Egyptian Dynasties

PREDYNASTIC EGYPT

NARMER - THE SCORPION KING

EARLY DYNASTIC PERIOD

THE FIRST DYNASTY - 3050 - 2890 B.C.

Menes - AHA
Djer
Wadj
Den - Udimu
Anedjob
Semerkat
Qa'a

SECOND DYNASTY - 3890-2686 B.C.

Hetepsekhemwy
Reneb
Ninetjer
Peribsen - Sekhemib
Keasekhemwy

THE OLD KINGDOM - AGE OF THE PYRAMIDS

THIRD DYNASTY - 2650 - 2575 B.C.

Sanakhte (Nebka) 2650 - 2630
Djoser - Netjerykhet 2630 - 2611
Sekhemkhet (Djoser Teti) 2611 - 2603
Khaba 2603 - 2599
Huni 2599 - 2575

FOURTH DYNASTY - 2575 - 2467 B.C.

Snefru 2575 - 2551
Khufu (Cheops) 2551 - 2528
Djedefre 2528 - 2520
Khafre (Chephren) 2520 - 2494
Menkaure (Mycerinus) 2490 - 2472
Shepseskaf 2472 - 2467

FIFTH DYNASTY - 2465 - 2345 B.C.

Userkaf 2465 - 2458
Sahure 2458 - 2446
Neferirkare Kakai 2477-2467
Shepseskare Ini 2426 - 2419
Neferefre 2419 - 2416
Niuserre Izi 2453 - 2422
Menkauhor 2422 - 2414
Djedkare Izezi 2388 - 2356
Unas 2375-2345

SIXTH DYNASTY - 2345 - 2184 B.C.

Teti 2345 - 2333
Pepy I (Meryre) 2332 - 2283
Merenre Nemtyemzaf 2283 2278
Pepy II (Neferkare) 2278 - 2184

FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD

SEVENTH - TENTH DYNASTIES - 2150 - 1986 B.C.

SEVENTH & EIGHTH DYNASTIES

Netrikare
Menkare
Neferkare II
Neferkare III
Djedkare II
Neferkare IV
Merenhor
Menkamin I
Nikare
Neferkare V
Neferkahor
Neferkare VI
Neferkamin II
Ibi I
Neferkaure
Neferkauhor
Neferirkare II
Wadjkare
Sekhemkare
Iti
Imhotep
Isu
Iytenu

NINETH & TENTH DYNASTIES

Neferkare
several kings named Kheti
Meri-Hathor (?)
Merikare

MIDDLE KINGDOM

ELEVENTH DYNASTY
Antef I
Antef II
Antef III
Mentuhotep II 2055 -2004
Mentuhotep III (Sankhkare) 2004 - 1992
Mentuhotep IV (Nebtawyre) 1992 - 1987

TWELFTH DYNASTIES
Amenemhet I (Sehetepibre) 1991 - 1962
Senusret I (Kheperkare) 1956 - 1911
Amenemhet II (Nubkaure) 1911 - 1877
Senusret II (Khakheperre) 1877 - 1870
Senusret III (Khakaure) 1836 - 1817
Amenemhet III (Nimaatre) 1817 - 1772
Amenemhet IV (Maakherure) 1772 - 1763
Neferusobek (Sobekkare) 1763 - 1759

SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD

THIRTEENTH - SEVENTEENTH DYNASTIES

THIRTEENTH DYNASTY
Wegaf 1783-1779
Amenemhat-senebef
Sekhemre-khutawi
Amenemhat V
Sehetepibre I
Iufni
Amenemhat VI
Semenkare
Sehetepibre II
Sewadjkare
Nedjemibre
Sobekhotep I
Reniseneb
Hor I
Amenemhat VII
Sobekhotep II
Khendjer
Imira-mesha
Antef IV
Seth
Sobekhotep III
Neferhotep I 1696 - 1686
Sihathor 1685 - 1685
Sobekhotep IV 1685 - 1678
Sobekhotep V 1678 - 1674
Iaib 1674 - 1664
Ay 1664 - 1641
Ini I
Sewadjtu
Ined
Hori
Sobekhotep VI
Dedumes I
Ibi II
Hor II
Senebmiu
Sekhanre I
Merkheperre
Merikare

FOURTEENTH DYNASTY
Nehesi
Khatire
Nebfaure
Sehabre
Meridjefare
Sewadjkare
Heribre
Sankhibre
Kanefertemre
Neferibre
Ankhkare

FIFTEENTH DYNASTY
Salitis
Bnon
Apachnan (Khian)
Apophis (Auserre Apepi)
Khamudi

SIXTEENTH DYNASTY
Anat-Her
User-anat
Semqen
Zaket
Wasa
Qar
Pepi III
Bebankh
Nebmaatre
Nikare II
Aahotepre
Aaneterire
Nubankhre
Nubuserre
Khauserre
Khamure
Jacob-Baal
Yakbam
Yoam
Amu

SEVENTEENTH DYNASTY
Antef V
Rahotep
Sobekemzaf I
Djehuti
Mentuhotep VII
Nebirau I
Nebirau II
Semenenre
Suserenre
Sobekemzaf II
Antef VI
Antef VII
Tao I (Senakhtenre)
Tao II (Sekenenre)
Kamose (Wadjkheperre)

THE NEW KINGDOM

EIGHTEENTH DYNASTY
Ahmose (Nebpehtyre) 1539 - 1514 BC
Amenhotep I (Djeserkare) 1514 - 1493 BC
Thutmose I (Akheperkare) 1493 - 1481 BC
Thutmose II (Akheperenre) 1491 - 1479 BC
Hatshepsut (Maatkare) 1473 - 1458 BC
Thutmose III (Menkheperre) 1504 - 1450 BC
Amenhotep II (Akheperure) 1427 - 1392 BC
Thutmose IV (Menkheperure) 1419 - 1386 BC
Amenhotep III (Nebmaatre) 1382 - 1344 BC
Amenhotep IV / Akhenaten 1350 - 1334 BC
Smenkhkare (Ankhkheperure) 1336-1334 BC
Tutankhamun (Nebkheperure) 1334 - 1325 - King Tut BC
Ay (Kheperkheperure) 1325 - 1321 BC
Horemheb (Djeserkheperure) 1323 - 1295 BC

NINETEENTH DYNASTY
Ramesses I (Menpehtyre) 1295 - 1294
Seti I (Menmaatre) 1394 - 1279
Ramesses II (Usermaatresetepenre) 1279 - 1213
Merenptah (Baenrehotephirmaat) 1213 - 1203
Amenmesse (Menmire) 1203 - 1200
Seti II (Userkheperuresetepenre) 1200 - 1194
Siptah (Akhenresetepenre) 1194 - 1188
Tausert (Sitremeritamun) 1185-1187

TWENTIETH DYNASTY
Setakht (Userkhauremeryamun) 1186 - 1184
Ramesses III (Usermaatremeryamun) 1184 - 1153
Ramesses IV (Hekamaatresetepenamun) 1153 - 1147
Ramesses V (Usermaatresekheperenre) 1147 - 1143
Ramesses VI (Nebmaatremeryamun) 1143 - 1136
Ramesses VII (Usermaatresetepenre) 1136 - 1129
Ramesses VIII (Usermaatreakhenamun) 1129 - 1126
Ramesses IX (Neferkaresetepenre) 1126 - 1108
Ramesses X (Khepermaatresetepenre) 1108 - 1099
Ramesses XI (Menmaatresetepenptah) 1099 - 1069

THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (1070-715 BC)

TWENTY-FIRST - TWENTY-FOURTH DYNASTIES

TWENTY-FIRST DYNASTY
Smedes 1070-1044
Amenemnisu 1040
Psusennes I 1040-992
Amenope 993-984
Osochor 984-978
Siamun 978-959
Psusennes II 959-945

TWENTY-SECOND DYNASTY
Shoshenq I 945-924
Osorkon I 924-909
Takelot 909--?
Shoshenq II ?--883
Osorkon II 883-855
Takelot II 860-835
Shoshenq III 835-783
Pami 783-773
Shoshenq IV 773-735
Osorkon IV 735-712

TWENTY-THIRD DYNASTY
Pedubaste I 828-803
Osorkon IV 777-749
Peftjauwybast 740-725

TWENTY-FOURTH DYNASTY
Shepsesre Tefnakht I 725-720 Wahkare Bakenranef 720-715

LATE KINGDOM

TWENTY-FIFTH DYNASTY
Piye 747-716 BC
Shebaka 712-698
Shebitku 698-690
Taharqa 690-664
Tantamani 664-657

TWENTY-SIXTH DYNASTY
Psammetichus I (Psam-tik) 664-610
Nekau (Necho) II 610-595
Psammetichus II 595-589
Apries 589-570
Amasis 570-526
Psammetichus III 526-525

TWENTY-SEVENTH DYNASTY
Cambyses 525-522
Darius I 521-486
Xerxes I 486-466
Artaxerxes I 465-424
Darius II 424-404
TWENTY-EIGHTH DYNASTY
Amyrtaios 404-399

TWENTY-NINETH DYNASTY
Nepherites I 399-393
Psammuthis 393
Hakoris 393-380
Nepherites II 380

THIRTIETH DYNASTY
Nectanebo I 380-362
Teos 365-360
Nectanebo II 360-343

SECOND PERSIAN PERIOD (343-332 B.C.)

THIRTY-FIRST DYNASTY
Ochus (Artaxerxes III) 343-338
Arses 338-336
Darius III Codomannus 335-332

GRECO-ROMAN PERIOD (332 B.C. - 395 A.D.)

Macedonian Kings - Alexandria

Alexander the Great 332-323
Philip Arrhidaeus 323-316
Alexander IV 316-304

Ptolemaic Dynasty
Ptolemy I Soter I 323-285
Ptolemy II Philadelphus 282-246
Ptolemy III Euergeter I 246-222
Ptolemy IV Philopator 222-205
Ptolemy V Epiphanes 205-180
Ptolemy VI Philometor 180-164 & 163-145
Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator 145
Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II 170-163 & 145-116
Cleopatra III & Ptolemy IX Soter II 116-107 & 88-80
Cleopatra III & Ptolemy X Alexander I 107-88
Cleopatra Berenice 81-80
Ptolemy XI Alexander II 80
Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos 80-58 & 55-51
Berenice IV 58-55

Cleopatra VII
Cleopatra VII & Ptolemy XIII 51-47
Cleopatra & Ptolemy XIV 47-44
Cleopatra VII & Ptolemy XV Cesarion 44-30

Roman Emperors
Augustus 30 B.C. - 14 A.D.
Tiberius 14-37
Gaius Caligula 37-41
Claudius 41-54
Nero 54-68
Galba 68-69
Vespasianus 69-79
Titus 79-81
Domitianus 81-96
Nerva 96-98
Trajanus 98-117
Hadrianus 117-138
Antoninus Pius 138-161
Marcus Aurelius 161-180
Lucius Verrus
Commodus 180-192
Septimus Severus 193-211
Caracalla 198-217
Geta 209-212
 Predynastic Egypt

The Predynastic Period of Egypt (prior to 3100 BC) is the period that culminates in
the rise of the Old Kingdom and the first of the thirty dynasties based on royal
residences, by which Egyptologists divide the history of pharaonic civilization using a
schedule laid out first by Manetho's Aegyptiaca. The structure of the nomes, into
which Egypt was divided, predates the First Dynasty, and there are inscriptions of
pre-dynastic kings such as Narmer. Early excavations of pre-dynastic sites were
pursued in the 19th century at Naqada, Abydos, Coptos, and Hierakonpolis. While
many authorities begin this prehistoric period with the Naqada culture, others place its
beginnings in the Lower Paleolithic.

Late Neolithic

Anthropological and archaeological evidence both indicate a grain-grinding Neolithic

culture farming along the Nile in the 10th millennium BC using the world's earliest
known type of sickle blades (Sources needed). But another culture of hunters, fishers
and gathering peoples using stone tools replaced them.

Late Lower Paleolithic

Evidence indicates human habitation in the southwestern corner of Egypt, near the
Sudan border, before 8000 BC.Climate changes and/or overgrazing around 8000 BC
began to desiccate the pastoral lands of Egypt, eventually forming the Sahara (c. 2500
BC), and early tribes naturally migrated to the Nile river where they developed a
settled agricultural economy and more centralized society.

There is evidence of pastoralism and cultivation of cereals in the East Sahara in the
7th millennium BC.

Domesticated animals had already been imported from Asia between 7500 BC and
4000 BC. Interestingly, the domestication of the pig in the Sahara and ancient Egypt
has been cited as a likely primary contributor to the desertification of the Sahara.

The earliest known artwork of ships in ancient Egypt dates to 6000 BCE.

6th millennium BC

By 6,000 BC predynastic Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding

cattle and constructing large buildings.

Subsistence in organized and permanent settlements in ancient Egypt by the middle of

the 6th millennium BC centered predominantly on cereal and animal agriculture:
cattle, goats, pigs and sheep.

Metal objects replaced prior ones of stone.

Tanning animal skins, pottery and weaving are commonplace in this era also.
There are indications of seasonal or only temporary occupation of the Al Fayyum in
the 6th millennium BC, with food activities centering on fishing, hunting and food-
gathering.

Stone arrowheads, knives and scrapers are common.

Burial items in this era include pottery, jewelry, farming and hunting equipment, and
assorted foods including dried meat and fruit . The dead are buried facing due west.

Baskets of exceedingly high quality date to circa 5000 BC.

5th millennium BC

Items dating to this era of the Al Fayyum (5200 BC-4000 BC) include: axes of basalt,
dolerite and limestone; a diorite mace head; dolerite vase; a wooden sickle and sickle
blades; arrowheads; stone palettes and grain rubbers; silos; dishes, cups, bowls and
pots; as well as beads of amazonite (feldspar).

The Badarian way of life centered mostly on agriculture, fishing and animal
husbandry (see Badarian). Foreign artifacts indicate distant contacts as far away as
Syria.

Furniture, tableware, decorated pots and vases, combs and figurines all appear around
this time.

Social stratification has been inferred from the burying of more prosperous members
of the community in a different part of the cemetery.

Around 4500 BC the Naqada culture begins, with geometric, human- and animal-
shaped designs adorning pottery, both carved and painted.

Shapes of vessels become specialized depending on function.

Models of rectangular houses (included in grave goods) also appear in this era.

A finely woven linen fragment in the Al Fayyum dates to 4400 BC.

By 4000 BC we have evidence of pre-dynastic alchemists having invented the use of

mortar (masonry) via one of the oldest known of chemical reactions.

4th millennium BC

By 4000 BC human, animal, and other designs on pottery become more realistic [23].
Tomb-building appears in the Gerzean culture, including underground rooms with
furniture and amulets.

Gerzean practices would later evolve into the Osiris cult of ancient Egypt.

Symbols on Gerzean pottery resemble traditional hieroglyph writing.

By the beginning of the 4th millennium BC, ancient Egyptians in Maadi were
importing numerous items of pottery from south Naqada and Canaan.

The economy of Maadi seems to have centered on metallurgy and foreign trade.

Many vessels made of black basalt also appear at this time.

There is evidence of the use of wooden posts in Maadi, maybe for buildings and/or
fences. Also found are fire places and pits.

The earliest known buildings of stone to appear in ancient Egypt date to this era in
Maadi, including one subterranean building that was constructed by covering walls of
stone with Nile mud, another building thats entrance seems to have been fashioned by
carving the local bedrock, and other building designs which also reveal distant
southern Canaanite contact.

Lapis lazuli was being traded from its only known source in the ancient world
Badakshan, in what is now northeastern Afghanistan as far as Mesopotamia and
Egypt by the second half of the 4th millennium BC. There is evidence that ancient
Egyptian explorers may have originally cleared and protected some branches of the
Silk Road.

Between 1979 and 1985, charcoal samples found in the tombs of Nekhen, which were
dated to the Naqada I and II periods, were identified as cedar from Lebanon.
 Narmer

Narmer (Ancient Egyptian - "Striker") was an Egyptian pharaoh who ruled in the
32nd century BC. Thought to be the successor to the pre-dynastic Serket, he is
considered by some to be the founder of the First dynasty. It is thought by many
archaeologists that Serket is actually identical with Narmer.

Narmer's name is represented phonetically by the hieroglyphic symbol for a catfish

(n'r) and that of a chisel (mr). Other modern variants of his name include "Narmeru"
or "Merunar", but convention uses "Narmer". Like other First Dynasty Kings, his
name is a single word ("The Striker") and may be shorthand for "Horus is the Striker".
 Narmer's Palette

The southern king Narmer (perhaps the legendary Menes) wins a victory over the
northern king which is immortalized by Narmer's Palette. The famous Narmer Palette,
discovered in 1898 in Hierakonpolis, shows Narmer displaying the insignia of both
Upper and Lower Egypt, giving rise to the theory that he unified the two kingdoms.
Traditionally, Menes is credited with that unification, and he is listed as being the first
pharaoh in Manetho's list of kings, so this find has caused some controversy.

Some Egyptologists hold that Menes and Narmer are in fact the same person; some
hold that Menes is the same person with Horus Akha (aka. Hor-Aha) and he inherited
an already-unified Egypt from Narmer; others hold that Narmer began the process of
unification but either did not succeed or succeeded only partially, leaving it to Menes
to complete.

Another equally plausible theory is that Narmer was an immediate successor to the
king who did manage to unify Egypt (perhaps the King Scorpion whose name was
found on a macehead also discovered in Hierakonpolis), and adopted symbols of
unification that had already been in use perhaps for a generation. It should be noted
that while there is extensive physical evidence of there being a pharaoh named
Narmer, so far there is no evidence other than Manetho's list and from legend for a
pharaoh called Menes. The King Lists recently found in Den's and Qa'a's tombs both
list Narmer as the founder of their dynasty.
His wife is thought to have been Neithhotep A, a princess of northern Egypt.
Inscriptions bearing her name were found in tombs belonging to Narmer's immediate
successors Hor-Aha and Djer, implying either that she was the mother or wife of Hor-
Aha.

His tomb is thought to have been comprised of two joined chambers (B17 and B18)
found in the Umm el-Qa'ab region of Abydos.

During the summer of 1994, excavators from the Nahal Tillah expedition in southern
Israel discovered an incised ceramic shard with the serekh sign of Narmer, the same
individual whose ceremonial slate palette was found by James E. Quibell in Upper
Egypt. The inscription was found on a large circular platform, possibly the
foundations of a storage silo on the Halif Terrace. Dated to ca. 3000 BC,
mineralogical studies of the shard conclude that it is a fragment of a wine jar which
was imported from the Nile valley to Israel some 5000 years ago.

The name Narmer has been found all over Egypt including the local vicinities of
Tarkhan to the South of Memphis, the Helwan cemeteries excavated by Zaki Y. Saad,
immediately to the East and in the subterranean eastern shaft of Djoser's Step pyramid
complex at Saqqara. Obviously he was remembered with some reverence in the area.
Perhaps when the earliest site of the Capital is finally located (possibly to the North
West) we will be in a much better position to evaluate Narmer's role with Memphis or
Inbw hdj as it was then known.

Writing was fairly widespread during this period and although hundred of wooden
and ivory labels have been found engraved with hieroglyphs little is known of the
individual signs, for example ; the serech of Aha above is thought to feature mud
brick paneling (early Palace facade) topped by an unknown structure with a curved
roof. From a modern point of view this might seem to refer to the royal aviaries of
Aha, where the mace or fighting stick substitutes for a perch and the arched
hieroglyph a "pigeon hole" for the Pelegrine falcon to enter.

The arched hieroglyph however is more likely to be derived from the earlier roof
shape which makes up the national shrine of lower Egypt which is partly seen on the
'macehead of King Scorpion'. Something quite similar in design to the Aha hieroglyph
(a protected enclosure for a female) is also seen on the macehead of Narmer. The
shape is also to be seen in the plant like form below.
 The Mace Head of King Scorpion

The ritual mace head of 'Scorpion' is one of the rare artefacts to have survived from
this king's reign, and is one of the oldest Egyptian works of art. It is a rounded piece
of limestone, shaped like the head of a mace of 25 cm. high. Its dimensions and the
fact that it is decorated both show that it was intended as a ritual artefact and not as a
real mace head. The mace head was found by archaeologists Quibell and Green
during their expedition of 1897/98 in the main deposit at Hierakonpolis. This main
deposit also contained other artefacts from the Pre-dynastic and Early Dynastic
Periods, among them a long narrow vase also showing the name of king 'Scorpion', as
well as, perhaps, the Narmer Palette. It is now on display at the Ashmolean Museum
in Oxford.

Note the Scorpion near the King.

 No one is quite sure who united Egypt.

Information about the first dynasty is very sketchy.

The Celestial Sphinx, a Sumerian Cylinder-seal and the Place of

Purification

The Sun is Risen at the Place of Purification

The original sky chart of the remote Ancient Egyptians, dating back to 11:57pm July
3rd 14000 BCE and encoding their Sacred Knowledge, was not altogether lost as the
millennia slipped by almost unnoticed. As we have already discovered it was
incorporated into the Narmer Plate in 4468 B.C.

The original sky chart of the remote Ancient Egyptians, dating back to 11:57pm July
3rd 14,000 BCE and encoding their Sacred Knowledge.

More than two thousand years later, in 2308 BCE, the Sumerians developed their
equivalent of the 11:57pm July 3rd 14,000 BCE sky chart and Narmer Plate
combined. It comes in the form of a royal cylinder-seal depicting "The Sun is Risen".
The purpose of the seal is to celebrate the Dawn of the Age of Aries. Perhaps not
surprisingly it comes complete with Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs.

In linking the seal with the Ancient Egyptian 11:57pm July 3rd 14,000 BCE sky chart
the following need to be accounted for: the Celestial Sphinx and the Rising Sun,
together with the Constellations of Orion, Gemini, Phoenix, and Grus. There are two
other constellations on the sky chart, those of Taurus and Piscis Austrinus.
The Sumerian equivalent of 11:57pm July 3rd 14000BCE sky chart and the Narmer
Plate combined. A royal cylinder-seal depicting "The Sun is Risen", complete with
Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs. It is dated to 2308 BCE and celebrates the Dawn of the
Age of Aries.

Moreover, in linking the seal with the Narmer Plate the following need to be
additionally accounted for: the Constellation of Canis Major, the hieroglyph for the
horizon and, most importantly, Precession of the Ages of the Zodiac; the Sun moving
out of one Age and into the next.

Central to the scene is the Rising-Sun, Shamash. The Risen-Sun is depicted as both
the circle above Shamash's hat (the Sumerian equivalent of the Taurean Red Crown of
Ancient Egypt) and the figure with outstretched wings, the Constellation of Phoenix
which symbolizes Rebirth / Resurrection: the rebirth / resurrection of the Sun in a
New Age of the Zodiac.

The bird with the twig in its beak, which is also recorded on the Narmer Plate, is the
Constellation of Grus, the Crane. The twig and the long neck of the crane are
interchangeable. This constellation is in the shape of a Cross, which symbolizes
Precession. The crane was the pictogram for astronomers in Ancient Egypt.

The knife which Shamash is wielding is the Constellation of Piscis Austrinus, which
hangs in the West above the Constellation of Grus in the night sky as viewed from
Giza at 11:57pm July 3rd 14000BCE. This is symbolically the implement used in the
Opening of the Mouth Ceremony Љ the Opening of the Way or Portal for the Sun to
pass through into the next Age of the Zodiac.

The hieroglyph used for the mountain, or horizon on the cylinder-seal is an Ancient
Egyptian hieroglyph, the same as appears on the Narmer Plate. On the cylinder-seal
however the mountain is covered in either waves denoting water, or feathers denoting
birds' wings.

The Ancient Egyptian hieroglyph for Mound or Horizon. It is a tri-partite symbol

encoding the Sacred Mound, the Waters of Nun, and the Winged Disk. In the centre
of the Winged Disk is the Sun passing through the Portal, Opening or Birth Canal into
the next Age of the Zodiac - which is a concise description of the event portrayed on
the roller seal.

The Winged disk

The figure with one foot on the Sacred Mound is the god Ea, the Sumerian equivalent
of the Ancient Egyptian concept of the Sacred Waters of Nun. His prominent nose
sets him apart from the others as being an introduced figure.

The god Ea is the Sumerian equivalent of the Celestial Sphinx!

Ea is a new concept which combines the Constellation of Orion, and the Sacred
Waters of Nun as the Constellation of Eridanus, fanning out behind him like a pair of
wings. In effect the god Ea is the Sumerian equivalent of the Celestial Sphinx! Ea was
later adapted into the figures of Moses and John the Baptist. Jesus is the Risen
Sun/Son baptized in the waters of the sacred Waters of Nun.

Ea's association with Nermer/Orion, is evidenced by the Constellation of Lepus the

Hare at his feet. Clearly, by 2308 BCE Lepus had lost its Ancient Egyptian
association with Orion's Chair, the Throne of God.
Ea's association with Nermer/Orion, is evidenced by the Constellation of Lepus the
Hare at his feet.

Moreover Ea can be compared with Naram/Orion on the Naram Stele, which is also
dated to 2308 BCE. Both Ea and Naram are positioned with one foot on the Mound.

Ea can be compared with Naram/Orion on the Naram Stele, which is also dated to
2308 BCE. Both are positioned with one foot on the Mound.

Meanwhile another very bewildered Naram/Orion, complete with bull's ear, stands
next to the Tree of Life (the Axis Munde) on the cylinder-seal. He was necessary to
maintain balance both on the seal and on the sky chart. Like Naram he is wearing a
very large overlay to cover his Taurean virility.

It is noticeable however that he is no longer attended by the King of the Seven Stars,
Sirius. Rather he is accompanied by his dog, the Constellation of Canis Major. This
indicates that the transformation of the symbolism of the constellation of Canis Major
from person to dog had occurred by 2308 BCE.
 Orion is accompanied by his dog, the Constellation of Canis Major.

The figure at our far right, representing the Gemini Twins, is looking back to the past
and forward to the future. Remember it is a cylinder-seal and as such conveys Cycles
of Time repeated into Eternity when twirled around and around in the hand. The past
and the future are one and the same.

The Gemini Twins

The past and the future are one and the same.

Despite this cylinder seal being dated to the beginning of the Age of Aries, the Ram,
there is no evidence of a ram on the cylinder-seal. Either the dating of the seal is
incorrect or the content of the Nermer Plate 4468 BCE and the night sky as viewed
from Giza 11:57pm July 3rd 14000 BCE have been adapted by the Sumerians to
symbolize Precession of the Ages in general.

I have translated the hieroglyphs of the descriptive title on this Sumerian cylinder-seal
as 'The Place of Purification.' The Sun is Purified, or Baptized, in the waters of Nun
before it is reborn/resurrected into the New Age of the Zodiac.

The Sumerian hieroglyphs, which evidence the development of writing from Ancient
Egyptian to Sumerian hieroglyphs, are written in two different styles.
 Abt - Place of Purification - Ancient Egyptian

Sumerian Place of Purification

The bottom and earlier form is directly derived from the Ancient Egyptian original:
"abt", which translates as "Place of Purification". The glyphs on the right of the
Sumerian writing represent the human ritual of the "Opening of the Mouth
Ceremony" while those on the left represent the celestial ritual of the 'Opening of the
Mouth Ceremony'; the Sun passing through the Portal into a New Age.

The upper form is a later development still. The glyphs have become more stylized.
The "leg" glyph of Osiris/Orion has adopted the two triangles which form the arms of
Orion in the cylinder-seal as his identification tag. (Compare this to the Orion tag on
the Kish Tablet in Part 12) The long neck is his beard and the square is his head. His
"mouth" (which can also be interpreted as the horns of Taurus the Bull) is open ready
to receive the Sun at the beginning of a New Age.

The transition has been made. The original sky chart of the remote Ancient Egyptians
dating back to 11:57pm July 3rd 14,000 BCE is hardly recognisable to the untrained
eye in the sky chart recorded on this Sumerian cylinder-seal.
 First Dynasty - 3100 - 2890 BC

Menes, Mena, Meni, Min, Aha - The Fighting Hawk

Menes was an Egyptian pharaoh of the First dynasty, to some authors the founder of
this dynasty, to others the Second. He lived ca. 3100-3000 BC, but according to some
lists, ca. 3050 BC.

Ancient Egyptian legend credits a pharaoh by this name with uniting Upper and
Lower Egypt into one kingdom.

Manetho, a 3rd century BC Egyptian historian, called him Menes; the 5th century BC
Greek historian Herodotus referred to him as Min; and two native-king lists of the
19th dynasty (13th century BC) call him Meni.

However, the discovery of the Narmer Palette in the late 19th century showing the
pharaoh Narmer, possibly pre-dating Menes, wielding the unified symbols of both
Upper and Lower Egypt has caused some controversy.

Some Egyptologists hold that Narmer and Menes are in fact the same person; others
hold that Menes inherited an already-unified kingdom from Narmer; still others hold
that Menes completed a process of unification started either unsuccessfully or only
partially successfully by Narmer.

In either case, Menes is credited with the foundation of Memphis, which he

established as the Egyptian capital.

It should be noted that while there is extensive archeological evidence of there being a
pharaoh named Narmer, so far there is no contemporaneous archeological evidence
for a pharaoh called Menes. The growing academic consensus is that Menes either
refers to Narmer or, more likely, to his successor, Hor-Aha.

Another name for Menes has various spellings: Hor Aka, Hor-Aka, and Hor-Aha;
Hor-Aka can be translated as "Horus of the Reeds", possibly in allusion to the legend
in which Isis hid Horus in the Nile Delta among papyri and reeds.

In Ancient Egyptian legend, there was a battle between Horus (a patron deity of
Lower Egypt) and Set (patron deity of Upper Egypt).

In this mythological unification of the two Egypts, Set was defeated and the kingdom
was unified under the rule of Horus, the first king of all Egypt. It is possible that this
war was transformed over time into myth.

A much later parallel can be found leading to the establishment of the reign of
Pharaoh Khasekhemwy several hundred years later; he crushed a civil war between
the followers of Set and Horus.
According to Manetho, Menes reigned 62 years and was killed by a hippopotamus.

Reference: Kinnaer, Jacques. What is Really Known About the Narmer Palette?
KMT: A Modern Journal of Ancient Egypt, Spring 2004.

Hippopotamus myths and metaphors:

The Hippopotamus lives both underwater and above ground. Water is

associated with the collective unconsciousness. The hippopotamus is
amphibious. To be killed by a hippopotamus is to return to the source of
creation.

Amphibious Gods

Taweret Goddess depicted as a pregnant hippo

Djer - Horus who Succours

Djer is the second Egyptian king of the first dynasty. He was the son of Menes and
one of his lesser ranked wives, a woman named Hent.

Manetho gives him the name Athothis, or Atoti. Almost nothing is known about the
life of Djer.

His name was found in an inscription on the Wadi Halfa, south of the first Cataract,
proving the boundaries of his reign.

Heiroglyphs on Ivory and wood labels from Abydos and Saqqara say he reigned for
57 years.

According to Manetho, he reigned 57 years, but according to modern research (Von

Beckerath's Chronologie des pharaonischen Agypten) his reign lasted only two years
(3000 BC-2999 BC).

He probably fought several battles against the Libyans in the Nile delta.

Djer's wife was Queen Herneith.

Like his predecessor, Hor-Aha, he was buried in the holy place Abydos. Close to his
grave is another, that probably belongs to his wife Herneith, mother of the later king
Den, and possibly his regent during his youth.

From the Eighteenth dynasty, his tomb was revered as the Tomb of Osiris.

The evidence for Djer's existence:

 a tomb in Umm el-Qa'ab, Abydos;

 seal prints from graves 2185 and 3471 in Saqqara;
 inscriptions in graves 3503, 3506 and 3035 in Saqqara
 Djet - Horus Cobra

Horus (hawk) name of Wadj

snake over palace facade

Djet, also known as Wadj, Zet and Uadji (in Greek possibly the king known as
Uenephes), ca. 2920 BC, was the third Egyptian king of the first dynasty. His name
means serpent.

Little is known about his reign, but he has become famous because of his tomb stela.
It is decorated with Djet's Horus name, and shows that the distinct Egyptian style had
already become fully developed.

His stela is displayed at the Louvre in Paris. It is made of limestone carved by the
sculptor Serekh. The stela was discovered near the ancient city of Abydos where
Wadj's mortuary complex is located. The only other place that Egyptologists found a
reference to him was in an inscription near the city of Edfu, to the south of Egypt.

His wife was Queen Mereneith, who acted as mentor and advisor for his son and
successor, King Den. Queen Merenith ruled Egypt as regent when Den became king
as a child. This essentially meant that she ruled Egypt until he was capable of doing
so himself.There are, many scholars who think that Merenith was a ruler in her own
right. Stone vessels and sealings bearing her name were found at Saqqara, as was a
stela with her name written inan archaic form with crossed arrows signifying the
name of Neith. Merenith has two burial sites, one at Abydos and one at Saqqara
(Mastaba 3503). The Saqqara tomb contains some artifacts that show the the name of
a high court official called Seshemka. The Abydos burial complex is amongst those of
the kings of her dynasty. A stela had her name blended with royal emblems, as did her
coffin.

Den - Horus who Strikes

Den (or Dewen) was the fourth Egyptian king of the First Dynasty. He ruled Egypt for
almost fifty years after Wadj.

He was an energetic and athletic person, and was known to have been artistic.

Annals mention battles against Bedouin tribes in the Sinai during his reign, which was
justified by his interest in protecting the mineral resources of the peninsula.

The cult of Apis was introduced during his reign.

He figures in the Ebers papyrus as well as the Berlin medical Papyrus.

He was the first to use the title King of Upper and Lower Egypt and the first to wear
the double crown.

He was buried at Saqqara, even though he built his mortuary complex in Abydos. The
floor of his tomb in Umm el-Qa'ab at Abydos is made of red granite, the first time in
Egypt this hard stone was used as a building material.

Anedjib - Safe Is His Heart

Anedjib was the fifth king of the first dynasty. He was also known as Enezib or
Andjyeb.

He kept Memphis as his capitol city throughout his approximate 14 years of rule, as
the exact number of years remains unknown.

Anedjib's crown carried the symbols of both Upper and Lower Egypt, a representation
of the unification of the country under his power. Historians, however, doubt that
Anedjib really controlled the north, due to the fact that the northern Nomes rebelled
against him constantly throughout his reign.

His wife, Queen Betrest, was the mother of King Semerkhet, who was his successor.
The queen provided Anedjib with legitimacy and power since she was a descendant
from the Memphite royal line.
Order broke down during his reign when conflicting factions caused changes that
would end this great dynasty.

Anedjib built a tomb (Tomb X) at Abydos, but it is one of the worst built and smallest
of the Abydos royal tombs, measuring a mere 16.4 x 9 meters (53 3.4 x 29 1/2 feet).
Interestingly, the burial chamber was constructed entirely of wood, and there were 64
graves of retainers within the area, also of low grade construction.

Another tomb which was apparently built during the reign of Anedjib is that of an
official named Nebitka (tomb 3038 at Saqqara). This tomb is interesting in that it
contained a mudbrick stepped structure inside the Mastaba like structure, that some
Egyptologists see as a forerunner of Djoser's Step Pyramid.

Other than his tomb at Abydos, Anedjib is also attested to by seal impressions in tomb
3038 (the tomb of Nebetka) at Saqqara, in a tomb at Helwan, and also in a tomb at
Abu Rawash.

Semerkhet - "Thoughtful Friend"

According to the limited information on Semerkhet, the traditional 6th king of Egypt's
1st Dynasty. He was the son of King Anedjib and Queen Betrest. The Palermo Stone
says he ruled Egypt for about nine years. Manetho records his reign as 18 years, and
notes that there were numerous disaster during his reign. This is probably due to the
problems with his succession and predecessor, as it has been suggested that
Semerkhet usurped the throne.

He destroyed the name of his predecessor, Anedjib, on a number of stone vessels, and
it would seem in return, was himself omitted from the Saqqara King list.

Semerkhet was the king's Horus name, and means "Thoughtful Friend" (though
Nicolas Grimal in A History of Ancient Egypt disagrees, stating that the Horus name
means "companion of the gods". Grimal also tells us that his nebty name meant "he
whom the two mistresses guard", a reference to Nekhbet, the vulture goddess of
Nekheb (el-Kab), and Wadjet, the serpent-goddess of Pe and Dep (Buto). Grimal
therefore suggests that he may have had a priestly role prior to his ascending the
throne of Egypt.
His tomb is located at Abydos (Tomb U). It measures 29 x 31 meters (95 x 101 3/4
feet), which makes it considerably larger then that of his predecessor. It is also of
superior quality to Anedjib's tomb. Semerkhet's tomb has a brick lined burial chamber
and is surrounded by well built servants' graves. Petrie investigated Semerkhet's tomb
at Abydos, and found the entrance ramp saturated up to "three feet" deep with
aromatic oil, which, after some 5,000 years, still permeated the entire tomb with scent.
Archaeologists have not discovered a mastaba tomb from his reign at North Saqqara,
though his predecessors seem to have mostly built tombs there as well.

Qa'a - His Arm is Raised

Most scholars believe that Qa'a was the last king of the 1st dynasty. We may also see
his name as Kaa, or several other variations. Though Egyptologists often disagree on
dating, our current best guess is that he lived from about 3100 to 2890 BC.

According to Manetho he reigned for about 26 years.

Information on Qa'a is limited. He is mentioned on jar sealings and two damaged

stela. One one of these stela he is shown wearing the White Crown of Upper Egypt
and being embraced by the God Horus.

Egyptologists have also discovered the stelae of two of Qa'a's officials, Merka and
Sabef. These stelae have more complex inscriptions then earlier hieroglyphics, and
may have signaled in increasing sophistication in the use of this writing.

He was probably buried in Tomb Q at Abydos, where two typical royal funerary
stelae bearing his name were found on the east side of the tomb. This tomb has been
excavated on a number of different occations, first by Emile Amelineau in the 1890s,
then Flinders Petrie and in 1991, by Gunther Dreyer and Werner Kaiser.

The work done by this later German team revealed many small artifacts and
architectural details that had been overlooked by earlier excavations. These include
thirty inscribed labels that describe the delivery of oil, probably made from berries or
tree resins, and probably from the Syria-Palestine area.

Seal impressions and artifacts have also been discovered in Tomb Q with the name of
Hetepsekhemwy, the first pharaoh of the second dynasty. This suggests that
Hetepsekhemwy completed Tomb Q, and that there was no real break between the
first and second dynasties of Egypt. The change in dynasties from the first to the
second was originally reported by Manetho without explanation.

We also know about four tombs in Saqqara that date to this kings reign. The lower
part of two wooden statues were found in one of these tombs in a set of rooms on the
north side. Some scholars believe this may have been an offering chapel, and that the
mortuary temple in pyramid complexes may have evolved from this structure.

Pharaoh Bird
The pharaoh with a bird within his serek is known from only one piece of evidence,
and that comes from the galleries under the step pyramid from third dynasty king
Djoser at Sakkara.

This object is from a stone vessel made of schist with this king's name carved in.

His position is far from certain, but he is considered to have had a short reign at the
end of the second dynasty. This estimation is made by comparing his hieroglyphs' and
serek's form to those of other rulers at the time. One of them is a crude serek found in
king Qбa's tomb at Abydos in 1902 and possibly showing a bird.

This bird looks like a stork with a long body and neck and a rather short nib, possibly
a heron and the picture left shows a similar hieroglyph. His position in the sequence
of kings during this rather unknown period is hard to establish with certainty.

He must not be confused with the Horus Ba from the third dynasty whose serek had a
human bone, in one occasion together with an ram. (The phonetic sounds in Egyptian
is similar in these names).

The reason for placing him after Qбa is mainly the epigraphically similarities (the
form of the serek) and a seal from his tomb shows the seven first rulers from the first
dynasty in a successive line without mentioning a king called "Bird". Accompanying
text from the scanty remains of the Bird Pharaoh is almost identical to some of Qбa's,
making it very likely to place him just in this era.

Sneferka

This ephemeral pharaoh belongs to the very end of the first dynasty, a period that
obviously was a time of some instability in society. His name is only attested twice -
both from finds in Sakkara.
This is a fragment of schist found by British archaeologist Walter Emery in the debris
at the escarpment north of King Djoser's funeral complex, when he was excavating
mastabas from the first dynasty. (Emery: Great Tombs III, pl. 38.1).

The serek contains the three hieroglyphs making up the king's name, but in a slightly
different order than in the other remain from his existence - a stone vessel found
under the pyramid of king Djoser and published by Egyptologist Kaplony in MDAIK
in 1988. His name is not recorded in any of the kings' lists made during the further
2,500 years the Egyptian state should exist. This can mean that he was a probably
unknown to later generations due to the fact that his reign was a very short and
insignificant one and the remains were very few. That's the reason why his position -
together with Pharaoh Bird - cannot be established with certainty.
 The Second Dynasty - 2890 -2650 BC

Hotepsekhemwy - 'Pleasing in Powers'

Inscription bearing the serekh of Hotepsekhemwy

Hotepsekhemwy, also known as Bedjau or Baunetjer, was the first king of the Second
dynasty of Egypt.

His name is a reference to the gods Horus and Seth "The Two Mighty Ones at Rest".

Little is known about his reign.

Manetho gave him a reign of 38 years, though little has been found to substantiate this
claim, and there is little to show for such a long reign. According to some modern
sources, his reign may have lasted for 15 to 25 years, with the absolute dates being
2845 until 2825 BC.

During his era, an earthquake hit the vicinity of Bubastis in the Nile Delta.

It is possible that Pharaoh Hotepsekhemwy reached office by marriage to a princess.

Thus we do not know if he was related to the old Thinite line of rulers or not.

Thinis is believed to have been an ancient Egyptian capital city in Upper

Egypt. In Manetho's chronological list, Thinis is attributed to being the home
of the First and Second Dynastic kings, though no proof of this has been
found. The location of the ancient city of Thinis is unknown, but there is the
possibility it was located near or under the modern town of Girga.

He is not thought to be the son of Pharaoh Qa'a, but possibly his son-in-law.
Regardless, he made offerings in memory of the man and was possibly responsible for
Qa'a's funeral. While Manetho provides no reason for the dynastic change between
Qa'a and Hotepsekhemwy, it may have been the result of a shift in the royal power
center to Memphis.

Evidence exists that Hotepsekhemwy probably developed somewhat subtle and

reasonable changes in both religion and the administration of Egypt.

Some historians say that his brother started a military coup and threw him out of
power.

Sealings with the name of "Hotepsekhemwy" have been found outside the tomb of
Qa'a at Abydos.

He is named in a Greek form as Boethos and the Egyptian king lists calls him Bezau
and Neter-bau. He is also attested by many inscriptions on stone vessels from the
underground magazines under Djoser's pyramid. His name is also cut in to a granite
statue of a long-lived priest and caretaker of his mortuary cult, who served under his
two successors as well.

His tomb has been identified in Saqqara; the substructure has survived but there are
no remains of a superstructure. Not only did he change place of burial - he made a
totally new type of tomb with a revolutionary new design for his last resting place. It
was a huge complex of underground galleries hewn out in the bedrock, a gigantic
work of a type that never had been done in Egypt or anywhere else on Earth before.
Indeed this was a total change and break through in the technique of stone cutting and
a milestone in human progress. It was found merely by accident in 1902 a bit south of
the Djoser complex by the Italian archaeologist Barsanti. In the almost empty tomb
numerous seals with the king's name could be rescued, and thereby identifying the
owner.

The monument seems to be in an unfinished stadium though the grave chamber and
its side room were completed. Around 20 minor rooms around the king's bedroom just
might have been made for his staff of servants, but this is very hypotetical. Above
ground nothing is left of a superstructure (if there ever existed one) and later buildings
have been built upon it perhaps unaware of its existence.

After measuring the monument in 1902 it was closed and sealed, and it still awaits a
real examination. The map drawn of its plan seem to be too symmetrical to be entirely
correct.

Raneb, Nebra - Re is the Lord

Almost all Egyptologists firmly believe that a king by the name of Raneb (or Nebra)
succeeded the first king of Egypt's 2nd Dynasty, Hotepsekhemwy. There is little
information about Raneb, his reign is important to us because of its chronological
position during the Egyptian empire's formative years. Presumably, Raneb was
Hotepsekhemwy's son, or perhaps his brother, but there is little evidence to prove
such. Raneb, which was probably this king's birth name, means "Re is the Lord", but
many believe, because there seems to have been no specific mention of the god Re
prior to this time, that it should more appropriately be read as Nebra, meaning "Lord
of the Sun". There is evidence from later King lists that his birth name was probably
Kakaw (or Kakau).

