresponding angles of similar triangles are equal
to it, is called the Altitude or Height of the parallelogram.
and measures of their corresponding sides are proportional.
Altitude of the triangle: If one side of a triangle is taken as its base,
Similar triangles are alike but do not have same size.
the perpendicular to that side, from the opposite vertex is called the
Congruent Triangles: corresponding angles and sides of congruent
Altitude or Height of the triangle.
triangles are equal in measure.
Useful Result: ―Triangles or parallelograms having the same or equal
Similar triangles are alike and have same size.
altitudes can be placed between the same parallels and conversely.‖
Note:
Two congruent triangles are similar also. But two similar triangles are Chapter No. 17: Practical Geometry – Triangles
not necessarily congruent, as congruence of their corresponding sides ⍟Geometrical constructions are usually made with the help of a pair of
is not necessary. compasses, set squares, dividers and a straight edge.
Note: Concurrent lines: Three or more than three lines are said to be
(i) Two points determine a line and three non-collinear points determine concurrent, if they all pass through the same point. The common point is
a plane. called the point of concurrency of the lines. They are given special
⍟A line segment has only one bisector names.
⍟(ii) A line segment has exactly one midpoint. (i) In centre: The internal bisectors of the angles of a triangle meet at a
⍟(iii) If two intersecting lines from equal adjacent angles, the lines are point called the in-centre of the triangle.
perpendicular. (ii) Circumcentre: The point of concurrency of the three perpendicular
(Converse of Theorem) bisectors of the sides of a  is called the circumcentre of the  .
⍟If a line segment intersects the two sides of a triangle in the same (iii) Orthocentre: The point of concurrency of the three altitudes of a
ratio then it is parallel to the third side.  is called its orthocenter.
Chapter No. 15: Pythagoras’ Theorem (iv) Centroid: The point where the three medians of a  meet is called
⍟Pythagoras, a Greek philosopher and mathematician, discovered the centroid of the triangle.
important relationship between the sides of right triangle. He formulated

Ali Usman (SST Science) 0311 – 7791228 Govt. High School, Chiniot