Manetho, the great historian of ancient Egypt, believed that Raneb reigned for some
39 years. However, many modern scholars believe that his reign was much shorter,
lasting between ten and nineteen years years. In fact, some scholars seem to believe
that Raneb's reign and that of his predecessor, Hotepsekhemwy, should together be 38
or 39 years, with both therefore having shorter reigns then provided by Manetho.

His reign is attested to by various sources, including finding from the enormous
middle Saqqara tomb A (cylinder seal impressions) south of Djoser's temenos south
wall and the inscription on a statuette of Redjit.
There are references to Nebra on a Memphite stela now located in the Metropolitan
Museum, a statuette, and a rock graffiti near Armant in the western desert (and
possibly another at site 40 in the Eastern Desert), close to an ancient trade route
linking the Nile with the western Oasis.

Manetho also tells us that Raneb introduced the worship not only of the sacred goat of
Mendes, but also of the sacred bull of Mnevis at the old sun-worship center of
Heliopolis, and the Apis bull at Memphis. However, scholars now appear to believe
that the cult of the Apis bull was established by a former king, which is attested on a
stele dating from the rule of Den (Udimu). Irregardless, it would seem that his name,
whether stated as Raneb or Nebra, indicates a significant shift of worship to the sun
god, which would have a very important impact on much of Egypt's remaining
history.
Apparently at the end of the 1st Dynasty, there was considerable rebellion,
presumably problems held over from the empires initial unification. We are told that
Hotepsekhemwy reunited the two lands of Northern (Lower) and Southern (Upper)
Egypt, so if follows that Raneb perhaps ruled during a period of a tentative peace. We
are not certain of his burial place. 1st Dynasty kings appear to have mostly been
buried at Abydos, but his seal impressions at Saqqara suggest that he could have been
buried there, though there is absolutely no certainty on that matter. Regardless, future
excavation may eventually reveal more to us on this interesting and important era of
early Egyptian history and this relatively unknown king.

Raneb was succeeded by Ninetjer (Nynetjer), though once again, we have no real
information on this latter king's relationship to Raneb.

Ninetjer - Godlike or "He Who Belongs to the God".

Ninetjer was the third king of the 2nd Dynasty. Memphis was his capitol. Ninetjer is
actually by far the best attested king of the early 2nd Dynasty. Given the position of
his titulary on the Palermo Stone, he must have ruled Egypt for at least thirty-five
years, though Manetho gives him forty-seven. In fact, most of what we know of this
king is derived from the annals recorded on the Palermo Stone, where the whole
fourth register records events between his fifth or sixth year through his twentieth or
twenty-first. However, the king is also evidenced by three fine tombs in the elite
cemetery at North Saqqara containing sealings of Ninetjer, as well as one across the
Nile in the Early Dynastic necropolis at Helwan. There were additionally five
different jar-sealings of the king discovered in a large mastaba near Giza. However,
more sealings of Ninetjer eventually led to the identification of the king's own tomb at
Saqqara (though some scholars doubt that this is clearly his tomb).

From the Palermo Stone, we learn of the foundation of a chapel or estate named Hr-rn
during the king's seventh year on the throne. Otherwise, most of the events evidenced
on that record are regular ritual appearances of the king and various religious
festivals. A festival of Sokar apparently was held every six years during his reign, and
the running of the Apis bull was recorded twice during years nine and fifteen of his
reign.

Most of the festivals recorded during his reign were held in the region of Memphis,
with the exception of a ceremony associated with the goddess Nekhbet of Elkab
during year nineteen. The fact that most activity associated with this king occurred in
the region of Memphis may be important. Little evidence of the king is found outside
of this region and it may be that his activities was largely, if not completely confined
to Lower Egypt. Towards the end of his reign, there was a good deal of internal
tension in Egypt, perhaps even civil war.

The Palermo Stone tantalizes us with the possibility of this beginning in Ninetjer's
thirteenth year. It records the attack of several towns including one who's name means
"north land" or "House of the North" (the other city was Shem-Re). Some have
interpreted this entry in the Palermo Stone to mean that Ninetjer had to suppress a
rebellion in Lower, or Northern Egypt.

Unfortunately, the Palermo Stone ends with the nineteenth year of his reign.
However, inscriptions on stone vessels, which probably date to the latter part of his
reign, appear to record several other events, such as a four occurrence of the Sokar
Festival, which probably took place in year twenty-four, and the "seventeenth
occasion of the [biennial] census", which may have occurred in his thirty-fourth year
on the throne.

Other than the various inscribed stone vessels, only two other artifacts have been
unearthed that bear the king's name. One of these is a small ivory vessel from the
Saqqara area, but the other is a small statue of considerable significance, both to the
king's history and especially Egyptian art. The statuette is made of alabaster, depicting
the king on his throne and wearing the close fitting robe associated with the Sed-
festival. Upon his head rests the White Crown of Lower Egypt. This crude stone
statuette of unknown provenance, now in the Georges Michailides Collection,
represents the earliest complete and identifiable example of three-dimensional royal
statuary from Egypt.
It also provides evidence that the king celebrated at least one Sed-festival, which
would have been likely given the apparent long reign of Ninetjer. While no
contemporary inscriptions evidence this celebration, there was also a stock of stone
vessels discovered in the Step Pyramid galleries that may have been prepared for this
event. Some scholars theorize that this further evidences the difficulties late in the
king's reign, suggesting that these were never distributed due to domestic unrest
which disrupted communications and weakened the authority of the central
administration. Hence, the stone vessels were later appropriated by subsequent kings
of the late 2nd and early 3rd Dynasties.

The name of Ninetjer's successor to the throne, Peribsen (Seth-Peribsen), unusually

referencing the god Seth, is another piece of evidence indicating unrest. However, it is
likely that Peribsen did not directly replace Ninetjer. It is likely that as many as two or
more shadowy rulers (Weneg, Sened and Nubnefer) took the throne of perhaps a
divided Egypt in the interim. However, most modern kings' lists do not reference all
of them, and some list only one or two.

The Palermo Stone

Weneg

After Ninetjer something happened to the Egyptian society that made many
centralised functions collapse or decline. During this period of unrest a few names
pop up on scanty fragments and among them a king called Weneg.
He was probably the pharaoh preceding Ninetjer at least in Lower Egypt, because a
division of the country for a short period cannot be excluded.

The Turin Canon has an entry with an unreadable name possibly to be his with no
figure of his regin but one for his age: 54 years.

His Horus-name (in a serek) is not known, but remaining form are found in a dozen
inscriptions, most of them from Sakkara. Though his reign probably was a very short
one (perhaps not more then a couple of years) his name is recorded in later king lists
like from the temple in Abydos

and the Sakkara list.

This indicates that despite the lack of earthly remains he probably had a position in
the legends for later generations, when they were commemorating the pharaohs from
the passed.

The scribes at that time misread his flower-sign (to be read: WNG) and replaced it
with a papyrus plant making the sound: Wadj-nes, meaning "fresh of tongue".

This was translated into Greek language (ougot-las) by Manetho, who gave the king
the name Tlas. In other words - a corruption on more than one occasion during the
flow of time.

Because he had a very short reign we can hardly expect that his tomb is a mass of
underground galleries like some of his prede- cessors. If he hasn't taken over an older
construction and made it his own we can look for a monument of more modest size,
maybe a mastaba of substance.
The area where to look for his tomb is probably around the other galleries east of the
pyramid of king Sekhemhkhet. This monument lies where the topography is
unsuitable.A good guess might be that the area to the east already was occupied by
superstructures (mastaba-like?) from dynasty 2 tombs, and that these were removed in
later times.

The substructures should then still be detectable, but this place has not been properly
investigated. There are candidates to be his tomb and in one mastaba (S3014) may
reveal Weneg's name.

Sethenes - Sened - Senedj

Senedj was a pharaoh during the Second dynasty of Egypt who ruled for 20 years.

When pharaoh Sened was in power Egypt was probably divided once again into its
southern and northern parts, with him as the king in North (Lower) Egypt from the
capital Memphis.

In the Turin Canon the length of his reign is lacking but a notation of (at least) 70
years indicates his age when he died.

There are no contemporary remains of him, not even the smallest writing is found so
far. A possible exception is a block of stone with his name on it, that was found and
reused as building material in the mortuary temple of fourth dynasty king Khafre
(Khefren) at Giza. This piece might just be of second dynasty origin and thus
contemporary to Sened.

Another artifact with his name is from a private fourth dynasty tomb in Sakkara where
a man called Shery has a title that tells that he is connected with the cult
commemorating king Sened. This is a couple of hundred years after his death. The
text also mentions king Peribsen who probably was Sened's counterpart in the
southern part of the country at the same time.

All other material sources science have about him are made in later times and one
remarkable object in a statuette from 2,000 years after his death made in the 800s BC.

His name appears on the king list, the Abydos list, and in the canon from a private
tomb in Sakkara where he is depicted simply by a plucked goose. He is mentioned in
the Canon of Turin as well, also there as a plucked goose.

Manetho gives him a reign of 41 years and calls him Sethenes. If that name has
something to do with the god Seth we don't know, but Egyptian records refer to him
as Sened.

His tomb has not as yet been identified.

Seth-Peribsen - Sekhemib - 'Powerful in Heart'

Peribsen was the fourth king of the 2nd Dynasty. He was actually not the legitimate
heir of Nintejer. In fact, many historians believe that the king was an outsider who
instigated coup against King Nintejer. King Peribsen used the designation of seth in
his titles. Unfortunately, nothing from Peribsen's era is well documented except for
his mortuary complex near Abydos.

He made sweeping political changes. The serekhs bearing the royal names are not
surmounted by Horus anymore but by his religious rival, Set, who became the
primary royal patron deity.

A stele bearing Peribsen's name found at Abydos

illustrates this change in loyalties.

In ancient Egypt, we find what sometimes appears to be almost a primeval struggle

between good and evil. This conflict between the followers of Seth (Set) and the
followers of Horus is very ancient and may very well form a component of our
modern theological concepts. Yet there may have, during the predynastic period,
actually been a battle between real rulers, symbolically or otherwise associated with
these two gods, over control of Egypt. In the end, the followers of Horus seem to have
(more or less) triumphed, and in general, Seth as a god, appears to us as the more
sinister of the two, even though one might say he was never really completely vilified.

At a few points in Egyptian history, normally when we see conflicts between the
north and south, Seth appears to gain favor with the Egyptian royalty. As an example,
we have the 4th (or possible the 6th) king of Egypt's 2nd Dynasty. This king
originally ascended the throne as Sekhemib, meaning "Powerful in Heart".

However, for the first time since the beginning of the 1st Dynasty, he specifically
broke from tradition, associating his name with Seth rather than Horus. His name was
changed from Sekhemib to Seth-Peribsen (Peribsen meaning "Hope of all Hearts").
It should be noted at this point, that apparently a minority of Egyptologists believe
that Sekhemib and Seth-Peribsen were two different kings. Furthermore, some would
have him changing his name from Seth Peribsen to Horus Sekhemib, though in our
context of earlier Egyptian kings, this seems less likely.

Apparently, the rivalry between Upper and Lower Egypt sparked a period of internal
unrest within the country, when seemingly, the followers of Seth gained an upper
hand that would take at least some hold on the country through the end of this
Dynasty.

Most of the 1st and early 2nd Dynasty kings are better attested to in the north of
Egypt, while the later kings of the 2nd Dynasty are better known from the south.

However, some argue that the reign of Seth Peribsen was not nearly as violent as we
might believe, and that his name change was more politically motivated in order to
assure peace. Others see it as a period when upper and lower Egypt may have simply
separated due to the difficulties in administering such a large state.

Egyptologists seem ready to admit that the events of the second dynasty are extremely
uncertain, if not the most uncertain in Egyptian history. It is entirely possible that the
events surrounding Peribsen's name change are related to religious and theological
motivations that remain unknown, due to the complex mythology surrounding Horus
and Seth.

It is likely that if conflicts did occur during this period, it was eventually settled by
Khasekemwy, the last king of the dynasty, though perhaps not without compromise
(together with no small amount of bloody conflict).

His serekh (a palace facade containing his name) is surmounted by both the Jackal of
Seth and the falcon of Horus. By the 3rd Dynasty, all of the kings reverted back to the
Horus title.

Even though Seth-Peribsen was considered a legitimate king by later generations of

ancient Egyptians, it is clear that the followers of Horus (at least in relationship to the
followers of Seth) dominated Egyptian history.

If indeed the struggle was originally not between gods, but rather mortal men under
the leadership of ancient kings, two things seem clear. First, during at least the early
dynasties, Seth (as a god) was not seen to be nearly as sinister as in later times.

However, as time passed and the worship of Horus and his association with the King
grew ever stronger, the attributes of Seth suffered.

We know Seth today as a god of confusion, the spirit of disorder and the
personification of violence, as well as bad faith. Yet in the Egyptian spirit of balance
and duality, he was a necessary component of their religion.

Seth-Peribsen may have ruled for around 17 years.

His predecessor is often listed as Nynetjet, though there is evidence and some
acceptance among Egyptologists that two rulers, named Weneg and Sened, may have
reigned between these two kings.

We know that Egyptian power extended as far south as Elephantine during his reign,
for seal impressions bearing his name were discovered there in 1985. Apparently,
there was a temple dedicated to Seth on the Island during later times.

Seth-Peribsen's tomb at Abydos

Seth Peribsen apparently built a fairly small tomb at Abydos with a burial chamber
lined with mudbrick, of which only the substructure survives. As might be expected,
there has been no tomb of his found at Saqqara, were many of the 1st Dynasty kings
were buried.

Khasekhemwy - "The Two Powerful Ones Appear"

Khasekhemwy is perhaps the best attested ruler of the 2nd Dynasty, a period that we
know very little about in general.

Khasekhemwy (d. 2686 BC; sometimes spelled Khasekhemui) was the 5th and final
Pharaoh of the Second dynasty of Egypt, ruling for 30 years. Little is known of
Khasekhemwy, other than that he led several significant military campaigns and built
several monuments, still extant, mentioning war against the Northerners.

Egyptologists have normally placed him as the successor of Seth-Peribsen, though

Manetho lists three kings between them, consisting of Sethenes (Sendji), Chaires
(Neterka) and Nebhercheres (Neferkara). However, there is no archaeological
evidence for these kings and almost no other information to verify their existence.

However, some Egyptologists believe he had another immediate predecessor named

Khasekhem, with an obviously similar name, though other scholars believe
Khasekhem and Khasekhemwy were in fact the same person. They argue that
Khasekhem changed his name to Khasekhemwy after he squashed a rebellion, thus
reuniting Upper and Lower Egypt. His new Horus name means "The Two Powerful
Ones appear". Afterwards, the rendering of his name on his serekh was surmounted
by both the Horus falcon and Seth jackel, marking it as unique in Egyptian history.

Perhaps Khasekhemwy's use of both the Horus and Seth god's representations in his
name was an act of reconciliation. We might even assume a politically inspired
unification of the country, were it not for evidence to the contrary. He in fact is
believed to have married a northern princess, but apparently only to cement the
control he gained through battle.
On a stone vase, we find recorded, "The year of fighting the northern enemy within
the city of Nekhet." Nekhet, now known as el-Kab, lies on the eastern bank of the
Nile across from the ancient capital, Nekhen, known to the Greeks as Hierakonpolis.
Hence, this was a major and dramatic battle between Upper and Lower Egyptians. On
the base of two seated statues of Khasekhemwy, we are told that some 47,209
northerners were killed, a huge number considering the relatively small population of
Egypt during the early dynastic period.

The Northern princess that Khasekhemwy married, a woman named Nemathap

(Nimaatapis), who jar sealings reveal as "The King-bearing Mother". She probably
mothered the earliest rulers of Egypt's 3rd Dynasty including Djoser.

It is also important to note that the earliest inscriptional evidence of an Egyptian king
at the Lebanese site of Byblos belonged to the reign of Khasekhemwy.

Khasekhemwy apparently undertook considerable building projects upon the

reunification of Egypt. He built in stone at el-Kab, Hierakonpolis and Abydos. He
apparently built a unique, as well as huge tomb at Abydos, the last such royal tomb
built in that necropolis (Tomb V). The trapezoidal tomb measures some 70 meters
(230 ft) in length and is 17 meters (56 ft) wide at its northern end, and 10 meters (33
ft) wide at its southern end. This area was divided into 58 rooms.

Prior to some recent discoveries from the First Dynasty, its central burial chamber
was considered the oldest masonry structure in the world, being built of quarried
limestone. Here, the excavators discovered the king's scepter of gold and sard, as well
as several beautifully made small stone pots with gold leaf lid coverings, apparently
missed by earlier tomb robbers. In fact, Petrie detailed a number of items removed
during the excavations of Amelineau. Other items included flint tools, as well as a
variety of copper tools and vessels, stone vessels and pottery vessels filled with grain
and fruit. There were also small, glazed objects, carnelian beads, model tools,
basketwork and a large quantity of seals.

However, probably more impressive is a structure located in the desert about 1,000
yards from the tomb. Known as the Shunet el-Zebib (storehouse of the Dates), it was
a huge rectangular structure measuring 123 x 64 meters (404 x 210 ft). The mudbrick
walls of the structure, with their articulated palace facade, were as much as 5 meters
(16 ft) thick and as high as 20 meters (66 ft). Incredibly, fragments of these mudbrick
walls have survived for nearly 5,000 years.

Some Egyptologists believe that the complex of buildings within this enclosure may
have functioned in a capacity similar to a mortuary temple. In fact, it had much in
common with the enclosure of Djoser's Step Pyramid at Saqqara. Besides the niched
inner walls of the parameter, a large mound of sand and gravel covered with mud
brick, approximately square in plan, was discovered within the enclosure. Located in
a similar position within the enclosure as the Step Pyramid in Djoser's complex, this
mound may have been a forerunner of the step pyramids.

Khasekhemwy's structures are seen as an important evolutionary stage of the ancient

Egyptian mortuary complex. Khasekhemwy died in about 2686 BC.
 Egypt - The Third Dynasty - (2686 - 2575 BC)

The Old Kingdom - The Age of the Pyramids

The Pharaohs of the Third Dynasty were the first to have actual pyramids constructed
as shrines to their deaths. Although crude, these step pyramids were the predecessors
to the later Pyramids of Giza and others. The first of these pyramids was designed by
Imhotep for Dzoser. Prior to, and during the construction of the step pyramids, rulers
were buried in a structure called a Mastaba.

A mastaba was a flatroofed, mudbrick, rectangular building with sloping sides

that marked the burial site of many eminent Egyptians of the Egypt's ancient
period.

Mastaba comes from the Arabic for bench, because they look like a mud
bench when seen from a distance. In a mastaba, a deep chamber was dug out
and lined with stone, mud bricks or wood. Above ground, the mud was piled
up to mark the grave, oblong in a shape with a length approximately 4 times
its width. Although this provided a much grander tomb, it was also a much
cooler tomb. This upset the early priests as it allowed the bodies to decompose
due to the fact that water no longer evaporated, preventing desiccation of the
bodies.

The Mastaba were the standard tomb type in early Egypt (the predynastic and
early dynastic periods.

While Manetho names one Necherophes, and the Turin King List names Nebka, as
the first pharaoh of the Third Dynasty of Egypt, some contemporary Egyptologists
believe Djoser was the first king of this dynasty, pointing out that the order in which
some predecessors of Khufu are mentioned in the Papyrus Westcar suggests that
Nebka should be placed between Djoser and Huni, and not before Djoser. That the
Turin King List has noted Djoser's name in red may also be significant.

In any case, Djoser is the best known king of this dynasty, for commissioning his
vizier Imhotep to build the earliest surviving pyramids, the Step Pyramid. Some
authorities believe that Imhotep lived into the reign of the Pharaoh Huni.

Little is known for certain of Sekhemkhet. However, it is believed that Khaba

possibly built the Layer Pyramid at Zawyet el'Aryan. Huni, the last king of this
dynasty, like Djoser had a renowned vizier, named Khagemni. In the Ramassid
period, a text named the Instructions was ascribed to Kagemni.

The Layer Pyramid (known locally in Arabic as Haram el-Meduwara, or

Round Pyramid) is located in the necropolis of Zawyet el'Aryan. It is thought
to be the tomb of Khaba, of the Third Dynasty, but this is based upon
excavations in a tomb inside the pyramid complex, and is disputed.

Sanakhte - Nebka - Khaba - Strong Protection (2686 2668 BC)

Uncertainty swirls around the placement, and also the events of the 3rd Dynasty king
known as Sanakhte (Sanakht). He may have been Nebka, who was known to manetho,
and listed on both the Turin Cannon and the Abydos king list as the first king of this
dynasty. However, this is problematic to say the least, for we base our belief that he
was Nebka on a source that lists his Horus name, Sanakhte, together with a second
name that ends with the element "ka" Most of the information we have on this king
refers to him as Nebka. In fact, some sources list the two as separate kings, with
Nebka founding the 3rd Dynasty and Sanakhte ruling later, perhaps after Khaba.

However, despite this, mud seal impressions bearing the name of Nethery-khet Djoser
from the Abydos tomb of the last king of the 2nd Dynasty Khasekhemuy and
connected with the burial seem to suggest that Khasekhemuy's widow and her already
ruling son Djoser were in charge of the king's burial. On the basis of sealing from the
tomb of Khasekhemwy, which name her as "Mother of the King's Children," the wife
of the last ruler of the 2nd Dynasty seems to have been one Nimaethap. The latter
name was also found, with the title of "King's Mother", upon seal impressions from
Mastaba K1 at Beit Khallaf, a gigantic monument dated to the reign of Djoser. Hence,
on the basis that Djoser was succeeded by Sekhemkhet and of indications pointing to
Khaba as the third in line, Nebka may have been the fourth king of the dynasty, to be
equated with the Nebkara following Djoser-teti and preceding Huni in the Saqqara
king list.

Many theories regarding the rule of Sanakhte have been advanced, including the
possibility that Sanakhte, as a member of a former ruling family, usurped the throne
from the ruling family at the beginning of the dynasty. Hence, Djoser could have
indeed buried his father, Khasekhemuy, and won back the throne from the usurper,
Sanakhte. However, we are told that today, most Egyptologists do believe that he was
a latter king of the Dynasty, even though most current documentary resources
continue to equate Sanakhte with Nebka, as the 1st King of Egypt's noteworthy 3rd
Dynasty who probably ruled from This near Abydos.

Little is known of this king, despite a reign of some 18 or 19 years (others might
attribute a much shorter reign of from five to seven years, which would allow a better
fit for him ruling before Djoser), for his reign is missing from the Palermo Stone, and
important source of information on this period of Egyptian history. However, Nebka
is mentioned in Papyrus Westcar. The only large scale monumental building that can
possibly be attributed to him is at Beit Khallaf (mastaba K2).

His name also appears on the island of Elephantine in southern Egypt near Aswan on
a small pyramid. Another of the few sources we have evidencing this king is a
fragment of a sandstone relief from Wadi Maghara in the Sinai. It would seem that he,
along with Djoser, began the exploitation in earnest of the mineral wealth of the Sinai
peninsula, with its rich deposits of turquoise and copper. It shows the king's name in a
serekh before his face.

The relief depicts Sanakhte, who is about to smite an enemy, wearing the Red Crown
of Lower Egypt. We also know of a priest of Nebka's mortuary cult who appears to
have lived in the reign of Djoser.

Some Egyptologists continue to believe that he may have been the brother of his
famous successor, Djoser (or Zoser), or if not, perhaps his father, but apparently
current thought among Egyptologists leans against this. It has been suggested that his
tomb at Saqqara was incorporated into the Step Pyramid of Djoser, though little real
evidence for this exists, but it has also been suggested that his is a little known
monument that seems to nicely fill the typological lacuna between the Shunet el Zebib
and the Step Pyramid at Saqqara.

Djoser - Netjerykhet - Divine of the Body - (2668 2649 BC)

Other spellings of his name include: Zoser, Dzoser, Zozer (or Zozzer), Dsr, Djeser,
Zoser, Zosar, Djйser, Djeser, Horus-Netjerikhet, Horus-Netjerichet.

Netjerikhet Djoser (Turin King List "Dsr-it"; Manetho "Tosarthros") is the best-
known pharaoh of the Third Dynasty of Egypt, for commissioning his vizier Imhotep
to build his Step Pyramid at Saqqara.

In contemporary inscriptions, he is called Netjerikhet, meaning body of the gods.

Later sources, which include a New Kingdom reference to his Step Pyramid, help
confirm that Netjerikhet and Djoser are the same person.

While Manetho names one Necherophes, and the Turin King List names Nebka, as
the first ruler of the Third dynasty, some contemporary Egyptologists believe Djoser
was the first king of this dynasty, pointing out that the order in which some
predecessors of Khufu are mentioned in the Papyrus Westcar suggests that Nebka
should be placed between Djoser and Huni, and not before Djoser.
 Westcar Papyrus is a document about Khufu, a 4th-Dynasty Egyptian leader,
and contains a cycle of five stories about marvels performed by priests. Each
of these tales is being told at the court of Khufu by his sons.

Manetho also states Djoser ruled for 29 years, while the Turin King List states it was
for 19. It is possible that Manetho's number is a mistake for the earlier Turin King
List; and it is also possible that the author of the Turin King List confused the bi-
annual cattle censuses as years, and that Djoser actually reigned for 37 or 38 years.
Because of his many building projects, particularly at Saqqara, some scholars argue
that Djoser must have ruled for at least 29 years.

Because Queen Nimaethap, the wife of Khasekhemwy, the last king of the Second
dynasty of Egypt, appears to have held the title of "Mother of the King", some writers
argue that she was Djoser's mother and Khasekhemwy was his father. Three royal
women are known from during his reign: Inetkawes, Hetephernebti and a third, whose
name is destroyed. One of them might have been his wife, and the one whose name is
lost may have been Nimaethap. The relationship between Djoser and his successor,
Sekhemkhet, is not known.

Djoser sent several military expeditions to the Sinai Peninsula, during which the local
inhabitants were subdued. He also sent expeditions to the Sinai where they mined for
valuable minerals like turquoise and copper. It was also strategically important as a
buffer between Asia and the Nile valley. He also may have fixed the southern
boundary of his kingdom at the First Cataract.

Some fragmentary reliefs found at Heliopolis and Gebelein mention Djoser's name
and suggest that he had commissioned construction projects in those cities. An
inscription claiming to date to the reign of Djoser, but actually created during the
Ptolemaic Dynasty, relates how Djoser rebuilt the temple of the god Khnum on the
island of Elephantine at the First Cataract, thus ending a famine in Egypt. While this
inscription is but a legend, it does show that more than two millennia after his reign,
Djoser was still remembered.

Sekhemkhet - Djoser Teti - (2649 2643 BC)

Sekhemkhet was Pharaoh in Egypt during the Third dynasty. According to

Manethonian tradition, a king known as "Djoserty" reigned a relatively brief seven
years, and modern scholars believe Djoserty and Sekhemkhet to be the same person.
His reign would thought to have been from about 2649 BC until 2643 BC.

While there was a known successor to Djoser, Sekhemkhet's name was unknown until
1951, when the leveled foundation and vestiges of an unfinished Step Pyramid were
discovered at Saqqara by Zakaria Goneim. Only the lowest step of the pyramid had
been constructed at the time of his death.

Jar seals found on the site were inscribed with this king's name. From its design and
an inscription from his pyramid at Saqqara, it is thought that Djoser's famous architect
Imhotep had a hand in the design of this pyramid.

Archaeologists believe that Sekhemket's pyramid would have been larger than
Djoser's had it been completed. Today, the site, which lies southwest of Djoser's
complex, is mostly concealed beneath sand dunes and is known as the Buried
Pyramid.

The Pyramid of Sekhemkhet

Khaba - The Soul Appears - (2643 2637 BC)

Khaba was the fourth king during the 3rd Dynasty. He is believed to have reigned a
relatively brief four years between 2603 BC to 2599 BC, although these dates are
highly conjectural, based on what scant evidence exists of this early king.

Zawiyat el-Aryan Pyramids

Khaba is commonly associated with the Layer Pyramid, located at Zawyet el'Aryan,
about 4 km south of Giza. It is an unfinished pyramid whose construction is typical of
Third Dynasty masonry and would have originally risen about 42-45m in height (it is
now about 20m). While there were no inscriptions directly relating the pyramid to this
king, a number of alabaster vessels inscribed with this king№s name were discovered
nearby in Mastaba Z-500 located just north of the pyramid.

Khaba is mentioned in the Turin King List as "erased", which may imply that there
were dynastic problems during his reign, or that the scribe working on this list was
unable to fully decipher the name from the more ancient records being copied from. It
has also been suggested that Khaba may be the Horus name of the last king of the
Third Dynasty, Huni, and that the two kings are the same person.

Khaba's name, typically displayed within a serekh rather than the more typical
cartouche form established by the end of this dynasty, was written using the sign of a
rising sun that had the sound value of kha, and a Saddle-billed Stork that had the
sound value of ba.

Huni - The Smiter - (2637 2613 BC)

Huni was the last Pharaoh of Egypt of the Third Dynasty.

Huni's wife Queen Meresankh I was the mother of Snefru. Huni was probably the
father of Hetepheres, queen of the next king, Snofru.

While there is some confusion over kings and their order of rule near the end of the
3rd Dynasty, it is fairly clear who terminates the period and who also stood on the
threshold between ancient Egypt's formative period and the grand courts of the Old
Kingdom to follow. Huni paved the way for the great pyramid builders of the 4th
Dynasty with his substantial construction projects and the possible restructuring of
regional administration.

Yet, we really know very little about this king who ruled during a pivotal point in
Egyptian history. The name Huni may be translated as "The Smiter". He is attested on
monuments of his time by his nswt-bity name, written in a cartouche. Alternative
readings have been suggested for his name, but none have been agreed upon, so he is
typically called Huni even though it probably represents a corruption of his original
name. He may also be one and the same as Horus Qahedjet, though this is uncertain.

In the late 1960s, a limestone stela of unknown provenance was purchased by the
Louvre museum. It was inscribed with the previously unknown Horus name,
Qahedjet. The stela was important to Egyptian art historians because it depicts the
earliest representation of a god (Horus) embracing the king. Therefore, it received
considerable attention.

Though the stela is very similar in style to the relief panels of the Step Pyramid of
Djoser, the execution of the carving is superior, and the iconography is more
developed. Hence, Egyptologists tend to favor a date for the stela at the end of the 3rd
Dynasty. Furthermore, the Horus name for the kings who Huni succeeded have been
tentatively identified. Therefore, though with no certainty, some scholars believe
Qahedjet to be the Huni's Horus name

The Turin Canon provides a reign for Huni of twenty-four years, and a shorter reign
than this would appear unlikely given the scale of his completed building projects. His
position as the last king of the 3rd Dynasty and Sneferu's immediate predecessor is
confirmed by both the Papyrus Prisse and by the autobiographical inscription in the
tomb of Metjen at Saqqara.

Actually, the most impressive monument which can be relatively clearly attributed to
Huni is a small granite step pyramid on the island of Elephantine. It is now thought
that a granite cone, bearing the inscription ssd Hwni, meaning "Diadem of Huni", and
with the determinative of a palace originally came from Elephantine. It would seem
therefore that Huni built either a palace or a building associated with the royal cult on
this island.

This small pyramid, together with others of similar size and construction located at
Seila in the Fayoum, Zawiyet el-Meitin in Middle Egypt, South Abydos, Tukh near
Naqada, el-Kula near Hierakonpolis and in south Edfu, appear to be unique, both in
their size and purpose. Many Egyptologists believe that, based on the monument at
Elephantine, all but the Seila pyramid may be dated to the reign of Huni. Excavations
have shown that his successor, Sneferu, was responsible for the pyramid at Seila.

Elephantine is an island in the River Nile, It measures some 1.2 km from north to
south, and is about 400 m across at its widest. It is a part of the modern Egyptian city
of Aswan.

There has been no small amount of debate about the purpose of these pyramids.
Almost all of the major pyramids in Egypt, before and after Huni, were royal tombs of
some nature. However, these small step pyramids appear to have little to do with
funerary practices. Many scholars have suggested, though there is little proof, that
they were constructed as cult places of the king or marked royal estates.

There was, for example, an administrative building attached to the pyramid at

Elephantine. Their locations suggest that there could have been one such pyramid for
each nome (ancient Egyptian province), at least in southern Upper Egypt. Some have
even suggested that their construction might have been associated with the
reorganization of regional government during Huni's reign. Irregardless, their purpose
remains unclear without further evidence for their use.

No one is certain about Huni's burial. It has been suggested that the pyramid at
Maidum may have been his, and many Egyptologists seem certain that it was at least
begun by him, though Middle and New Kingdom graffiti from the site credits Sneferu
with its construction.

However, if Sneferu had a hand in this project, it is probable that he only finished the
monument and converted it into a true pyramid. After all, Sneferu built at least two
other large pyramids and was buried in one of these. Otherwise, Huni's burial remains
a mystery. If he was not buried in the Maidum pyramid, than he may have been buried
at Saqqara, though the only obvious location at that site, the unexcavated Ptahhotep
enclosure to the west of the Djoser's complex, has no substructure. Hence, it is
unlikely to be an unfinished step pyramid complex.

Some scholars theorize that the small step pyramids built by Huni somehow lessened
the importance attached to the royal tomb. According to this view, Huni may never
have constructed a pyramid tomb complex at all.

However, the general consensus seem to be that the Maidum Pyramid was indeed his,
even though there is no evidence of there ever having been a stone sarcophagus in the
subterranean burial chamber and therefore no clear evidence he was ever buried in
this pyramid. Another theory suggests that he was actually buried in an unidentified
mastaba number 17 on the northeast side of the pyramid, where there is a typical Old
Kingdom, uninscribed granite sarcophagus. 

Though we traditionally end the 3rd Dynasty with Huni, he was probably the father of
the next King. It is though that the mother of Sneferu was probably Meresankh, who
was either a lesser wife or concubine of Huni's. If so, Sneferu would have married his
half sister, Hetepheres I, who was Huni's daughter. Little else is known about Huni's
family relationships.

Huni's memory lived on for some time after his death, for the Palermo Stone lists an
estate belonging to his cult during the reign of the 5th Dynasty King Neferirkara some
150 years after his death. This is really no surprise, for the achievements of Huni's
reign are impressive, and he clearly ushered in the great culture of Egypt's Old
Kingdom.

The structure of provincial government recorded in the tomb of Metjen probably

signals a definitive break from the Early Dynastic past, and set the stage for the
absolute central control of manpower and resources needed for the massive pyramid
building of the 4th Dynasty.
 The Fourth Dynasty

The Fourth Dynasty of Egypt was the second of the four dynasties considered forming
the Old Kingdom. The pharaohs of this dynasty include some of the best-known kings
of ancient Egypt known for constructing pyramids, perhaps the hallmark of Egypt. All
of the kings of this dynasty commissioned at least one pyramid to serve as a tomb or
cenotaph.

Like the Third Dynasty, these kings maintained their capital at Memphis.Sneferu, the
dynasty's founder, is known to have commissioned three pyramids, and some believe
he was responsible for a fourth. So although Khufu, his successor and son by
Hetepheres I, erected the largest pyramid in Egypt, Sneferu had more stone and brick
moved than any other pharaoh.

Khufu (Greek Cheops), his son Khafra (Greek Chephren), and his grandson Menkaura
(Greek Mycerinus) all achieved lasting fame in the construction of their pyramids. To
organize and feed the manpower needed to create these pyramids required a
centralized government with extensive powers, and Egyptologists believe the Old
Kingdom at this time demonstrated this level of sophistication.

Although it was once believed that slaves built these monuments, study of the
pyramids and their environs have shown that they were built by a corvйe of peasants
drawn from across Egypt, who apparently worked while the annual Nile flood
covered their fields.

While the pyramids suggest that Egypt enjoyed unparalleled prosperity during the
Fourth Dynasty, they survived as a reminder to the inhabitants of the forced labor that
created them, and these kings - Khufu in particular - were remembered as tyrants: first
in the Papyrus Westcar, and millennia later in legends recorded by Herodotus
(Histories, 2.124-133).

The archetype of the Turin King List, which otherwise records all of the names of the
kings of this dynasty, has two names missing, which the scribe indicated with the
Egyptian word wsf ("missing").

Sextus Julius Africanus reports Manetho had the names Bikheris and Tamphthis in
those positions, while Eusebius does not mention either. Some authorities (such as
K.S.B. Ryholt) follow Africanus in adding a possible Egyptian version of these names
to the list; others omit them entirely.

The earliest known records of Egypt's contact with her neighbors are dated to this
dynasty. The Palermo stone records the arrival of 40 ships laden with timber from an
unnamed foreign land in the reign of Sneferu.

The names of Khufu and Djedefra were inscribed in gneiss quarries in the Western
Desert 65 km. to the northwest of Abu Simbel; objects dated to the reigns of Khufu,
Khafra, and Menkaura have been uncovered at Byblos and to the reign of Khafra even
further away at Ebla, evidence of diplomatic gifts or trade.
It is unclear how this dynasty came to an end. Our only clue is that a number of
Fourth Dynasty administrators are attested as remaining in office in the Fifth Dynasty
under Use

The Fourth Dynasty

The Fourth Dynasty of Egypt was the second of the four dynasties considered forming
the Old Kingdom. The pharaohs of this dynasty include some of the best-known kings
of ancient Egypt known for constructing pyramids, perhaps the hallmark of Egypt. All
of the kings of this dynasty commissioned at least one pyramid to serve as a tomb or
cenotaph.

Like the Third Dynasty, these kings maintained their capital at Memphis.Sneferu, the
dynasty's founder, is known to have commissioned three pyramids, and some believe
he was responsible for a fourth. So although Khufu, his successor and son by
Hetepheres I, erected the largest pyramid in Egypt, Sneferu had more stone and brick
moved than any other pharaoh.

Khufu (Greek Cheops), his son Khafra (Greek Chephren), and his grandson Menkaura
(Greek Mycerinus) all achieved lasting fame in the construction of their pyramids. To
organize and feed the manpower needed to create these pyramids required a
centralized government with extensive powers, and Egyptologists believe the Old
Kingdom at this time demonstrated this level of sophistication.

Although it was once believed that slaves built these monuments, study of the
pyramids and their environs have shown that they were built by a corvйe of peasants
drawn from across Egypt, who apparently worked while the annual Nile flood
covered their fields.

While the pyramids suggest that Egypt enjoyed unparalleled prosperity during the
Fourth Dynasty, they survived as a reminder to the inhabitants of the forced labor that
created them, and these kings - Khufu in particular - were remembered as tyrants: first
in the Papyrus Westcar, and millennia later in legends recorded by Herodotus
(Histories, 2.124-133).

The archetype of the Turin King List, which otherwise records all of the names of the
kings of this dynasty, has two names missing, which the scribe indicated with the
Egyptian word wsf ("missing").

Sextus Julius Africanus reports Manetho had the names Bikheris and Tamphthis in
those positions, while Eusebius does not mention either. Some authorities (such as
K.S.B. Ryholt) follow Africanus in adding a possible Egyptian version of these names
to the list; others omit them entirely.

The earliest known records of Egypt's contact with her neighbors are dated to this
dynasty. The Palermo stone records the arrival of 40 ships laden with timber from an
unnamed foreign land in the reign of Sneferu.

The names of Khufu and Djedefra were inscribed in gneiss quarries in the Western
Desert 65 km. to the northwest of Abu Simbel; objects dated to the reigns of Khufu,
Khafra, and Menkaura have been uncovered at Byblos and to the reign of Khafra even
further away at Ebla, evidence of diplomatic gifts or trade.

It is unclear how this dynasty came to an end. Our only clue is that a number of
Fourth Dynasty administrators are attested as remaining in office in the Fifth Dynasty
under Use

Snefru - Snofru (2613 BC - 2589 BC)

 First king of the 4th Dynasty

Sneferu, also spelt as Snefru or Snofru (in Greek known as Soris), was the founder of
the fourth dynasty of Egypt, reigning from around 2613 BC to 2589 BC. While the
Turin Cannon records the length of his reign as 24 years, graffiti in his northern (Red,
and later) pyramid at Dahshur may suggest a longer reign.
His name, Snefer, means "To make beautiful" in Egyptian.

His Horus name was Nebmaat, but his royal titulary was the first to have his other
name, Snefru, enclosed within a cartouche.

It was by this "cartouche name" that he and subsequent kings were best known. He
enjoyed a very good reputation by later generations of ancient Egyptians. Considered
a benign ruler (highly unusual), the Egyptian term, snefer can be translated as "to
make beautiful".

Snefru was most likely the son of Huni, his predecessor, though there seems some
controversy to this, considering the break in Dynasties. However, his mother may
have been Meresankh I, who was probably a lessor wife or concubine and therefore
not of royal blood. Hence, this may explain what prompted the ancient historian,
Manetho (here, Snefru is known by his Greek name, Soris), to begin a new dynasty
with Snefru. However, it should be noted that both the royal canon of Turin and the
later Saqqara List both end the previous dynasty with Huni.

Snefru was almost certainly married to Hetepheres I, who would have been at least his
half sister, probably by a more senior queen, in order to legitimize his rule. She was
the mother of his son, Khufu, who became Egypt's best known pyramid builder,
responsible for the Great Pyramid at Giza.

It is believed he had at least three other wives who bore him a number of other sons,
including his eldest son, Nefermaet, who became a vizier. He probably did not outlive
his father, so was denied the Egyptian throne. Other sons include Kanefer, another
vizier who apparently continued in this capacity under Khufu (Cheops). We also
believe he fathered several other sons, and at least several daughters.

In reality, Snefru may probably be credited with developing the pyramid into its true
form. He apparently began by build what was probably a step pyramid at Maidum
(Madum), which was later converted into a true pyramid. But this effort met with
disaster (though probably not a quick one), because of the pyramid's mass and steep
slope.

He also built the Red Pyramid and Bent Pyramid at Dahshur. The Bent Pyramid was
the first true pyramid planned from the outset, while the Red Pyramid is the first
successful true pyramid built in Egypt. The Red and Bent Pyramids are, respectively,
the third and fourth largest pyramids known to have been built in Egypt.

In addition, Snefru is credited with at least one of a series of "regional" or provincial

pyramids, at Seila. This is a small, step pyramid with no substructure. A number of
other similar pyramids dot the Egyptian landscape, as far south as Elephantine Island,
and some Egyptologists believe Snefru (or his father) may be responsible for all, or at
least some of these. No one is very certain of the purpose of these small pyramids, but
they were likely either associated with provincial cult worship of the king, or may
have been located near to the king's "rural" palaces.

In many respects, including the combined scale of building projects and the
evolutionary architectural achievements, Snefru must be ranked as one of Egypt's
most renowned pyramid builders. In fact, the sheer volume of building work was
greater than any other ruler in the Old Kingdom.

However, his achievements in pyramid building extended beyond the pyramid

structure itself, and obviously incorporated evolving religious beliefs. During his
reign, we see the first real elements of the sun worship that was to follow and reach a
culmination over a thousand years later in the reign of Akhenaten.

For the first time in the orientation of the building plan the main axis was oriented
from east to west rather than north to south, as were earlier pyramids. This was
apparently a move away from the astronomical "star" oriented beliefs, toward the
east-west passage of the sun and the worship of Ra. Now, with Snefru, the mortuary
temple is on the east rather than than on the north side like in the Djoser Step Pyramid
complex at Saqqara. Furthermore, we see the first of the small satellite pyramids
placed near the southern face of the main pyramid, a structure that we still do not
completely understand today. Furthermore, the pyramid and mortuary temple
elements were now linked by a causeway to a valley temple located on the edge of the
cultivation closer to the Nile. It is believed the valley temple operated as a
monumental gateway to the whole of the pyramid complex.

While the growing importance of the sun worship is obvious in Snefru's reign, the
worship of Osiris was probably also beginning to influence Egyptian religion, though
little in the way of documented evidence can be supplied. With all of Snefru's
building activities, it is not surprising that he was very active in the quarries. His
name has been found attested to in rock inscriptions at the turquoise and copper mines
of the Wadi Maghara in the Sinai peninsula, as well as other quarries.

Snefru is also credited with keeping the administrative power of the country within
the royal family, As stated above, two of his sons became viziers and it is likely that
many other royal children held important posts. By the end of the 6th Dynasty,
administrative power within Egypt would be greatly decentralized which is
considered at least one of the reasons Egypt fell into the chaos of the First
Intermediate Period. Generally, Egypt was most powerful and prosperous when
Egyptian rulers maintained a strong central government, like that of Snefru's. In order
to further facilitate this centralized power base, he also apparently reorganized land
ownership among his nobles, presumably to prevent them from becoming too
powerful, but also to stimulate the cultivation of marshlands.

According to the Palermo Stone, he campaigned militarily against the Nubians and
Libyans. The expedition to Nubia was a very large campaign. The Palemo Stone
records a booty of 7,000 captives and 200,000 head of cattle. The population of Nubia
was never very great, so this was perhaps a rather substantial depopulation of the area.
Not only were these campaigns against Nubia initiated to obtain raw material and
goods, but also to protect Egypt's southern borders as well as the all important African
trade routes. The campaign in Libya records 11,000 captives and 13,100 head of
cattle.

The Palermo Stone also provides a record of forty ships that brought wood (probably
cedar) from an unnamed region, but perhaps Lebanon. Among other building uses,
Snefru is credited as has having used some of this wood to build Nile river boats up to
about 50 meters (about 170 ft.) in length.

It is interesting to note that Snefru's later deification was perhaps partially due to his
status as an "ideal" king, who's deeds were emulated by later kings to justify their
legitimacy to the throne. His reputation was no doubt enhanced by the Westcar
Papyrus (now in Berlin), probably written during the Hyksos period. Yet, even though
considered a warlike king by many, his worship in the Middle Kingdom was just as
much fueled by the admiration of common Egyptians (according to traditional
history).

Ancient literature repeatedly depicts him as a ruler who would address common
Egyptians as "my friend", or "my brother". It is also not surprising that during the
Middle Kingdom, his cult was particularly strong among the Sinai miners. Because of
his massive building projects, considerable resources from Snefru's reign were
employed to develop those quarries.

Therefore, Snefru became especially associated with this quarry district. Certainly
Snefru had a number of choices for his burial, but we believe he was actually interred
in the Red Pyramid at Dahshure. There, in the 1950s, the remains of a mummy were
found of a man past middle age, but not much so, suggesting that the king may have
come to rule Egypt at a fairly early age.

Some Egyptologists continue to attribute the Madium Pyramid to Huni (or more
properly, Nysuteh), as well as possibly to Horus Qahedjet (2637-2613 BC). However,
even these scholars appear to believe that Snefru finished this pyramid, but it would
have been highly unusual for a ruler of Egypt to have made such a substantial
contribution to his predecessor's mortuary complex. Still the question of who actually
started the construction of this pyramid is a mater for future discovery.

Reference: Monarchs of the Nile Aidan Dodson, 1995

Cheops - Khufu - Suphis - Protected by Khnum - (2589 BC - 2566 BC)

 Second king of the 4th Dynasty

He was allegedly the builder of the Great Pyramid of Giza - the only one of the Seven
Wonders of the Ancient World still standing - and founder of the Giza Plateau near
modern Cairo and Memphis. He reigned from around 2589 BC to 2566 BC.
Unlike his grandfather Huni, and his father Sneferu, both of whom were remembered
as benevolent and compassionate rulers, Khufu was reported by Herodotus to have
been a cruel despot.

KhufuРs Horus name was Medjedu, and his full birth-name was Khnum-Khufu,
meaning, "the god Khnum protects me." Khnum was considered the local god of
Elephantine, near the first Nile cataract, who created mankind on his "potterРs wheel"
and was also responsible for the proper flooding of the Nile.

Khufu may have been already on in years when he

took the throne. His kinsman and vizier, Hemiunu,
was also the architect of the Great Pyramid.
KhufuРs senior wife was named Merityotes, and
she and his other two wives were each buried in
one of the three smaller subsidiary pyramids that
lie just south of the mortuary temple of the main
pyramid.

Khufu had several sons, among them Kawab, who

would have been his heir, Khufukhaf, Minkhaf,
and Djedefhor, Djedefre and Khephren or Khafre.
The so-called Papyrus Westcar contains tales of
some of these sons.

Though the Great Pyramid somehow represents

the very essence of "ancient Egypt," the King for
whom it was built as a tomb has left little recorded
information of his actual reign. Khufu probably
reigned for 23 or 24 years. There is evidence that he sent expeditions to the Sinai, and
worked the diorite stone quarries deep in the Nubian desert, north-west ofAbu Simbel.

Inscriptions on the rocks at Wadi Maghara record the presence of his troops there to
exploit the turquoise mines, and a very faint inscription at Elephantine indicates that
he probably mined the red granite of Aswan as well.

Herodotus, who wrote his histories and commentaries on Egypt around 450 BCE,
centuries after Khufu had reigned around 2585 BCE, recorded this about the King:
Kheops brought the country into all kinds of misery. He closed the temples, forbade
his subjects to offer sacrifices, and compelled them without exception to labor upon
his works the Egyptians can hardly bring themselves to mention Kheops so great is
their hatred.

It was even said that Khufu set one of his daughters into a brothel so that she could
raise revenue to build the pyramid, also asking each client for a block of stone so she
could build her own pyramid. No evidence exists for such a story, though there are
smaller pyramids which probably belonged to half-sister/wives of Khufu, and he did
have at least three daughters of record.

Even prior to Herodotus, the author of the document now known as the Papyrus
Westcar depicts Khufu as cruel. The text was inscribed in the Hyksos period prior to
the 18th Dynasty, though its composition seems to date from the 12th Dynasty. One
story, Kheops and the Magicians, relates that a magician named Djedi who can
reputedly bring back the dead to life. He is presented to Khufu, who orders a prisoner
brought to him, so that he may see a demonstration of the
magician's talents.

Khufu further orders that the prisoner should be killed, and

then Djedi can bring him back to life. When Djedi objects,
the King relents his initial decision, and Djedi then
demonstrates his talent on a goose.

It should be noted that while Khufu has acquired this

reputation, accurate or not, the years and labor that went
into building his Pyramid tomb was surpassed by the three
pyramids built by his father Sneferu, who was contrarily
remembered as an amiable ruler.

The Great Pyramid originally stood 481 feet high complete

with its original casing, but since it lost its top 30 feet, it
stands only 451 feet now. It covers about 13 acres. The
exterior casing was shining white limestone, laid from the top downwards. It was
largely robbed in the Middle Ages to build medieval Cairo. Nothing now remains of
the limestone mortuary temple, which was 171 feet by 132 feet, except its black basalt
floor. The complexРs valley temple has disappeared under the Arab village, though
traces of this temple could be seen when new sewer systems were being laid down.

Along with the pyramid

itself, the remains of a
magnificent 141-foot long
ship of cedar wood had
also been found in a rock-
cut pit close to the south
side of the Great Pyramid.
A second ship may also
rest in a second sealed pit,
though not in as good
condition as this first. The
ship was restored over
many years, and now lies in
a special museum built near
the pyramid itself. The ship
may have symbolized the
solar journey of the
deceased king with the
gods, particularly the sun-
god Ra.

It is ironic indeed that for

all the magnificence of his
pyramid, his funeral boat, and the wonders of the funerary furnishings that were
discovered belonging to his mother, Queen Hetepheres, wife to Sneferu, the only
portrait we have of Khufu is a tiny 3-inch high statue sculpted in ivory.

I t may have been once easy to contemplate the builder of such a monument as the
Great Pyramid to have virtually enslaved his people to accomplish it, and to order a
royal princess to prostitute herself. Sneferu, Khufu's father, had three separate
pyramids built during his reign. Surely the workmen or nobles would have left some
evidence of their dissatisfaction at least at the whimsicality of their sovereign if not
his despotism. Yet Sneferu is remembered as amiable and pleasure-loving.

And Khafre, Khufus son, left not only a pyramid but quite possibly a Sphinx as well.
And history, or at least, historians, do not record Khafre is being a despot.

Continuing work at Giza is further showing that the men responsible for the building
of the pyramids led normal lives. They baked bread, ate fish, made offerings to their
blessed dead and the gods, and cared for their families.

They left funerary stelae and tombs behind to give us an indication of how they
considered their lot. It is more likely that the Greeks could less easily conceive of
such a project of long-term labor as being anything but forced. Perhaps some
archaeologist millennia in our own future may find rusted iron skeletons of some of
our finest skyscrapers and wonder to what cruel overlords we owed the sweat of our
own forced labor.

Reference: Monarchs of the Nile Aidan Dodson, 1995

Radjedef - Djedefra - Enduring Like Re - (2566 BC - 2558 BC)

Third king of the 4th Dynasty

The Egyptian pharaoh Djedefra was the successor and son of Khufu. The mother of
Djedefra is unknown.

He married his (half-) sister Hetepheres II, which may have been necessary to
legitimize his claims to the throne if his mother was one of Khufu№s lesser wives.

He also had another wife, Khentet-en-ka with whom he had (at least) three sons,
Setka, Baka and Hernet and one daughter, Neferhetepes.

The Turin King List credits him with a rule of eight years, but the highest known year
referenced to during this reign was the year of the 11th cattle count. This would mean
that Djedefra ruled for at least eleven years, if the cattle counts were annual, or 21
years if the cattle counts were biennial.

He was the first king to use the title Son of Ra as part of his royal titulary, which is
seen as an indication of the growing popularity of the cult of the solar god Ra.He
continued the move north by building his (now ruined) pyramid at Abu Rawash, some
8 km to the North of Giza.
It is the northernmost part of the Memphite necropolis.

In 2004, evidence that Djedefra may have been responsible for the building of the
Sphinx in the image of his father was reported by French Egyptologist Vassil Dobrev.

Khafre - Khaf-Re - Khauf-Re - Khafre - Khephren - Rakhaef -

Chephren - Suphis II - Appearing Like Re - (2558 BC - 2532 BC)

Fourth king of the 4th Dynasty.

His birth name was Khafre, which means "Appearing like Re". He is also sometimes
refereed to as Khafra, Rakhaef, Khephren or Chephren by the Greeks, and Suphis II
by Manetho. He was possibly a younger son of Khufu (Cheops) by his consort,
Henutsen, so he was required to wait out the reign of Djedefre, his older brother, prior
to ascending to the throne of Egypt. However, there is disagreement on this matter.
There is no agreement on the date of his reign; some authors saying it was between
2558 BC and 2532 BC; this dynasty is commonly dated ca. 2650 BC2480 BC.

Identifying him with Suphis II, Manetho gives his reign as lasting 66 years, but this
certainly cannot be substantiated. Modern Egyptologists believe he may have ruled
Egypt for a relatively long period, however, of between the 24 years ascribed to him
by the Turin Royal Cannon papyrus (which was apparently confirmed by an
inscription in the mastaba tomb of Prince Nekure), and 26 years. He is thought to
have ruled Egypt from about 2520 to 2494 BC.

There are rumors of a problem with the succession of Khafre. Some authorities
maintain that Djedefre may have even stole the throne, perhaps as a younger brother
of Khafre, and that Khafre may have even murdered him.

Much of this speculation originates from the fact that Djedefre broke with the Giza
burial tradition, electing instead to locate his tomb (pyramid) at Abu Rawash.
However, there is little real evidence to support such a conclusion, and in fact, Khafre
continued Djedefre's promotion of the cult of the sun god Re by using the title the
'Son of the Sun' for himself and by incorporating the name of the god in his own.
It is clearly evident from the fine mastaba tombs of the nobles in his court that Egypt
was prosperous while Khafre held the throne. Carved on the walls of the tomb of
Prince Nekure, a "king's son", was a will to his heirs. It is the only one of its kind
known from this period, and in it he leaves 14 towns to his heirs, of which at least
eleven are named after his father, Khafre.

Though his legacy was divided up among his five heirs, 12 of the towns were
earmarked to endow the prince's mortuary cult.We do know that Khafre participated
in some foreign trade, or at least diplomacy, for objects dating from his reign have
been found at Byblos, north of Beirut, as well as at Tell Mardikh (Ebla) in Syria. He
apparently also had diorite quarried at Tashka in Nubia and probably sent expeditions
into the Sinai.

Though there are few inscriptions left for us to completely understand the era of
Khafre's rule, he did leave behind some of the most important treasures ancient Egypt
has to offer.

Besides his pyramid complex at Giza, most Egyptologists believe he also built the
Great Sphinx and that it is his face that adorns this huge statue, which sits just beside
his valley temple.

In addition, the life size diorite statue of Khafre found in his valley temple and now
located in the Egyptian Antiquities Museum is one of the most magnificent artifacts
ever discovered.

Like his father Khufu, Khafre was depicted in fold tradition as a harsh, despotic ruler.
Though as late as the New Kingdom, Ramesses II seems to have had no qualms about
taking some of the casing from his pyramid at Giza for use in a temple at Heliopolis,
by Egypt's Late Period, the cults of the fourth dynasty kings had been revived, and
Giza became a focus of pilgrimage.

Khafre's mummy has been lost, but his mortuary temple at Giza yielded one of the
finest extant Old Kingdom statues an almost undamaged life-size seated diorite figure
of the king enjoying the protection of the god Horus. A statue of Khafre under the
protective shadow of a falcon is in the Cairo Museum.

Reference: Monarchs of the Nile Aidan Dodson, 1995

Menkaure - Mycerinus - Menhaure - Eternal Like the Souls of Re - (2532 BC -

2503 BC)
 Fifth king of the 4th Dynasty

Menkaure with his wife Khamerernebty II

appearing as Hathor (left) and the goddess
of the seventeenth nome of Egypt (right)

Menkaure is the son of Khafre and the grandson of Khufu of Dynasty IV. He bore the
titles Kakhet and Hornub. There are doubts that Menkaure could be the son of Khafre,
because the Turin Papyrus mentioned a name of a king between Menkaure and
Khafre, but the name was smashed. A Middle Kingdom text written on a rock at Wadi
Hamamat includes the names of the kings: Khufu, Djedefre, Khafre, Hordedef and
Bauefre. This text indicates to some that Hordedef and Bauefre ruled after Khafre.
But it seems that their names were not written as kings because Menkaure's names
were not mentioned. It has been suggested that Hordedef's name was mentioned
because was a wise educated man in this period and perhaps Bauefre was a vizier.

He built the smallest pyramid at the Giza plateau, and is called Menkaure is Divine.
Menkaure's pyramid is two-tone in color: the top half covered with bright white
limestone casing, while red Aswan granite was used for the casing on the bottom. E1-
Makrizi, the Arab historian named Menkaure's pyramid as the colored pyramid
because of the red granite casing. The pyramid stands 66.5m high, which is much
smaller than the other two pyramids at Giza. The pyramid is remarkable because it is
the only pyramid in Dynasty IV that was cased in 16 layers of granite, Menkaure
planned to cover the surface with granite but he could not because of his sudden
death.
The pyramid complex of Menkaure was completed by his son and successor
Shepseskaf but the temples has architectural additions which were made during
Dynasties V and VI. This suggests that the cult of Menkaure was very important and
perhaps differed from the cults of Khufu and Khafre. Shepseskaf completed the
pyramid complex with mudbrick and left an inscription inside the Valley Temple
indicating that he built the temple for the memory of his father.

At the pyramid's entrance, there is an inscription records that Menkaure died on the
twenty-third day of the fourth month of the summer and that he built the pyramid. It is
thought that this inscription dates to the reign of Khaemwas, son of Ramsses II. The
name of Menkaure found written in red ochre on the ceiling of the burial chamber in
one of the subsidiary pyramids.

When pyramid was explored in the 1830's, a lidless basalt sarcophagus was found in
the burial chamber. Inside it was a wooden mummiform coffin inscribed with
Menkaure's name. This is curious because mummiform coffins weren't made until
much later. Best guess is that the coffin was provided in an attempted restoration
during the 26th dynasty (that's 2000 years later!) when there was a renewed interest in
the culture of the Old Kingdom.

The wooden coffin and basalt sarcophagus were sent on separate ships to England to
end up on display in the British Museum, but a storm at sea sank the boat that was
transporting the sarcophagus. It sank to the bottom of the sea and was never
recovered.

The sarcophagus was allegedly lost in the Mediterranean between ports of Cartagena
and Malta when the ship 'Beatrice' sank after setting sail on October 13, 1838. There
still exists the wooden anthropoid coffin found inside the pyramid which bears the
name and titles of Menkaure.
Menkaure's main queen was Khamerernebty II, who is portrayed with him in a group
statue found in the Valley Temple. It is believed that she is buried in Giza.

Menkaure ruled for 18 years. There are two inscriptions found in his pyramid
complex. The first was a decree bearing the Horus name of Merenre of Dynasty VI.
The decree stated that the Valley Temple was in use until the end of the Old
Kingdom. The objects found in some of the storage rooms of the temples show that
the king's cult was maintained and that the temple had a dual function as a temple and
a palace.

The second decree of Pepi II was found on the lower temple vestibule, awarding
privileges to the priests of the pyramid city. In the adjacent open court and in the area
just east of the temple lie the remains of the Old Kingdom houses. Pepi II's decree
indicates that these houses belonged to the pyramid city of Menkaure. Here lived the
personnel responsible for maintaining the cult of the deceased king.

The statuary program found inside the complex displays the superb quality of arts and
crafts. The triads in Menkaure's valley temple suggest that his pyramid complex was
dedicated to Re, Hathor, and Horus. In addition, they show the king's relationship
with the gods and are essential to his kingship, indicating both a temple and palace
function.
The textual evidence indicates that the high officials had more privileges in his reign
that in any other period. They had many statues in their tombs; the inscriptions and
the scenes increased and were set on rock-cut tombs. In the tomb of Debhen an
inscription was found describing the kindness of Menkaure.

When Debhen came to visit the king's pyramid, he asked the king for permission to
build his tomb near the pyramid. The king agreed and even ordered that stones from
the royal quarry in Tura should be used in building his tomb. The text also mentions
that the king stood on the road by the Hr pyramid inspecting the other pyramid. The
name "Hr" was also found written in the tomb of Urkhuu at Giza, who was the keeper
of a place belonging to the Hr pyramid. It is not clear what the Hr pyramid is. Is it a
name of a subsidiary pyramid, or the name of the plateau? The Debhen texts is a
revelation of how the king tried to inspire loyalty by his people giving them gifts.

Menkaure also had a new policy - he opened his palace to the children of his high
officials. They were educated and raised with the king's own children. Shepsesbah is
one of those children. The textual and archaeological evidence of the Old Kingdom
indicates that the palace of the king was located near his pyramid and not at Memphis.
Menkaure explored granite from Aswan and he sent expeditions to Sinai. Excavations
under the author revealed a pari of statues of Ramses II on the south side of
Menkaure's pyramid. The statues were made of granite, and one represents Ramses as
king while the other as Atum-Re.

The name of Menkaure was found written on scarabs dated to the 26th Dynasty,
which may imply that he was worshipped in this period.

Herodotus mentioned that Menkaure died suddenly and added that there was an oracle
from the Buto statue that foretold that he would live for 6 years. Menkaure started to
drink, and enjoy every moment of his remaining years. However, Menkaure lived for
12 years, thus disproving the prophecy. Herodotus also said that his daughter
committed suicide.

The Greek historian also wrote that the Egyptians loved Menkaure more than his
father and grandfather. The Late Period tales were based on Menkaure's reputation
during the Old Kingdom. He ruled with justice, gave freedom to his officials to carve
statues and make offerings, and stopped the firm rules.

Reference: Monarchs of the Nile Aidan Dodson, 1995

Shepseskaf - 'His Soul is Noble' - (2503 BC - 2498 BC)

 Shepseskaf was the sixth king of the 4th Dynasty.

Pharaoh Menkaure has died after a 28 year long reign. His son and heir by queen
Khamerernebty II, the young Prince Khuenre, has tragically died before he could take
to the throne. Menkaure is therefore succeeded by Shepseskaf, a son of Menkaure by
an unknown minor wife. Although a half brother to Prince Khuenre, he was not an
ideal choice for the role of Pharaoh, as he is not of complete royal blood.р

His major wife was Bunefer. He has no known sons and one daughter, Khamaat.

He was in power for just a short period of time. This was another difficult political
period, during which there were many confrontations with various priests. Many
desired independence and rebelled against Shepseskaf's authority.

Shepseskaf completed his father Menkaure's Pyramid. He chose not to be buried in a

Pyramid and as he returned to Saqqara after most of his 4th Dynasty predecessors had
either preferred Dashur in the South (Snofru) or Abu Rawash (Djedefre) and Giza
(Kheops, Khefren and Mykerinos) in the North to build their funerary monuments.
This return to Saqqara has often been interpreted more as a distancing of Giza and of
the supposedly oppressive politic followed by Kheops and Khefren, but there are, in
fact, no valid arguments that support this theory.

Whatever Shepseskaf's motivations for returning to Saqqara may have been, it is

perhaps also telling that he moved to an area in Saqqara that does not appear to have
been used before: Saqqara-South. In fact, his tomb is the southern-most royal tomb of
Saqqara.

Even in the choice of his funerary monument, Shepseskaf chose not to follow the
standard established by his ancestors. His tomb consists of a mastaba-shaped
superstructure with a small mortuary temple to the east. No satellite or queen's
pyramids appear to have been built.
 Map of the tomb and temple of Shepseskaf.

The mastaba, which has earned this monument the name Mastabat el-Fara'un, was
99.6 metres long and 74.4 metres broad. It was originally encased in limestone, except
for its base course, which was in granite. It had a slope of 70 E and certainly was
shaped like a shrine: a rounded top flanked by two almost vertical walls.

Cut-away of the Mastabat el-Fara'un showing

the original shape of this rather unique royal tomb.

Source: Lehner, Complete Pyramids, p. 139

The mastaba is entered from the north side, from where a corridor descends for 20.95
metres with a slope of 23Й30'. At the end of the passage is a horizontal corridor
passage followed by a second passage blocked by three portcullises and an
antechamber. A short passage to the west goes down into the vaulted burial chamber
that measures 7.79 by 3.85 metres and has a height of 4.9 metres. Fragments of the
sarcophagus indicate that it was made of a hard dark stone and decorated like
Mykerinos'. To the south of the antechamber a corridor extends with 6 niches to the
east, again similar to the niches found in the pyramid of Mykerinos.

The mastaba is enclosed within two mudbrick walls: the first also incorporates a small
mortuary temple that had some open courts, an offering hall and a false door, flanked
by 5 magazines. The long causeway that extended towards the east has not (yet) been
excavated.

After Shepseskaf died, Khentkawes, another child of Menkaure by a minor wife and
Shepseskaf's half-sister, married a nobleman named Userkaf, who was the great
grandson of Pharaoh Khufu. Upon his marriage to Pharaoh Shepseskaf's half sister
Khentkawes, Userkaf was in a strong enough position to be crowned Pharaoh over all
Egypt, and begin the 5th Dynasty of Kings.

Userkaf returned to the more traditional pyramid-tomb. From then on, the dimensions
and shape of the pyramid, and the temple connected to it, would become more and
more standardized.

Reference: Monarchs of the Nile Aidan Dodson, 1995

Djedefptah - (2498 - 2494 BC)

Djedefptah is a shadowy figure, and his existence is questionable. It is usual to

consider Shepseskaf to be the last pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty. Manetho however
lists a king Tamphthis (this may probably a corrupted form of ptah-djedef), and notes
that he reigned for 9 years.

The Turin Canon has an unnamed pharaoh after Shepseskaf who ruled for about two
years, and this ruler may be Djedefptah. Very little else is known about him, although
he may have been a son of Shepseskaf.
 The Fifth Dynasty

The Fifth Dynasty of Egypt is considered part of the Old Kingdom of ancient Egypt.
Manetho writes that these kings ruled from Elephantine, but archeologists have found
evidence clearly showing that their palaces were still located at Ineb-hedj ("White
Walls").

How Pharaoh Userkaf founded this dynasty is not known for certain.

The Papyrus Westcar, which was written during the Middle Kingdom, tells a story of
how king Khufu of the Fourth Dynasty was given a prophecy that triplets born to the
wife of the priest of Ra in Sakhbu would overthrow him and his heirs, and how he
attempted to put these children - named Userkaf, Sahura, and Neferirkara - to death;
however in recent years, scholars have recognized this story to be at best a legend,
and admit their ignorance over how the transition from one dynasty to another
transpired.

During this dynasty, Egyptian religion made several important changes. The earliest
known copies of funerary prayers inscribed on royal tombs (known as the Pyramid
Texts) appear.

The cult of the god Ra gains added importance, and kings from Userkaf through
Menkauhor built temples dedicated to Ra at or near Abusir.

Then late in this dynasty, the cult of Osiris assumes importance, most notably in the
inscriptions found in the tomb of Unas.

Amongst non-royal Egyptians of this time, Ptahhotep, vizier to Djedkare Isesi, won
fame for his wisdom; The Maxims of Ptahhotep was ascribed to him by its later
copyists.

Non-royal tombs were also decorated with inscriptions, like the royal ones, but
instead of prayers or incantations, biographies of the deceased were written on the
walls.

As before, expeditions were sent to Wadi Maghara and Wadi Kharit in the Sinai to
mine for turquoise and copper, and to quarries northwest of Abu Simbel for gneiss.

Trade expeditions were sent south to Punt to obtain malachite, myrrh, and electrum,
and archeological finds at Byblos attest to diplomatic expeditions sent to that
Phoenician city.

Finds bearing the names of a several Fifth Dynasty kings at the site of Dorak, near the
Sea of Marmara, may be evidence of trade but remain a mystery.

Userkaf - Userkhaf - "His Soul is Powerful" - 2498 B.C. - 2345 B.C.

Userkaf was the founder and first king of the 5th Dynasty.

It is believed that he was father of two pharaohs, Sahure and Neferirkare Kakai, who
both succeeded him to the throne. Another less common view, in concordance with a
story of the Westcar Papyrus, is that first three rulers of the Fifth dynasty were all
brothers, the sons of queen Khentkaus I. He is given a reign of 7 Years by both the
Turin King List and Manetho.

His pyramid complex at Saqqara introduced several new changes from the previous
dynasty. In comparison with the tombs of the Fourth dynasty, his pyramid was rather
small. Instead, increased focus was put on the mortuary temple, which were more
richly decorated than in the previous Fourth dynasty. In the temple courtyard, a
colossal statue of the king was raised. The mortuary temple was to the south of the
pyramid, not to the east, as was traditional. This is now seen as being due to the
increasing importance of the sun god in the south, the temple would be bathed in the
sun's rays throughout the day.

Userkaf, as the originator of the fifth dynasty, clearly felt he should associate himself
with one of his great predecessors. To achieve this, he build his pyramid complex at
Saqqara, as close as possible to that of Djoser. When completed, the pyramid was 161
ft (49 m) high and encased in limestone, though the core was sloppily built and
therefore crumbled when this casing was removed by robbers. Although the complex
is now ruined and largely inaccessible, limited excavations there have produced a
huge pink granite head of Userkaf. Userkaf also built the first of the Solar Temples of
Abu-Gurob.

Reference: The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt Ian Shaw, 2000

Sahure - "He Who is Close to Re" - (2487 - 2477 BC)

 The second king of the 5th Dynasty.

Sahure was a son of queen Khentkaus I, who, in her tomb at Giza, is said to have been
the "mother of two kings". His father probably was Userkaf.

There are no wives or children known to him and at least no children of his seem to
have outlived him, since he was succeeded by his brother, Neferirkare, the first king
known to have used separate names.

His Horus name was Nebkhau.

It is believed he ruled Egypt from around 2487 BC to 2475 BC. The Turin King List
gives him a reign of twelve years. The Palermo stone notes seven cattle counts, which
would indicate a reign of at least 13 years if the cattle counts were held biannualy
(every two years) as this Annal document indicates for the early Fifth Dynasty period.

It is probable that Khentkaus I was the character of Redjedet in the Papyrus Westcar,
who according to the magician Djedi, was destined to give birth to the children of Ra
and the first kings of the 5th Dynasty. But if Khentkaus I was his mother, a scene in
her tomb at Giza showing her with the royal uraeus and beard might indicate that she
may have acted as a regent for Sahure.

Most foreign relations during the reign of Sahure were economic, rather than
combative. In one scene in his pyramid, we find great ships with Egyptians and
Asiatics on board. It is believed they are returning from the port of Byblos in Lebanon
with huge cedar trees. For this, we have corraborating evidence in the form of his
name on a piece of thin gold stamped to a chair, as well as other evidence of Fifth
dynasty king's cartouches found in Lebanon on stone vessels. Other scenes in his
temple depict what we are told are Syrian bears.

We also have the first documented expedition to the land of Punt, which apparently
yielded a quantity of myrrh, along with malachite and electrum, and because of this,
Sahure is often credited with establishing an Egyptian navy. There are also scenes of a
raid into Libya which yielded various livestock and showed the king smiting the local
chieftains. The Palermo stone also corroborates some of these events and also
mentions expeditions to the Sinai and to the exotic land of Punt, as well as to the
diorite quarries northwest of Abu Simbel, thus, far into Nubia.
However, this same scene of the Libyan attack was used two thousand years later in
the mortuary temple of Pepi II and in a Kawa temple of Taharqa. The same names are
quoted for the local chieftain. Therefore, we become somewhat suspicious of the
possibility that Sahure was also copying an even earlier representation of this scene.

He apparently built a sun temple, as did most of the 5th Dynasty kings. Its name was
Sekhet-re, meaning "the Field of Re", but so far its location is unknown. We know of
his palace, called Uetjesneferusahure ("Sahure's splendor soars up to heaven"), from
an inscription on tallow containers recently discovered in Neferefre's mortuary
temple. It may have been located at Abusir as well. We also know that under Sahure,
the turquoise quarries in the Sinai were worked (probably at Wadi Maghara and Wadi
Kharit), along with the diorite quarries in Nubia.

Sahure is further attested by a statue now located in New York's Museum of Modern
Art, in a biography found in the tombs of Perisen at Saqqara and on a false door of
Niankhsakhment at Saqqara, and is also mentioned in the tombs of Sekhemkare and
Nisutpunetjer, kings of the Twelfth dynasty at their tombs in Giza.

His pyramid complex was the first built at the new royal burial ground at Abusir a few
kilometres north of Saqqara (though Userkaf had probably already built his solar
temple there) and marks the decline of pyramid building, both in the size and quality,
though many of the reliefs are very well done.

His pyramid provides us most of the information we know of this king. The reliefs in
his mortuary and valley temple depict a counting of foreigners by or in front of the
goddess Seshat and the return of a fleet from Asia, perhaps Byblos. This may indicate
a military interest in the Near East, but the contacts may have been diplomatic and
commercial as well. As part of the contacts with the Near East, the reliefs from his
funerary monuments also hold the oldest known representation of a Syrian bear.
When it was excavated in the first years of the 1900s, a great amount of fine reliefs
were found to an extent and quality superior to those from the dynasty before. Some
of the low relief-cuttings in red granite are masterpieces of their kind and still in place
at the site. The construction of the pyramid was on the other hand (like the others
from this dynasty) made with an inner core of roughly hewn stones in a step
construction held together in many sections with a mortar of mud.

While this was under construction a corridor was left into the shaft where the grave
chamber was erected separately and later covered by leftover stone blocks and debris.
This working strategy is clearly visible from two unfinished pyramids and was the old
style from the Third dynasty now coming back after being temporary abandoned by
the builders of the five great pyramids at Dahshur and Giza during the Fourth dynasty.

Few depictions of the king are known, but in a sculpture he is shown sitting on his
throne with a local nome deity by his side.

Today only the inner construction remains partly visible in a pile of rubble originating
from the crude filling of debris and mortar behind the casing stones taken away a
thousand years ago. The whole inner construction is badly damaged and not possible
to access today.

The entrance at the north side is a short descending corridor lined with red granite
followed by a passageway ending at the burial chamber. It has a gabled roof made of
big limestone layers and fragments of the sarcophagus were found here when it was
entered in the early 1800s.

Sahure established the Egyptian navy and sent a fleet to Punt and traded with
Palestine. His pyramid at Abusir has colonnaded courts and reliefs of his naval fleet,
but his military career consisted mostly of campaigns against the Libyans in the
western desert. Reliefs on the walls show evidence for trading expeditions outside
Egypt џ ships are shown with both Egyptians and Asiatics on board. These ships are
part of an expedition to the Lebanon, searching for cedar logs. This is corroborated by
inscriptions found in the Lebanon testifying to an expedition there under Sahure. As
part of the contacts with the Near-East, the reliefs from his funerary monuments also
hold the oldest known representation of a Syrian bear.

A relief showing a war against Libya is believed by some to be historical and by

others to be merely ritual. The Palermo-stone also mentions expeditions the the Sinai
and to the exotic land of Punt, as well as to the diorite quarries North-West of Abu
Simbel, thus far into Nubia.

Reference: Monarchs of the Nile Aidan Dodson, 1995

Neferirkare - "Divine of the Body" - (2477 - 2467 BC)

 He was the third king of the 5th Dynasty.

Neferirkare was the second son of Khentkaus I to have ruled Egypt. As with his
brother Sahure, it is not known whether Userkaf was his father. Neferirkare was
married to a name-sake of his mother's, Khentkaus II. It is not unlikely that Khentkaus
II too was related to Khentkaus I. At least two children are believed to have been born
of this marriage: Neferefre and Niuserre. Other wives and children are not known.

The length of his reign is unfortunately lost on the Turin King-list and the Palermo-
stone breaks of after having recorded a 5th counting, which, if the counting occurred
every two years, would mean that Neferirkare at least ruled for 10 years. According to
Manetho, his rule lasted for 20 years, a number which appears to be generally
accepted.

The Turin Canon, also known as the Turin Royal Canon is a unique papyrus, written
in hieratic currently in the Egyptian Museum at Turin, to which it owes its modern
name.

The Turin Canon is broken into over 160 often very small fragments, many of which
have been lost. When it was discovered in the Theban necropolis by the Italian
traveller Bernardino Drovetti in 1822, it seems to have been largely intact, but by the
time it became part of the collection of the Egyptian Museum in Turin, its condition
had severely deteriorated.

The importance of this papyrus was first recognised by the French Egyptologist Jean-
Francois Champollion, who, later followed by Gustavus Seyffarth took up its
reconstruction and restoration. Although they succeeded in placing most of the
fragments in the correct order, the diligent intervention of these two men came too
late and many lacunae still remain.

Written during the long reign of Ramesses II, the papyrus, now 1.7m long and 0.41m,
comprises on the recto an unknown number of pages that hold a list of names of
persons and institutions, along with what appears to be the tax-assessment of each.

It is, however, the verso of the papyrus that has attracted the most attention, as it
contains a list of gods, demi-gods, spirits, mythical and human kings who ruled Egypt
from the beginning of time presumably until the composition of this valuable
document.

The beginning and ending of the list are now lost, which means that we are missing
both the introduction of the list -if ever there was such an introduction- and the
enumeration of the kings following the 17th Dynasty. We therefore do not know for
certain when after the composition of the tax-list on the recto an unknown scribe used
the verso to write down this list of kings. This may have occurred  during the reign of
Ramesses II, but a date as late as the Dynasty can not be excluded. The fact that the
list was scribbled on the back of an older papyrus may indicate that it was of no great
importance to the writer.

Neferirkare was the first king to have his birth-name made part of the official titulary,
thus adding a second cartouche. He was the first king to have employed both a
prenomen and nomen (two names and two cartouches),a custom that later kings
would follow.

The hieratic papyrus found at his pyramid complex are probably his most notable
contributions to Egyptology. They were originally discovered in 1893 by local
farmers and consist of 300 papyrus fragments. They remained unpublished for some
seventy-five years, even as the first archaeologists were excavating Abusir. Only later
did a Czech mission, which explored the site in 1976, take full advantage of these
documents.

The Neferirkara archive reveals a world of detailed and very professional

administration. Elaborate tables provide monthly rosters of duty: for guarding the
temple, for fetching the daily income (or 'offerings') and for performing ceremonies
including those on the statues, with a special roster for the important Feast of Seker.

Similar tables list the temple equipment, item by item and grouped by materials, with
details of damage noted at a monthly inspection. Other records of inspection relate to
doors and rooms in the temple building. The presentation of monthly income is
broken down by substance, source and daily amount. The commodities are primarily
types of bread and beer, meat and fowl, corn and fruit. They also mention a mortuary
temple of a little-known king, Raneferef, who's tomb was yet to be discovered but
thanks to these papyrus, is now known and has yielded significant discoveries.
He also completed (or modified) the solar-temple built by Userkaf in Abusir. His own
solar-temple, called Set-ib-Re, has yet to be located.

He was also the second king to erect his funerary monument at Abusir. The seals and
papyri discovered in his mortuary temple give some insights into the functioning of
this temple. The documents are dated to the end of the 6th Dynasty, which indicates
that the cult for the deceased Neferirkare at least lasted until the end of the Old
Kingdom.

Reference: Monarchs of the Nile Aidan Dodson, 1995

Shepseskare Izi - "Noble is the Soul of Re" - (2467 - 2460 BC)

He was the fourth king of the 5th Dynasty.

Little to nothing is known about Shepseskare nor his relationship to the other kings of
the 5th Dynasty. Shepseskare Isi, also spelt Shepseskare, (in Greek known as Sisiris),
was Pharaoh of Egypt during the Fifth dynasty, and is thought to have reigned from
around 2426 BC 2419 BC. Both the Turin King List and Manetho suggest that he
ruled Egypt for seven years.

Several clay seals dated to his reign have been found at Abusir, and these are about
the only witnesses of Shepseskare's reign. It is not known whether he built a pyramid
or a solar-temple, although the unfinished pyramid located at Abusir between the
pyramid of Sahure and the solar-temple of Userkaf, has, by some, been credited to
him.

Reference: Monarchs of the Nile Aidan Dodson, 1995

Neferefre - "Beautiful is Re" - (2460 - 2453 BC)

He was the fifth king of the 5th Dynasty.

Neferefre was the first son of Neferirkare and Khentkaus II to come to the throne. The
Turin King-list is too fragmentary to provide us with the length of Neferefre's reign.

He built a solar-temple named Hetep-Re, which has not yet been discovered, and, at
Abusir, started with the building of his own pyramid complex which was left
unfinished.

Because of the premature death of Neferefre, his successor hastily completed work on
Neferefre's pyramid at Abusir, which acquired the form of a mastaba. Although it may
share the same resemblance to a mastaba tomb, it is not situated north-south, and it is
not rectangular in shape, but square on all sides.

Known as the "Unfinished Pyramid", it stands just seven meters high, but from the
constructed portions, the walls slope at a 64є angle. Similarly to other sites of other
Ancient Egyptian pyramids, the burial site of Neferefre contains more than one
pyramid, and his lines up the three pyramids, similarly to the Great Pyramids.

Artifacts found at the sight show that the name of his pyramid is "Divine is
Neferefre's Power." All the other buildings of Neferefre's mortuary complex were
erected under the reign of his brother, Nyuserre Ini. While exploring ruins of the
mortuary complex, a Czech archaeological expedition discovered papyri of temple
accounts, statues of the king, decorated plates and many seal prints.

Pieces of mummy wrappings and bones were also found, which were discovered to be
the remains of Neferefre. The anthropological analysis of his mummy reveals him to
have died in his early twenties, between 20 and 23 Years, according to Verner. This
evidence accords well for a king who died relatively soon into his reign.

Reference: Monarchs of the Nile Aidan Dodson, 1995

Niuserre Ini - Niuserre Izi - " Possessed of Re's Power" - (2453 - 2422 BC)

He was the sixth king of the Fifth Dynasty.

Niuserre was the second son of Neferirkare and Khentkaus II to have ascended to the
throne. He was married to a woman named Reputneb, of whom a statue was
discovered in the valley-temple connected to his and Neferirkare's pyramid complex.
It is not known whether he had any children (that out-lived him).

The Turin King-list is somewhat damaged at the point where Niuserre's name is
mentioned, and only allows us to state that he ruled for more than 10 years. The 44
years credited to him by Manetho is considered unreliable. The representation of a
Sed-festival found in his solar-temple may indicate that he ruled at least for 30 years.

An inscription found in the Sinai shown Niuserre triumphant over his enemies. It is
debatable whether this inscription refers to an actual victory of Niuserre, or whether it
was merely symbolic. It does, however, show that Niuserre was active in the Sinai.
He built a solar-temple, named Shesepu-ib-re, in Abu Gurab, a kilometre or more to
the North of Abusir. Not only is this the biggest and most complete solar-temple, it is
also the only one that was constructed completely of stone. The many finely carved
reliefs that remain show the king during a Sed-festival and the world as created by the
solar god, with representations of the seasons and the provinces of Egypt. With the
reign of Niuserre, the solar-cult appears to have come to its summit.

The sanctuary consisted of an entrance hall that was leading to a court of 100x75 m /
330x250 ft. in size which was surrounded by a stone wall. In the middle of the
courtyard stood a huge obelisk, a stone that looked like the modern-day Washington
Monument. The obelisk was the cultic symbol for Re, the sun-god.

Remains of the sun temple of King Niuserre in Abu Gurob

 The Pyramid of Niuserre

The pyramid-complex of Niuserre is located at Abusir, between the pyramids of

Sahure and Neferirkare. Instead of building his own valley temple, he had his pyramid
complex connected to the valley temple of Neferirkare. His two wives, Reputneb and
Khentikus, were buried near him at Abusir.
 His Cartouche

Nile Pyramid Complexes

Astronomical Triangulations of Aries, Equinoxes,

Solstices and the Duat of Pharaonic Egypt

Reference: Monarchs of the Nile Aidan Dodson, 1995

Menkauhor - "Eternal are the Souls of Re"

Menkauhor was the seventh king of the 5th Dynasty.

His birth name was Kalu. According to the Turin King-list he ruled for some eight
years. References fairly consistently give his reign as lasting from about 2421 or 2422
until 2414. He never achieved the level of fame of the other kings of the 5th dynasty.
His reign is attested by an inscription in the Sinai and a seal from Abusir.

The relationship of Menkauhor with his predecessors or successors is not known.

However, it is likely that he was either the brother or son of Niuserre, his predecessor.
If he was Niuserre's son, it would probably have been by Niuserre's chief queen,
Neput-Nebu. It is also likely that he was the father of Djedkare, who followed him to
the throne. If not, he was almost certainly Djedkare's brother, with Niuserre being
both king's father, or Djedkare's cousin, with Djedkare being the son of Neferefre, and
Menkauhor being the son of Niuserre.

He is reputed as having sent his troops to Sinai in order to acquire materials for the
construction of his tomb.

He was the last pharaoh to build a sun temple. His solar-temple, called Akhet-Re, and
his pyramid are mentioned in texts from private tombs. This dynasty was famous for
their solar temples, and Menkauhor's temple is probably located at either Abusir or
Saqqara. It would have probably been the last such temple built, however, because his
successors appear to have drifted away somewhat from the solar cult.

Menkauhor's pyramid has not been positively identified, but if the assumption that his
pyramid is to be located at Dashur is correct, this would imply a departure from
Abusir. However, some Egyptologists seem to strongly believe that his pyramid is the
"Headless Pyramid", located in North Saqqara east of Teti's complex. There is
mounting evidence to support this conclusion. B. G. Ockinga, for example argues that
during the 18th Dynasty the Teti complex may have been associated with a cult
belonging to a deified Menkauhor. Wherever it is located, his pyramid was called
"Divine are the (cult) places of Menkauhor".

His reign is attested by an inscription in the Sinai at Magharah, indicating that he

continued to quarry stone in that location as did his predecessors and successors.
Given the lack of information on this king, we can also probably make some
assumptions based on the activities of those predecessors and successors. For
example, while he have no inscriptions as evidence, both Niuserre and Djedkare
quarried stone northwest of Aswan, so it is likely that Menkauhor did as well.

It is also highly likely that he continued commercial and diplomatic relations with
Byblos, as did both Niuserre and Djedkare, and in fact we do find a few objects in the
area near Dorak bearing his name. It is also likely that he had some sort of dealings
with Nubia, but whether he sent expeditions to Punt, as did Niuserre and Djedkare, is
unknown.

Otherwise, Menkauhor is also attested to by a small alabaster statue that is now

located in the Egyptian museum in Cairo and by a relief of Tjutju adoring King
Menkauhor and other divinities. This relief, owned by the Louvre, has been on loan to
the Cleveland Museum of Art.

There is also have a seal bearing his name that was found at Abusir.

Djedkare Izezi - Djedkare Isesi - 'The Soul of Ra Endures' - (2414 - 2375 BC)

Djedkare was the eighth king of the 5th Dynasty.

The relationship of Djedkare with his predecessors or successors is not entirely

known, but he was probably the son of Menkauhor, his predecessor. If not, then he
may have been Menkauhor's brother by Niuserre, or even Menkauhor's cousin by
Neferfre, though that seems unlikely. It is possible that his principle queen was
Meresankh IV, but her tomb is located in the main Saqqara necropolis. A pyramid
believed to be that of a queen or consort of Djedkare just next to that of his in South
Saqqara has no inscriptions to provide us with evidence of her name. According to an
Abusir Papyrus, Djedkare perhaps lived in South Saqqara near his pyramid.
According to the Turin King List he ruled for 28 years, but records found in the
mortuary temple of Neferefre at Abusir indicate that he ruled for at least 30 years.
Actually, the dates on the Turin King List have been read by some Egyptologists as
giving him a reign of 38 years. Manetho records 44 years for this king, but the
mummy found in his pyramid at South Saqqara and believed to be Djedkare is
thought to be that of about a 50 year old man. Given this king's apparently long reign,
it is surprising we have so little information about him.

Djed-ka-re was the king's throne name, meaning "Soul of Re Endureth". His birth
name was Isesi (Asosi). He distanced himself somewhat from the earlier rulers of this
dynasty by not building a sun temple and having himself buried at Saqqara rather then
Abusir.

Djedkare's name has been found in the Sinai at Maghara, demonstrating a continued
Egyptian interest in this rich region. Two expeditions at ten year intervals are
recorded there. We also find him mentioned at the quarries northwest of Aswan, and
at Abydos and in Nubia. In Nubia, we find his expedition to Punt mentioned in a
graffito found at the site of Tomas. He apparently also maintained commercial and
diplomatic contacts with Byblos. He is further attested to in the biographies of Itush at
and also Gemni at Saqqara.

He his mentioned in a number of letters including one from Pepy II. We find
references on vessels mentioning his first Sed Festival and he is also referenced on a
dedication inscription to Niuserre found at Abusir. We know of a few officials of his
reign, including Ptahhotep, one of his viziers. However, this is probably not the
famous author of the Maxims, but either his father or grandfather.

His reign is marked by some important changes. For example, the solar cult, although
not abandoned, loses some of its importance and predominance, and the power of the
central government is weakened to the advantage of the provincial administration.
Another important change that occurred during Djedkare's reign is the return to
Saqqara as a burial place. This does not mean, however, that the funerary temples of
Abusir were abandoned. The larger part of the papyri found in the funerary temple of
Neferirkare are dated to Djedkare, and it is clear that he did much work maintaining
the Abusir area.

His heir was his son, Prince Remkuy, who died before he assumed the throne.

Reference: The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, Ian Shaw 2000

Unas - Wenis (2375 2345 BC)

Unas was the ninth and last king of the 5th Dynasty and what some believe to be the
end of the Golden Age of the Old Kingdom.

The 6th Dynasty would finally be the end of Egypt's grand beginning, as the country
would then slip into the troubling First intermediate Period.
Unas was his birth name, but he is also referred to as Unis, Ounas and Wenis. His
Horus name was Wadj-tawy which means "Horus, the flourishing one of the Two
Lands".

According to the Turin King list, Unas ruled for 30 years, or perhaps slightly more of
part of the number is in the lacuna, which is confirmed by Manetho, who recorded 33
years. He probably ruled Egypt between 2375 and 2345 BC.

Wenis had two wives, Queen Nebet, who was the mother of Prince Wenisakh, and
Queen Khenut. It has been proposed that Iput the first was his daughter. Both of Unas'
Queens were buried in mastaba tombs outside of Unas' pyramid complex which, in
itself is unusual since often in this period the Queens would be buried in smaller
pyramids near their husband's.

His reign is not well attested therefore we know little about this king despite his fairly
well preserved funerary complex at the southwest corner of the Step Pyramid of
Djoser at Saqqara. It now lies in ruins on the Saqqara Plateau.

Beneath the rubble, in the burial chamber, we find one of the finest examples of the
Pyramid Text inscriptions hewn in the polished stone walls and ceiling.

Rise up my father, great king

so that you may sit in front of them.
The cavern of the broad sky is opened to you
so that you may stride in the sunshine.
Stand up for me, Osiris, my father.
I am your son. I am Horus.
I have come that I might cleanse and purify you,
that I might preserve you and collect your bones.
I say this for you.
While Unas' pyramid is the smallest of the royal pyramids build during the Old
Kingdom, it was the first that we know of to have its internal walls inscribed with the
various (128) spells making up the Pyramid Text. The texts, meant to aid the
pharaoh's soul on its journey to the next world, would adorn the walls of many future
pyramids and tombs and is the earliest large religious composition known from
ancient Egypt.

Unas' pyramid also established the typical plan of the internal chambers for pyramids
that would be used through the end of the 6th Dynasty.

In death, King Unas is identified with the gods Ra and Osiris, and referred to as Osiris
Unas. E. A. Wallis Budge, in his "The Gods of the Egyptians", also tells us that he
was called Unas, the Slayer and Eater of Gods.

He was apparently worshipped around Saqqara for many years after his death.

Osiris was originally a local deity of the Eastern delta, but sometime around the reign
of Unas his worship became much more widespread. We believe Maspero discovered
parts of Unas' mummy in 1880, which are now in the Cairo Museum.

It is not believed that Unas left an heir, though he may have one time had a son named
Ptahshepses, and therefore there was a short period of political instability prior to
Teti, the first ruler of the 6th Dynasty, ascent to the throne. Teti's wife, Iput, was
possibly a daughter of Unas, and his vizier Kagemni probably also worked under
Unas. Furthermore, a pink granite gateway in Unas' mortuary temple bears the
inscription of the names and titles of Teti, indicating that part of the temple was
completed after Unas's death. This evidence suggests that there may not have been a
true break between the 5th and 6th Dynasties.
We find scenes from his causeway that links his mortuary temple and valley temple
depicting the moving by barge of granite columns from the quarries at Aswan to his
mortuary temple, but we also find scenes of emaciated people. These latter scenes
may show the effects of a famine that might have been the cause of the political
decline that ended the Old Kingdom. There are also scenes of Asiatic traders arriving
in Egypt by boat, perhaps from Byblos, as well as scenes of markets, hunting in the
desert and a small vignette of desert life. We believe that Unas probably pursued a
policy of diplomatic contact both with Byblos and Nubia. He also apparently was also
responsible for building activities at Elephantine near modern Aswan, as well as
Saqqara. At Elephantine, an inscription also shows a giraffe and other exotic animals
that were apparently bought to Egypt during his reign. Another drawing found on a
discovered vase shows battle scenes during his reign.

His name has been found in Elephantine, at the Southern border of Egypt (Aswan),
and also on an alabaster vessel found in Byblos, the latter perhaps indicating some
commercial or diplomatic activities between Egypt and the Near East during this
period. He seems not to have left any apparent heirs after his death, which may have
resulted in some political instability following his death.

An inscription raised at Elephantine shows a giraffe that was brought to Egypt with
other exotic animals for ancient Egyptians, during Wenis' reign when successful trade
expeditions were conducted with neighboring nations.
 Sixth Dynasty - 2323-2152 BCE

All kings of the 6th dynasty, except for Merenre II and Nitocris, are attested by
archaeological sources. Merenre II and Nitocris are only known through the king-lists
and Manetho. No known monuments give there names and they are not even
mentioned in inscriptions of high officials. Because the king-lists often give Merenre
II the same titulary as Merenre I, it is believed that at least his titulary may be the
result of a mistake.

The Turin King-list makes a summation of regnal years for the first five dynasties,
before listing the kings of the 6th through 8th dynasties. This may suggest that with
the 6th Dynasty, a new royal house came to power. The relationship between the
founder of the 6th Dynasty and his predecessor is debated. It is believed by some that
he was married to his predecessor's daughter.

From a cultural point of view, the 6th Dynasty is the continuation of the end of the 5th
Dynasty. The kings continued to commission pyramids for their mortuary cult. The
pyramids and mortuary temples of this period are of a standard size and basically have
the same layout. The burial chamber, antechamber and entrance corridor of these
pyramids are inscribed with Pyramid Texts, following the example set by Unas of the
5th Dynasty. Most kings of the 6th Dynasty also chose to build their funerary
monument in Saqqara and here too they were following the example of the last two
kings of the 5th Dynasty.

Governmental reforms were intended to strengthen the residence's hold on the rest of
the country. It is often claimed that the policy of instating local governors in the
provinces eventually caused the downfall of this dynasty and of the Old Kingdom.

It can indeed be noted that during the 1st Intermediate Period, the power of these local
rulers appears to have increased, to the detriment of the central government.

The long reign of Pepi II is also often considered the cause of the end of the Old
Kingdom.

In this view, the elderly king's court was the stage of intrigue and plot, with different
members of the royal family and some high ranking officials conspiring to get a grasp
on the government.

It must, however, be noted that there is no evidence to support this "romantic"

fantasy. Even if the ageing Pepi II were unable to rule the country by himself, the
central administration was organised well enough to govern in his place.

It is believed more and more that changes in climate and a lower inundation of the
Nile are likely to have played an important part in the downfall of the dynasty.

Teti - "He Who Pacifies The Two Lands" - 2323-2291 B.C.

 Teti was the first ruler of the 6th dynasty.

Egypt's 6th Dynasty marks the decent into the darkness of the First Intermediate
Period in Egypt's history. At times, the rule of these kings is somewhat obscure,
including that of Teti (sometimes also known as Othoes, from Manetho), who was the
first king and the founder of the 6th Dynasty His reign settled some of the accession
problems following the death of Unas. In fact, he adapted the Horus name,
Seheteptawy, which means, "He who pacifies the Two Lands".

He ruled Ancient Egypt from around 2345 until 2333 BC, though of course
Egyptologists differ on these dates, as well as his length of rule. The Turin King's List
gives him less then one year's rule, which most scholars find very unlikely. Manetho
suggests thirty, to thirty-three years, but there is no evidence of his jubilee festival, so
this also seems unlikely. The latest known date from Teti's reign is that of the "sixth
census", an event that took place on average every two years, or possibly every year
and a half. Therefore many Egyptologists give him a reign of twelve years.

His wife, Queen Iput I, was probably the daughter of King Unas who was the last king
of the 5th Dynasty. The queen was the mother of Teti's heir, King Pepi I. Historians
believe that she is the one that gave him the royal power, legitimizing his rule. She is
buried in her own pyramid near Teti's at Saqqara. Other wives included Khuit and
Weret-Imtes. Along with his son, Pepi I, he also probably had another son named
Teti-ankh-km, which means "Teti-ankh the Black", and a daughter named Seshseshet
(also called Watet-khet-her). Her marriage to the vizier Mereruka probably furthered
Teti's political stability, creating good will within the increasingly powerful nobility.

Almost all the major court officials of King Unas remained in power during Teti's
reign, including his other vizier, Kagemni. As stated, we know little about Teti's
reign, though there is evidence that quarry work was performed on his behalf at
Hatnub near Abydos, and that he maintained commercial and diplomatic relations
with Byblos. He also may have maintained relations with Punt and Nubia, at least as
for south as the site of Tomas in northern Nubia.

We have evidence of his exempting the temple at Abydos from taxes, and he was the
first ruler to be particularly associated with the cult of Hathor at Dendera.
Teti granted more lands to Abydos and his name was inscribed in Hatnub. He built a
pyramid in Saqqara which is called by modern Egyptians the "Prison Pyramid".
Egyptologists discovered a statue of him made of black and pink granite. The statue is
located at the Egyptian museum.

The king was murdered by his guards for mysterious reasons, according to the
Manetho. However, there is no other evidence of this violent death, though it might
help to explain the possible short rule of a King Userkare, possibly between that of of
Teti and his son, Pepi I. It is interesting to note that this king, arbitrarily left out of
most modern lists of kings, is better attested to then most histories of Egypt allow.

Many references today point out that the only references we have for Userkare are
from the Turin and Abydos king's lists, but this is not so. Other documents bearing his
name have survived, including one referring to workers at Qau el-Kebir south of
Asyut who were possibly engaged in building his tomb. Userkare means the "Ka of
Ra is powerful", and therefore has a strong resonance of the 5th Dynasty. Therefore,
Userkare may have been a surviving rival of Teti from the 5th Dynasty. However, he
may have also simply been a regent associated with Queen Iput after Teti's death, as
Pepi I may have been too young to ascend the throne at that time.

Reference: Monarchs of the Nile Aidan Dodson, 1995

Userkare - "The Soul of Ra is Strong" - (2333 BC 2332 BC)

He was the second king of the Sixth Dynasty and an usurper to the throne.

Userkare may have been a royal claimant from the Fifth dynasty but he was certainly
a rival to Teti for the throne. Since Manetho claims that Teti was killed by his
bodyguards, theories of conspiracy have been put forward that Userkare was the
leader of this conspiracy who then proceeded to seize the throne. The recently
discovered South Saqqara Stone document from Pepi II's reign confirms his existence
and gives him a reign of 2 to 4 Years. Teti's son, Pepi I, eventually managed to oust
Userkare and succeed his murdered father.

In the Turin King List, there is a lacuna between Teti and Pepi I Meryre, large enough
to have fit an entry for Userkare. Userkare is apparently mentioned in several king-
lists.

Userkare started work on some larger building projects, as shown by an inscription

mentioning his workforce. However, no pyramid-complex has been identified for him
presumbly because of the shortness of his reign.

Reference: Wikipedia

Pepi I - Meryre - "Beloved of Re" - (2332 BC 2283 BC)

 Pepi I was the third king of the 6th Dynasty.

The throne name Meryre means "Beloved of Re".

This was a period that would eventually fall into the abyss of the First Intermediate
Period. Pepi I was this pharaoh's birth name, though we may also find him listed as
Pepy I, Piopi I, Pipi and the Greek Phiops. His throne name was Mery-re, meaning
"Beloved of Re", though he actually used the throne name, Nefersahor during the first
half of his reign, later changing it to Mery-re. He ruled Egypt from about 2332
through 2283 BC. He probably ascended the throne as an early age, and appears to
have ruled for some 50 years (or at least 40 years).

It is entirely possible that Pepi I did not follow his father to the throne. Kings Lists
include the name of a King Userkara between that of Teti and Pepi I, and it may be
that this king usurped the throne for a short time.

He was probably the son of Teti and his queen, Iput I. Though he may have had at
least six, the wives of Pepi I that we know of were Ankhnesmerire I and II
(Sometimes also found as Meryre-ankh-nas), who were the daughters of an influential
official (Probably governor of the region) at Abydos named Khui. Pepi I made his
brother-in-law, we believe a son of Khui named Djau, vizier.

A woman named Were-Imtes may have been his first wife but some Egyptologists
have suggested that she might not have been his wife at all. It may have been Were-
Imtes who plotted a conspiracy against her husband from the harem, but she was
found out and punished. This happened in the twenty-first cattle census, or about year
42 of the king's rule. An accomplice in this plot might have been Rewer, a vizier of
Pepi I who's name has been erased from his tomb. However, Callender has suggested
that the conspiracy was not by one of Pepi's queens, but was instead a plot by perhaps
the mother of the mysterious King Userkare. There is considerable confusion between
the explanations provided by various Egyptologists about this conspiracy.

Apparently, he married Ankhnesmerire I late in his rule, perhaps even after the harem
conspiracy, and may have married her younger sister after the first sister's death, but
this is by no means clear. His sons, Merenre (by Ankhnesmerire I) and Pepi II (by
Ankhnesmerire II) would rule Egypt through the end of the 6th Dynasty.

Ankhnesmerire II holds the infant Pepi II

He also had a daughter by Ankhnesmerire I called Neith, who would later marry her
half brother Pepi II. It appears that Pepi II was born either just before or soon after
Pepi I's death. Pepi I may have had a number of other wives, including a Nebuunet
(Nebwenet) and Inenek-Inti, who's small pyramids are near his at South Saqqara. An
inscription has also been found documenting another queen, perhaps from Upper
Egypt, named Nedjeftet. Other family members, though we are not so sure of their
relationships, probably included a woman named Meretites, and another woman
named Ankhesenpepi (or Ankhnesmerire) III. In June 2000 Dr. Zahi Hawass
announced the discovery of another pyramid that has been discovered by the French
team near Pepi I's that appears to be that of Ankhnesmerire II, though in this report
she is referred to as Ankhes-en Pepi.

At least four statues of the king have survived, including the earliest known life size
sculpture in metal. This state cane from the temple of Hierakonpolis (Nikhen) in
upper Egypt and is made of copper. Found with it was also a copper statue of his
young son and future king, Merenre. Other statues include a small green statue of the
king probably making offerings to gods, and a small alabaster statue of Pepi I holding
the royal crossed flail and scepter (crook).
 Copper statue of Pepi I and Merenre

The reign of Pepi saw the rising influence and wealth of nobles outside the royal
court, a condition that perhaps had much to do with a decline into the First
Intermediate Period. These nobles built fine tombs for themselves and often boasted
of privileges resulting from friendship with Pepi I.

Pepi I initiated a number of trading and other expeditions, often for fine stone to be
used in his many building projects. One inscription found at the alabaster quarries at
Hatnub is dated to year 50 of his reign. It refers to the 25th cattle count, which was a
biennial event. He was also active at the Wadi Maghara turquoise and copper quarries
in the Sinai, the greywacke and siltstone quarries of Wadi Hammamat, where his first
Sed Festival is mentioned. We believe he also maintained diplomatic and commercial
relations with Byblos and Ebla.

He may have also sent expeditions to the mines of Sinai and as far away as Palestine.
The expedition into Palestine was led by a person named Weni the Welder (Uni?) and
involved landing troops from the sea. A single inscription is the only document of the
five campaigns led under Pepi I Palestine, the Land of the Sand Dwellers as the
Egyptians called the regions east of Egypt.

Pepi I probably did considerable building but little of it remains, as such. Some of his
building projects were probably incorporated into later projects, but he did leave
behind many inscriptions. Building projects of Pepi I include the remains of a chapel
(Hwt-ka) at Bubastis, as well as projects at Elephantine and Abydos. He may have
carried out work at Dendara too.
 The Pyramids of Pepi I & II

He built his pyramid at South Saqqara and the Pyramid Text inscribed on the pyramid
walls were the first to be found by Egyptologists, though not the first recorded in a
pyramid. This pyramid was called Mn-nfr, meaning (Pepi is) established and good".
The corruption of this name by classical writers provided our modern name for
Egypt's ancient capital, Memphis. His palace may have been very near his pyramid in
South Saqqara.

Pepi is further attested to by decrees found at Dahshure (now in Berlin) and Coptos.
He was mentioned in biographies of Weni in his tomb at Abydos, Djaw from his tomb
at Abydos, Ibi in his tomb at Deir el-Gabrawi, Meryankhptahmeryre in his tomb at
Giza, Qar in hist tomb at Edfu and the biography on a tomb at Saqqara by an
unknown person.

There are a number of interesting questions to be answered about this period. Unas,
the last king of the 5th Dynasty began to distance himself from the sun cult so closely
connected to the earlier dynasty rulers. However, he did not seem to completely
withdraw from this cult. But by the time of Teti, the first ruler of the 6th Dynasty, ties
seem to have been severed. He was murdered, we are told and then we find perhaps a
new king usurping the throne of Egypt named Userkare. His name means the "Ka of
Ra is powerful", reflecting back on the old sun cult.

When Pepi I does ascend the throne, perhaps only after a year of rule by Userkare, he
has the name of Userkare removed wherever possible, as one might imagine he would
under the circumstances. However, Pepe I himself is next the subject of a plot, who at
least a few Egyptologists believe might have been initiated by the mother of Userkare.
Most resources explain the murder of Teti, the ascension to the throne of Userkare
and the plot against Pepi I as three different events, but could much of the trouble of
this period have been the results of the pharaohs' abandonment of the sun cult? We
also see Pepi I reaching out to the power structure of Abydos, perhaps as allies. This
is all simply speculation, historical fiction if you will allow, but the point being is that
there is much left to be learned about this period of Egypt's history.

Reference: Egypt Tour

Merenre - Nemtyemsaf I - (2283 - 2278 BC) - "Beloved of Re"

He was the fourth king of the 6th dynasty

This copper statue, found with a much larger copper statue of Pepi I, has long been
assumed to be of Merenre and a boy or young man. However, it has been questioned
lately whether it is instead a statue of Pepi II. These are believed to be the oldest,
large copper statues ever found, but some are now questioning whether the statue of
the boy is actually that of Merenre, or rather a young Pepi II.
There is also a very small sphinx of Merenre in the National Museum of Scotland,
Edinburgh.

Merenre, sometimes referred to as Merenre I as there was a much later king by the
same name, was the third ruler of Egypt's 6th Dynasty. As the oldest living son of
Pepi I, he succeeded his father, we believe, at a fairly young age, and probably died
unexpectedly young, perhaps between his fifth and ninth year of rule. He was
succeeded by his younger half brother, Pepi II. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt
places the years he ruled as 2287-2278 BC while Chronicle of the Pharaohs gives him
from 2283 until 2278.

Merenre was this king's throne name, which means "Beloved of Re". He is sometimes
also referred to as Merenra. His birth name was Nemty-em-sa-f, which means,
"Nemty is his Protection". His Horus name was Ankh-khau.

His mother was Ankhnesmerire I (Ankhesenpepi I), who, along with her younger
sister by the same name, married Pepi I in the later part of his rule. Labrousse, who's
team is excavating in South Saqqara where Merenre's pyramid is located, now
believes that Ankhnesmerire II (Ankhesenpepi II), married Merenre. She was a late
wife of Pepi I, Merenre's father, and by him, the mother of Pepi II, Merenre's half
brother. She may have not been as old, or much older then Merenre, but sometimes
working out relationships is interesting. Not only would she be Merenre's queen, but
also his stepmother and aunt.

Pepi II would not only be his half brother and his cousin, but also his stepson. In
addition, the Labrousse team excavating at Saqqara now believes that a Queen
Ankhnesmerire III (Ankhesenpepi III) who's pyramid is located very near Pepi I's was
a daughter of Merenre, and became the wife of Pepi II. Lets see. That would make her
Pepi II's wife, niece and if Ankhnesmerire II was her mother, also his half sister. He
had another daughter named Ipwet (Iput II) who's pyramid is also in the South
Saqqqara pyramid field.

Merenre may have served as his father's coregent for a few years prior to Pepi I's
death. Uni (Weni?), who had worked under Pepi I, continued to make expeditions,
and the governor of Aswan, Harkhuf, also led expeditions into Africa. Around, his
ninth regnal year, Merenre himself visited Aswan to receive a group of southern
chieftains. It is interesting to note that this was a time when new people, who
archaeologists refer to as the Nubian C Group, were migrating from the south into
northern Nubia. Because of the growing relationship with Nubia during this period,
merenre also attempted to improve travel in the first cataract region which was
navigated by way of the Dunqul Oasis and canals.

The Nubian rulers are said to have helped by supplying the wood needed to construct
the barges. (Since there was no wood in Lower Nubia, they would have had to
procure it from sources much farther south). At the same time the Lower Nubian
rulers seem also to have profited greatly by sending their fighting men to Egypt for
hire. By the end of the Old Kingdom (ca. 2150 BC), the Egyptian armies were mainly
composed of Nubian mercenaries, many of whom would ultimately settle in Egypt,
marry Egyptian women, and become assimilated into the Egyptian population. During
the Old Kingdom, Egyptian texts speak of a land in Upper Nubia called "Yam."
Besides troops from "Wawat, Irtjet, and Setju" (Lower Nubia), troops from Yam, too,
were hired for service in the Egyptian army. The only source that provides any real
information about Yam is a biography of the Aswan governor, Harkhuf, preserved in
his tomb at Aswan. Harkhuf tells us that, on behalf of the pharaohs Merenre and Pepi
II, he led four expeditions to Yam, each of which took eight months.

The Nubian rulers are said to have helped by supplying the wood needed to construct
the barges. (Since there was no wood in Lower Nubia, they would have had to
procure it from sources much farther south). At the same time the Lower Nubian
rulers seem also to have profited greatly by sending their fighting men to Egypt for
hire. By the end of the Old Kingdom (ca. 2150 BC), the Egyptian armies were mainly
composed of Nubian mercenaries, many of whom would ultimately settle in Egypt,
marry Egyptian women, and become assimilated into the Egyptian population. During
the Old Kingdom, Egyptian texts speak of a land in Upper Nubia called "Yam."
Besides troops from "Wawat, Irtjet, and Setju" (Lower Nubia), troops from Yam, too,
were hired for service in the Egyptian army. The only source that provides any real
information about Yam is a biography of the Aswan governor, Harkhuf, preserved in
his tomb at Aswan. Harkhuf tells us that, on behalf of the pharaohs Merenre and Pepi
II, he led four expeditions to Yam, each of which took eight months.

Merenre, like his predecessors, maintained diplomatic and commercial relations with
Byblos, and we know from inscriptions and tomb biographies that he had alabaster
quarried from Hatnub and greywacke and siltstone from Wadi Hammamat. A copper
statue of Merenre as a young boy was found with a much larger copper statue of his
father, Pepi I. These are believed to be the oldest, large copper statues ever found, but
some are now questioning whether the statue of the boy is actually that of Merenre, or
rather a young Pepi II. There is also a very small sphinx of Merenre in the National
Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh.
Merenre is further attested to by a Box (Hippopotamus ivory) in Paris, Louvre
Museum, a rock inscriptions near Aswan, the inscriptions on an ivory mother monkey
that was probably a gift to an official, decrees of the king found at the pyramid temple
of Menkawre and in biographies of Uni (Weni) in his tomb at Abydos, Djaw from his
tomb also at Abydos, The tomb of Harkhuf at Elephantine, The tomb of Ibi at Deir el-
Gabrawi, the Tomb of Qar at Edfu, and an unknown persons tomb at Saqqara.

He is also mentioned in an inscription in the tomb of Maru at Giza (though this

inscription is now in Brussels). Recently another inscription has also been found by a
Polish team that mentions Merenre on a rock wall at Deir el-Bahari on the West Bank
at Luxor (ancient Thebes).

Merenre was probably buried in his pyramid at South Saqqara, though apparently
because of his unexpected death, this pyramid was not yet completed. Until fairly
recently, it was believed that the first ever mummy was that of Merenre I, though in
reality the mummy found in his pyramid may not have been that of Merenre.
Nevertheless, in 1997, excavations began at Hierakonopolis revealing a large
predyanstic cemetery full of older mummies. However, if the mummy is indeed that
of Merenre, it would remain the oldest know royal mummy.

The mummy discovered by Gaston Maspero in 1881, while working at the pyramid of
Merenre I at Saqqara South, presents us with somewhat of a problem with regard to
its identification.
Based on the place where it was discovered, in the black granite sarcophagus inside
the pyramid, it has been identified as belonging to Merenre I. If this identification is
correct, this mummy would be the oldest complete royal mummy known to us today.

An important part of the problem is the fact that the current whereabouts of the
mummy are unknown, making it impossible to examine it with more modern tools
and equipment than was available in the late 19th and the early 20th century.

Reference: Egypt Tour

Pepi II - Pepy II - Piopi II - Phiops II - Neferkare

"Beautiful is the Soul of Re"

He was the fifth ruler of the 6th dynasty.

According to the Turin King-list, he ruled for over 90 years, which appears to be
confirmed by Manetho, who recorded 94 years. This would make Pepi II the longest
ruling king of Ancient Egypt. Some doubt has however been shed on this high
number, and some researchers believe that it was the result of a miss-reading of 64.

However, because of the onset of the First Intermediate Period, the latter part of his
reign was probably ineffectual, perhaps at least somewhat due to his advanced age.
While the power of the nomarchs grew, the power of pharaoh dissolved. With no
central power, local nobles began raiding each other's territories.

His mother Ankhnesmerire II most likely ruled as regent in the early years of his
reign.
An alabaster statuette in the Brooklyn Museum depicts a young Pepi II, in full kingly
regalia, sitting on the lap of his mother. Despite his long reign, this piece is one of
only three 3D representations (i.e. statuary) in existence of this particular king. She
may have been helped in turn by her brother Djau, who was a vizier under the
previous king.

Another statue, shows Pepi II as a naked child.

A glimpse of the personality of the early child king can be found in a letter he wrote
to Harkhuf, a governor of Aswan and the head of one of the expeditions he sent into
Nubia. Sent to trade and collect ivory, ebony and other precious items, he captured a
pygmy. News of this reached the royal court, and an excited young king sent word
back to Harkhuf that he would be greatly rewarded if the pygmy were brought back
alive, likely to serve as an entertainer for the court. This letter was preserved as a
lengthy inscription on Harkhuf's tomb, and has been called the first travelogue.

Wives

Over his long life Pepi II had several wives, thought to include Neith (A), Iput II,
Ankhenespepy III, Ankhenespepy IV, and Udjebten. Following a long tradition of
royal incestuous marriage, Nieth was Pepi II's half-sister (daughter of Ankhnesmerire
I) and Iput was his niece (a daughter of his brother Merenre). Of these queens, Neith,
Iput, and Udjebten each had their own minor pyramids and mortuary templates as part
of the king's own pyramid complex in Saqqara.

Foreign Relations

It is thought that Pepi II carried on in the tradition of his predecessors and continued
with existing foreign relations, and possibly expanding further trade links into
southern Africa. Copper and turquoise mining were undertaken at Wadi Maghara, and
alabaster was quarried from Hatnub, both in the Sinai. There is at least one trade
expedition to Punt recorded. Diplomatic records also exist of missions to Byblos in
ancient Palestine.

Pepi II is thought to have taken a policy of pacification in Nubia, with Harkhuf

making at least two further expeditions into the area. Over time it appears as though
relations grew strained, for while Harkhuf managed to return safely from each of his
expeditions, one of his successors was not so lucky.

There were also military forays into adjacent lands, but it is noted that there was an
increasing reliance upon Libyan and Nubian mercenaries. Further possible evidence
of a relative lack of success in these ventures comes from the fact that a scene from
the king's pyramid, depicting him as a Sphinx trampling his enemies - including a
Libyan chieftain and his family - is wholly derivative from the mortuary complex of
previous pharaoh Sahure, which calls into question the veracity of the events
supposedly being depicted.It is also known that near the end of his reign, some
foreign relations were completely broken off, a further sign of the disintegration of
central rule.

The Decline of the Old Kingdom

The decline of the Old Kingdom arguably began before the time of Pepi II, with
nomarchs (regional representatives of the king) becoming more and more powerful
and exerting greater influence. Pepi I for example, married two sisters who were the
daughters of a nomarch. That king later made their brother a vizier. Their influence
was extensive, both sisters bearing sons who were chosen as part of the royal
succession: Merenre and Pepi II.

Increasing wealth and power appears to have been handed over to high officials
during Pepi II's reign. Large and expensive tombs appear at many of the major nomes
of Egypt, building by the reigning nomarchs, the priestly class and other
administrators. Nomarchs were traditionally free from taxation and their positions
became hereditary. Their increasing wealth and independence led to a corresponding
shift in power away from the central royal court to the regional nomarchs.

Later in his reign it is known that Pepi divided the role of vizier into two: one for
Upper Egypt and one for Lower, a further decentralization of power away from the
royal capital of Memphis. Further, the seat of vizier of Upper Egypt was moved
several times. The southern vizier was stationed at Thebes.

It is also thought that Pepi II's extraordinarily long reign may have been a contributing
factor to the general breakdown of centralized royal rule. While there are some doubts
that he reigned as long as 94 years (some scholars such as Von Beckerath believe this
to be a misreading of long-lost original texts by early historians such as Manetho, and
ascribe him a seemingly more realistic figure of 64 years, which seems more feasible
if he was succeeded by his son as Egyptian tradition states, rather than a grandson),
most believe that his reign was unusually long.

This almost certainly produced a succession crisis and also led to a stagnation of the
central administration. A better documented example of this type of problem can be
found in the long reign of much later Nineteenth Dynasty pharaoh Ramesses II and
his successors. It should be stressed that Pepi II's highest date is the "Year after the
31st Count, 1st Month of Shemu, day 20" from Hatnub graffito No.7, according to
Spalinger.
This date would be equivalent to only Pepi II's Year 62 (on the biennial dating
system) and conforms well with the suggestion of a 64 Year reign for him given the
noticeable absence of known dates for Pepi II from his 33rd to 47th Count. (a
previous suggestion that the Year of the 33rd Count occurs for Pepi II in a royal
decree for the mortuary cult of Queen Udjebten was withdrawn by Hans Goedicke in
1988 in favour of a more probable reading of the Year of the 24th Count instead.)

Scene From Pepi's Valley Temple

 Pepi ll's Pyramid

The South Saqqara Mound Mystery

Pepi II's pyramid complex (originally known as Pepi's Life is Enduring) is located in
Saqqara, close to many other Old Kingdom pharaohs. His pyramid is a modest affair
compared to the great pyramid builders of the Fourth Dynasty, but was comparable to
earlier pharaohs from his own dynasty. It was originally 78.5 metres high, but erosion
and relatively poor construction has reduced it 52 metres.

The pyramid was the center of a sizable funerary complex, complete with a separate
mortuary complex, a small, eastern satellite pyramid. This was flanked by two of his
wives' pyramids to the north and north-west (Neith (A) and Iput II respectively), and
one to the south-east (Udjebten), each with their own mortuary complexes. Perhaps
reflecting the decline at the end of his rule, the fourth wife, Ankhenespepy IV was not
given her own pyramid but was instead buried in a store room of the Iput's mortuary
chapel. Similarly, Prince Ptahshepses, who likely died near the end of Pepy II's reign,
was buried in the funerary complex of a previous pharaoh, Unas, within a "recycled"
sarcophagus dating to the Fourth Dynasty.

The ceiling of the burial chamber is decorated with stars, and the walls are lined with
passages from the Pyramid texts. An empty black sarcophagus bearing the names and
titles of Pepi II was discovered inside.
Following in the tradition of the final pharaoh of the Fifth Dynasty, Unas and of his
more immediate predecessors Teti, Pepi I and Merenre, the interior of Pepi II's
pyramid is decorated with what has become known as the pyramid texts, magical
spells designed to protect the dead. Well over 800 individual texts (known as
"utterances") are known to exist, and Pepi II's contains 675 such utterances, the most
in any one place.

It is thought that this pyramid complex was completed no later than the thirtieth year
of Pepi II's reign. No notable funerary constructions of note happened again for at
least 30, and possibly as long as 60 years, due indirectly to the king's incredibly long
reign. This meant there was a significant generational break for the trained
stonecutters, masons, and engineers who had no major state project to work on and to
pass along their practical skills. This may help explain why no major pyramid projects
were undertaken by the subsequent regional kings of Herakleopolis during the First
Intermediate Period.

The complex was first investigated by John Shae Perring, but it was Gaston Maspero
who entered it first in 1881. Gustav Jequier investigated in detail between 1926 and
1932.

Successors

There are no official contemporary records or inscriptions of Pepi's immediate

successors, and for this reason in many books Pepi II is typically credited as being the
last verifiable pharaoh of the Sixth Dynasty and of the Old Kingdom.

However, according the Manetho and the Turin King List, he was succeeded by his
son Merenre II, who reigned for just over a year. He in turn may have been succeeded
by Nitocris, who was likely Merenre II's sister as well as wife. If she did in fact rule,
she would be the first female ruler of Egypt. According to the story as told by
Manetho, Merenre II was assassinated, and Nitocris saw to it that his murderers were
punished prior to committing suicide. There is now considerable doubt in the
academic community as to whether she in fact existed, given the paucity of physical
evidence in such things as the various Kings Lists attesting to her rule.

This was the end of the Old Kingdom of Egypt, a prelude to the roughly 200-year
span of Egyptian history known as the First Intermediate Period.

Reference: Dodson, Aidan. Hilton, Dyan. 2004. The Complete Royal Families of
Ancient Egypt

Merenre ll (2184 BC)

Pepi II is followed in the king-lists by Merenre II, sometimes also called Nemtimsaf
II. If the name of Nemtimsaf II was indeed Merenre, this would make him
indistinguishable from Merenre I, so it is generally believed that the name Merenre
has been given to Nemtimsaf II by mistake.
Merenre II is only known through king-lists, among which the Turin King-list, that
credits him with a reign of slightly more than 1 year. He is assumed to have been a
son of Pepi II. He was perhaps married to Nitocris, who may have been his sister.

Queen Nitocris

Nitocris has been claimed to have been the last pharaoh of the Sixth Dynasty. Her
name is found in the Histories of Herodotus and writings of Manetho but her
historicity is questionable.

According to Herodotus (Histories ii), she invited the murderers of her brother, the
"king of Egypt", to a banquet, then killed them by flooding the sealed room with the
Nile. Then, to avoid the other conspirators, she committed suicide (possibly by
running into a burning room).

Manetho claims she built the "third pyramid" at Giza, which is attributed by modern
historians and archaeologists to Menkaure. Herodotus also has a Babylonian queen of
the same name and talks of her constructions in Babylon, mainly connected with
diverting the Euphrates. His story about her tomb and the inscription on it which
fooled Darius into opening it, only to have another inscription on the inside that
chastised the opener for being so greedy is an early example of a familiar cultural
meme.

Nitocris is not mentioned, however, in any native Egyptian inscriptions and "she"
probably did not exist. It was long claimed that Nitocris appears on a fragment of the
Turin King List, dated to the Nineteenth Dynasty, under the Egyptian name of
Nitiqreti. The fragment where this name appears was thought to belong to the Sixth
Dynasty portion of the king list, thus appearing to confirm both Herodotus and
Manetho.

However, microscopic analysis of the Turin King List suggests the fragment was
misplaced in reassembling the fragmentary text, and that the name Nitiqreti"is in fact
a faulty transcription of the praenomen of a clearly male king Netjerkare Siptah I,
who is named on the Abydos King List as the successor of the Sixth Dynasty king
Nemtyemsaf II. On the Abydos King List, Netjerkare Siptah is placed in the
equivalent spot that Neitiqreti Siptah holds on the Turin King List.
 First Intermediate Period - c.2181 - 2040 BC

Dynasties 7-10

The First Intermediate Period is the name conventionally given by Egyptologists to

that period in Ancient Egyptian history between the end of the Old Kingdom and the
advent of the Middle Kingdom. As such, depending on when individual historians
place the 'downfall' of the Old Kingdom - with the end of either the Sixth or the
Eighth Dynasties - the First Intermediate Period (sometimes abbreviated as "FIP") can
be considered to embrace the Seventh, Eighth, Ninth, Tenth, and most of the Eleventh
Dynasties.

The Old Kingdom was weakened by famine and weak leadership. One theory holds
that a sudden, unanticipated, catastrophic reduction in the Nile floods over two or
three decades, caused by a global climatic cooling, reduced the amount of rainfall in
Egypt, Ethiopia, and East Africa, contributing to the great famine and subsequent
downfall of the Old Kingdom.

The last pharaoh of the Sixth Dynasty was Pepi II (or possibly Nitocris). He was 6
when he ascended the throne and believed to have been 100 years old when he died,
for a reign of 94 years, longer than any monarch in history. The latter years of his
reign were marked by inefficiency because of Pepi's advanced age. A dark time
marked by unrest followed.

The Union of the Two Kingdoms fell apart and regional leaders had to cope with the
famine.Around 2160 BC a new line of pharaohs (the Ninth and Tenth Dynasties)
consolidated Lower Egypt from their capital in Herakleopolis Magna, descended from
a pharaoh named Akhtoy.

In the meantime, however, a rival line (the Eleventh Dynasty) based at Thebes
reunited Upper Egypt and a clash between the two rival dynasties was
inevitable.Around 2055 BC a descendant of Inyotef defeated the Heracleopolitan
Pharaohs, reunited the Two Lands, and ruled as Mentuhotep II thereby ending the
First Intermediate Period.

There are various accounts of what happened in Egypt after Pepi II died. People
sought stability, but things continued in turmoil. Pepi ll's long reign had weakened
central government, as the nomarchs (local governors) increasingly began to assert
their independence from Pharaoh. Any nominal authority exerted by central
government disappeared, as the nomarchs jostled for position, attempting to found
their own dynasties.

There was a downside to the technological progress made during the Old Kingdom.
Feats of engineering like the Sphinx and the pyramids at Giza had made the Egyptians
complacent. This feeling of invincibility was exacerbated by the position of their
country, hidden as it was in the fertile Nile Valley.
A word encapsulated how Egyptians felt about their civilization - 'Ma'at' meaning
'Stability' or 'Balance'.

Papyri dating from the Middle Kingdom show this breakdown very clearly. Due to the
unstable nature of this period, no firm historical records survive from the First
Intermediate Period.

There are some sources that mention a seventh dynasty which had 70 kings and which
reigned for a total of 70 days. These are apocryphal, but nevertheless show how much
the system had broken down.

We can place an eighth dynasty, which was possibly descended in some way from
Pepi II and which ruled from Memphis, but we must assume that any influence they
exerted was confined to the area immediately around Memphis, as the Nile Delta has
been invaded by "asiatics" (the name given by Egyptians to people from what we now
call the Middle East).

The kings of the eighth dynasty are somewhat ephemeral, but we know of 2 possible
ones - Wajdkare and Qakare Iby.

After perhaps between 20 and 30 years, the eighth dynasty fell and the nomarchs once
again jostled for supreme power. We now see the emergence of a ninth dynasty,
ruling from Herakleopolis, perhaps founded by one Meryibre Khety.

Both this dynasty and its Herakleopolitain successor, the tenth dynasty, seem to have
been highly unstable, with frequent changes of ruler.

Both this dynasty and its Herakleopolitain successor, the tenth dynasty, seem to have
been highly unstable, with frequent changes of ruler.

Running concurrent to the tenth dynasty, another dynasty was being established in
Thebes (the eleventh dynasty). Founded by Intef I in c. 2134 BC, the first 3 kings of
DXI (all called Intef and buried in an area called Dra Abu el-Naga, near to what
would later become the Valley of the Kings) fought an ongoing conflict with the
Herakleopolitain DX monarchs, with requent clashes in the area around Abydos,
where their two spheres of influence met.

Manetho's Seventh and Eighth Dynasties: A Puzzle Solved

- Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities

The only direct evidence for the existence of a Seventh and Eighth Dynasty in
Egyptian history appears in two inconsistent, badly garbled, and heavily redacted
copies of Manethoјs history of Egypt. One copy was prepared by Africanus in the
third century and the other by Eusebius in the fourth century. According to Africanus,
the Seventh Dynasty consisted of seventy kings of Memphis, who reigned for 70
days" and the Eighth Dynasty consisted of „twenty-seven kings of Memphis, who
reigned for 146 years.
Eusebius has a slightly different account. He has a Seventh Dynasty that consisted of
five kings of Memphis, who reigned for 75 days and an Eighth Dynasty that consisted
of five kings of Memphis, who reigned for 100 years.

These descriptions present Egyptologists with some problems. Not only does the
description of the Seventh Dynasty appear to be either spurious or badly garbled, but
no archaeologists would allow much more than a quarter of a century for both
dynasties combined.

Adding to the difficulty is that there are three additional Egyptian king-lists that
encompass this period, and while all have a different number of Memphite kings
beginning with the Sixth Dynasty, none of them indicates any sort of dynastic break
for a Seventh and/or Eighth Dynasty.

These two dynasties fall into Egypt's First Intermediate Period, and because of the
great chaos in this time and the scarcity of records, Egyptologists generally assume
that the differences among the two Manetho copies and the various king-lists simply
reflect the confusion among the various scribes who attempted to recreate the political
records of this earlier era.

The original authors of the king-lists, had a clear picture of the First Intermediate
Period and that the differences among the king-lists reflect not confusion but
political/theological alternatives. More specifically, the political/theological problem
involved the determination of when Horus stopped ruling in Memphis and started
ruling in Thebes.

Different cult centers, as reflected in the king-lists, had different answers. In addition,
I am going to argue that the original Manetho king-list never had a Seventh and
Eighth Dynasty and that what appears in the Africanus and Eusebius copies are
garbled transmissions of lines of summation.

Dynasty 7 was originally a line of summation for the entire Memphite line of kings,
beginning with the First Dynasty and ending with the Sixth Dynasty; Dynasty 8 was a
line of summation for just the Sixth Dynasty.

There were three major political events that took place during First Intermediate
Period.

One was the termination of the Memphite line of kings sometime after the start of the
Sixth Dynasty.

Two was the foundation of a line of kings in Herakleopolis, which line belongs to
Dyns. 9 and 10. Three was the foundation of the Eleventh Dynasty in Thebes.

There was some overlap between the last Memphite kings and the earliest
Herakleopolitan kings, but where in the Memphite sequence this overlap began is not
known.
There was also some overlap between the Herakleopolitans and the Eleventh Dynasty
Thebans, which period lasted about 100 years, ending when Menthotpe II defeated his
Herakleopolitan rival.

Whether or not there was some overlap between the kings of Memphis and the kings
of Thebes is unknown.

Each of the various king-lists for this time period provides a different roster of kings
and dynasties. The three earliest are the Table of Sakkara, the Table of Abydos, and
the Turin Canon of Kings.

All three date to the Nineteenth Dynasty. The other relevant king-list is Manetho's,
which dates to the third century B.C., about one thousand years later than the others.
But his original manuscript is lost, and for the First Intermediate Period we have to
rely on the badly garbled copies of Africanus and Eusebius.

The most abbreviated account of the First Intermediate Period comes from the Table
of Sakkara. It ends the Sixth Dynasty after the fourth king, Phiops, and then
immediately jumps to the reign of Menthotpe II, the Theban pharaoh who defeated
Herakleopolis and united Egypt.

This list, therefore, omits part of the Sixth Dynasty, all of the Seventh, Eighth, Ninth,
and Tenth Dynasties, and part of the Eleventh Dynasty. The period omitted comes
closest to what we currently describe as the First Intermediate Period. That the
Sakkara list ends the Sixth Dynasty with the reign of Phiops, who apparently ruled in
excess of ninety years, provides a good clue that whatever went wrong politically
began either during or immediately after the reign of this king.

The Table of Abydos presents a different perspective. Beginning with the first king of
the Sixth Dynasty, it lists 22 Memphite kings, and there is no indication of any
dynastic breaks anywhere in this list. The Abydos list, like the Sakkara list, omits any
mention of the Herakleopolitans, and also skips the first few Theban kings, jumping
directly to the reign of Menthotpe II.

The Turin Canon shows a Sixth Dynasty consisting of twelve Memphite kings, and,
although the lengths of reign are badly damaged, a summation line indicates that the
total duration was either 181 or 187 years.

There is no indication therein of a Seventh or Eighth Dynasty from Memphis.

(Following the Sixth Dynasty Memphite kings, the Turin Canon allows for eighteen
Herakleopolitan kings, but does not divide them into two separate dynasties as
Manetho does.

Many Egyptologists believe that at least one of the two Herakleopolitan dynasties,
Nine or Ten, is spurious. After the Herakleopolitans, the Turin Canon lists several
Eleventh Dynasty Theban kings prior to Menthotpe II.

While most Egyptologists tend to dismiss these differences as reflecting the chaotic
nature of the First Intermediate Period, I suggest that a more logical interpretation is
that these three king-lists each present a different political viewpoint about the
legitimacy of various kings.

The Egyptians were a very conservative people and did not approve of abrupt changes
in the political order. The king was thought of as a human aspect of the god Horus,
and a challenge to the legitimate king was the equivalent of a challenge to the god
Horus. During the First Intermediate Period, however, there were three rival
kingdoms, Memphis, Thebes, and Herakleopolis.

Only one could be the legitimate center of power. Horus could only rule from one
throne.

The central theological problem of the First Intermediate Period, then, was "When did
Horus stop ruling in Memphis and when did he begin to rule from another city?"

The three king-lists, I suggest, each show a different political interpretation.

The Sakkara list represents a 'plague on all your houses' point of view. Implying that
the outbreak of troubles began either during or immediately after the reign of Phiops,
the fourth king of the Sixth Dynasty, the Sakkara scribe refuses to recognize any
legitimate authority until Menthotpe II reunites Egypt. The list omits the entire period
in which there were competing claims.

The Abydos list presents a very different perspective, that of the Memphite loyalist.
What we see reflected here is a hard core support for the Memphite throne, complete
rejection of the Herakleopolitan claims, and some distaste for the Theban upstarts.

It is only after the Memphite throne has ceased to exist and Menthotpe II has reunited
Egypt that the Abydos scribe confers legitimacy on the Theban monarchy. If any
Theban kings ruled between the time that the Memphite line ended and Menthotpe II
reunited Egypt, the Abydos scribe refuses to recognize their legitimacy.

A still different set of values is reflected in the Turin Canon of Kings. The Turin
Canon is a Theban document, written by a Theban scribe during a Theban
administration. It presents a Theban political viewpoint.

Because it is Theban, it begins the Eleventh Dynasty with the founders of the Theban
line rather than with the later reign of Menthotpe II. But the Thebans can not allow a
document to show Memphite kings on the throne at the same time as Theban kings.
This would be sacrilege, an affront to Horus in Memphis.

This raises the question of whether the Memphite line ended before Thebes came to
the throne or after. The Turin Canon, however, only has twelve kings listed where the
Abydos list has twenty-two. Since Thebes had an interest in showing a smooth
transition from Memphis to Thebes, with no gaps, I suggest that the Turin Canonјs
Sixth Dynasty ended at exactly the point where it began the Eleventh Dynasty and
that the Thebans deliberately omitted the last ten Memphite kings in order to avoid
any appearance of conflict.
On the other hand, the Turin Canon does show a line of Herakleopolitan kings. This is
politically significant. Theban authority stems from its defeat of the Herakleopolitan
kings. Therefore the Herakleopolitan kings need to be mentioned. But the inclusion of
the Herakleopolitan kings also serves to remind Egyptians that the Memphites
couldnјt defeat the Herakleopolitans, and that Horus must have abandoned Memphis
in favor of those kings who did defeat the Herakleopolitans.

Before turning to Manethoјs Seventh and Eighth Dynasties, one more observation
about the king-lists is in order. Manetho and the Table of Sakkara both make Phiops
the fourth king of the Sixth Dynasty.

The Turin Canon and the Table of Abydos make him the fifth king. The latter two
lists place an additional king between Manetho's first and second king. This king
appears to be named Usarkare and he is documented in the archaeological record, but
his reign seems to have been relatively brief.

This suggests that Manetho and the Table of Sakkara both omitted Usarkare from the
sequence of Memphite kings. Therefore, if Manetho originally had intended to
include a complete list of Memphite kings in his chronology, he would have had only
21 kings, instead of the 22 in the Table of Abydos. This figure of '21' is significant in
our reconstruction of Manetho.

Article with Table - Continued

Manetho’s Seventh and Eighth Dynasties: A Puzzle Solved

From the Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian
Antiquities, # 25

The only direct evidence for the existence of a Seventh and Eighth Dynasty in
Egyptian history appears in two inconsistent, badly garbled, and heavily redacted
copies of Manetho’s history of Egypt. One copy was prepared by Africanus in the
third century and the other by Eusebius in the fourth century. According to Africanus,
the Seventh Dynasty consisted of “seventy kings of Memphis, who reigned for 70
days” (1) and the Eighth Dynasty consisted of “twenty-seven kings of Memphis, who
reigned for 146 years.” (2) Eusebius has a slightly different account. He has a Seventh
Dynasty that consisted of “five kings of Memphis, who reigned for 75 days” (3) and
an Eighth Dynasty that consisted of “five kings of Memphis, who reigned for 100
years.” (4) These descriptions present Egyptologists with some problems. Not only
does the description of the Seventh Dynasty appear to be either spurious or badly
garbled, but no archaeologists would allow much more than a quarter of a century for
both dynasties combined. Adding to the difficulty is that there are three additional
Egyptian king-lists that encompass this period, and while all have a different number
of Memphite kings beginning with the Sixth Dynasty, none of them indicates any sort
of dynastic break for a Seventh and/or Eighth Dynasty.

These two dynasties fall into Egypt’s First Intermediate Period, and because of the
great chaos in this time and the scarcity of records, Egyptologists generally assume
that the differences among the two Manetho copies and the various king-lists simply
reflect the confusion among the various scribes who attempted to recreate the political
records of this earlier era. In this paper, I am going to argue for a different
interpretation of the evidence. The original authors of the king-lists, I maintain, had a
very clear picture of the First Intermediate Period and that the differences among the
king-lists reflect not confusion but political/theological alternatives. More
specifically, the political/theological problem involved the determination of when
Horus stopped ruling in Memphis and started ruling in Thebes. Different cult centers,
as reflected in the king-lists, had different answers. In addition, I am going to argue
that the original Manetho king-list never had a Seventh and Eighth Dynasty and that
what appears in the Africanus and Eusebius copies are garbled transmissions of lines
of summation. Dyn. 7 was originally a line of summation for the entire Memphite line
of kings, beginning with the First Dynasty and ending with the Sixth Dynasty; Dyn. 8
was a line of summation for just the Sixth Dynasty.

Before making the case, let me place the First Intermediate Period into political
context. There were three major political events that took place during this time
frame. One was the termination of the Memphite line of kings sometime after the start
of the Sixth Dynasty. Two was the foundation of a line of kings in Herakleopolis,
which line belongs to Dyns. 9 and 10. Three was the foundation of the Eleventh
Dynasty in Thebes. There was some overlap between the last Memphite kings and the
earliest Herakleopolitan kings, but where in the Memphite sequence this overlap
began is not known. There was also some overlap between the Herakleopolitans and
the Eleventh Dynasty Thebans, which period lasted about 100 years, ending when
Menthotpe II defeated his Herakleopolitan rival. Whether or not there was some
overlap between the kings of Memphis and the kings of Thebes is unknown.

Each of the various king-lists for this time period provides a different roster of kings
and dynasties. The three earliest are the Table of Sakkara, the Table of Abydos, and
the Turin Canon of Kings. All three date to the Nineteenth Dynasty. The other
relevant king-list is Manetho’s, which dates to the third century B.C., about one
thousand years later than the others. But his original manuscript is lost, and for the
First Intermediate Period we have to rely on the badly garbled copies of Africanus and
Eusebius.

The most abbreviated account of the First Intermediate Period comes from the Table
of Sakkara. It ends the Sixth Dynasty after the fourth king, Phiops, and then
immediately jumps to the reign of Menthotpe II, the Theban pharaoh who defeated
Herakleopolis and united Egypt. (5) This list, therefore, omits part of the Sixth
Dynasty, all of the Seventh, Eighth, Ninth, and Tenth Dynasties, and part of the
Eleventh Dynasty. The period omitted comes closest to what we currently describe as
the First Intermediate Period. That the Sakkara list ends the Sixth Dynasty with the
reign of Phiops, who apparently ruled in excess of ninety years, provides a good clue
that whatever went wrong politically began either during or immediately after the
reign of this king.

The Table of Abydos presents a different perspective. Beginning with the first king of
the Sixth Dynasty, it lists 22 Memphite kings, and there is no indication of any
dynastic breaks anywhere in this list. (6) The Abydos list, like the Sakkara list, omits
any mention of the Herakleopolitans, and also skips the first few Theban kings,
jumping directly to the reign of Menthotpe II. (7)

The Turin Canon shows a Sixth Dynasty consisting of twelve Memphite kings, and,
although the lengths of reign are badly damaged, a summation line indicates that the
total duration was either 181 (8) or 187 (9) years. There is no indication therein of a
Seventh or Eighth Dynasty from Memphis. (10) Following the Sixth Dynasty
Memphite kings, the Turin Canon allows for eighteen Herakleopolitan kings, but does
not divide them into two separate dynasties as Manetho does. Many Egyptologists
believe that at least one of the two Herakleopolitan dynasties, Nine or Ten, is
spurious. After the Herakleopolitans, the Turin Canon lists several Eleventh Dynasty
Theban kings prior to Menthotpe II. (11)

While most Egyptologists tend to dismiss these differences as reflecting the chaotic
nature of the First Intermediate Period, I suggest that a more logical interpretation is
that these three king-lists each present a different political viewpoint about the
legitimacy of various kings. The Egyptians were a very conservative people and did
not approve of abrupt changes in the political order. The king was thought of as a
human aspect of the god Horus, and a challenge to the legitimate king was the
equivalent of a challenge to the god Horus. During the First Intermediate Period,
however, there were three rival kingdoms, Memphis, Thebes, and Herakleopolis.
Only one could be the legitimate center of power. Horus could only rule from one
throne. The central theological problem of the First Intermediate Period, then, was
“When did Horus stop ruling in Memphis and when did he begin to rule from another
city?” The three king-lists, I suggest, each show a different political interpretation.

The Sakkara list represents a “plague on all your houses” point of view. Implying that
the outbreak of troubles began either during or immediately after the reign of Phiops,
the fourth king of the Sixth Dynasty, the Sakkara scribe refuses to recognize any
legitimate authority until Menthotpe II reunites Egypt. The list omits the entire period
in which there were competing claims.

The Abydos list presents a very different perspective, that of the Memphite loyalist.
What we see reflected here is a hard core support for the Memphite throne, complete
rejection of the Herakleopolitan claims, and some distaste for the Theban upstarts. It
is only after the Memphite throne has ceased to exist and Menthotpe II has reunited
Egypt that the Abydos scribe confers legitimacy on the Theban monarchy. If any
Theban kings ruled between the time that the Memphite line ended and Menthotpe II
reunited Egypt, the Abydos scribe refuses to recognize their legitimacy.

A still different set of values is reflected in the Turin Canon of Kings. The Turin
Canon is a Theban document, written by a Theban scribe during a Theban
administration. It presents a Theban political viewpoint. Because it is Theban, it
begins the Eleventh Dynasty with the founders of the Theban line rather than with the
later reign of Menthotpe II. But the Thebans can not allow a document to show
Memphite kings on the throne at the same time as Theban kings. This would be
sacrilege, an affront to Horus in Memphis.

This raises the question of whether the Memphite line ended before Thebes came to
the throne or after. The Turin Canon, however, only has twelve kings listed where the
Abydos list has twenty-two. Since Thebes had an interest in showing a smooth
transition from Memphis to Thebes, with no gaps, I suggest that the Turin Canon’s
Sixth Dynasty ended at exactly the point where it began the Eleventh Dynasty and
that the Thebans deliberately omitted the last ten Memphite kings in order to avoid
any appearance of conflict.

On the other hand, the Turin Canon does show a line of Herakleopolitan kings. This is
politically significant. Theban authority stems from its defeat of the Herakleopolitan
kings. Therefore the Herakleopolitan kings need to be mentioned. But the inclusion of
the Herakleopolitan kings also serves to remind Egyptians that the Memphites
couldn’t defeat the Herakleopolitans, and that Horus must have abandoned Memphis
in favor of those kings who did defeat the Herakleopolitans.

Before turning to Manetho’s Seventh and Eighth Dynasties, one more observation
about the king-lists is in order. Manetho and the Table of Sakkara both make Phiops
the fourth king of the Sixth Dynasty. The Turin Canon and the Table of Abydos make
him the fifth king. The latter two lists place an additional king between Manetho’s
first and second king. This king appears to be named Usarkare and he is documented
in the archaeological record, but his reign seems to have been relatively brief. This
suggests that Manetho and the Table of Sakkara both omitted Usarkare from the
sequence of Memphite kings. Therefore, if Manetho originally had intended to
include a complete list of Memphite kings in his chronology, he would have had only
21 kings, instead of the 22 in the Table of Abydos. This figure of “21” is significant in
our reconstruction of Manetho.

Table 1 presents an outline of the first eight dynasties as recorded in both versions of
Manetho. For each dynasty it shows how many kings were claimed and how many
kings were listed by name. Look first at the Africanus list. There is only one
important anomaly. For the Fifth Dynasty, Africanus has a summation line claiming
eight kings, but nine kings are listed.(12) If we count up the number of kings listed for
the first five dynasties, the total is 43. If we add to that number the 27 kings in Dyn. 8,
we have seventy kings, the number claimed for Dyn. 7. This strongly suggests that
Dyn. 7 was originally a line of summation, but of what?

Table 1

Outline of Manetho’s First Eight Dynasties

    Africanus   Eusebius

Kings Kings Kings

Dynasty   Kings Listed
Claimed Listed Claimed

1   8 8 8 8
 2   9 9 9 9 (3 missing)

3   9 9 8 8 (6 missing)

4   8 8 17 1

2 (from Dyn.
5   8 9 31
6)

6   6 6 ? 1

7   70 0 5 0

8   27 0 5 0

Sum 1-5   42 43 73 ?

The clue is in the 27 kings of Dyn. 8. The number 27 is the sum of 21 + 6. “21” is the
number of kings in the entire Memphite line, and “6” is the number of kings in
Manetho’s Sixth Dynasty. This suggests that Manetho’s Eighth Dynasty was
originally a garbled transmission of a Sixth Dynasty line of summation. What seems
to have happened is that after the list of Manetho’s first six Memphite kings, there
must have been a line of summation that indicated that the last 21 Memphite kings
belonged to the last Memphite dynasty. One of Manetho’s earlier redactors must have
misread the text and thought the 21 kings were in addition to the six listed kings,
getting a total of 27 kings in all. He may have then written that the last Memphite
dynasty had 27 kings. This line of summation was later misread as a separate dynasty
apart from the six listed Memphite kings. Because of its description as the last
Memphite dynasty, it was placed at the end of the Memphite list and became
identified as the Eighth Dynasty.

This confusion about 27 kings being the “last Memphite dynasty” led to an additional
error. After the original Sixth Dynasty listing must have been a line of summation for
all six dynasties combined, which may have read some thing like, “number of kings
for first five dynasties plus last dynasty, X days” where “X” would originally have
been the total number of kings for the first six dynasties and “days” would have been
a metaphor for “a complete reign”, the metaphor being based on the daily circuit of
the sun. In effect, the text would have said there were “X number of complete reigns,”
but it would not have recorded in that location the total number of years actually
ruled. Manetho’s intent was to add the 21 kings of Dyn. 6 to the earlier kings in Dyns.
1-5. The “X” entry, however, may have been damaged in transmission, and one of the
early redactors must have thought the “last dynasty” referred to the erroneously
described “Eighth Dynasty of 27 kings” and added that on to the total for the first five
dynasties, getting 70 in all. This line of summation was then subsequently misread as
a separate Seventh Dynasty.

If Africanus’s Eighth Dynasty was originally a garbled line of summation for the
Sixth Dynasty, where, then, did he get the figure of 146 years for the Eighth
Dynasty’s duration? The most likely explanation is that it is connected to the
confusion over the existence of the “last Memphite dynasty.” Since the problems
between Herakleopolis and Memphis appear to have broken out during the reign of
Phiops, Manetho probably had a line of summation for the number of years in which
Memphis and Herakleopolis were in conflict, said period of time beginning with the
reign of Phiops and continuing to the end of the Sixth Dynasty. His text probably
indicated something like “the last group of Memphite kings ruled for 146 years,”
which period began with the reign of Phiops. One of the redactors, however, appears
to have confused this reference to a “last group of kings” with the erroneously created
“last Memphite dynasty of 27 kings” and attached the 146 year figure to the
misnamed Eighth Dynasty.

In support of this idea, let’s look at the relevant chronology. According to Africanus,
from Phiops to the end of his Sixth Dynasty, there is a total of 108 years. (13) The
Turin Canon has an additional five kings, the last four of whom ruled just under ten
years. (14) The reign for the fifth one is damaged but no one believes it was any
longer than a year or two. This brings us to a total of about 118 to 119 years. This
leaves about 27 to 28 years for the nine additional Memphite kings in the Abydos list
that follow after the Turin Canon’s last Memphite king, which coincides quite well
with the traditional view that these nine kings couldn’t have ruled for more than about
a quarter of a century.

An examination of the Eusebius list lends some support to our hypothesis about the
Africanus list. Unfortunately, the Eusebius list is not only corrupt, but it is quite
obvious that dynasties were concatenated together. His Fourth Dynasty of 17 kings,
for instance, certainly is out of proportion, and appears to be the sum of 8 + 9, the
numeric sequence of kings in Africanus’s Fourth and Fifth Dynasty combined. That
Eusebius (or more likely his source) mistakenly combined Dyns. 4 and 5, is evident
from Eusebius’s descriptions of the Fifth Dynasty. He claims that there were 31 kings,
but he names the first and fourth kings in the list and they are from the Sixth Dynasty.
His list has obviously attached the Fifth Dynasty kings to the Fourth Dynasty roster
and thereby shifted the Sixth Dynasty kings into the Fifth Dynasty position. His figure
of 31 kings is also suspicious. Not only is it too large, it is the sum of 21 + 5 + 5. This
suggests that it is a concatenation of the 21 kings of the Sixth Dynasty Memphite line
with the 5 kings in his Seventh Dynasty and the 5 kings in his Eighth Dynasty, an
error consistent with his previously described errors.

Look now at the sum of kings in Eusebius’s first five dynasties. It is 73. But his Third
Dynasty has only 8 kings where Africanus has 9 kings. If we make that upward
adjustment, the new total is 74. Additionally, Eusebius’s Sixth Dynasty contains only
one king. Adding on the single Sixth Dynasty king to the previous total for the first
five dynasties gives a sum of 75.

This brings us back to our earlier suggestion that the use of the term “days” in the
Seventh Dynasty, was a metaphor for “complete reigns.” Africanus’s Seventh
Dynasty has 70 kings ruling for 70 days. Eusebius has 5 kings ruling for 75 days.
Note that the Africanus sum for Dynasties 1-5 and 8 equals “70” and the Eusebius
reigns for Dyn. 1-6 add up to 75, each corresponding to the number of days ruled in
the Seventh Dynasty. Since Africanus’s Eighth Dynasty appears to be a summation
line for the Sixth Dynasty, both the Africanus and Eusebius lists appear to have
confused a line of summation for the first six dynasties with a description of a
Seventh Dynasty. In sum, then, Manetho’s Seventh Dynasty was nothing more than a
summation line for the first six dynasties, and Manetho’s Eighth Dynasty was nothing
more than a garbled summation line for the Sixth Dynasty, in which the first six kings
were accidentally double counted.

One last note on Eusebius: He gives the Eighth Dynasty a duration of 100 years where
Africanus had 146 years. It was suggested earlier that the Africanus figure represented
the sum of Memphite years beginning with Phiops. We note, however, that in the
Africanus list, Africanus’s source mistakenly confused Phiops’s 100th birthday with
his 100th year on the throne. (15) The Eusebius figure, therefore, may represent the
erroneous total for Phiops’s reign, with the balance of the reigns omitted.

In summation, we can say the following: Ancient Egyptian records clearly preserved a
list of 22 Memphite kings beginning with the Sixth Dynasty. Some king-lists,
however, such as Manetho’s and the Table of Sakkara, omitted the second king on
this list, who apparently had a very brief reign. Because of different political views
about when moral authority departed from Memphis and alighted in Thebes, different
king-lists had different listings of which kings they thought had moral authority.
Some, as in Sakkara, thought that from Phiops to Menthotpe II all were illegitimate.
Others, as in Abydos, were Memphite loyalists and rejected Theban claims until the
reunification. And the Thebans claimed the earliest possible moment for their
legitimacy, showing no break between the Memphite Sixth Dynasty and the Theban
Eleventh Dynasty. Manetho, attempting a complete history, tried to list everybody. He
listed the first six kings in the Sixth Dynasty and indicated that there were 21 kings in
the “last Memphite Dynasty.” This ambiguous description of a “last Memphite
dynasty” led to a series of errors by Manetho’s redactors. The end result was to create
a Seventh Dynasty out of a line of summation for the first six dynasties and to create
an Eighth Dynasty out of a line of summation for the Sixth Dynasty.

Since the misinterpretation of Manetho is the sole evidence for the existence of a
Seventh and Eighth Dynasty, those two dynasties should disappear from the Egyptian
history. Furthermore, the First Intermediate Period should probably now be defined
more precisely in accordance with the description in the Table of Sakkara, beginning
during the reign of Phiops and ending with Menthotpe II’s conquest over
Herakleopolis. More specifically, the First Intermediate Period should be defined
simply as the period in time when Herakleopolitan kings ruled independently of
Memphis and Thebes.

Endnotes

1. Manetho, 57.
2. Manetho, 59.
3. Manetho, 57.
4. Manetho, 59.
5. Gardiner, Egypt of the Pharaohs, 436-8.
6. Gardiner, 102, 436-8.
7. Gardiner, 436-8.
8. Gardiner, 102, 436.
9. Hayes, Cambridge Ancient History, I:1:179.
10. Gardiner, 101-2.
11. Gardiner, 438.
12. Manetho, 51.
13. Manetho, 55.
14. Gardiner, 436.
15. Manetho, 53-5.

The way I see it, it's all based on mathematics. The names and exact dates are not as
important as the metaphors and the geometry.

SEVENTH AND EIGHTH DYNASTIES

2152 - 2130

Netrikare
Menkare
Neferkare II
Neferkare III
Djedkare II
Neferkare IV
Merenhor
Menkamin I
Nikare
Neferkare V
Neferkahor
Neferkare VI
Neferkamin II
Ibi I
Neferkaure
Neferkauhor
Neferirkare II

Attested Kings about whom nothing more is known:

Wadjkare - "Prosperous is the Soul of Re"

Sekhemkare
Iti
Imhotep
Isu
Iytenu
 NINTH AND TENTH DYNASTIES - 2135 - 2074 BC

Neferkare
Mery-ib-re Khety - dates uncertain - "Beloved is the Heart of Re"
Mery-ka-re - dates uncertain - "Beloved is the Soul of Re"
Ka-nefer-re - dates uncertain - "Beautiful is the Soul of Re"
Neb-kau-re Akh-toy - dates uncertain - "Golden are the Souls of Re"

This dynasty was also known as the Herakleopolis Dynasty because the rulers
controlled lower Egypt from Herakleopolis. This dynasty is also often called the
"House of Khety" because many of the ruler's names were Khety, but it is considered
to be fairly unstable due to frequent changes in rulers. The Herakleopolitans expelled
Asiatic immigrants from the Nile delta and fortified the eastern border of Egypt. This
dynasty was responsible for establishing the importance of Memphis.

The Herakleopolitans improved irrigation works, reopened trade with Byblos, and
began the "Coffin Texts". One of the kings wrote the "Instruction to Merikara." They
also had frequent outbreaks of fighting against the Thebans north of Abydos.
Eventually they were conquered by the Thebans and this marked the end of the
Herakleopolis Dynasty and the beginning of the Middle Kingdom.

The only person from this era to have left an impression on posterity is a woman
called Nitokris who appears to have acted as king. There are no contemporary records
but Herodotus wrote of her:

She killed hundreds of Egyptians to avenge the king, her brother, whom his subjects
had killed, and had forced her to succeed. She did this by constructing a huge
underground chamber. Then invited to a banquet all those she knew to be responsible
for her brother's death. When the banquet was underway, she let the river in on them,
through a concealed pipe. After this fearful revenge, she flung herself into a room
filled with embers, to escape her punishment."

For a time petty warlords ruled the provinces. Then from the city of Herakleopolis
there emerged a ruling family led by one Khety who for a time held sway over the
whole country. However, this was short lived and the country split into two, the north
ruled from Herakleopolis and the south ruled from Thebes.

Whereas the Theban dynasty was stable, kings succeeded one another rapidly at
Herakleopolis. There was continual conflict between the two lands which was
resolved in the 11th dynasty.

King Ouakha-Re KHETY III (2110to 2075 BC) taught his son, the future king
MERIKARE of the 10th dynasty (2075 to 2060BC), thus : (Papyrus of the Hermitage
Museum - N0. 1115 at Copenhagen.)

"Life on earth passes quickly, and happy are those without sin, because a million men
will serve as nothing to the king of heaven and earth when they appear as sinners in
the next life. The memory of the good man will live for ever. The essence of life is in
the word of the ancestors; it is contained in books. Open and read them.
Practice justice as long as you are on earth, Comfort those that cry, do not oppress the
widow and the orphan. (sentences that the Bible repeats often.)

God knows the treacherous and paid for their sins in His blood... Go down the
difficult path, because the soul of the man is drawn to the place that it knows, does not
depart from the way of truth; and no-one can prevent it!

Know that the judges in the courthouse of the next world will examine a life as if it
were only an hour. Happy is the one that reaches the next life : he will be like a god,
he will move freely like the masters of eternity, because there is no-one who can
oppose the CREATOR, who is omnipresent and omniscient. Honor your invisible
God on your way, practice truth and justice,

Act for God so that he can do the same for you. After having punished men (in the
deluge?), his light (Re) again shines in the sky, so that men may see it.

These sublime words were written toward 2080BC, within one or two hundred years
of the birth in UR in the Chaldees of a young man called Abraham."
 11th Dynasty (Thebes Only)

Mentuhotep I (2125 BC ?)

Mentuhotep I was a local Egyptian ruler at Thebes during the First Intermediate
Period. He founded the Eleventh dynasty which eventually reunited Egypt under the
Middle Kingdom. He is associated with Mentuhotep II. It is commonly thought that
the two rulers were one and the same.

Antef I - Inyotef I - Intef l - 2134-2118 BC

Antef I was the son of a local ruler of Thebes named Mentuhotep I. He was the first
Theban ruler to have proclaimed himself king, assuming a Horus-name and writing
his personal name in a cartouche. He thus opposed the kings of the 9/10th Dynasty of
Heracleopolis and started a civil war.

That a local ruler of a relatively small city was able to oppose the ruling dynasty can
be explained by the strong decentralisation of the Ancient Egyptian government,
which, in turn, may have been the result of the low inundation of the Nile at the end of
the Old Kingdom. He conquered some of the cities to the north of Thebes, among
them Koptos and Dendara. To the south, he extended his reign to Elkab.

He was buried in a long, narrow rock-tomb on the West-bank of Thebes.

Antef II - Inyotef Il - Intef ll - 2118-2069 BC

During the reign of Antef II, which, according to the Turin King-list lasted for as long
as 49 years, the kings of the 9/10th Dynasty tried to re-conquer the territory they had
previously lost to Antef I, in an attempt to establish their rule over the whole of Egypt.

Antef II, however, succeeded not only in warding off the Heracleopolitan attacks, but
also in conquering even more of their territory: Abydos, Akhmim and Kaw el-Kabir.
In the south, he extended the Theban rule to the First Cataract, the traditional southern
border of Ancient Egypt.

Antef II was buried in a rock-tomb next to his predecessor's. This tomb is known from
the representation of the king's dogs, which had foreign names. The tomb is also
mentioned in the texts from the end of the New Kingdom about the tomb robberies of
that era.

Antef III - Inyotef Ill - Intef lll - 2069 - 2061 BC

Little is known about the reign of Antef III. The Turin King-list credits him with a
reign of at least 8 years. He was the father of Mentuhotep II, who would re-unite
Egypt under one rule. It does not appear that this king gained or lost territory to the
kings of the 9/10th Dynasty.

He was buried in a narrow rock-tomb next to Antef II.

 MIDDLE KINGDOM BEGINS - ALL OF EGYPT

The Middle Kingdom is a period in the history of ancient Egypt stretching from the
establishment of the Eleventh Dynasty to the end of the Fourteenth Dynasty, roughly
between 1991 BC and 1648 BC.

The Middle Kingdom has been usually dated to the time when Pharaoh Mentuhotep II
from Thebes defeated the last king of the Tenth Dynasty around the 14th Year of his
reign to reunite Egypt thus bringing an end to the First Intermediate Period. Some
authorities point to cultural differences between the Eleventh and Twelfth Dynasties,
and date the Middle Kingdom to the beginning of that dynasty.

Mentuhotep II (c. 2060 - 2010 BC)

He was the first ruler of the Middle Kingdom.

His throne name was Neb-hetep-re, meaning "Pleased is the Lord Re".

Mentuhotep II was the son of the Theban ruler Antef III and a woman named Iah.
When he came to power, his predecessors had already conquered a territory that
stretched far beyond Thebes, from the 1st cataract in the south, to the region of Qaw
el-Kabir in the north.

The Turin King-lists credits this king with a reign of as much as 51 years. In light of
the many events that occurred during his reign, this is not unlikely.
Mentuhotep II was responsible for the reunification of Egypt.

His achievements can be reviewed by looking at how his Horus name changed during
his rule. He started off calling himself "He who gives heart to the Two Lands", and
then moved on to "Lord of the White Crown" (the White Crown being symbolic of
Upper Egypt). Finally, he became known as "Uniter of the Two Lands".

The first years of his reign have left us with only few testimonies. This could mean
that he reached the throne at a young age, something that is also suggested by the long
duration of his reign. His 14th regnal year was apparently a turning-point in the life of
Mentuhotep. Its name "year of the crime of Thinis" suggests that there was some
trouble in the Thinite province, where the age-old holy city of Abydos was located.
Apparently the Heracleopolitan king Kheti of the 9/10th Dynasty had succeeded in re-
conquering this province and was threatening to do the same with the rest of Upper-
Egypt. During this re-conquest, a large part of the old necropolis of Abydos was
destroyed.

Mentuhotep immediately reacted and not only repelled the Heracleopolitans from
Abydos, he also continued the war against them, conquering Assiut, Middle-Egypt
and finally Heracleopolis itself. With the fall of the Heracleopolitan Dynasty, nothing
stood in the way for the final re-unification of Egypt under Theban rule.

At the latest by his 39th year, but presumably somewhere around his 30th year, Egypt
was united again and Mentuhotep II was the first Theban who could rightfully call
himself King of Upper- and Lower-Egypt thus ushering in the Middle Kingdom.

Mentuhotep's military efforts were not only aimed at reuniting the Two Lands.
Inscriptions in Nubia show his desire to re-establish the Egyptian supremacy over this
region. A mass-tomb found in Deir el-Bahari contained 60 bodies of slain Egyptian
soldiers who perhaps lost their lives in Nubia. That these soldiers were given a burial
so near the king's own funerary monument, demonstrates how much importance was
attached to them.

Even during the re-conquest of Egypt, Mentuhotep built or restored several temples
throughout his territory. He was particularly active in Upper-Egypt as is shown by
monuments in Dendara, Abydos, Elkab and Elephantine. The warrior-king paid
special homage to the war-god Montu, who, at that time, was the principal god of the
Theban province. For him he built temples in Medamud, Armant and Tod.
A view on the remains of Mentuhotep's funerary temple (foreground). The larger
building in the background is Hatshepsut's temple, the design of which was largely
based on Mentuhotep's.

The most famous monument built by Mentuhotep II was his funerary monument.
Unlike his predecessors, who were buried in relatively simple tombs in Dra Abu el-
Naga', Mentuhotep chose to build his mortuary temple and tomb at Deir el-Bahari.
The design of this building was unique: a terrace was built against the cliffs of Deir
el-Bahari. Upon the roof of that terrace was built a massive stone construction,
identified by some archaeologists as a pyramid, by others as a mastaba. The tomb of
the king was located in the rock behind and underneath the temple.

Mentuhotep III (c. 2010-1998 BC)

Mentuhotep III was the son and successor of Mentuhotep II. He is attested as "eldest
son of the king" in his father's mortuary temple in Deir el-Bahari.

Because of his father's long reign, he may already have been relatively old by the time
he reached the throne. The Turin King-list has recorded 12 years for this king.

After the military reign of his father, Mentuhotep III's reign was peaceful. The king's
main concern was no longer the conquest of new territory, but the protection of Egypt
against foreign states and roaming Bedouin. The cult for this Mentuhotep in the
eastern Delta is probably related to his policy to fortify the north-eastern border
against the Asian nomads.

The most important event during this king's reign was an expedition, led by a man
named Henenu, through the Wadi Hammamat to the Red Sea and from there to the
legendary land of Punt, from where many exotic products and incense were brought to
Egypt.

Despite its relatively short duration, this reign has produced several temples
throughout Upper-Egypt, from the southern most border in Elephantine, over Elkab,
Tod and Armant to Abydos, as evidenced by a relief found in Armant.
A tomb was apparently started for this king, near Deir el-Bahari, but it was left
unfinished.

Mentuhotep IV (c.1998 - 1991 BC)

Mentuhotep IV was the last king of the 11th Dynasty. He was the son of a woman
named Imi, who was a secondary wife of either Mentuhotep II or Mentuhotep III.

This Mentuhotep is missing in most king-lists. The Turin-king-list merely notes 7

missing years at the end of this dynasty, just after the reign of Mentuhotep III. This
probably refers to a gap in the documentation of about 7 years, which may have been
filled by Nebtawire's reign. An offering table found in Karnak mentions the "Father of
the God" Sesostris, the father of Amenemhat I, the founder of the next dynasty, in his
place.

Either Mentuhotep IV was considered as an usurper, or the kings of the 12th Dynasty
decided to re-write history to justify their claims to the throne. That he was not
recognised as the legitimate king of the country may perhaps be supported by the
many opponents to his reign: Antef, who may have been a member of the royal
family, Iy-ib-khent-re and Segerseni all assumed royal titulary, thereby stating that
they had more rights to the throne.

During the second year of his reign, he organised an expedition to the quarries of the
Wadi Hammamat, located to the north-east of Thebes, between Koptos and the Red
Sea. The 19 inscriptions left behind there by the members of the expedition are the
only testimony to this Mentuhotep's reign.

The expedition was led by a vizier named Amenemhat, who is assumed by most
Egyptologists to have been the later king Amenemhat I. A stone plate found at Lisht,
bearing both the names of Mentuhotep IV and of king Amenemhat I may perhaps
indicate that Amenemhat I was a co-regent during the later years of Mentuhotep's
reign. This in turn could perhaps indicate that Mentuhotep IV had intended
Amenemhat to be his successor.
 TWELFTH DYNASTY - (1937-1759 BC)

According to Manetho, the 12th Dynasty comprised seven kings from Thebes, who
ruled for a total of 160 years in the version of Africanus, and for 245 years in the
version of Eusebius. Oddly enough, this does not include the founder of the dynasty,
Amenemhat I, who is added in succession to the kings of the 11th Dynasty.

In the Turin King-list, the dynasty started with Amenemhat I and consisted of 8 kings
who ruled for a total of 213 years, 1 month and 17 days. All kings listed in the Turin
King-list are also attested by contemporary sources and monuments.

The circumstances into which the 12th Dynasty came to power are not known. What
is known is that Amenemhat I was not related to his predecessors. His father was a
priest in Thebes named Senuseret. His mother was named Nefret and, according to the
Prophecy of Neferti, came from Elephantine in the South of Egypt.

It is possible that Amenemhat was the vizier of Mentuhotep IV, the last king of the
11th Dynasty. A stone plate found at Lisht, bearing both the names of Mentuhotep IV
and of king Amenemhat I may perhaps indicate that Amenemhat I was a co-regent
during the later years of Mentuhotep's reign. This could perhaps indicate that
Mentuhotep IV had intended Amenemhat to be his successor.

With the 12th Dynasty, a local god of obscure origin, Amun, would become the most
important god of the Ancient Egyptian pantheon. The popularity of Amun is closely
linked to the origin of Amenemhat I, whose name, containing the element Amun,
shows a particular allegiance to this god. Even when Amenemhat moved the political
center of the country from Thebes to the newly built capital Itj-tawi in the Fayum
oasis, located to the southwest of the old capital Memphis, Thebes would remain an
important religious center. This would determine the religious and political history of
Ancient Egypt for the following millennium.

The kings of the 12th Dynasty ruled the country firmly and were able to maintain the
power of balance between the central authorities and the local administrations, to their
own advantage. They also imposed their rule on northern Nubia and pacified the
Bedouins in the deserts to the east and west of the Nile Valley. Imposing fortresses
were built in Nubia and at the Eastern border, to protect trading routes from raiding
Bedouins.

The wealth and stability the 12th Dynasty has brought to the country is evidenced in
the high quality of statues, reliefs and paintings found throughout the country. Rather
typical for this period are statues with big ears, seen by some as an indication that the
king and his nobility listened to their subjects.

Deviating from the standard way of representing kings, Sesostris III and his successor
Amenemhat III (see image to the left) had themselves portrayed as mature, aging
men. This is often interpreted as a portrayal of the burden of power and kingship. That
the change in representation was indeed ideological and should not be interpreted as
the portrayal of an aging king is shown by the fact that in one single relief, Sesostris
III was represented as a vigorous young man, following the centuries old tradition,
and as a mature aging king.

The dynasty came to an end when Amenemhat IV appears to have died without male
heirs and he was succeeded by his sister/wife Nefrusobek.

Reference: Monarchs of the Nile Aidan Dodson, 1995

Amenemhat I - Amenemhet I - Amen is at the Head - (1991-1962 BC)

Amenemhat I was the first ruler of the 12th Dynasty.

Some Egyptologists believe that recovery from the First Intermediate Period into the
Middle Kingdom only really began with his rule. He was probably not of royal blood,
at least if he is the same Vizier that functioned under his predecessor, Mentuhotep IV.
Perhaps either Mentuhotep IV had no heir, or he was simply a weak leader. This
vizier, named Amenemhet, recorded an inscription when Mentuhotep IV sent him to
Wadi Hammamt. The inscription records two omens. The first tells us of a gazelle that
gave birth to her calf atop the stone that had been chosen for the lid of the King's
sarcophagus. The second was of a ferocious rainstorm that, when subsided, disclosed
a well 10 cubits square and full of water. Of course that was a very good omen in this
barren landscape.

Many Egyptologists believe that Amenemhet's inscription implies that a great ruler
will come to the throne of Egypt upon the death of Mentuhotep IV, who will lead the
country into prosperity.

It is fairly certain that Amenemhet the vizier was predicting his own rise to the throne
as Amenemhet I. However, we are told that he had at least two other competitors to
the throne. One was called Inyotef, and the other a Segerseni from Nubia. It would
appear that he quickly dealt with these obstacles. We believe that he ruled Egypt for
almost 30 years. Peter A. Clayton places his reign between the years of 1991 and
1962 BC while the Oxford History of Ancient Egypt gives him a reign lasting from
1985 through 1956 BC. Dodson has his reign lasting from 1994 until 1964 BC.

Amenemhet I's Horus name, Wehem-mesut, means "he who repeats births", and
almost certainly was chosen to commemorate the new dynasty and a return to the
values and prosperity of a united Egypt. Amenemhet (Amenemhat) was his birth
name and means "Amun is at the Head". He was called Ammenemes I by the Greeks.
His throne name was Sehetep-ib-re, which means "Satisfied is the Heart of Re".

Neferu, who was the principal wife of Senwosret I, the kings mother, Nefret, and a
principal wife, Nefrytatenen

Amenemhet was probably the son of a woman named Nofret (Nefret), from
Elephantine near modern Aswan, and a priest called Senusret, according to an
inscription at Thebes. So his origins are probably southern Egypt. We know of three
possible wives including Neferytotenen (Nefrutoteen, Nefrytatenen), who may have
been the mother of Amenemhet I's successor, Senusret I, Dedyet, who was may also
have been his sister, and Sobek'neferu, Neferu).

It is fairly clear that Amenemhet established Egypt's first co-regency with his son,
Senusret I, in about the older kings 20th year of rule. He was not only seeking to
assure the succession of his proper heir, but also providing the young prince valuable
training under his tutelage. Senusret was given several active roles in Amenemhet I's
government, specifically including matters related to the military matters. Several
pieces of literature that probably date from his reign, some of which appears to
support his reign with fables of kingship. One, the Discourse of Neferty, has a ruler
emerging named Ameny, who was foretold by a prophet in the Old Kingdom
(Neferty).
Neferti was a Heliopolis sage who seems familiar to us from Djedi in the Papyrus
Westcar. He is summoned to the court of Snofru, during who's reign the story is
suppose to have taken place. This tale has Ameny delivering Egypt from chaos, but it
should be noted that it is the chaos of the late 11th Dynasty, not the First Intermediate
Period.

Then a king will come from the South, Ameny, the justified, my name, Son of a
woman of Ta-Seti, child of Upper Egypt, He will take the white crown, he willjoin the
Two Mighty Ones (the two crowns)

Asiatics will fall to his sword,

Libyans will fall to his flame,
Rebels to his wrath, traitors to his might,
As the serpent on his brow subdues the rebels for him,
One will build the Walls-of-the-Ruler,
To bar Asiatics from entering Egypt...

We do not know what year this literature dates to within Amenemhet I's reign. But
while there are other text that refer to the chaos before the arrival of new kings, the
references to Asiatics and the Walls-of-the-Ruler are new.

Amenemhet I set about consolidating the country in a very purposeful manner. He

moved his capital north to the capital he apparently established named Amenemhet-
itj-tawy, which means, "Amenemhet the Seizer of the Two lands". It was located
south of Memphis, on the edge of the Fayoum Oasis, though the city ruins have not
yet been discovered. This gave him a more central control of Egypt, as well as placing
him nearer to problem areas in the Delta. It also signaled the end of an old era and
new beginnings. This move was perhaps only carried out a short time after he took the
throne.

Many Egyptologists believe that the move was made at the very beginning of his
reign, while a few believe it may have been much later, around the time of his
twentieth year as ruler. However, he did begin a tomb at Thebes, and then abandoned
it for a pyramid at el-Lisht, near the new capital. It appears that the work on the tomb
at Thebes may have taken between three and five years to complete. Also, there are
very few of his monuments located near Thebes, suggesting that he soon moved
away.

His pyramid at el Lisht is instructional, for it seems to portray a return to some of the
values of the Old Kingdom, while still embracing the Theban concepts of the region
of his birth. Egyptologists who believe Amenemhet I may have waited until his
twentieth year to make the move to his new city base their evidence on an inscription
found on the foundation blocks of the pyramid's mortuary temple. It records
Amenemhet's royal jubilee, and also that year one of a new king had elapsed,
suggesting that the pyramid was started very late in the king's reign. Therefore,
considerable debate remains over the timing of his move.

He also reorganized the administration of the country, keeping the nomarchs who had
supported him, while weakening the regional governors by appointing new officials at
Asyut, Cusae and Elephantine. An inscription records that he also divided the nomes
(provinces) into different sets of towns and redistributed the territories by reference to
the Nile flood. We see a steady march during Amenemhet I's rule back to a more
centralized government, together with an increase in bureaucracy. Another move,
both to dilute the army's power and to raise personnel for coming conflicts, was his
reintroduction of conscription.

Undoubtedly, in the Discourse of Neferty, Asiatics refer to the people who were
causing trouble on the Egypt's eastern frontier. One of Amenemhet I's earliest
campaigns were against these Asiatics, though the scale of these operations is
unknown. He drove these people back, and indeed did build the Walls-of-the-Ruler,
as series of fortifications along Egypt's northeastern frontier. However, even as late as
his 24th year of rule, we still find inscriptions recording expeditions against these
"and-dweller". None of these fortifications has ever been found, though the remains of
a canal in the region may date from the period. Apparently, in the midst of the Asiatic
campaign, he also found time to crush a few unrepentant local governors (nomarchs).

In Nubia, Amenemhet I first pushed his army southward to Elephantine, where he

consolidated his rule and seems to have been satisfied for a number of years. This
expedition was apparently lead by Khnemhotpe I, governor of the Oryx nome, who
traveled up the Nile with 20 boats. But by year 29 of his rule, the king appears to have
no longer been happy with the lose trading and quarrying network with Nubia that we
find in the Old Kingdom.

The new policy was one of conquest and colonization with the principle aim of
obtaining raw materials, especially gold. An inscription at the northern Nubian site of
Korosko about half way between the first and second cataracts (rapids) states that the
people of Wawat (northern Nubia) were defeated in his 29th year, and he apparently
drove his army as far south as the second cataract.

In order to protect Egypt and fortify captured territory in Nubia, he founded a fortress
at Semna and Quban in the region of the second Nile Cataract, which would begin a
string of future 12th Dynasty fortresses. Along with protecting his newly acquired
territory and the gold mines in Wadi Allaqi, he also created a stranglehold over
economic contacts with Upper Nubia and further south. We also know that he
constructed a fortress at Mendes named Rawaty.

From a foreign relations standpoint, we also know that diplomatic and commercial
relations were renewed, after a long absence, with Byblos and the Aegean world.

Amenemhet I took part in a number of building projects. Besides his fortresses, we

know he built at Babastis, el-Khatana and Tanis. He undertook important building
works at Karnak, from which a few statues and granite naos survive. He may have
even established the original temple of Mut to the south of the Temple of Amun.

He also worked at Koptos (Coptos), where he partly decorated the temple of Min, at
Abydos, where he dedicated a granite altar to Osiris, at Dendera, where he built a
granite gateway to Hathor and at Memphis, where he built a temple of Ptah. Also a
little north of Tell el-Dab'a, he apparently began a small mudbrick temple at Ezbet
Rushdi, that was later expanded by Senusret III.
Religiously, being from southern Egypt, Amenemhet I's allegiance was probably to
the god Amun, and in fact, we find from this period forward the rise of Amun, at the
expense of Montu, god of war, as the supreme deity of Thebes.

It is also notable that we find an increase in the mineral wealth of the royal family.
We find a huge increase in the jewelry caches found in several 12th Dynasty royal
burials. It is obvious from several sources of evidence that even the standard of living
form middle class Egyptians was on the increase, though their level of wealth was
proportional to their official offices.

Amenemhet I appears to have been a very wise leader, setting about to correct the
problems of the First Intermediate Period, protecting Egypt's boarders from invasion
and assuring a legitimate succession.

Yet he was murdered in an apparent harem plot while his co-regent was leading a
campaign in Libya. Again, we find two literary works, the Tale of Sinuhe and the
Instructions of Amenemhet I, reflecting this king's tragic end. One literary work from
the time of Senusret I presents the account of Amenemhet I's murder, supposedly
provided by the king himself from beyond the grave:

"It was after supper, when night had fallen, and I had spent an hour of happiness. I
was asleep upon my bed, having become weary, and my heart had begun to follow
sleep. When weapons of my counsel were wielded, I had become like a snake of the
necropolis. As I came to, I awoke to fighting, and found that it was an attack of the
bodyguard. If I had quickly taken weapons in my hand, I would have made the
wretches retreat with a charge! But there is none mighty in the night, none who can
fight alone; no success will come without a helper. Look, my injury happened while I
was without you, when the entourage had not yet heard that I would hand over to you
when I had not yet sat with you, that I might make counsels for you; for I did not plan
it, I did not foresee it, and my heart had not taken thought of the negligence of
servants."

Apparently, his foresight in creating the co-regency with his son proved successful,
for Senusret I succeeded his father and their seems to have been little or no disruption
in the administration of the country.

Amenemhat I was murdered. His body was buried in his pyramid at el-Lisht, near the
Fayum oasis.
 Image of Amenemhet I from his
mortuary complex at el-lisht

The Pyramid of Amenemhet I

Sesostris I - Senusret Kheper-ka-re - 'Man of Wosret' - (1971 - 1926 BC)

Senusret I was the second king of the 12th Dynasty.

He ascended to the throne after the murder of his father, Amenemhet I. There had
apparently been a harem plot, and with good timing, Amenemhet I was assassinated
in the absence of his son, who was fighting in Libya. It would seem that his son either
swiftly left the campaign, or was already heading home at the time of the murder.
However, this was not the first harem conspiracy, and Amenemhet I had performed
his due diligence in respect to assuring a successful transition for his heir. For the first
time that we know of in Egyptian history, Senusret I was made a co-regent.

Senusret I was this king's birth name, and means "Man of goddess Wosret". However,
it was also the name, we believe, of his non-royal grandfather and so it may give little
insight into his character. In references, he is also sometimes called Senwosret I, or
Sesostris I (Greek). His throne name was Kheper-ka-re, which means, "The Soul of
Re comes into Being". His mother was probably Neferytotenen (Nefrutoteen,
Nefrytatenen), one of Amenemhet I's chief wives.

He married a Queen Nefru, who was the mother of his successor son, Amenemhet II.
Like his father, Amenemhet II was also made a coregent, but only perhaps three years
prior to Senusret I's death. The coregency was recorded by a private stele of Simontu
that is now in the British Museum. From her pyramid near her father's we also know
that he had a daughter (or possibly a wife) by the name of Itakaiet. He may have had
other daughters, including princesses Nefru-Sobek, Nefru-Ptah and Nenseddjedet.

Senusret I probably ruled Egypt for a period of about 34 years after his father's death
during a period in Egypt's history where literature and craftsmanship was at its peek.
We believe he may have been a co-regent of his father far perhaps another ten years.
He probably ruled Egypt from about 1956 through 1911 BC.

It was a period of affluence, and a remarkable time for mineral wealth, gold and the
fine jewelry produced with this abundance. Jewelry masterpieces have been found,
particularly in the tombs of the royal ladies at Dahshur and Lahun, attributable to his
reign. Considerable efforts were made to procure amethyst, turquoise, copper and
gniess for both jewelry and sculptures. But it was also a time of great stability and
development.

Senusret I embraces the creator god, Ptah at Karnak

However, we also learn from letters of an old farmer named Hekanakhte to his family,
that there was apparently a famine during the time of Senusret, a fact that is also
implied by an inscription in the tomb of a nomarch (governor) named Amenemhat at
Beni Hassan. But along with this news, we also are provided considerable insight into
the life of the common Egyptians of this period by Hekanakhte's letters, and a better
understanding of the details of agricultural.

He continued many of his father's policies, including the expansion in northern Nubia.
We know that he sent one expedition to Nubia in his tenth year of reign, and that eight
years later, he sent another army as far south as the second cataract. His general,
Mentuhotep, went even deeper into Nubia.

However, Senusret I established Egypt's southern border at the fortress of Buhen near
the second cataract, where he placed a garrison and a victory stele, thereby adding to
the already substantial military presence established by his father. Now, there were at
least 13 fortresses that extended as far as the Second Cataract, and while Egypt's
border may have been at the Nile's second cataract, he exercised control of Nubia as
far as the Third Cataract. Inscriptions attributable to Senusret I can be found as far
south as the island of Argo, north of modern Dongola.

He also protected the Delta region and the Western desert Oases from Libyan
invasion by means of a series of military campaigns and by establishing control over
oases in the Libyan Desert. Several of the expeditions also appear to have been lead
by him personally.

However, he radically changed the policy towards Syria/Palestine by seeking stable

commercial and diplomatic relations rather then a policy of expansion and control.
Trading caravans passed between Syria and Egypt exchanging cedar and ivory for
Egyptian goods.

Religiously, Senusret contributed considerable attention to the cult of Osiris, and over
his long rule, this deity's beliefs and practices flourished in Egypt. Osiris was a god of
the people and in expanding this cult, Senusret I gave his subjects what John Wilson
has described as the 'democratization of the afterlife'.

Senusret I with Amun-Re at Karnak

Senusret I had already established himself as a builder during the co-regency with his
father by extending and and embellishing some major temples, particularly at Karnak,
where he is considered to have founded the temple of Ipet sut (Karnak), and
Heliopolis.

As early as year two of his reign, he rebuilt the very important temple of Re-Atum at
Heliopolis, a center of the sun cult. He probably even personally participated in the
foundation ceremonies for the temple's reconstruction.

He also had two, massive 20 meter (66 foot) red granite obelisks erected at the same
temple on the occasion of his jubilee celebrating his 30th year in office. These
monoliths would have weighed 121 tons each. One of the pair remains the oldest
standing obelisk in Egypt. He also built the famous bark shrine, or White Chapel, that
has been reconstructed by Henri Chevrier in the Open Air Museum at Karnak.

It was built in order to celebrate his sed festival (Jubilee) in the 30th year of his reign,
but the blocks for the temple were reused to build the third Pylon at Karnak. A scene
within the White Chapel records the coronation of Senusret I, and is the oldest such
scene so far discovered.

The White Chapel at Karnak

The more important projects included remodeling the temple of Khenti-amentiu-

Osiris at Abydos. He also erected many memorial stele and small shrines, or
cenotaphs, at Abydos, a practice that would be followed by many Middle and New
Kingdom pharaohs. One also also finds temples built by Sunusret I at Elepantine and
Tod. In fact, he is attested to at almost three dozen sites from Alexandria to Aswan
and down into Nubia where he carried out building projects.

Senusret I also set up a program to build monuments in each of the main cult sites all
over Egypt. This was really an extension of an Old Kingdom policy, but in reality he
was following his fathers efforts to consolidate and centralize power. This move
undermined the power bases of local temples and priests.
In order to facilitate these building projects, he sent expeditions to exploit the stone
quarries of Wadi Hammamat, the Sinai at Serabit el-Khadim, Hatnub, where two
expeditions were sent in years 23 and 31 of his reign for alabaster, and Wadi el Hudi.
One of these expeditions extracted enough stone to make sixty sphinxes and 150
statues. Many of his statues did not survive the ages, but the Egyptian Antiquity
Museum includes a large collection of those that did.

Fragment from Karnak pillar with King and Horus

He also built a large pyramid, very reminiscent of older complexes, at Lisht, near
Itjtawy, the capital apparently founded by his father. His pyramid is located just to the
south of his father's pyramid at el-Lisht.
 -

The Pyramid of Senusret I

Amenemhat II - (1929 BC - 1895 BC)

He was the third king of the 12th Dynasty

His throne name was 'Nub-kau-re'

'Golden are the Souls of Re'
Ammenemes II (Greek)
Amun is at the Head
Amenemhet II was the son of Senusret I and one of his chief queens, Nefru. Like his
father, he served the first three years of his reign as co-regent with his father. During
this time Amenemhet II led a Nubian expedition.

Family:

Apparently, Amenemhet II also took his son, Senusret II as a co-regent, but also for
only a brief time before his own death. He had four daughters - Ita, Khnemet, Itiueret
and Sithathormeret

Dates:

According to Manetho, Amenemhat II ruled for 38 years, a number which is generally

accepted. The Turin King list is fragmentary at this point and only confirms 10 or
more years. In view of the long reign of his predecessor, it is not impossible that
Amenemhat II was already quite aged when he came to the throne, in which case a
shorter reign is to be favored. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt gives his reign as
lasting from 1911 through 1877 BC, while Clayton gives it as 1926 through 1895 BC.

Government:

Domestically, Amenemhet II failed in one important respect. Under the rule of his
predecessors, nomarchs, who were basically the governors of the various nomes
(provinces), had been personally appointed by the king. This was a measure taken to
assure the centralization of government. The First Intermediate Period was at least
partially caused the chaos resulting from strong regional rulers who destabilized this
central control.

However, Amenemhat II apparently allowed this important office to revert back to a

hereditary position. The nomarchs soon took advantage of this change by adapting
pretentious titles sometimes imitating those of the royal court.  However, Amenemhat
did keep a firm hand on these matters and appears to not let these local rulers forget
their allegiance to the crown. In return for royal favors, they were expected to help
protect the Egyptian borders, to undertake expeditions for the king and to generally
act as his deputies.

Foreign Policy:

The foreign policy of Amenemhat II appear to have been a continuation of his

father's. There is evidence of extensive trade with parts of the Near East,
Mesopotamia and even Crete. Several Egyptian objects, among them small statues
and scarabs, were found at several Near Eastern sites. Among them a sphinx of
princess Ita, that was probably sent to Syria as a trading gift. Especially favored were
the Syrian port of Byblos, where the native ruling elite even made short inscriptions in
hieroglyphic, referring to Egyptian gods. The foundation deposits of the temple of
Tod, dated to the reign of Amenemhat, contained objects of Mesopotamian and
Cretan origin.

Not all contacts with Asia were as peaceful, however, as is shown by raids of
Bedouin, probably in the Sinai and some Egyptian military activity against two
unnamed Asian cities.

There was also at least one military expedition against Nubia and during his 28th
year, Amenemhat II sent the official Khentikhetaywer as an envoy to Punt.

Monuments:

Not many buildings from the time of Amenemhat II remain. A pylon at Hermopolis,
in Middle Egypt and the foundation deposits at Tod are, along with his pyramid at
Dashur, the only notable monuments that were left from his reign.

The choice of location for his pyramid at Dashur, not far from the Bent and Red
Pyramids built by 4th Dynasty king Snofru, raises the question why he did not build
his funerary monument at El-Lisht like his father and grandfather. It is possible that
Amenemhat sought to create a relationship between his dynasty and that of Snofru by
doing so.

The pyramid complex is poorly preserved and is mostly known because of the
exquisite jewelry that was found in some of the tombs of Amenemhat's daughters,
located in the forecourt of the complex. The jewelry included rings, braces, necklaces
and diadems and shows the excellent craftsmanship of the era.
From 1894 through 1895, Jacques de Morgan made a cursory investigation of the
ruins. Unfortunately he was too focused on the jewelry finds in some surrounding
princess' tombs that he never examined the mortuary temple, the causeway or the
valley temple. In fact, no casing stones have ever been found nor even the base of the
pyramid cleared for a proper measuring. Therefore, we are not sure of its size, the
angle of its slop, or its height.

The mortuary temple was almost completely destroyed, though we know it was
probably called "Lighted is the place of Amenemhet's pleasures". The ruins, which
stand to the east of the pyramid have yet to be closely examined, though they must be
very inviting to archaeologists. There are many building fragments, some of which
include relief decorations. Most interesting, however, might be the massive, tower-
like structures resembling pylons in the temple's east facade.

The causeway, which was broad with a steep slope and enters the enclosure wall on
the middle of the east side, has not been investigated at all, and we are told that the
valley temple has not even been found. The core of the pyramid was built much like
that of Senusret I's pyramid , with a core that had corners radiating out. A framework
was made with horizontal lines of blocks to form a grid, or framework between the
corners. Here, however, the filling was sand. The entire complex was surrounded by
an enclosure wall that was much more rectangular then that found in older pyramids.
It was oriented east-west.

Behind the pyramid between it and the west part of the enclosure wall are found
tombs of the royal family. The belong to his other son prince Amenemhetankh and
princesses Ita, Khnemet, Itiueret and Sithathormeret. Within these tombs, Morgan
found the remains of funerary equipment, including wooden coffins, canopic chests
and alabaster vessels for perfumes. But of course he also found wonderful jewelry in
the tombs of Ita and Khnemet, that stole his attention. These pieces may now be found
in the Treasure Chamber of the Cairo Museum.

Books: Genut

We have considerable knowledge of Amenemhet II's reigns because of a number of

important documents. Some historical information about the 12th Dynasty comes
from a set of official records know as the genut, or 'day-books'.

They were found in the temple at Tod. Some of Amenemhet II's buildings also
contain parts of these annals. They describe the day to day process of running the
royal palace. One very important set of annuals were discovered at Mit Rahina (a part
of ancient Memphis) that record detailed descriptions of donations made to temples,
lists of statues and buildings, reports of both military and trading expeditions and even
royal activities such as hunting. These documents not only provide information on
Amenemhet II, but other kings of the period as well.

Amenemhet II is probably best known for consolidating the work of his predecessors
in foreign affairs. He exchanged gifts with other rulers in the Mediterranean (Levant)
region. We find jewelry inscribed with his name in royal tombs at Byblos in Lebanon,
as well as local copies of Egyptian jewelry. These items were particularly prevalent in
the tomb of a local prince named Ipshemuabi. In addition, native rulers at Byblos even
wrote short inscriptions in hieroglyphs, held the Egyptian title of count, and made
references to Egyptian gods.

They acquired royal and private statuary. On the other hand, four bronze boxes found
at the temple of Montu at Tod and inscribed on their lids with the name of
Amenemhet II bore a large number of silver cups of Lavantine and Aegean origin.
There were also cylinder seals and lapis Lazuli amulets from Mesopotamia. These
items were probably either a gift, or tribute, and it is noteworthy that at the time,
silver was more rare then gold in Egypt, so also more valuable.

The Shipwrecked Sailor

One story during the time of Amenemhet II tells of the travels of a ship captain who
had been to a magic island in the sea far south beyond Nubia. The sailor told the
vizier (prime minister) about a tempest which arose suddenly and drove the ship
towards a mysterious land. He suddenly heard a noise like thunder, and saw a huge
serpent with a beard. Upon hearing that the sailor was sent by the pharaoh, the serpent
let him go back, with gifts to "Amenemhet". It told him that it was Amon-Ra№s
blessing that has made this island rich and lacking nothing. Upon hearing this
amusing story, "Amenemhet II" ordered it to be documented on a papyrus. The story
is known to historians as "The Shipwrecked Sailor".

Senusret II (Khakheperre) - (1897 BC - 1878 BC)

 Senusret II was the fourth king of the 12th Dynasty.

His name means 'Man of Goddess Wosret' . It was the name that seems to enter the
royal linage because of this king's non-royal, great, great grandfather, the original
Senusret and father of the founder of the Dynasty, Amenemhet I.

Senusret II's name is also found in various references as Senwosret II, or the Greek
form, Sesostris II. His throne name was Kha-khaeper-re, meaning "Soul of Re comes
into Being".

He succeeded hisfather, Amenemhet II in about 1895 BC, after a short co-regency of

at least three years.

References differ on the length of his rule, varying between about seven and fifteen
years. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt gives his reign as 1877-1870, while
Clayton gives him a reign from 1897-1878 BC.

A group of statues was discovered, two of which had been usurped by Ramesses II,
portraying Senusret II with wide, muscular shoulders like his father, but with a more
vigorous face, lacking the blandness of older 12th Dynasty statuary.

This was a period of fine portraitures art, reflected in the distinctive broad cheekbones
and other characteristics portrayed in the statues. In fact, even a number of private
statues have been found that also reflect this high art, and the late 12th dynasty is seen
as a milestone of human portraiture in Egyptian art. 

Better known then Senusret II's statues are a pair of of highly polished black granite
statues of a lady Nefret, who did not carry the title of "Royal Wife", but who was
probably either a wife of Senusret II's who died before he ascended the throne, or a
sister.
She did, however, have other titles usually reserved for queens.

His principal royal wife was Khnumetneferhedjetweret (Weret), who's body was
found in a tomb under the pyramid of her son, Senusret III at Dahshure. Senusret III
would become Senusret II's successor.

So far their is no evidence of a co-regency with his father as their had been for every
king from the time of Amenemhet I.

Senusret II probably also had several daughters, one of which would have probably
been Sathathoriunet (Sithathoriunet) , who's jewelry was discovered in a tomb behind
the king's pyramid.

Like his father, Senusret II's reign is considered to be a peaceful one, using more
diplomacy with neighbors then warfare. We are told that trade with the Near East was
particularly prolific. His cordial relations with the regional leaders in Egypt is attested
to at Beni Hassan, for example, and especially in the tomb of Khnumhotep II, who he
gave many honors.

There sem to be no recorded no military campaigns during his rule, though he

undoubted protected Egypt's mineral interests and their expanded territory in Nubia. 
 A Stele of Senusret II in Brown Quartzite

His efforts seem to have been more directed at expanding cultivation within the
Fayoum rather then making war with his neighbors and regional nobles.

In the Fayoum, his projects turned a considerable area from marshlands into
agricultural land.  He established a Fayoum irrigation project, including building a
dyke and digging canals to connect the Fayoum with a waterway known today as
Bahr Yusef.  

He seems to have had a great interest in the Fayoum, and elevated the region in
importance. Its growing recognition is attested to by a number of pyramids built
before, and after his reign in or near the oasis (though the Fayoum is not a true oasis).
It should also be remembered that kings usually built their royal palaces near their
mortuary complexes, so it is likely that many of the future kings made their home in
the Fayoum.

These later kings would also continued and expanded upon Senusret II's irrigation
projects in the Fayoum. Senusret II built a unique statue shrine of Qasr es-Sagha on
the north eastern corner of the region, though it was left undecorated and incomplete. 

Senusret II's Pyramid

His father, Amenemhet II built his pyramid at Dahshure, but Senusret II built his
pyramid closer to the Fayoum Oasis at Lahun.
His pyramid definitely established a new tradition in pyramid building, perhaps begun
by his father.

Senusret II chose to build his pyramid, called Senusret Shines, near the modern town
of Lahun (Kahun) at the opening of the Hawara basin near the Fayoum rather then at
Dahshure where his father's Amenemhet II pyramid is located.

The location of Senusret II's valley temple is known but no ground plan can be made
from its ruins. The causeway is likewise ruined, but must have been broad, and of the
completely destroyed mortuary temple on the east side of the pyramid, all that is
known is that it must have been built of decorated granite, judging from the few
fragments that remain.

Beginning with Senusret II, the location of the door was less important from a
religious then from a security standpoint, so rather then being on the north side of the
structure, it was hidden in the pavement of the south side.

To the south side of the pyramid Petrie excavated four shaft tombs that belonged to
Senusret II's family and in one of these, discovered a fine, gold inlaid uraeus that may
have come from the king's mummy.

In building this pyramid Senusret II's archetects took advantage of a natural stump of
yellow limestone that they cut down into four steps to serve as the pyramid's base
core. Mudbrick was used to build the upper part of the core, and as several pyramids
before, wings were built out from this core and cross walls within the wings were
built to form a framework.

The resulting sections were then filled with mudbrick. Also like some prior 12th
Dynasty pyramids, the casing was set into a foundation trench at the base of the
pyramid. Most of the casing was carried off to build a structure for Ramesses II,
though parts of the black granite pyramidion that set atop the pyramid have been
found. There was also a cobble filled drainage ditch around the pyramid that was
filled with sand to channel rain water.
While the pyramid had been robbed in antiquity, it nevertheless took Petrie months to
located the entrance to this pyramid. The reason is that for the first time, the builder's
were more interested in security then religious tradition, and therefore hid the entry
passage in the pavement of the pyramid courtyard near the east end of the pyramid's
south side.

Prior to this, just about all pyramid entrances were in the middle of the north side.
This was because in the astral and celestial religion of the old kingdom, the king was
to leave his tomb to the north where he was himself to become both a star and a deity. 
However, because of the rise in the cult of Osiris, this became less important, and it
was more meaningful for the tomb to resemble the underworld of Osiris.

Interestingly, the builders of the pyramid must have thought this would be sufficient
insurance against thieves, as they did not even include a barrier in the entrance
corridor.

Also interesting is the "entrance chapel, not located above the entrance, or on the
north side of the pyramid (these are also typically referred to as "North Chapels").

It was located in the middle of the east wall of the pyramid.  However, there was
actually a north chapel, though smaller and less structurally similar to older north
chapels then the entrance chapel on the east side of the pyramid.

The vaulted entrance corridor was too narrow for a large sarcophagus and the blocks
used to line the burial chamber, though another entrance was hidden farther south,
beneath a sloping passage to the tomb of an unknown princess. This shaft is about 16
meters (52 feet) deep, and a corridor at the bottom leads to an entrance hall below the
formal entrance shaft.

The hall has a vaulted ceiling and a niche at the east end of the hall contains a ritual
well, the bottom of which has never been reached. It drops to at least the water table.
Because ritual shafts did not become prominent until much later, some Egyptologists
maintain that the shaft may have been built to monitor the ground water, or for other
unknown purposes.  

After the entrance hall another corridor gradually rises before passing through a
chamber to the left and finally arriving at an antechamber. From the antechamber, the
substructure takes a 90 degree left turn, passing through a short corridor to the burial
chamber, which lies under the southeast quadrant of the pyramid. The burial chamber
is sheathed in granite and has a gabled roof. A red granite sarcophagus fills the west
end of the chamber. Before it stood an alabaster offering table.

From the southeast corner of the burial chamber a short corridor leads to a small side
chamber where leg bones, presumably of the king, were found. At the northwest
corner at the head of the sarcophagus is the entrance to a passage that loops around
the burial chamber to a doorway in the short corridor between the antechamber and
the burial chamber.

This corridor presented a symbolic exit to the north for the king's spirit. But it also
creates a symbolic subterranean island that can be related to the god, Osiris, who's
worship was on the rise during the 12th Dynasty.

The enclosure wall, like that of his grandfather's, Senusret I, had a limestone casing
with niches reminiscent of Djoser's complex. This was a revival of archaic funerary
enclosures. Another strong Osiris influence, the "grove surrounding the "mound", was
represented by a row of trees planted around the outer wall that was covered in
mudbrick.

In addition to the tombs of the princesses to the southeast, between the pyramid and
the north section of the enclosure wall, eight mastabas were built using mudbrick to
cover a superstructure carved from the bedrock, similar to the manner in which the
pyramid was built.

A small pyramid lies at the north end of this row of mastabas, thought to be that of a
queen. If it is not the pyramid of a queen, but an unlikely cult pyramid, it would have
been the last such structure built, rather then that of his grandfather's, Senusret I.
Though this pyramid does have a North Chapel, Petrie never found a subterranean
structure even after exhaustive investigation.

The only evidence we do have that the pyramid belonged to a queen is its placement
within the complex and a partial name from a vase that Petrie found in a foundation
deposit.

West of the entrance shaft of the pyramid Petrie discovered the ruins of the tomb of
Princess Sathathoriunet (Sithathoriunet), where he discovered the famous Treasure of
el-Lahun, which included wonderful jewelry and other items from the her burial
equipment.

These items included a gold headband, a gold necklace of small leopard's heads, two
gold pectorial ornamented with precious stones one of which was inscribed with
Senusret II's name and the second with the name of Amenemhet III. There were also
other bracelets, rings and alabaster and obsidian vessels that were decorated with
gold, all of which today can be found in the Egyptian Antiquities Museum.

Nearby the complex to the northwest lies the ruins of the pyramid town that grew up
around the construction of Senusret II's pyramid. Coriginally named Hetep Senusret,
meaning "May Senusret be at Peace". It has provided considerable information to
Egyptologists on the lives of common Egyptians and urbanism. This ancient village is
today known as Lahun, or Kahun, after the local nearby village.

Senusret II is further attested to by a sphinx, now in the Egyptian Antiquity Museum

in Cairo and by inscriptions of both he and his father near Aswan.

It should also be mentioned that the pyramid town associated with Senusret II's
complex, known as Lahun (Kahun) after the nearby modern village, provided
considerable information to archaeologists and Egyptologists on the common lives of
Egyptians. Pyramid towns were communities of workmen, craftsmen and
administrators that grew up around a king's pyramid project.

Senusret III (1878 BC - 1839 BC)

 The fifth king of the 12th Dynasty

Senusret III is probably the best attested king of the New Kingdom. He ruled the
country for perhaps as long as 37 years as the 5th pharaoh of Egypt's 12th Dynasty
from around 1878 until 1841 BC. He is probably also the best known of the Middle
Kingdom pharaohs to the public because of his many naturalistic statues showing a
man with often heavy eye-lids and lined continence.

Later statues seem to portray him with increasing "world-weariness". Taken along
with contemporary text, these statues seem to wish us to believe Senusret III was a
king possessed of a concerned, serious and thoughtful regard for his high office.

Senusret III's statuary is much loser in terms of the rigid ideological representations of
earlier kings and illustrates a shift in both the function of art and a change in the
ideology surrounding the king. The human qualities of the statues give a sense of age
and tension, rather then the all powerful king portrayed in older works. We see in
these statues a shift away from the king as god, and more towards the king as leader.

Senusret was this king's birth name, which mean, "Man of Goddess Wosret". He is
also sometimes referred to as Senwosret III and Senusert III, or by the Greeks,
Sesostris III.

His throne name was Kha-khau-re, meaning "Appearing like the Souls of Re".
Senusret III was most surely the son of Senusret II, changing a trend of having
alternate leaders named Senusret and Amenemhet.

We know of no co-regency with his father, though most of the previous 12th Dynasty
kings shared at least a few years of their reign with their sons, and a co-regency would
clear up some questions about Senusret III's long reign.
His mother may have been Khnumetneferhedjetweret (Khanumet, Weret), who we
believe was buried in a tomb near his pyramid at Dahshur.

He was married to a principle queen named Mereret, who outlived him, and may have
also been married to his sister, Sit-Hathor. His son and successor was Amenemhet III.

A Papyrus commemorating Senusret III's Sed-festival

Senusret III must have been a very dominant figure within his time. Manetho
describes him as a great warrior, not surprisingly, because he also says he was "of
great height at 4 cubits, 3 palms and 2 fingers" (over 6 ft, 6 in or 2 meters). In
addition, he may also have been the model for the Sesostris of Maetho and Herodotus,
who was probably a composite, heroic Middle Kingdom ruler who was suppose to be
a model for future kings.
While there had been fortifications built in Nubia,

Apparently, the Nubians were a troublesome lot during his reign, for Senusret III
would again have to mount campaigns in at least the years 8, 10, 16 and 19 of his
reign. Regardless, these campaigns seem to have been for the most part successful, for
the king had inscribed on a great stele at Semna erected in year 8 of his rule, now in
Berlin, "I carried off their women, I carried off their subjects, went forth to their
wells, smote their bulls; I reaped their grain, and set fire thereto".  In other words, he
killed their men, enslaved their women and children, burnt their crops and poisoned
their wells. The stele also provides that no Nubians were allowed to take their herds or
boats to the north of the specified border.

To facilitate these military actions in Nubia, he had an existing bypass canal  around
the First Cataract (rapids) at Aswan, originally dug in the Old Kingdom by Merenre -
or Pepi I cleared, broadened and deepened. According to an inscription, he had it
repaired again in year eight of his reign. This canal was near the island of Sehel.

His predecessors had also established a policy of building fortresses in Nubia, but in
order to further secure the area, Senusret III built more fortresses then any of the the
other Middle Kingdom rulers. In the 64 km (40 mile) length of the Second Cataract in
Lower (northern) Nubia there were no less then eight such fortresses between Semna
and Buhen However, many Egyptologists disagree with exactly how many of these
fortresses were built by Senusret III, or were instead, simply rededicated or enlarged.

These fortresses were in close contact with each other, and with the region's vizier,
reporting the slightest movements of Nubians. At least some of the fortresses appear
also to have been specialized.

For example, the one at Mirgissa was more involved with trade, whereas others, such
as the fortress at Askut, were used as supply depots for campaigns into Upper
(southern) Nubia.

Senusret III managed to expand Egypt's boarders further south then anyone ruler
before him, of which he was proud. A stele at Semna with a duplicate at Uronarti
records:

I have made my boundary further south than my fathers,

I have added to what was bequeathed me.
I am a king who speaks and acts,
What my heart plans is done by my arm.
One who attacks to conquer, who is swift to succeed,
ln whose heart a plan does not slumber.
Considerate to clients, steady in mercy,
Merciless to the foe who attacks him.
One who attacks him who would attack,
Who stops when one stops,
Who replies to a matter as befits it.
To stop when attacked is to make bold the foe's heart,
Attack is valor, retreat is cowardice,
A coward is he who is driven from his border.
Since the Nubian listens to the word of mouth,
To answer him is to make him retreat.
Attack him, he will turn his back,
Retreat, he will start attacking.
They are not people one respects,
They are wretches, craven-hearted.
My majesty has seen it, it is not an untruth.
I have captured their women,
I have carried off their subjects,
Went to their wells, killed their cattle,
Cut down their grain, set fire to it.
As my father lives for me, I speak the truth!
It is no boast that comes from my mouth.

He not only stabilized Egypt's southern border at Semna, his troops regularly
penetrated the area beyond and we know of a record recording the height of the
inundation as far south as Dal, many miles beyond Semna. This stele continues with
an admonishes later kings;

Now as for every son of mine who shall maintain this boundary, which My Majesty
has made, he is my son, he is born of My Majesty, the likeness of a son who is the
champion of his father, who maintains the boundary of him that begat him.  Now, as
for him who shall relax it, and shall not fight for it; he is not my son, he is not born to
me.

His son, Amenemhet III heeded this warning, and interestingly, Senusret III was later
deified in Nubia as a god.

Senusret III Stele from Aswan

However, we also know that, in what we believe to be his final campaign in Nubia in
year 19 of his reign, his efforts were less successful.  Apparently, due to a drop in the
Nile's water level, his forces had to make a retreat to avoid being trapped.
Most of Senusret III's military attention was directed towards Nubia, but he is also
noted for a campaign in Syria against the Mentjiu, where rather then a goal of
expansion, he seems to have been after retribution and plunder. We owe this
information to a a stele belonging to an  individual named Sobkkhu, who apparently
also participated in the Nubian campaigns. The king apparently led this campaign
himself, capturing the town of Sekmem, which may have been Shechem in the Mount
Ephrain region.

It was probably during Senusret III's reign that we also find the "Execration
Texts"These were inscriptions found in Nubia and Egypt, usually inscribed either on
magical figurines or on pottery. The inscriptions were usually a list of enemies of
Egypt. These objects were often ritualistically smashed, and the shards placed under
the foundations of new building, thus "smothered", or nailed at the edge of the area
they were meant to protect.

The plunder from the Nubian and Syrian campaigns was mostly directed towards the
temples in Egypt, and their renewal. For example, at Abydos, an inscription by a local
official named Ikhernofret states that the king commissioned him to refurbish Osiris's
barge, shrine and chapels with gold, electrum, lapis lazuli, malachite and other costly
stones.

He also adorned the temple of Mentuhotep II at Deir el-Bahari at Luxor with a series
of six life size granite standing statues of himself wearing the nemes and headdress.
They once lined the lower terrace

Religiously, we are told in a graffiti that, even though his capital, burial ground and
other interests were in Northern Egypt, he also helped maintain a large number of
priests associated with the cult of Amun in Upper (southern) Egypt at Thebes.

He also had built a large temple to the old Theban war god, Montu, just north of
Karnakat Nag-el-Medamoud.

While this temple was refurbished in the New Kingdom and again in the Greek and
Roman period, nothing remains of it save two finely carved granite gateways that
were discovered in 1920, along with some very splendid statues and a few
inscriptions.

Domestically, Senusret III was able to carry on his military campaigns and building
projects because he had matters at home largely under control. He divided the country
into three administrative divisions (waret), including a North, South and the Head of
the South (Elephantine and Lower Nubia), that were each administered by a council
(djadjat) of senior staff who in turn reported to a vizier.

This sufficiently weakened the power of local nomarchs (governors) and other high
officials who had once again begun to challenge the central government and the
monarch. Decentralization due to powerful local officials and nobles had, in the past,
created chaos and ultimately led to the dark times of the First Intermediate Period. It
would seem that most all of the Middle Kingdom rulers were aware of this threat, and
were constantly on guard.
This new administrative scheme apparently also had another effect, in that it
promoted the rise of the middle class, many of whom were incorporated into the
administration, and were no longer under the influence and control of the local nobles.

Senusret III had his pyramid built at Dahshur, a mostly Middle Kingdom necropolis.
It was the largest of the 12th Dynasty pyramids, but like the others with mudbrick
cores, after the casing was removed it deteriorated badly.

In the excavation season of 1894-1895, Jacques de Morgan also found the tombs of
Queen Mereret and princess Sit-Hathor near the northern enclosure wall of Senusret
III's pyramid complex. Also found with these tombs were some fine jewelry, missed
by earlier robbers.
Some Egyptologists doubt that Senusret III was buried in this pyramid. He also had an
elaborate tomb and complex built in South Abydos. This huge complex stretches over
a kilometer between the edge of the Nile floodplain and the foot of the high desert
cliffs that form the western boundary of the valley. This complex consists of an
underground tomb which, at least at one time, was considered to be the largest in
Egypt - that may have been eclipsed by the discovery of the Tomb of Ramesses II's
Sons in the Valley of the Kings.

Other components include a mortuary temple at the edge of the cultivated fields and a
town south of the tomb that supported the complex. The name of this funerary
complex was 'Enduring are the Places of Khakaure Justified in Abydos'.

Senusret III is further attested by blocks from a doorway found near Qantir and by his
rock inscriptions near the island of Sehel south of Aswan that record the reopening of
the bypass canal.

Amenemhet III (1860 BC 1814 BC)

 TYhe sixth ruler of the 12th Dynasty

Amenemhet III was the son of Senusret III and the last great ruler of the Middle
Kingdom. Amenemhet III appears to have shared the throne with is father as co-
regent for at least a while before the death of his father. The king's principle wives
were buried in his pyramid at Dahshur in their own chambers, a very unusual feature
at this time.

The Chief wife was probably Aat. The second queen we are unsure of. We also know
of a daughter named Neferuptah and of course his successor who was probably his
son, Amenemhet IV. However, Amenemhet IV may have been a grandson, but in any
event, Amenemhet III probably made him a co-regent. It is also possible that the
queen who ruled as the last pharaoh of the 12th Dynasty, Sobkhotpe IV was also his
daughter.

Every king before him or after him in the 12th Dynasty, with perhaps the exception of
the last female ruler, would either be named Amenemhet, as the dynasty's founder
was, or Senusret, the first of whom was probably the non royal father of Amenemnet
I. This is the king's birth name, meaning 'Amun is at the head'. His throne name was
Ny-maat-re, meaning 'Belonging to the Justice of Re'. To the Greeks, he was
Ammenemes III. Amenemhet III was the 6th ruler of the 12th Dynasty, and may have
reigned for as long as 45 years. He supposedly ruled from 1842 through 1797 BC.

It was a good thing he ruled this long, because his first tomb, his pyramid at Dahshur,
started collapsing about the time it was finished. It took about 14 or 15 years to build,
and he had to start completely over with a new pyramid near to the Fayoum at
Hawara. At Hawara, we believe the complexity and splendor of his mortuary temple
made it commonly known as the Labyrinth. Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo and
Pliny all make reference to this structure. According to Diodorus, Daedalus was so
impressed by the temple that he built his own labyrinth for Minos in Crete based on
Amenemhet III's temple.

In some respects, the disaster associated with his first pyramid worked in this king's
favor, for it provided him the opportunity to build his tomb closer to the region that he
seemed to flourish with attention. Because of his interest in the agricultural economics
of the Fayoum, his reign became perhaps the apex of the Middle Kingdom and he
reciprocated with an interest in its needs, as well as founding temples and building
statues.

Building activity in the Fayoum, besides his pyramid, included the Temple of Sobek,
the principle local deity, in the city the Greeks called Crocidopolis. In the Fayoum,
Sobek was closely related to a more national god, the falcon, Horus the Elder. He also
built a chapel dedicated to Renenutet the goddess of the harvest, at Medinet Maadi.

He participated in agricultural projects in the Fayoum as well. He built a barrage to

regulate the flow of water into the large lake, Birket Qarun from the Bahr Yousef
canal. This reclaimed a large fertile area, perhaps as much as 17,000 acres, that was
further protected by an earthen embankment. To celebrate this achievement, he
erected two colossal statues of himself at Biyahmu. The statues stand upon very
impressive bases, and overlook the lake. He was so much connected to the Fayoum
that during the Greco-Roman era, during which time there was a revival of the area,
he was probably worshipped as a god under the name Lamares.

Probably because of the connecting mortuary temple, his pyramid complex at Hawara
was world renown. The mortuary temple was complex with many columned
courtyards, chambers and passages.

Outside of the Fayoum he built a temple of Quban in Nubia and expanded the temple
of Ptah at Memphis.
Considering his building projects, it is not surprising that Amenemhet III was very
active in various quarries. He was especially interested in the turquoise mines in Sinai
such as those at Serabit el-Khadem.

He probably at least extensively rebuilt and enlarged the Temple dedicated to Hathor
and other gods at Serabit el-Khadem. In fact, there were some 49 rock inscriptions
there, as well as ten more at Wadi Maghara and Wadi Nasb in the Siani that record
almost continuous mining operations between years two and forty-five of his reign.
Yet within Egypt, is is curious that we actually have very few inscriptions from
Amenemhet III. But he was also active at Wadi Hammamat, where alabaster is mined,
in the diorite quarries of Nubia, at Tura for its fine while limestone, and other mining
sites.

What we do not see during Amenemhet III's time is a lot of military action, other then
perhaps strengthening the defenses at Semna. The military activities of his
predecessors allowed him a peaceful reign upon which to build, as well as to exploit
the mineral wealth of the quarries. He does build, politically, reorganizing the
domestic administration. He continued to reform the national administration as did his
father. It was probably his father that divided the country into three administrative
regions, controlled by departments based at the capital. This federal bureaucracy
oversaw the activities of local officials, who no longer possessed any extensive
power. Amenemhet III continued to refine this new administration.

Amenemhet III was also able to continue with good foreign relations also without
much military action. It is said that he was honored and respected from Kerma to
Byblos, and during his reign many eastern workers, including peasants, soldiers and
craftsmen, came to Egypt.

However, the extensive building works, together with possibly a series of low Nile
floods, may have exhausted the economy by the end of his reign. Ironically, all of
these foreign workers, many employed for building activities, may have also
encouraged the Hyksos to settle in the Delta, thus leading eventually to the collapse of
native Egyptian rule. Upon the king's death, he was buried in his second pyramid at
Hawara.
Amenemhet III is also attested to by an unusual set of statues probably of Amenemhet
III and Senusret III that shows the two in archaic priestly dress and offering fish, lotus
flowers and geese. These statues are very naturalistic. but show the king in the guise
of a Nile god.. There was also a set of sphinxes that were once thought to have been
attributable to the later Hyksos rulers, but are now believed to have been built on the
orders of Amenemhet III. Originally all these statues were discovered reused in the
Third Intermediate Period temples at Tanis. We also know of an inscription by the
king at Koptos(Coptos).

Amenemhet III attempted to build his first pyramid at Dahshur, but it turned out to be
a disaster as it was built on unstable subsoil. Today the pyramid named 'Amenemhet
is Mighty' is a sad dark ruin on the Dahshur field, aptly sometimes called the Black
Pyramid.

Even though it took 15 years to build, rather then being buried in this pyramid,
Amenemhet III chose to build a second pyramid at Hawara, closer to his beloved
Fayoum.
 The Pyramid of Amenemhet III

The White Pyramid

Amenemhet IV - Maakherure - (1814 BC - 1806 BC)

Because of the long reign of Amenemhat III, it is possible that Amenemhat IV was
the grandson of his predecessor rather than his son. It should be noted, however, that
the fact that there is no trace of Amenemhat III ever having had a son, does not rule
out that Amenemhat IV may have been the son of his predecessor.
It is generally believed that he was married to Nefrusobek, who is assumed to have
been a daughter of Amenemhat III. If both assumptions are correct, it is more likely
that Amenemhat IV may still have been a son of his predecessor.

In any case, the name of the mother of Amenemhat IV is not known, which might
perhaps mean that she was already deceased when he got to the throne. According to
Manetho, this king ruled for only 8 years, a number that is confirmed by the 9 years, 3
months and 27 days credited to him in the Turin Kinglist. This short reign is
confirmed by the relatively few sources that have survived from his reign. It might
also indicate that Amenemhat IV was already an elderly man when he came to power.

He shared the first year of his reign in co-regency with Amenemhat III. Amenemhat
IV completed several temples that were started during by Amenemhat III. Inscriptions
in Nubia also show that he still controlled the territory that was conquered during the
reign of Sesostris III.

He appears to have died without heir and was succeeded by Nefrusobek. He was
probably buried in his pyramid in Masghuna.

Nefrusobek - Sobekkare - (1806 BC - 1802 BC)

The last ruler of the 12th Dynasty, Nefrusobek is generally believed to have been a
daughter of Amenemhat III and the widow of Amenemhat IV. According to Manetho,
she may have been a sister of Amenemhat IV.

Her marriage to Amenemhat IV seems to have left them with no male heir, so
Nefrusobek became one of the few women to have become king in Ancient Egypt.

The 4 years credited to her by Manetho are confirmed by the 3 years, 10 months and
24 days that have been recorded in the Turin Kinglist. The fact that she is listed in the
Turin Kinglist is, in itself, interesting because it shows that she was not considered as
a mere regent or as an usurper.
Nefrusobek is the first known female king to have had a full royal titulary. Her
titulary still shows the typical ending for feminine words, thus combining the
traditionally male titles with the reality that Nefrusobek was a woman.

A graffito in the Nubian fortress of Kumma indicates that like here predecessor,
Nefrusobek was still in charge of the Nubian territory that had been conquered by
Sesostris III. She also contributed to the Labyrinth of Amenemhat III and probably
granted her ancestor divine status in the Fayum.

Several pieces of statues of Nefrusobek have been found. Like her titulary, her statues
too combine the traditional aspects of kingdom with the reality that this king was
female. Thus we find a headless statue of Nefrusobek in the Louvre Museum that still
has a part of the nemes head-cloth showing on her shoulders, while she is still wearing
a typically female dress.

Her tomb has not yet been identifies, although it has sometimes been assumed that she
was buried in a pyramid in Mashguna.

Dynasties 13-17

There were more than 70 kings in this dynasty. They were not all related to each
other. Some of them may only have ruled for a couple of months, or less. Some may
also have ruled at the same time as others.

Wegaf 1783-1779
Amenemhat-senebef
Sekhemre-khutawi
Amenemhat V
Sehetepibre I
Iufni
Amenemhat VI
Semenkare
Sehetepibre II
Sewadjkare
Nedjemibre
Sobekhotep I
Reniseneb
Hor I
Amenemhat VII
Sobekhotep II
Khendjer
Imira-mesha
Antef IV
Seth
Sobekhotep III

-------
Neferhotep I 1696 - 1686
Neferhotep I was the 22nd king of the 13th Dynasty. He ruled Egypt from 1696 till
1686 BC. He was the son of a temple priest in Abydos. His father's position helped
him to gain the royal image as the king because he did not have any royal blood in his
family. Neferhotep is inspirited on some stones discovered near Byblos. Also, they
found other stones in Aswan that were carved with texts which documents all his
reign. It seems that all his power reached the Delta in the north and the Nubian Nome
in the south.

-------

Sihathor 1685 - 1685

Sobekhotep IV 1685 - 1678
Sobekhotep V 1678 - 1674
Iaib 1674 - 1664

-------

Ay 1664 - 1641
Ay was the 27th king of the 13th Dynasty. He ruled Egypt from 1664 till 1641 BC.
The king did not have any royal blood. He was from Avaris, a city located in Eastern
Delta that was heavily populated with Heksus. The Heksus are the Asiatics who
controlled Northern Egypt till 1500 BC. Ay built his pyramid near Avaris but only
ruins remain from his temple.

------

Ini I
Sewadjtu
Ined
Hori
Sobekhotep VI
Dedumes I
Ibi II
Hor II
Senebmiu
Sekhanre I
Merkheperre
Merikare

DYNASTY 14

Nehesi
Khatire
Nebfaure
Sehabre
Meridjefare
Sewadjkare
Heribre
Sankhibre
Kanefertemre
Neferibre
Ankhkare

DYNASTY 15

Salitis - Salitis was the 1st king of the 15th Dynasty. Northern Egypt was under
Heksus rulers throughout the Dynasty. The Heksus are the Asiatics that invaded
through Sinai and settled in the Delta. The Heksus controlled all the Nile Delta and
Northern Egypt. By time, they got more powerful and set their own Dynasties ( from
the 14th till the end of the 16th Dynasty). Some scholars mentione Salitis's name as
"Sultan". This is an Arabic translation of the phrase 'powerful king' because the king
was considered to be the founder of the Great Heksus Dynasty. Salitis captured
Memphis and placed himself in higher rank than any of the royal families in the
Capitol.

-------

Bnon

-------

Apachnan (Khian) -
Apachnan was the third king of the 15th Dynasty. He was considered one of the
"Great Heksus". Apachnan's power reached beyond his kingdom in Northern Egypt.
Archeologists found some scarabs and seals bearing his name in Northern and
Southern Egypt and some Mediterranean islands such as Crete.

-------

Apophis (Auserre Apepi)

-------

Khamudi -
Khamudi was the last king of the 15th Dynasty and was the last king of the "Great
Heksus". The king was listed in the Turin Canon. Khamudi's Obelisk was discovered
near the ancient city of Avaris. The king was responsible for negotiation of the Hiksus
army's withdrawal from Avaris and most of the Delta. Khamudi was pressured to
withdraw due to the successful campaign of Ahmose I's army on his capitol.
However, the southern Pharaohs did not keep their agreement and pushed the Heksus
out of Egypt and raided their cities in the Middle East for several years by the Theben
kings of the 18th Dynasty.
 DYNASTY 16

Anat-Her
User-anat
Semqen
Zaket
Wasa
Qar
Pepi III
Bebankh
Nebmaatre
Nikare II
Aahotepre
Aaneterire
Nubankhre
Nubuserre
Khauserre
Khamure
Jacob-Baal
Yakbam
Yoam
Amu

DYNASTY 17

Antef V
Rahotep
Sobekemzaf I
Djehuti
Mentuhotep VII
Nebirau I
Nebirau II Semenenre
Suserenre
Sobekemzaf II
Antef VI
Antef VII

-------

Tao I (Senakhtenre) - The fourteenth king of the Theban Dynasty, ruling Egypt
contemporaneously with the Hyksos 15th and 16th Dynasties, was the son of Tao I
and Queen Tetisheri. When Tao received word from Apophis, ruler of the Hyksos
capital in Avaris, that the hippopotami in the sacred pool at Thebes kept him awake
with their snoring, Tao regarded it as an insult. The hippopotami were 400 miles from
Apophis sleeping chambers! Tao declared war but was soon killed. His mummy
shows evidence of blows by battle-axes, spears and lances. His ribs, vertebrae and
skull were fractured. His heir, Kamose, assumed the throne and the war, and was
victorious.

-------

Tao II (Sekenenre) - The fourteenth king of the Theban Dynasty, ruling Egypt
contemporaneously with the Hyksos 15th and 16th Dynasties, was the son of Tao I
and Queen Tetisheri. When Tao received word from Apophis, ruler of the Hyksos
capital in Avaris, that the hippopotami in the sacred pool at Thebes kept him awake
with their snoring, Tao regarded it as an insult. The hippopotami were 400 miles from
Apophis sleeping chambers! Tao declared war but was soon killed. His mummy
shows evidence of blows by battle-axes, spears and lances. His ribs, vertebrae and
skull were fractured. His heir, Kamose, assumed the throne and the war, and was
victorious.

-------

Kamose (Wadjkheperre) - The 15th king of the 17th Dynasty was the son of
Sekenenretao and Queen Ahhotep and was the brother of Ahmose I. Kamose's father
had been at war with the Hyksos. When Sekenenretao died suddenly, Kamose
assumed the throne and the war. Kamose went into war with horse and chariot. His
chariots were lighter and more maneuverable than in previous eras. He also had the
advantage by having the Medjay as allies. These Nubian forces were ferocious hand
to hand combatants that fought in the front lines. Kamose overcame the enemy at
Nefrusy and moved into the oasis of Baharia. He then sailed up and down the Nile in
search of traitors. When Kamose died, either of natural causes or of battle wounds,
without an heir, his brother, Ahmose I took the throne. Kamose was the last king of
the 17th Dynasty. Ahmose I was to begin the New Kingdom.

-------

With the decline of the 13th Dynasty, Egypt lost its military power as well. The
military leaders and soldiers stationed in Nubia became more and more independent.
Some of them may even have permanently settled in Nubia. The fortresses built along
the Eastern border were either abandoned, or control on who passed the borders was
not as strict as it used to be. Palestinian nomads had free entrance into a country
which they considered a country of wealth and abundance.

Most of these Palestinians settled and became traders, farmers or craftsmen, but at
least one of them, Khendjer, became a king. By the end of the 13th Dynasty, the
Eastern Delta was populated with mostly Asians. During the early 2nd Intermediate
Period, a group of Asians, known as the Hyksos, established their own dynasties in
Egypt.

Little is known about their origins, or about the way they gained control over large
parts of Egypt. It is commonly assumed that they invaded Egypt and overtook it by
force. This theory may be supported by the name the Egyptians themselves gave to
the Hyksos: "rulers of the foreign countries", which may indicate that the Hyksos
ruled outside Egypt before invading it. The weakness of the Egyptians at the
beginning of the 2nd Intermediate Period may have invited a military invasion.

On the other hand, there is no real proof of military conflicts between the Egyptians
and the Hyksos at the end of the Middle Kingdom. It is also possible that the Asian
settlers who had been coming to Egypt for some generations had become so powerful,
that they were able to gain political control and establish their own dynasties, without
a military show of force. The fact that some of them used Egyptian names and that
they did not try to integrate their own Asian heritage into the Egyptian culture, may
indeed lead to suppose that the Hyksos had been living long enough in Egypt before
they seized power to have adapted themselves to the Egyptian culture.

By whatever means the Hyksos came into power in Egypt, they were largely accepted
throughout the country as the ruling dynasty. They did, however, tolerate other
dynasties to coexist with their own. The 15th Dynasty was not the only dynasty of
Hyksos: there was also the less important 16th Dynasty, about which little is known.
It is possible that there were still some kings of the 13th Dynasty who ruled a part of
the country. The kings of the 14th Dynasty -if there ever was a 14th Dynasty- are said
to have ruled the Western part of the Delta. And in Thebes ruled an Egyptian house:
the 17th Dynasty.

Although the time the Hyksos ruled Egypt has often been depicted as a time of chaos
and misery (especially by later generations of Egyptians), it was also a time of
technological advance. Before the Hyksos, Egypt has stayed largely ignorant of the
advances made in the rest of the Ancient Near East.

Copper and bronze were introduced into Egypt during this period, together with many
new tools and, most importantly, weapons. The rule of the Hyksos during the 2nd
Intermediate Period would prepare the Egyptian for the adventure of the New
Kingdom.

Around 1550, the 17th Dynasty first started opposing the dominion of the Hyksos
kings. A New Kingdom tale teaches us how the Hyksos king Apophis sent a letter to
the Theban king Seqenenre, complaining that the noise made by Seqenenre's
hippopotamuses prevented him from sleeping. Seqenenre, of course, would not take
such an insult, but unfortunately, this is where the story breaks of. That this story may
have been based on fact, is suggested by the mummy of Seqenenre, which shows that
he died a violent death, perhaps on the battlefield.

The first historically recorded traces of a war against the Hyksos are dated to the reign
of Seqenenre's son, Kamose.

Two stelae commemorate Kamose's struggle against the Hyksos and their vassals.
Against the advice of his council, Kamose started or continued the war, punishing all
those who had collaborated with the foreigners. He almost succeeded in conquering
Avaris, the capital of the Hyksos in the Delta, but he too may have fallen on the
battlefield.
It would be Kamose's younger brother and successor, Ahmose, who would finally
succeed in overthrowing the Hyksos. With his reign, a new period of prosperity and
wealth would begin: the New Kingdom.
 The New Kingdom - Dynasty 18 (1540-1070)

The New Kingdom is the period in Egyptian history between the 16th century BCE
and the 11th century BCE, covering the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth
Dynasties of Egypt. It followed the Middle Kingdom, and was succeeded by the Third
Intermediate Period.

Egypt's 18th Dynasty that established the New Kingdom is, to most people interested
in Egypt, a dynasty of stars. It is the dynasty of Tutankhamun who was a fairly minor
king, but perhaps the best known of any of the pharaohs. It was also the dynasty of the
well known Akhenaten, and of Queen Hatshepsut.

Possibly as a result of the foreign rule of the Hyksos during the Second Intermediate
Period, the New Kingdom saw Egypt attempt to create a buffer between the Levant
and Egypt. The New Kingdom saw Egypt attain its greatest territorial extent. It
expanded far south into Nubia and held wide territories in the Near East. Egyptian
armies fought Hittite armies for control of modern-day Syria.

The Eighteenth Dynasty contained some of Egypt's most famous Pharaoh's including
Hapshepsut and Thothmosis III, Egypt's answer to Napoleon. One of the best-known
New Kingdom pharaohs was Amenhotep IV, who changed his name to Akhenaten in
honor of the Aten and whose exclusive worship of the Aten is often interpreted as
history's first instance of monotheism (and was argued in Sigmund Freud's Moses and
Monotheism to have been the ultimate origin of Jewish monotheism).

Akhenaten's religious fervor is cited as the reason why he was subsequently written
out of Egyptian history. Under his reign, in the 14th century BCE, Egyptian art
flourished and attained an unprecedented level of realism.

Another celebrated pharaoh was Ramesses II ("the Great"), who sought to recover
territories in Palestine, Lebanon and Syria that had been held by Eighteenth-Dynasty
Egypt. His campaigns of reconquest culminated in the Battle of Kadesh, where he led
Egyptian armies against those of the Hittite king Muwatalli II and was caught in
history's first recorded military ambush. Ramesses II was famed for the huge number
of children he sired by his various wives and concubines; the tomb he built for his
sons, many of whom he outlived, in the Valley of the Kings has proven to be the
largest funerary complex in Egypt. Still greater military ability, if less self-promotion,
was shown by Ramesses III.

Two other very important pharaohs were Queen Hatshepsut and Thutmose III. Queen
Hatshepsut concentrated on expanding Egypt's external trade, sending a commercial
expedition to the land of Punt. Thutmose III ("the Napoleon of Egypt") expanded
Egypt's army and wielded it with great success.

Ahmose I, Founder of the 18th Dynasty

Ahmose I, is less well known to the general public, but unquestionably of major
importance to Egyptian history. He reigned between approximately 1550 BC-1525
BC.

During his reign Egypt was finally and completely liberated from the Hyksos.
Examination of his well preserved mummy suggest he was about 35 when he died.

Ahmose I (Amosis to the Greeks) was given the birth name Ah-mose (The Moon is
Born).

His thrown name was Neb-pehty-re (The Lord of Strength is Re). He was probably a
boy when he assumed the thrown, having lost his father Seqenenre Taa II, the last
king of the 17th dynasty, and his brother Kahmose within three years of each other.
He was 10 years old when he assumed the throne.

His mother was Queen Ashotep, a powerful woman who was perhaps his co-regent
during his early years.

Egyptologists believe that during his very early reign, little was probably
accomplished and perhaps the Hyksos may have even gained some ground,
recapturing Heliopolis.  However, by the end of his first decade in power, we know
from an autobiography of Ahmose, son of Ibana, a naval officer from El-Kab, that he
laid siege on Avaris (The tomb of Ahmose Pennekheb, another soldier also records
the campaigns).
This was a long battle interrupted by the need to put down insurrections in already
liberated territories, but appears to have been successful sometime between his 12th
and 15th year as ruler. Afterwards, he attacked the southwest Palestinian fortress of
Sharuhen in a six year siege that would finally put an end to Hyksos control of Egypt.

Next, he turned his attention to Nubia (Kush) and, while Kamose (his predessor) may
have gained some ground prior to his death, Ahmose I pushed the boundaries south to
the Second Cataract.

Here, he established a new civil administration at Buhen probably initially headed by

a Viceroy named Djehuty. Apparently, while Ahmose I was in Nubia, former Kyksos
allies again attempted a few uprising in the north lead by an arch enemy of Kamose
named Teti-en.

In this instance, Ahmose I's mother, Ahhotpe, was probably responsible for putting
down the rebellion and for this she was awarded the gold flies, an award for valor that
was found on her mummy in her intact tomb at Thebes.

After Ahmose I's campaigns in Nubia, he once again returned to Palestine during his
22nd year in power and may have fought his way as for as the Euphrates, according to
information on a stela of Tuthmosis I.

Amosis married his sister, Ahmose-Nefertiri, and had a number of children including:

Merytamun - eldest daughter of Ahmose-Nefertari (died young)

Tair - daughter of Kasmut

Satamun - 2nd daughter of Ahmose-Nefertari (died infant)

Sapair - eldest son of Ahmose-Nefertari (died young)

Saamen - 2nd son of Ahmose-Nefertari (died infant)

Aahotep - 3rd daughter of Ahmose-Nefertari (Queen)

Amenhotep I - 3rd son of Ahmose-Nefertari (King)

Satkames - 4th daughter of Ahmose-Nefertari (died aged ~30)

Henttameh- daughter of Thenthapi

Ahmose - daughter

We also know from Ahmose, son of Ibana that he supported his reign and rewarded
local princes who had supported the Theban cause during the Second Intermediate
Period by gifts of land (as recorded in Ahmose, son of Ibana's tomb at el-Kab).

We also know that he initiated some temple building projects, notably at Abydos.
Though we know he reopened the Tura limestone quarries, little survives of his
construction apart form a few additions to the temples of Amun and Montu at Karnak.

A recent Dutch-Egyptian team of archaeologists believe they may have unearthed the
remains of Ahmose's palace in the Al-Dabaa area in the Sharqiya Governorate of
Egypt, a location that was probably the ancient Hyksos capital.

He was buried in the Dra Abu el-Naga area, but his tomb has yet to be found.

His actual mummy was found in the Deir el-Bahari cache. He did have a cenotaph at
South Abydos, consisting of a cliff temple and a pyramid and temple on the edge of
the Nile valley.

The pyramid which measures about 70 meters square is the last known royal example
built in Egypt. Some battle scene decorations within the pyramid may have depicted
his wars with the Hyksos. In these scenes are some of the earliest representation of
horses in Egypt.
 Amenhotep I - 1540 - 1515

The son of Ahmose and Queen Ahmose Nefretiri, Amenhotep I was the second king
of the18th Dynasty. He may have ascended to the throne at a relatively young age, for
an elder brother had been designated as heir only about five years earlier. He may
have even served a brief co-regency with his father, however. He evidently carried on
many of the practices of his father, and his mother certainly played an important part
in his reign, acting as God's Wife of Amun.

Amenhotep I may have been married to his sister, (Ahmose-) Merytamun, though
there is apparently little documentation to substantiate this relationship. Better known
is this king's daughter, Satamun, who is known both from her coffin found in one of
the royal mummy caches, and from two statues at central and southern Karnak.

Because of chronology problems, the king's rule is uncertain. We believe that a

heliacal rising of Sirius was seen during his reign, as recorded by the Papyrus Ebers,
which states:

Ninth year of the reign of his majesty the king of Upper and Lower Egypt, Djeserkare
- may he live forever! Festival of the New Year: third month of summer, ninth day -
rising of Sirius.

If this is evidence for a helical rising of Sirius, the astronomical calculation gives the
date 1537 BC for the rising, and therefore 1546 BC for the beginning of Amenophis'
reign, but only if the astronomical observation was made at Memphis. If, however, the
observation was made at Thebes - which would logically have been the reference
point if it was the capital - twenty years have to be deducted from the figure, giving
the date of 1517 BC for the astronomical event and 1526 BC for the coronation of
Amenophis I
Most Egyptologists assign Amenhotep I a reign of 25 or fewer years. However, it
should be mentioned that on a number of his monuments at the Temple of Karnak are
found various Jubilee (Sed-festival) scenes. The Sed-festival was normally celebrated
after 30 years of the king's rule, but in this case the structure may have been built in
anticipation of the festival.

Amenhotep was this kings birth name, which means 'Amun is Pleased'

He is also known as Amenhotpe I, and Amenophis I by the early Greeks.

His throne name was Djeser-ka-re, or 'Holy is the Soul of Re'.

His Horus name was Ka-Waf-Taw - 'Bull who conquers the land'.

His 'Two Ladies' name was Aa-nerw - 'He who inspires great terror'

Regardless of the ferocity of his name, Amenhotep I seems to have had a fairly
peaceful reign. He may have faced a Libyan uprising his first year as king, but if he
did, Amenhotep I successfully overcame the ancient enemies preventing an invasion
in the Delta area. We learn from inscriptions provided by Ahmose son of Ebana, with
verification from Ahmose-Pen-Nekhbet, that Amenhotep I also led a military
expedition into Kush (Nubia) in about year eight of his reign past the second cataract
of the Nile, and apparently after his victory, brought captives back to Thebes.
However, this appears to have been little more than a skirmish. He appointed a man
named Turi as Viceroay of Kush, and established a temple marking Egypt's southern
boundary at the Nubian down of Sai.

Because of perhaps a dozen years of peaceful rule during Amenhotep I's reign, his
accomplishments included elaborate building work. Amenhotep I repaired and
restored many ancient temples along the Nile.

We find evidence of his work in Upper Egyptian sites such as Elephantine, Kom
Ombo, Abydos, and the temple of Nekhbet, but he seems to have done little building
work in Lower Egypt.

Many of the sites where Amenhotep I built had also seen activity by his father, and at
Abydos, for example, he erected a chapel commemorating Ahmose I.

But the building projects Amenhotep I is best known for were at the Temple of
Karnak in Thebes where he utilized different types of stone including alabaster from
Hatnub (and Bosra) and sandstone from the quarries of Gebel el-Silsila.

Amenhotep I was responsible for a large, limestone gateway at Karnak that has now
been reconstructed. It was decorated with Jubilee festival decorations. The gate may
have at one time been the main south entrance that was later replaced by the Seventh
Pylon. He also had a bark shrine built for the god Amun that was probably erected in
the west front court of the temple.
Later, Amenohotep III would use some of his predecessor's work at Karnak as fill for
his Third Pylon, including a sacred bark chapel of the finest alabaster and a limestone
copy of the White Chapel of Senusret I.

Many of Amenhotep I's relief carvings on the limestone monuments at Karnak are so
much of a conscious emulation of Senusret I's artists that it has been difficult for
archaeologists to determine to whom they should be assigned.

Apparently, his building works were caused him to also restore the mines at Serabit
el-Khadim in the Sinai where he also expanded the Middle Kingdom temple of
Hathor.

It would seem that by the end of Amenhotep I's reign, the main characteristics of the
18th Dynasty had been established, including a clear devotion to the cult of Amun at
Karnak, its successive military conquests in Nubia and its closed royal family with a
developing administrative organization drawn from powerful families and collateral
relatives.

Amenhotep I was given the rare honor of being declared a titular god upon his death
by the priests. He was regarded as the patron god of the Theban necropolis, alongside
his mother, Ahmose Nefretiri, who's posthumous renown probably exceeded that of
her son. In fact, her name appears in the litany of Amenhotep I's own cult.

Amenhotep I and his mother were especially worshipped at Deir el-Medinaon the
west bank at Thebes, where the craftsmen and who build and decorated the royal
tombs lived. This community was probably either established in his or his father's
reign.

Peret, the third month in ancient Egypt, was devoted to and named after Amenhotep I,
and several rituals dramatizing his death, burial and resurrection took place at Deir el-
Medina during the month of Peret. However, Amenhotep I became a fairly major
deity with a number of festivals throughout the year.

The king and his mother's cult remained strong, particularly at Deir el-Medina,
throughout the New Kingdom. However, most houses during the Ramessid era
contained, in their front rooms, a scene honoring the two. They were usually depicted
with black or blue skin, the colors of resurrection, and so were associated with that
religious element.
He was probably the first pharaoh to build his tomb some distance from his mortuary
temple, a practice that would be emulated by his successors.

While the mortuary temple itself has been located, his tomb remains a mystery. Some
Egyptologists believe it to be an uninscribed tomb at Dra Abu el-Naga, outside of
theValley of the Kings, while others believe it might be KV 39 within the Valley
proper.

While we have not established its location, and inspection report on the tomb in year
16 of Ramesses IX's rule reported the tomb to be intact at that time. His mummy,
along with his father's and a number of others, was found in excellent condition in the
royal mummy cache of 1881.

Some information appears to indicate that Amenhotep I's son died in infancy, while
other resources tell us he died childless.

At any rate, his military commander, Tuthmoses (I), who was married to the king's
sister, princess Ahmose, assumed the throne upon Amenhotep I's death.

There is even a possibility that Tuthmosis I was a grandson of Ahmose, the father of
Amenhotep I. He may have even served as a co-regent prior to Amenhotep I's death.

It should be noted that Papyrus Ebers, which dates from Amenhotep I's rule and is
now in the Leipzig Museum, is one of our main sources of evidence on ancient
Egyptian medicine. Also, the existence of a festival calendar recorded on this papyrus,
along with other evidence suggesting an increased interest in astronomical
observations, suggest that Amenhotep I may possibly have wished to rework earlier
calendars.
 THE NEW KINGDOM - DYNASTY 18 (1540-1070)

Tuthmosis I (1494 - 1482)

Third King of Egypt's 18th Dynasty was a commoner by birth and a military man by
training. We do not know his fathers name, but his mother was Semiseneb, a rather
common name during the Second Intermediate Period and the early 18th Dynasty. He
had married Ahmose, who may have been a sister of Amenhotep I and daughter of
Ahmose I and Queen Ahmose Nefertary (who still held the title, 'God's Wife of
Amun' during her grandson's rule) and thus legitimized his rule.

However, others have suggested that Ahmose was in fact Tuthmosis I's own sister. He
may have also served as a co-regent under Amenhotep I, and was most certainly an
important military commander under his predecessor.

His birth name we are told was Tuthmosis, meaning "Born of the god Thoth", though
this is a Greek version.

His actual Egyptian name was Djehutymes I, but he is also sometimes referred to as
Thutmose I, or Thutmosis I.

His thrown name was A-Kheper-ka-re (Aakheperkara).

He gained the thrown at a fairly late age, and may have ruled for about six years.

The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt gives his reign lasting from 1504-1492 BC,
while Peter Clayton indicates 1524-1518 and Monarchs of the Nile as 1503-1491.

Nevertheless, he staged a series of brilliant military campaigns that were to establish

Egypt's 18th Dynasty. So effective were these efforts that we believe he must have
started preparations the the military operations during the last years of Amenhotep I's
rule.

Ahmose son of Ebana, an admiral during Tuthmosis I's reign, tells us that a campaign
into Nubia where he penetrated beyond the Third Cataract was highly successful.
Tuthmosis may have defeated the Nubian chief in hand to hand combat and returned
to Thebes with the body of the fallen chief hanging on the prow of his ship.
His greatest campaigns were in the Delta and his battles against the Syrians as he
finally reached the Euphrates River. This expedition opened new horizons that led
later to Egypt's important role in he trade and diplomacy of the Late Bronze Age Near
East.

Tuthmosis I brought Egypt a sense of stability and his military campaigns healed the
wounds of Thebians.

Tuthmosis I's Abydos Stele

We learn from his Abydosstele of his building works at Thebes. His architect, Ineni,
built an extension to the temple of Amun atKarnak, adding pylons (the fourth and
fifth), courts, statues and one of Egypt's largest standing Obelisks. To commemorate
his victory he built a hypostyle hall made entirely of cedar wood columns..

He also expanded the Treasury begun by his predecessor at the northeast corner of the
complex. The Abydos stele also tells us that Tuthmosis I he made contributions to the
temple of Osiris, including cult objects and statues.

Further, he apparently did some substantial work at Giza.

His Obelisk at Karnak, with that of Hatshepsut behind

He was responsible for a number of building projects within Egypt proper, where he 
left indications of structures at Elephantine, Armant, Ombos (near the late 17th to
early 18th Dynasty palace center at Deir el-Ballas), el-Hiba, Memphis and probably at
Edfu.

However, there are also a number of monuments in Upper and Lower Nubia left by
Tuthmosis I and his viceroy, Turi. We believe that there are several structures that
may date from his reign near Kenisa at the fourth cataract and at Napata. Traces of
ruins also exist at Semna, Buhen, Aniba, Quban and Qasr Ibrim, though most of these
were probably small, or additions to earlier buildings. We also find a few votive
objects dedicated in his name in the Sinai at the temple of Serabit el-Khadim.
Ahmose bore him two sons named Wadjmose and Amenmose (though their parentage
is a bit uncertain), but they apparently preceded their father to the grave. So it was by
Mutnofret (Mutnefert), a minor queen who was the sister of his principle wife,
Ahmose, that his heir, Tuthmosis II was born.

However, his more famous offspring was Queen Hatshepsut, a daughter by Ahmose
who would rule after her husband and brother's death. After the death of Ahmose, he
probably even took Hatshepsut as his own wife until his death. Ahmose may have
also provided him with another daughter by the name of Nefrubity who is depicted
with Tuthmosis I and Ahmose in the temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahri.

His mummy discovered in the Deir el Bahri Cache

We think that Tuthmosis I buried in two different tombs in the Valley of the Kings on
the West Bank at Luxor (ancient Thebes).

It appears that he may have originally been buried in KV 20, which may have been
intended as a tomb for both him and his daughter, Hatshepsut. It contained two yellow
quartzite sarcophagi, one inscribed for him and the other for his daughter, as well as a
canopic chest for her.

However, when KV 38 was investigated by Victor Loret in 1899, he found a

sarcophagus for the king in that tomb as well.

It is possible that his grandson, Tuthmosis III had his grandfather's body removed
from the tomb of his despised stepmother's burial and relocated it to KV 38. However,
his remains were found in the cache, with others, at Deir el Bahri.

Tuthmosis II, Pharaoh - 1482-1479 B.C.

Tuthmosis II might never have ruled Egypt but for the early death of Wadjmose and
Amenmose, the eldest sons of Tuthmosis I, leaving him as the only heir. He became
the fourth ruler of Egypt's 18th Dynasty.
He was apparently the oldest son of Mutnefert, a minor royal queen of Tuthmosis I,
who was herself the sister of Tuthmosis I's principal queen, Ahmose.

In order to strengthen his position and legitimize his rule, he was married to
Hatshepsut, the oldest daughter of Tuthmosis I and Queen Ahmose. She was very
possibly older then Tuthmosis II. During this period, Hatshepsut also carried the title,
"God's Wife of Amun", a position she may have had even before the death of
Tuthmosis I. Hatshepsut would have been both Tuthmosis II's half sister and cousin.
In the light of history she became a much better known pharaoh then her husband.

It is believed that Tuthmosis II had only one son by a harem girl named Isis (or Iset).
However, Tuthmosis III would have to wait to rule Egypt until after Hatshepsut death.

Tuthmosis II must have realized the ambitions of his wife, because he attempted to
foster the ascent of his son to the throne by naming his son as his successor before he
died. But upon Tuthmosis II's death, his son was still very young, so Hatshepsut took
advantage of the situation by at first naming herself as regent, and then taking on the
full regalia of the pharaoh.  He may have also had as many as two daughters by
Hatshepsut. We are fairly sure one of them was named Neferure and another possible
daughter named Neferubity.

The mummy of Tuthmosis II

We know that Tuthmosis II was a physically week person, and many Egyptologists
speculate that even during his rule, Hatshepsut may have been the real power behind
the throne.

It is believe that Tuthmosis II (Born of the God Thoth) which was his birth name
(called by the Greeks), ruled for about fourteen years before dying in his early thirties.
However, recent scholars wish to have his rule shortened to three years. He is also
sometimes called Thutmose II, or Thutmosis II and his throne name was A-kheper-en-
re., which means "Great is the Form of Re"

The Oxford History of Egypt places his reign from 1492-1479, while the Chronicle of
the Pharaohs provides dates of 1518 to 1504. Aidan Dodson's Monarchs of the Nile
gives his reign as 1491-1479 BC.

We know that he sent campaigns to Palestine and Nubia, attested to by a short

inscription in the temple at Deir el-Bahari and a rock-cut stele at Sehel south of
Aswan. We are told that he had to crush a revolt in Nubia in his first year and that this
bought about the demise of the kingdom of Kush at Kerma. Apparently, to punish the
Kushites for their rebelion, he had everyone put to death with the exception of a royal
son, who was bought back to Egypt as a hostage. We are told that the Palestine
campaign was against the Shosu Bedouin in the region of Nahrin.  However, the term
Shosu may also refer to Nubians, and some Egyptologists believe that this reference
really relates to the campaign in Nubia.

We also have evidence of Tuthmosis II's building projects.  Traces of a temple built
by him have been found just north of the temple of Medinet Habu on the West Bankat
Luxor (ancient Thebes).

This small temple, known as Shespet-ankh (Chapel of Life), was finished by his son,
Tuthmosis III. He also had built a pylon shaped limestone gateway in front of the
Fourth Pylons forecourt at Karnak which also had to be completed by Tuthmosis III.
The material from this gate and another limestone structure were later reused in the
building of Karnak's Third Pylon foundation.

However, the gate has since been rebuilt in Karnak's Open Air Museum. Scenes on
the gate sometimes depict Tuthmosis II with Hatshepsut, and sometimes Hatshepsut
alone. On one side of the gate, Tuthmosis II is shown receiving crowns, while other
scenes depict his daughter, Nefrure and Hatshepsut receiving life from the gods. We
also know of a building project in Nubia at Semna and Kumma, and surviving blocks
from his buildings at Elephantine.

A statue of Tuthmosis II was found at Elephantine that was probably commissioned

by Hatshepsut.

We have not really identified either a tomb or a completed mortuary complex for
Tuthmosis, though his mummy was found in a royal cache of mummies located at
Deir el-Bahari.
 Pharaoh Hatshepsut Maatkare

The Queen Who Would Be King - 1473-1458 B.C.

Hatshepsut was an 18th-dynasty pharaoh who was one of the handful of female rulers
in Ancient Egypt. Her reign was the longest of all the female pharaohs. Her funerary
temple still stands as a tribute to her incredible rise to power.
 Tuthmosis III - Born of Thoth - 1504-1450 B.C.

Men-kheper-re - Lasting is the Manifestation of Re

During the rule of hatshepsut he stayed well in the background, and perhaps even
demonstrated some amount of cunning in order to simply keep his life.  Because of
the prowess he would later demonstrate on the battlefield, we assume he probably
spent much of Hatshepsut's rule in a military position. To an extent, they did rule
together, he in a foreign military position, and her taking care of the homeland. When
Hatshepsut finally died, outliving her powerful ministers, Tuthmosis III was at last
able to truly inherit the thrown of Egypt, and in doing so, proved to be a very able
ruler.

It was not until the last years of his reign that he demonstrated what must have been
some anger with his stepmother by destroying as much of her memory as possible.
Her images were expunged from monuments throughout Egypt.

This is obvious to most visitors of Egypt because one of the most effected monuments
was her temple at Deir el-Bahari. There, Tuthmosis III destroyed her reliefs and
smashed numerous statues into a quarry just in front of the temple. He even went so
far as to attack the tombs of her courtiers.
Tuthmosis III became a great pharaoh in his own right, and has been referred to as the
Napoleon of ancient Egypt (by the Egyptologists, James Henry Breasted).  But
perhaps is reputation is due to the fact that his battles were recorded in great detail by
the archivist, royal scribe and army commander, Thanuny. The battles were recorded
on the inside walls surrounding the granite sanctuary at Karnak, and inscriptions on
Thanuny's tomb on the west bank state that, "I recorded the victories he won in every
land, putting them into writing according to the facts". Referred to as the Annals, the
inscriptions were done during Tuthmosis' 42nd year as pharaoh, and describe both the
battles and the booty that was taken. These events were recorded at Karnak because
Tuthmosis's army marched under the banner of the god, Amun, and Amun's temples
and estates would largely be the beneficiary of the spoils of Tuthmosis' wars.

Having close ties with his military, Tuthmosis undoubtedly received sage advice from
his commanders.  It was probably decided that the Levant offered the greatest
potential for glory and wealth if the trade routes dominated by Syrian, Cypriot,
Palestinian and Aegean rulers could be taken.

Tuthmosis III fought with considerable nerve and cunning.  On one campaign, he
marched to Gaza in ten days and from Yehem, planned the battle to take take
Megiddo which was held by a rebellious prince named Kadesh. There were three
possible approaches to Megiddo, two of which were fairly open, straightforward
routes while the third was through a narrow pass that soldiers would only be able to
march through in single file.

Though he was advised against this dangerous pass by his commanders, Tuthmosis
not only took this dangerous route, but actually led the troops through.  Whether by
luck, or gifted intuition this gamble paid off, for when he emerged from the tight
canyon, he saw that his enemies had arranged their armies to defend the easier routes

He emerged between the north and south wings of the enemy's armies, and the next
day decisively beat them in battle. It apparently took a long siege (seven months) to
take the city of Megiddo, but the rewards were great.  The spoils were considerable,
and included 894 chariots, including two covered with gold, 200 suites of armor
including two of bronze, as well as over 2,000 horses and 25,000 other animals.

Tuthmosis III had marched from Thebes up the Syrian coast fighting decisive battles,
capturing three cities, and then returned back to Thebes.  Over the next 18 years, his
armies would march against Syria every summer and by the end of that period, he
established Egyptian dominance over Palestine. At Karnak he records the capture of
350 cities, and in the 42nd year of his rule, Kadesh itself was finally taken.

He also made campaigns into Nubia where he built temples at Amada and Semna and
restored Senusret III's old canal in his 50th year of rule so that his armies could easily
pass on their return to Egypt.

Queens and Vassals

Tuthmosis' main queen was Hatshepsut-Merytre, who survived him and lived as
Queen Mother into the reign of her son. However, he also had several minor queens,
some of whom had been acquired due to diplomatic exchanges. We know the names
of three such minor queens, Menhet, Menwi and Merti from the discovery of their
tomb west of Deir el-Bahri. He also took a number of foreign prices hostage, who
then received training and indoctrination in Egyptian ways. They would later be
returned to their homeland as obedient vassals of Egypt.

Building Projects

Tuthmosis is well attested in many parts of Egypt and outside of Egypt. We find
blocks deep within Nubia at Gebel Barkal, and also at Sai, Pnubs at the third cataract,
Uronarti, Buhen, Quban, Faras and Ellesiya, as well as his temples at Amada and
Semna.  He also built a temple dedicated to the goddess Satet at Elephantine, as well
as projects at Kom Ombo, Edfu, ElKab, Tod, Armant, Akhmim, Hermopolis and
Heliopolis.  From a list of one of Tuthmosis' overseers, we also know of projects at
Asyut, Atfish and various locations in the delta.

Tuthmosis III built his own temple near Hatshepsut's on a ledge between her temple
and that of Mentuhotep.  His small temple was excavated recently by a polish
mission.  The excavation revealed stunningly fresh reliefs, perhaps because a rock fall
from the cliffs above covered the temple shortly after its completion.  Close by,
Tuthmosis built a rock cut sanctuary to the goddess Hathor. This monument was
accidentally discovered by a Swiss team when a rock fall exposed its
opening.Apparently, the shrine was in use up to the Ramesside period, when it was
destroyed by an earthquake.
 Tuthmosis III's Temple of Hathor

Of the many monuments associated with Tuthmosis III, none faired better then the
temple of Karnak. Wall reliefs near the sanctuary record the many gifts of gold
jewelry, furniture, rich oils and other gifts offered to the temple,. mostly from the
spoils of war, by Tuthmosis III. He was responsible for the Sixth and Seventh Pylons
at Karnak, as well as considerable reconstruction within the central areas of the
temple. He erected two obelisks at the temple, one of which survives at the
Hippodrom at Istanbul.  There is also a great, black granite Victory Stele embellishing
his military victories.

He also built a new and very unique temple at Karnak that is today referred to as his
Festival Hall.  The columns are believed to represent the poles of the king's campaign
tent.
The tomb of Tuthmosis III (KV 34) is said to be one of the most sophisticated tombs
in the Valley of the Kings.

Discovered by Victor Loret's workmen in 1898 during this famous Egyptologist's

absence, work did not begin on clearing the rubble form the entrance until his return.
He then excavated the site meticulously, using 24 square grids and recording the
placement of even the smallest of objects.

The tomb itself can be found in a narrow gorge at the bottom of the Valley of the
Kings. The entrance is 30 meters above ground level, but of course this did not stop
ancient tomb robbers, though Loret did find some funerary furniture that had been left
behind.

The orientation of the tomb is such that the entrance lies in the north, while the burial
chamber deviates to the east, a tradition originating with the Middle Kingdom
Pyramid of Sesostris II.

This complex path symbolized the region of the netherworld. Typically for this
period, but a first for the Valley of the King's proper, the tomb begins with a stairway,
a corridor, a second stairway and a second corridor before reaching the ritual shaft.
The ceiling of the ritual shaft is painted with a blue sky and yellow stars. After the
ritual shaft, like most tombs of this period, there is a 90 degree turn into the Vestibule,
which is then followed by the burial chamber with its four lateral annexes. While the
passages are not decorated, other areas were plastered and painted for the first time.

The vestibule has two pillars, and is decorated with the 741 divinities of the Amduat
that generate the daily sun. A flight of stairs leads directly from there to the burial
chamber, which is oval and also has two pillars. The oval burial chamber is common
also to the tombs of Thutmosis I and Thutmosis II.

The burial chamber is large, and holds a beautiful red quartzite sarcophagus.
However, Tuthmosis III's mummy was not found here, bur rather in tomb DB 320 at
Deir el-Bahri (in 1881).

The walls of the burial chamber are designed like a huge ornamental scroll, with the
complete text of the Book of Amduat.

The ancient Egyptians called this book the "Book of the Secret Room". Amduat
meant "that which there is in the afterlife", and the book is divided into twelve parts,
representing the hours of the night.
On the two square pillars of the burial chamber, and for the first time, we find
passages from the Litanies of Re on seven of the surfaces, and on the eighth a unique
scene in which the king is shown being nursed by a divine tree goddess labeled". It is
likely, however, that these pillar decorations were added hastily, after the king's death.

This tomb had been brutally plundered by reckless robbers.  They took no care
whatsoever to prevent damage, and in some instances demonstrated almost a violent
hatred, throwing objects forcefully against the walls, where traces of gold foil may
still be seen. The principal item of funerary equipment found in the tomb was the
sarcophagus.

Other items included a number of wooden statues of the king and various deities,
pieces of wooden model boats, pottery and bones from a baboon and a bull.

However, a foundation deposit was also discovered that contained model tools,
plaques and vessels. A number of other items from the tomb were also discovered by
Daressy, Carter and John Romer in other areas of the Valley of the Kings. In the rear
is a a small room with representations of animals and plants bought back from Syria
during the 25th year of his reign. For obvious reasons, this room is referred to as the
Botanical Garden.

The opulence of his reign is also reflected in the quality tombs built by his high
officials. The tome of his vizier, Rekhmire is notable, with many scenes of daily life,
crafts as well as a long inscription concerning the office of vizier. However, the
presence of a military elite is also attested by no less then eleven Theban tombs from
the reign of Tuthmosis.

He was buried in tomb KV 34 in the Valley of the kings. The tomb was halfway up a
cliff face, and after his burial, masons destroyed the stone stairway leading up to it
and concealed the tomb's entrance.

However, it would seem that no matter what initiatives pharaohs took to protect their
tombs, robbers were sure to find them. Indeed, in 1898 when his tomb was discovered
by Victor Loret, all he found was the carved sarcophagus and some remains of
smashed furniture and wooden statues. Tuthmosis III, mummy likewise was not in the
tomb, for it had been found in 1881 in the great royal cache at Deir el-Bahari.
However, the tomb is covered with black and red painted hieratic renditions of the
netherworld texts.

Amenhotep II (1494 - 1482 B.C.)

 Amenhotep II was the 7th Pharaoh of Egypt's18th Dynasty.

Amenhotep (heqaiunuwas) his birth name, meaning "Amun is Pleased, Ruler of

Heliopolis He is sometimes referred to by Amenhotpe II, or the Greek version of his
name, Amenophis II. His throne name was A-kheperu-re, meaning "Great are the
Manifestations of Re".

He was the son of Tuthmosis III, with whom he may have served a short co-regency
of about two years. His mother was probably Merytra, a daughter of Huy, who was a
divine adoratrice of Amun and Atum and chief of choristers for Ra. Apparently, she
also served as, at least his publicly acknowledge, wife.

Amenhotep II's reign is considered pivotal by many Egyptologists, though it is

certainly popularly overshadowed by that of his two predecessors and some of his
successors of the 18th Dynasty. He is generally acknowledged to have taken care of
his military duties early on, thereafter establishing a peaceful and prosperous reign
suitable to fairly extensive expansion of temple monuments.

Notably, Amenhotep II was well known for his athletic abilities as a young man. A
number of representations of him depict his participation in successful sporting
pursuits. He lived in the Memphite region where he trained horses in his father's
stables, and one of his greatest athletic achievements was accomplished when he shot
arrows through a copper plate while driving a chariot with the reins tied about his
waist.

This deed was recorded in numerous inscriptions, including a stele at Giza and
depictions at Thebes. So famous was the act that it was also miniaturized on scarabs
that have been found in the Levant. Sara Morris, a classical art historian, has even
suggested that his target shooting success formed the basis hundreds of years later for
the episode in the Iliad when Archilles is said to have shot arrows through a series of
targets set up in a trench. He was also recorded as having wielded an oar of some 30 ft
in length, rowing six times as fast as other crew members, though this may certainly
be an exaggeration.

As a king, Amenhotep II's athletic abilities may have served him very well, for within
a short period after gaining the throne, his metal would be tested. Various sources
disagree on how many military expeditions he made into Syria, and in what year of
his reign these occurred. These military actions are recorded on stele erected at
Amada, Memphis and Karnak.

Yet it is clear that there had been a revolt in the Syrian region, and possibly even in
the ports on the Mediterranean sea. His father was well recognized as a military
leader, sometimes referred to as the "Napoleon of ancient Egypt". Therefore it is
perhaps not surprising that when a region in Syria known as Tikhsi heard of his
father's death, they decided to test the new pharaoh (apparently not an uncommon
practice).

Some references refer to his first expedition taking place as early as his 2nd year of
rule, though others provide that it was during his 7th. Still other references indicate
that he made both of these campaigns. Regardless, he fought his was across the
Orontes river and claims to have subdued all before him. One city, Niy, apparently
had learnt their lesson under his father, and welcomed Amenhotep II. But at Tikhsi
(Takhsy, as mentioned in the Theban tomb of Amenemheb - TT85), he captured
seven prices, returning with them in the autumn. They were hung face down on the
prow of his ship on the return journey, and six of them were subsequently hung on the
enclosure wall of the Theban temple. The other was taken south into Nubia where his
was likewise hung on the walls of Napata, "in order to cause to be seen the victorious
might of His Majesty for ever and ever".

According to the Stele recording these events, this first campaign netted booty
consisting of 6,800 deben of gold and 500,000 deben of copper (about 1,643 and
120,833 pounds respectively), as well as 550 mariannu captives, 210 horses and 300
chariots.

All sources agree that he once again campaigned in Syria during his ninth year of rule,
but only in Palestine as for as the Sea of Galilee.

Yet these stele, erected after year nine of Amenhotep II's rule, that provide us with
this information do not bear hostile references to either Mitanni or Nahrin, the general
regions of the campaigns. This is probably intentional, because apparently the king
had finally made peace with these former foes. In fact, an addition at the end of the
Memphis stele records that the chiefs of Nahrin, Hatti and Sangar (Babylon) arrived
before the king bearing gifts and requesting offering gifts (hetepu) in exchange, as
well as asking for the breath of life.

Though good relations with Babylon existed during the reign of Tuthmosis III, this
was the first mention of a Mitanni peace, and it is very possible that a treaty existed
allowing Egypt to keep Palestine and part of the Mediterranean coast in exchange for
Mitannian control of northern Syria. Underscoring this new alliance, with Nahrin,
Amenhotep II had inscribed on a column between the fourth and fifth pylons at
Karnak, "The chiefs (weru) of Mitanni (My-tn) come to him, their deliveries upon
their backs, to request offering gifts from his majesty in quest of the breath of life".
The location for this column in the Tuthmosid wadjyt, or columned hall, was
significant, because the hall was venerated as the place where his father received a
divine oracle proclaiming his future kingship.

It is also associated with the Tuthmosid line going back to Tuthmosis I, who was the
first king to campaign in Syria. Furthermore, we also learn that Amenhotep II at least
asked for the hand of the Mitannian king, Artatama I, in marriage. By the end of
Amenhotep II's reign, the Mitanni who had been so recently a vile enemy of Egypt,
were being portrayed as a close friend.

After these initial campaigns, the remainder of Amenhotep II's long reign was
characterized by peace in the Two Lands, including Nubia where his father settled
matters during his reign. This allowed him to somewhat aggressively pursue a
building program that left his mark at nearly all the major sites where his father had
worked. Some of these projects may have even been initiated during his co-regency
with his father, for at Amada in Lower Nubia dedicated to Amun and Ra-Horakhty
celebrated both equally, and at Karnak, he participated in his father's elimination of
any vestiges of his hated stepmother, Hatshepsut.

There was also a bark chapel built celebrating his co-regency at Tod.However, he also
left monuments at Pnub on Argo Island, at Sai, Uronarti, Kumma, Buhen, Qasr Ibrim,
Sehel, Elephantine, Gebel Tingar, Gebel el-Silsila, Elkab, Armant, Karnak, Thebes,
including his tomb and a funerary temple, Medamud,

Of these, his building work at Giza and Karnak are particularly notable. At Giza he
built a temple dedicated to the god Horemakhet, a sun-god identified with the Great
Sphinx. This Sphinx and its adjoining amphitheater became the site of a cult of royal
ancestors, including Amenhotep II himself and his son, Tuthmosis IV, who set up the
great dream stele between its paws.
The Sphinx's (Horemakhet) cult lasted well into Roman times and pilgrims left votive
offerings in the enclosure wall of the amphitheater or in the chapels if possible.
Hence, Amenhotep II's addition of a chapel to the cult was significant.

At Karnak, after finishing his father's work of eliminating Hatshepsut's name, he set
about creating his sed-festival just as his father had done before him. This pavilion,
reconstructed in modern times by Charles Van Siclen, was a court of relief carved
square pillars with decorated walls on the sides, and has been dated to the late part of
his reign. Following an old tradition, the decorations featured elaborate royal regalia
for the king, especially emphasizing solar connections, including multiple sun discs
on top of crowns, and tiny falcons set above the sun discs, creating an association
with Ra-Horakhty.

It also included scenes of his mother. The building was built in front of Karnak's
south entrance at the eighth pylon, which in effect, created a new main gateway to the
complex. An inscription on one of the pillars implies that this may not have been to
celebrate his first sed festival, though such text is difficult to interpret, and is
sometimes though to simply imply wishes expressed for the king's coming jubilees.

The gardens of Amun were directly in front of this chapel, but the building was
dismantled at the end of the 18th Dynasty to accommodate alterations made by
Horemheb. The material was later reused for a different building constructed by Seti I
at the beginning of the 19th Dynasty.

Amenhotep II also built another temple to Amun in the northern Karnak district, a
precinct that was later dedicated to Montu of Thebes. However, the material from this
project was also later used to form part of the foundations of a temple constructed by
Amenhotep III, which was still later adapted to building projects during the Greek
Period. However, he apparently participated in several other building projects in the
area of Karnak including probably building a ceremonial residence or palace.

Also notable was his additions to nearby temple of Montu at Medamud about eight
kilometers north, particularly since later there was a processional way between
northern Karnak and Medamud.

Other than his mother, Amenhotep II made public none of his wives, though he
certainly demonstrated his procreative powers. A number of princes are attested to,
including another Amenhotep, Tuthmosis, Khaemwaset (possibly), Amenemopet,
Ahmose, Webensenu and Nedjem, among others. Yet though he probably also sired a
number of princesses, they like his queens, are difficult to document.

The lack of documentary evidence of his queens and princesses was doubtless a
conscious rejection of the dynastic role played by woman as "god's wives of Amun".
Perhaps he (as well as his father) realized that queens such as Hatshepsut, who
represented the dynastic family, could be dangerous if they became too powerful.

As usual, different resources provide different time frames for Amenhotep II's reign.
While the Chronicle of the Pharaohs by Peter A. Clayton gives his reign lasting from
1453 until 1419 BC, The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt provides a reign between
1427 until 1400 BC. Regardless, upon his death he was buried in the Valley of the
Kings on the West Bankat Luxor - (ancient Thebes) in tomb KV35. Prior to the
discovery of Tutankhamun's tomb by Howard Carter, KV35 was the only royal burial
in Egypt where the pharaoh was discovered in his own sarcophagus. However, he was
not alone in his tomb for the priests in antiquity had used it for a hiding place for other
royal mummies.

Tuthmosis IV (1419 and 1386 BC)

The 8th Pharaoh of Egypt's18th Dynasty.

The Pharaoh Tuthmosis IV, is probably most famous for his Dream Stele, that can
still be found today between the paws of the great Sphinx at Giza. Dreams were
important in ancient Egypt and were considered to be divine predictions of the future.

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In Tuthmosis IV's Dream Stele, he tells us that, while out on a hunting trip, he fell
asleep in the shadow of the Sphinx (or apparently, the shadow of the Sphinx's head,
for the monument was apparently buried in sand at the time). In the young prince's
sleep, Re-Harakhte, the sun god embodied in the Sphinx, came to him in a dream and
promised that if he would clear away the sand that engulfed the monument, Tuthmosis
would become king of Egypt.

The stele reads:

Now the statue of the very great Khepri (the Great Sphix) restin in this place, great of
fame, sacred of respect, the shade of Ra resting on him. Memphis and every city on its
two sides came to him, their arms in adoration to his face, bearing great offerings for
his ka. One of these days it happened that price Tuthmosis came travelling at the time
of midday. He rested in the shadow of the great god. (Sleep and) dream (took
possession of me) at the moment the sun was at zenith. Then he found the majesty of
this noble god speaking from his own mouth like a father speaks to his son, and
saying, 'Look at me, observe me, my son Tuthmosis. I am your father, Horemakhet-
Khepri-Ra-Atum. I shall give to you the kingship (upon the land before the living)...
(Behold, my condition is like one in illness), all (my limbs being ruined). The sand of
the desert, upon which I used to be, (now) confronts me; and it is in order to cause
that you do what is in my heart that I have waited.

Tuthmosis IV and His Mother, Tiaa

Tuthmosis IV's name means, 'Born of the God Thoth'

His throne name was Men-kheperu-re, meaning 'Everlasting are the Manifestations of
Re'. We can also find references to him under the names of Thuthmose IV, Thutmosis
IV, and Djehutymes IV.

He was apparently the son of Amenhotep II by his wife, Tiaa, but Egyptologists
speculate whether, because of the wording of the 'Dream Stele', his claim on the
Egyptian throne was legitimate. In fact, other evidence supports this contention.  His
father, Amenhotep II, never recognized Tuthmosis as a co-regent, or announced any
intent for Thutmosis to succeed him.

We know that Tuthmosis IV was probably married to Mutemwiya, who produced his
heir to the throne, Amenhotep III, though he never acknowledged her as either a
major or minor queen. It is possible, though now doubted by some, that she was the
daughter of he Mitannian king, Artatama, who sent his daughter to the Egyptian court
as part of a diplomatic exchange.

Other of his wives included Merytra, who we believe later changed her name to Tiaa
(same as his mother's name) and a non-royal wife, Nefertiry. He probably also
married one of his sisters named Iaret.

Tuthmosis IV is not the best documented of Egyptian pharaohs. We actually know

very little about him in comparison to others of this dynasty. Little military action
appears to have occurred during his reign, although our knowledge may be marred by
the lack of texts. We do know that there was a Nubian campaign in Year 8 of his rule,
and that apparently there were also campaigns in Syria. However, even though the
king is referred to twice as the 'conqueror of Syria' these may have actually been little
more then policing actions, rather than full scale battles.

Little is also known of his building work. Tuthmosis IV did finish a giant obelisk that
was originally quarried at Aswan under Tuthmosis III, his grandfather. At 32 meters
(105 feet) it was the tallest Egyptian obelisk that we know of, and was uniquely
intended to stand as a single obelisk at the Temple of Karnak. Most of the obelisks
were usually erected in pairs. However, Tuthmosis III originally intended for there to
be a pair of these Obelisks. Its counterpart developed a fault during the quarry
process, and remains today joined to the bed-rock at Aswan Today, the finished
obelisk stands outside St. John Leteran in Rome, rather then in Egypt.

He also began work work at most of Egypt's major temple sites and four sites in
Nubia, but almost all of this was simply adding to existing monuments. Most of his
work was adding to the temples of his father and grandfather, and perhaps suggesting
new sites and monuments to his son.

We know of his minor building projects in the following locations:

 The Delta at Alexandria

 Seriakus
 Heliopolis
 Giza
 Abusir
 Saqqara
 Memphis
 Crocodilopos in the Fayoum
 Hermopolis
 Amarna
 Abydos (a chapel)
 Dendera
 Medamu
 Karna
 Luxor
 The West Bank at Luxor (his tomb and mortuary temple)
 Armant
 Edfu
 Elephantine
 Konosso

His best attested building project we have available today is his own tomb KV 43,
located in the Valley of the Kings and discovered by Howard Carter.

However, his mummy was missing from his tomb, having been found five years
earlier in a cache of mummies located in the tomb of Amenhotep II. Perhaps better
known are the fine private tombs built by his nobles on the West Bank at Luxor
(ancient Thebes) in an area commonly referred to as the Tombs of the Nobles. These
include such notable tombs as that of Nakht (TT 52) and Menna (TT 69).
 From his tomb, the Deceased Tuthmosis IV
Receiving the Gift of Life from the Goddess, Hathor

Howard Carter made the first modern entrance into the tomb of Tuthmosis IV (KV
43) on January 18th, 1903. This was not an accidental discovery by Carter, for he had
been looking for this specific tomb. On February 3rd, it was formally opened.

Like all the tombs of the Valley of the Kings, it had been plundered during antiquity,
but there were still some amount of items left.

The tomb is of phase one style, the earliest in the Valley of the Kings, with its L-
shaped structure. It follows the general style of KV 35 Amenhotep II) in design, size
and complexity, as well as its placement under a storm-fed waterfall.

From the entrance we find a stairway leading to the first corridor, another stairway
leading to a second stairway, which in turn leads directly to the ritual shaft. At the
bottom of the ritual shaft is another single chamber. The ritual shaft opens directly
into a two pillared hall. From the two pillared hall, the tomb takes a 90 degree left
turn down another set of stairs to a third corridor, which leads to a final stairway and
then an antechamber. The antechamber takes another 90 degree turn into the burial
chamber, which has six pillars and four annexes, two on either side.  Between the last
two pillars of this chamber is a small stairway that leads to the crypt.

This tomb differs from KV 35 in several respects, including the crypt area, the
alignment of the storage rooms. Significantly, we find the first occurrences of the
'magical niches' built into the walls which are to be found in all succeeding tombs
until the time of Ramesses II.
Interestingly, while the tomb was carefully cut, the decorative plan of the tomb is
virtually missing. Only the ritual shaft and the anteroom are painted, and these
decorations appear to be hastily done. Both areas have ceiling with yellow stars on a
dark blue background, and Khekher-friezes appear at the top of the decorated walls,
which are painted a golden yellow. Also, in both of these locations, the king appears
before various deities, and in each location these scenes are almost exactly the same,
with the only material difference being the clothing of the deities.

The Hieratic text found on the south wall of the antechamber was not created by
Tuthmosis, but rather by Horemheb. It refers to the robbery during antiquity of this
tomb, and Horemheb's efforts to restore the damage made necessary by the illicit
entry. Hence, Tuthmosis IV's mummy was not found in this tomb but would later be
discovered to be one of those found in the tomb of Amenophis II.

While Tuthmosis IV's mummy was not found in his tomb, there were three subsidiary
burials discovered, presumably offsprings of the king. Most all of the funerary
equipment that was found was fragmentary, but consisted of the following:

Amenhotep III - Nebmaatre - (1382 - 1344 BC)

It is believed that Amenhotep III ruled for almost 40 years during the 18th Dynasty of
Egypt's history that represented one of its most prosperous and stable periods. It was
Amenhotep III's grandfather, Tuthmosis III, who is sometimes referred to as the
Napoleon of ancient Egypt, who built the foundation of this success by dominating
through military action Egypt's Syrian, Nubian and Libyan neighbors.

Because of that, little or no military actions were called for during his grandson's
reign. The small police actions in Nubia that did take place were directed by his son
and viceroy of Kush, Merymose (or perhaps an earlier viceroy) .
Amenhotep (or heqawaset) was this kings birth name, meaning " Amun is Pleased,
Ruler of Thebes.

His throne name was Nub-maat-re, which means "Lord of Truth is Re."

Amenhotep III's birth is splendidly depicted in a series of reliefs inside a room on the
east side of the temple of Luxor. Built by Amenhotep III, the room was dedicated to
Amun. However, it portrays the creator god, Khnum of Elephantine at modern Aswan
with his ram head, fashioning the child and his ka on a potter's wheel under the
supervision of the goddess Isis.

The god Amun is then Tula, mother of Tiy (Tiye) who was the principle queen of
Amenhotep III led to Amenhotep III's mother by Thoth, god of wisdom, after which
Amun is shown in the presence of the goddesses Hathor and Mut while they nurse the
future king

His father was Tuthmosis IV by one of that king's chief queens, Mutemwiya. She may
have, though mostly in doubt now, been the daughter of the Mitannian king,
Artatama. That queen was indeed probably sent to Egypt for the purposes of a
diplomatic marriage.

It is more than likely that Amenhotep III succeeded to the throne of Egypt as a child,
sometime between the ages of two and twelve years of age.

There is a statue of the treasurer Sobekhotep holding a prince Amenhotep-mer-

khepseh that was most likely executed shortly before Tuthmosis IV's death, as well as
a painting in the tomb of the royal nurse, Hekarnehhe (TT64) portraying the prince as
a young boy, though not a small child. This, and the fact that his mother is not so very
prominently visible, along with other factors, suggests that he was more likely
between six and twelve years of age at the time of his father's death.
Monumental statue of Amenhotep III and Queen Tiy, along with daughters

It is unlikely that his mother, Mutemwiya, served as a regent for the young king, and
whoever may have been in charge at the beginning of his reign seems to have
remained in the background.

Amenhotep III's own chief queen, who he married in year two of his reign, was not of
royal blood, but came from a very substantial family. She was Tiy, the daughter of
Yuya and his wife, Tuya, who owned vast holdings in the Delta. Yuya was also a
powerful military leader. Their tomb, numbered KV46 in the Valley of the Kings, is
well known.

His brother-in-law by this marriage, Anen, would during his reign also rise to great
power as Chancellor of Lower Egypt, Second Prophet of Amun, sem-priest of
Heliopolis, and Divine Father. It is possible that the king's early regency was carried
out by his wife's family

However, it would seem that Amenhotep collected a large harem of ladies over the
years, including several from diplomatic marriages, including Gilukhepa, a princess
of Naharin, as well as two of his daughters (Isis and in year 30 of his reign, Sitamun
or Satamun, who bore the title "great royal wife" simultaneously with her mother).
We can document at least six of his children consisting of two sons and four
daughters (other daughters including Henuttaneb and Nebetiah).

However, his probable oldest son, Tuthmosis who was a sem-priest, died early
leaving the future heretic king, Amenhotep IV, otherwise known as Akhenaten, as the
crown prince.

The King's Early Years

Amenhotep III's reign can be split into two parts, with his earliest years given much to
sportsmanship with a few minor military activities. While as usual, an expedition into
Nubia in year five of his reign was given grandiose attention on some reliefs, it
probably amounted to nothing more than a low key police action.

However, it may have pushed as for as south of the fifth cataract. It was recorded on
inscriptions near Aswan and at Konosso in Nubia. There is also a stele in the British
Museum recording a Nubian campaign, but it is unclear whether it references this first
action, or one later in his reign.

There was also a Nubian rebellion reported at Ibhet, crushed by his son. While
Amenhotep III was almost certainly not directly involved in this conflict, he records
having slaughtered many within the space of a single hour. We learn from inscriptions
that this campaign resulted in the capture of 150 Nubian men, 250 women, 175
children, 110 archers and 55 servants, added to the 312 right hands of the slain.

Perhaps to underscore the Kushite subjection to Egypt, he had built at Soleb, almost
directly across the Nile from the Nubian capital at Kerma, a fortress known as
Khaemmaat, along with a temple.

The Prosperity and International Relationships

However, by year 25 of Amenhotep III's reign, military problems seem to have been
settled, and we find a long period of great building works and high art. It was also a
period of lavish luxury at the royal court. The wealth needed to accomplish all of this
did not come from conquests, but rather from foreign trade and an abundant supply of
gold, mostly from the mines in the Wadi Hammamat and further south in Nubia.

Amenhotep III was unquestionably involved with international diplomatic efforts,

which led to increased foreign trade. During his reign, we find a marked increase in
Egyptian materials found on the Greek mainland. We also find many Egyptian place
names, including Mycenae, Phaistos and Knossos first appearing in Egyptian
inscriptions We also find letters written between Amenhotep III and his peers in
Babylon, Mitanni and Arzawa preserved in cuneiform writing on clay tablets. From a
stele in his mortuary temple, we further learn that he sent at least one expedition to
punt.

It is rather clear that the nobility prospered during the reign of Amenhotep III.
However, the plight of common Egyptians is less sure, and we have little evidence to
suggest that they shared in Egypt's prosperity. Yet, Amenhotep III and his granary
official Khaemhet boasted of the great crops of grain harvested in the kings 30th
(jubilee) year. And while such evidence is hardly unbiased, the king was remembered
even 1,000 years later as a fertility god, associated with agricultural success.

Building Projects

Though a number of Amenhotep III's building projects no longer exist, we find at

Karnak almost a complete makeover of the temple, including his efforts to embellish
the already monumental temple to Amun, as well as his the East Temple for the sun
god and his own festival building.
His impact in the Karnak temple was thematic, leaving the impression of a warrior
king whose victories honored both himself and the God Amun, and he changed the
face of this temple almost completely. He had his workers dismantle the peristyle
court in front of the Fourth Pylon, as well as the shrines associated with it, using them
as fill for a new Pylon, the Third, on the east-west axis. This created a new entrance to
the temple, and he had two rows of columns with open papyrus capitals erected down
the center of the newly formed forecourt. At the south end of Karnak, he began
construction on the Tenth Pylon, with a slightly different orientation then that of the
Seventh and Eighth, in order for it to lead to a new entrance for the percent of the
goddess Mut. He may have even started a new temple for her. To balance the south
temple complex, he built a new shrine to the goddess Ma'at, the daughter of the sun-
god, to the north of central Karnak.

At Luxor he built a new temple to the same god, including the still standing
colonnaded court. That effort is considered a masterpiece of elegance and design and
particular credit must be The Colossi of Memnon, given to his mater architect,
Amenhotep son of Hapu.

He also built a monumental mortuary temple on the West Bank at Thebes - modern
Luxor that is the single largest royal temple known to us from ancient Egypt.
Unfortunately, it was built much too close to the flood plain and was in ruins by the
19th Dynasty, when material was quarried from it for new building projects. While
some of the ground plan of the temple may be made out, the only material remains are
the Colossi of Memnon.

These statues were misnamed by the Greeks, but actually depict Amenhotep III. The
southern of the statues also depicts the two most important women in the king's life,
his mother Mutemwiya and his wife, Queen Tiy. However, it should be noted that
within the grounds of the temple, more fragments of colossal statuary have been
found than in any other known sacred precinct. In the fields behind the statues, also
stands a great, repaired stele that was once in the sanctuary of his temple, around
which are located fragments of sculptures.

The West Bank was also the site of Amenhotep III's huge palace, called Malkata.
Fragments of this building remain, unlike most other royal residences. From this scant
evidence, it would seem that the walls were plastered and painted with lively scenes
from nature. Next to the palace complex he also built a great harbor.

Further south on the west bank at Kom el-Samak, Amenhotep III also built a jubilee
pavilion of painted mud brick and at Sumenu, some twenty kilometers south of
Thebes the king built a temple dedicated to the cult of the crocodile god, Sobek.
 A statue of Amenhotep III and Sobek

Along with these building projects, we also know that he developed and expanded
cults at a number of other locations including Amada (for Amun and Ra-Horakhty),
Hebenu and Hermopolis, where we find two colossus statues of baboons and an altar.
There were other building projects in Egypt proper at Memphis, where blocks of
brown quartzite remain from the king's great temple called "Nebmaatra United with
Ptah", Elephantine (now destroyed) and a completed chapel at Elkab.

Building elements at Bubastis, Athribis, Letopolis and Heliopolis also attest to the
king's interest in the eastern Delta. He also built temples are shrines in Nubia at
Quban, Wadi es-Sebua, Sedinga, Soleb and Tabo Island. There were also building
elements or stele in his name at Aniba, Buhen, Mirgissa, Kawa and Gebel Barkal.

Artistry of the Period

Artistically, many of the royal portraits of the king in sculptor are truly masterpieces
of any historical age. After the Colossi of Memnon, the largest of these is the
limestone statue of the king and queen with three small standing princesses
discovered at Medinet Habu.

However, many other statues give the king a look of reflection, and bringing to life
emotional emphasis. We find grand statues of black granite depicting a seated
Amenhotep wearing the nemes headdress, unearthed by Belzoni from behind the
Colossi of Memnon and from Tanis in the Delta. Others statues and some reliefs and
paintings depict the king wearing the more helmet like khepresh, sometimes referred
to as the Blue, or War Crown.
 Amenhotep III wearing the Blue Crown

Even in recent years, some statuary of Amenhotep III continues to be discovered,

such as an incredible six foot (1.83 meter) high pink quartzite statue of the king
standing on a sledge and wearing the Double Crownof Egypt. It was discovered in the
courtyard of Amenhotep III colonnade of the Luxor temple in 1989.

This particular statue was unearthed completely intact, with the only damage resulting
from a careful removal of the name Amun during the reign of his son. This statue was
probably executed late in his reign, regardless of the fact that is shows a youthful
king.

So good were many of his statues that they were later usurped by kings, sometimes by
them simply overwriting his cartouche with their own. At other times, such as in the
case of the huge red granite head found by Belzoni and initially identified as
representing Tuthmosis III, his statues were more extensively reworked (this example
by Ramesses II.

We also find many other fine statues, paintings and reliefs executed during the life of
Amenhotep III. Two well known portraits of his principle queen include a small
ebony head now in Berlin, and a small faced and crowned head found by Petrie at the
temple of Serabit el-Khadim in the Sinai. A cartouche on the front of the crown
allowed precise identification as that of Tiy. We also find Tiy appearing with the king
on temple walls at Soleb and west Thebes. However, there are also fine reliefs of her
in some of the courtier tombs, such as TT47 belonging to Userhet and TT192 of
Khereuf.
Recently discovered and almost completely undamaged statue of Amenhotep III on a
sledge

There was also a proliferation of private statues, as well as many fine private tombs
with excellent artwork (such as TT55, the Tomb of Ramose during the reign of
Amenhotep III, including a number representing Amenhotep son of Hapu, his well
known architect, but also of other nobles and dignitaries. Other notable items include
the set of rose granite lions originally placed before the temple at Soleb in Nubia, but
later moved to the Temple at Gebel Barkal.

Religion and the King's Deification

It is likely that Amenhotep III was deified during his own lifetime, and that the
worship of the sun god, Aten, by his son may have directly or indirectly also involved
the worship of his father. Amenhotep III was somewhat insistent that he be identified
with this sun god during his lifetime. From the time of his first jubilee in his 30 years
of reign, we find scenes where he is depicted taking the role of Ra riding in his solar
boat.

Of course, the king was expected to merge with the sun after his death, but in
Amenhotep III's case, we find that he named his palace complex "the gleaming Aten",
and used stamp seals for commodities that may be read, "Nebmaatra (one of his
names) is the gleaming Aten".  He consistently identified himself with the national
deities rather than his royal predecessors, even representing himself as the substitute
for major gods in a few instances. We even find during his reign the solorization of
many well known gods, including Nekhbet, Amun, Thoth and Horus-khenty-khety.
Yet, no stele or statues we know for certain were dedicated to Amenhotep III as a
major deity during his lifetime. It is notable that the deification of Ramesses II only
100 years later carried with it a significant number of monuments identifying him as a
deity during his lifetime. 

Nevertheless, it has been argued that his son, best known as Akhenaten, may have
worshipped his father as Aten. There are many arguments against this, but it is clear
that at least to some degree, it is true. After all, the deceased king was identified with
the Aten upon his death.

But whether he was worshipped as such during his lifetime may ultimately depend on
whether or not Akhenaten ruled as a co-regent before his father's death. If they did
rule together, than objects venerating Amenhotep III during Akhenaten's reign could
be seen as worship of a living deity, though not necessarily as the Aten. Regardless,
this is all a mater of hot debate within Egyptology circles, thought the answers today
seem no clearer.

The End of the Reign

From clay dockets at his Malkata palace, we believe Amenhotep III may have died in
about the 39th year of his rule, perhaps when he was only 45 years old.

His wife, Tiy, apparently outlived him by as many as twelve years. She is shown,
along with her youngest daughter, Beket-Aten, in a relief on an Amarna Tomb that
may be dated to between year nine and twelve of Akhetaten's reign.

From a group of well known documents called the Amarna Letters, we find inquires
about her health that lead us to believe that she may have lived in her son's capital for
a time prior to her death.  Regardless, upon her death, she may have first been buried
at Amarna but was then returned to Thebes where she was buried along with her
husband in tomb WV22 in the Valley of the Kings.
However, it is also possible that she may have been buried in tomb KV55, where
objects bearing her name have also been discovered.

Neither the king or his queen were discovered in that tomb, but it is very possible
Queen Tiy may be the "Elder Woman) from the cache of mummies found by Loret in
KV35, the tomb of Amenhotep II.

For many years, it was also though that Amenhotep III's body was also a part of that
cache, but fairly recent analysis indicates that the body thought to be his may instead
by that of his son, or possibly even Ay, one of the last kings of the 18th Dynasty.

Pharaonic tomb find stuns Egypt

BBC - February 10, 2006
 Intact tomb found in Egypt's Valley of Kings
2 Part Story - MSNBC - February 10, 2006

New Tomb Opened in Egypt's Valley of Kings

National Geographic

Archaeologists have discovered an intact, ancient Egyptian tomb in the Valley of the
Kings, the first since King Tutankhamun's Tomb was found in 1922. The tomb
contains five sarcophagi with mummies, breaking the nearly century long belief that
there's nothing more to find in the valley where some of Egypt's greatest pharaohs
were buried.

Found in the tomb was the red granite head of King Amenhotep III - father of the
Pharaoh Akhenaten.

Researchers discover 3,400-year-old artifact depicting Queen Ti MSNBC - January

25, 2006
Egyptologists have discovered a statue of Queen Ti, wife of one of Egypt№s greatest
pharaohs and grandmother to the boy-king Tutankhamun, at an ancient temple in
Luxor, an Egyptian antiquities official said. The roughly 3,400-year-old statue was
well-preserved. Ti's husband, Amenhotep III, presided over an era which saw a
renaissance in Egyptian art. A number of cartouches, or royal name signs, of
Amenhotep III were found on the statue, and the statue's design and features allowed
researchers to identify it as a New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty statue of Queen Ti.

Akhenaten was the son of Amenhotep III and Queen Tiy, a descendent of a Hebrew
tribe.
Queen Tiy wearing a double feathered crown
 Pharaoh Akhenaten

1369-1332 BC: Amenhotep IV - Akhenaten

The Pharaoh Akhenaten was known as the Heretic King. He was the tenth King of the
18th Dynasty. Egyptologists are still tying to figure out what actually happened
during his lifetime as much of the truth was buried, for all time, after he died.

Akhenaten lived at the peak of Egypt's imperial glory. Egypt had never been richer,
more powerful, or more secure. Up and down the Nile, workers built hundreds of
temples to pay homage to the Gods. They believed that if the Gods were pleased,
Egypt would prosper. And so it did.
Akhenaten and his family lived in the great religious center of Thebes, city of the God
Amun. There were thousands of priests who served the Gods. Religion was the
'business' of the time, many earning their living connected to the worship of the gods.

All indications are that as a child Akhenaten was a family outcast. Scientists are
studying the fact that Akhenaten suffered from a disease called Marfan Syndrome, a
genetic defect that damages the body's connective tissue. Symptoms include, short
torso, long head, neck, arms, hand and feet, pronounced collarbones, pot belly, heavy
thighs, and poor muscle tone. Those who inherit it are often unusually tall and are
likely to have weakened aortas that can rupture. They can die at an early age. If
Akhnaton had the disease each of his daughters had a 50-50 change of inheriting it.
That is why his daughters are shown with similar symptoms.

Akhenaten was the son of Amenhotep III and Queen Tiy, a descendent of a Hebrew
tribe. The largest statue in the Cairo Museum shows Amenhotep III and his family.
He and Queen Tiy (pronounced 'Tee') had four daughters and two sons. Akhenaten's
brother, Tutmoses was later named high priest of Memphis. The other son,
Amenhotep IV (Later to take the name Akhenaten) seemed to be ignored by the rest
of the family. He never appeared in any portraits and was never taken to public
events. He received no honors. It was as if the God Amun had excluded him. He was
rejected by the world for some unknown reason. He was never shown with his family
nor mentioned on monuments. Yet his mother favored him.
 Akhenaten and Queen Tiy

In 1352 BC. Akhenaten ascended the throne, succeeding his father Amenhotep III
who had died. Akhenaten was just a teenager at the time, but it was the desire of
Queen Tiy that he rule. In some version of the story, it is written that father and son
shared the throne briefly.

Akhenaten's reign lasted 16 years. This was a difficult time in Egyptian history. Many
scholars maintain that Akhenaten was responsible for this decline, but evidence
suggests that it had already started.

Akhenaten is principally famous for his religious reforms, where the polytheism of
Egypt was to be supplanted by monotheism centered around Aten, the god of the solar
disc. This was possibly a move to lessen the political power of the Priests. Now the
Pharaoh, not the priesthood, was the sole link between the people and Aten which
effectively ended the power of the various temples.

Akhenaten built a temple to his god Aten immediately outside the east gate of the
temple of Amun at Karnak, but clearly the coexistence of the two cults could not last.
He therefore proscribed the cult of Amun, closed the god's temples, took over the
revenues. He then sent his officials around to destroy Amun's statues and to desecrate
the worship sites. These actions were so contrary to the traditional that opposition
arose against him. The estates of the great temples of Thebes, Memphis and
Heliopolis reverted to the throne. Corruption grew out of the mismanagement of such
large levies.

THE FAMILY
Akhenaten's Great Royal Wife was Queen Nefertiti.

Queen Nefertiti is often referred to in history as "The Most Beautiful Woman in the
World." The Berlin bust, seen from two different angles, is indeed, the most famous
depiction of Queen Nefertiti. Found in the workshop of the famed sculptor Thutmose,
the bust is believed to be a sculptor's model. The technique which begins with a
carved piece of limestone, requires the stone core to be first plastered and then richly
painted. Flesh tones on the face give the bust life.

Her full lips are enhanced by a bold red. Although the crystal inlay is missing from
her left eye, both eyelids and brows are outlined in black. Her graceful elongated neck
balances the tall, flat-top crown which adorns her sleek head. The vibrant colors of the
her necklace and crown contrast the yellow-brown of her smooth skin. While
everything is sculpted to perfection, the one flaw of the piece is a broken left ear.
Because this remarkable sculpture is still in existence, it is no wonder why Nefertiti
remains "The Most Beautiful Woman in the World."

Nefertiti's origins are confusing. It has been suggested to me that Tiy was also her
mother. Another suggestion is that Nefertiti was Akhenaten's cousin. Her wet nurse
was the wife of the vizier Ay, who could have been Tiy's brother. Ay sometimes
called himself "the God's father," suggesting that he might have been Akhenaten's
father-in-law. However Ay never specifically refers to himself as the father of
Nefertiti, although there are references that Nefertiti's sister, Mutnojme, is featured
prominently in the decorations of the tomb of Ay. We will never know the truth of
this bloodline. Perhaps they didn't know either.

This shrine stela also from the early part of the Amarna period depicts Akhenaten,
Nefertiti, and Princesses Meretaten, Mekeaten, and Ankhesenpaaten worshiping the
Aten as a family. Dorothea Arnold in her article "Aspects of the Royal Female Image
during the Amarna Period" discusses the plethora of reliefs depicting intimate family
moments. While Akhenaten leans forward to give Meretaten a kiss, Mekeaten plays
on her mother's lap and gazes up lovingly.

At the same time Ankhesenpaaten, the smallest, sits on Nefertiti's shoulder and fiddles
with her earring. Arnold claims that the shrine stela "relates to the Aten religion's
concept of creation" in which the King and Queen are viewed as "a primeval 'first
pair." At the top of the composition, the sun-god, Aten, represented by a raised circle,
extends his life-giving rays to the Royal Family. The relief uses the concept of the
"window of appearances" or a snapshot of life. The figures are framed by a fictive
structure which suggests the form of a square window. Aldred in his book Egyptian
Art calls this "a brief moment in the lives of five beings as they are caught in an act of
mutual affection". In actuality, the royal palace at Akhetaten had a window from
which the royal couple could observe the city and address their subjects.

It is accepted that Akhenaten and Nefertiti had six daughters. No son was ever shown
in reliefs.
The names of the daughters were; Meritaten (1349 BC) - Meketaten and
Ankhenspaaten (1346 BC) - Neferneferuaten (1339 BC) - Neferneferure and
Setepenre (1338).

In 1337 BC the official family, with all six of Nefertiti's daughters was shown for the
last time.

In 1336 BC Meketaten died in childbirth.

In 1335 Nefertiti seemed to vanish, assumed dead.

This limestone relief found in the Royal Tomb at Amarna depicts Akhenaten,
Nefertiti, and two of their daughters making an offering to the sun-disk Aten.
Akhenaten and Nefertiti carry flowers to be laid on the table beneath the "life-giving"
rays of the Aten. The figures are carved in the grotesque style, a characteristic of the
early half of the Amarna period. Nefertiti, sporting the double plume headdress
mentioned in the stela dedication, is the petite figure placed behind her larger scale
husband. The compostion mirrors early artistic representations of the royal couple. To
emphasize the strength and power of the pharaoh, Egyptian iconographical tradition
required the female figure to be smaller in scale than the male.

Akhenaten's minor wives includeD Merytaten, Kiya, Mekytaten, and

Ankhesenpaaten.
 AKHENATEN'S VISION

It was said that one day Akhenaten had a vision wherein he saw a sun disc between
two mountains. He felt that God was guiding him to make change. He was shown the
God, Aten, as the Sun Disk - the Light. He felt guided by Aten to build a city between
the two mountains.

In the sixth year of his reign Akhenaten rejected the Gods of Thebes. They were never
part of his childhood anyway since he had been shunned as a child. Akhenaten had
declared for the first time in recorded history that there was only one God - the
concept of monotheism. Overnight he turned 2,000 years of Egyptian religious upside
down...
 THE AMARNA PERIOD

To make a complete break, the king and his queen, left Thebes behind and moved to a
new capital in Middle Egypt, 180 miles north of Thebes half way between Memphis
and Thebes.

It was a virgin site, not previously dedicated to any other god or goddess, and he
named it Akhetaten - The Horizon of the Aten.

Today the site is known as El-Amarna.

In essence he was an cult leader taking his following into the mountains and desert to
build a new paradise.
Akhenaten established his new religion by building an entire city dedicated to Aten
complete with a necropolis and royal tomb.

In 1346 BC work began on this new city built in middle Egypt, on a site thought to
have been chosen as it was not tainted by the worship of the other gods.
In 1344 BC the central section of Akhetaten was completed.

Nefertiti's prominent role in Egyptian royal rule and religious worship reflects her
influence in the public sphere. During the early years of her royal reign, Nefertiti as
part of her religious conversion changed her name. Nefertiti which means "The-
beautiful-one -is come" became Neferneferuaten-Nefertiti or "The-Aten-is -radiant-of-
radiance [because] the-beautiful-one-is come". A different interpretation of the name
change, translated Neferneferuaten to mean--"Perfect One of the Aten's Perfection".

Following his wife's lead, Amenhotep IV changed his name in the fifth year of his
reign to Akhenaten.

In 1342 BC the seat of government was transferred to Akhetaten.

ART

Akhenaten changed thousands of years of art in Egypt.

Gone were the images of Amun and the other gods of Egypt, now replaced by Aten,
the solar disc.

When Akhenaten built his monuments with images of the Pharaoh, he moved away
from the traditions of a strong, handsome muscular Pharaoh. Images of Pharaohs with
idealized bodies were gone.

The Pharaoh was shown as misshapen as was his wife Nefertiti. It became fashionable
to show images of the entire royal family with elongated heads, faces, fingers, toes,
wide hips, This gave the artists of Amarna new freedom to show scenes of the real life
of the Pharaoh, something that had never been done before.

The temple was covered with scenes of the Aten, the sun disc with its rays shining
down, ending in hands holding ankhs, the hieroglyph for life.

The people wondered why the images of the other Gods where not represented.

Akhenaten was the first Pharaoh to have images and paintings

made of himself and his family, as they actually looked.

 Akhenaten as the Sphinx worshipping Aten

RELIGION

The priests worried about the God Amun and the fact that the 'Rebel Pharaoh' had
declared their god extinct and deserted the religious capitol of Egypt. Gone were the
royal offerings. The resources of Egypt were flowing out of the established cities of
Egypt and into the desert. People who earned their livings based on the old religions -
wood carvers, scarab makers, and others were out of business. The people worried
about their afterlife and what would happen now that they were not worshipping the
traditional Gods. All of the old belief systems into the next world were discarded. The
vision of the afterlife changed.

THE CITY
In its finished state Armana offered a theatrical setting for celebrating Akhenaten's
kingship. The city sprawled for miles over the plain. There were elegant palaces,
statues of the Pharaoh, good housing throughout the city, a royal road that ran through
the center of town, probably the widest street in the ancient world. It was designed for
chariot processions, with Akhenaten leading the way.
Spanning the road, a bridge connected the palace with the temple area. Akhnaton and
Nefertiti appeared before the people on the balcony known as the "window of
appearances", tossing downgold ornaments and other gifts.
 THE PEOPLE

At its height the city grew to more than 10,000 people - bureaucrats, artisans,
boatmen, priests, traders and their families. Though most were happy, many were not,
especially those who did not like to stand in the open sun. Akhenaten worshipers
spent lots of time in the sun.

Akhenaten wanted everyone to be happy. He created a beautiful, idealistic religion

and Utopia for his people but many just didn't understand it. Akhenaten was not living
in the reality of his worshippers. Though he had found himself and his God but the
people were used to Gods they could see, carved in stone with beautiful bodies, many
with heads of animals. Akhenaten's God was too much of an abstraction. Aten was the
basic principle of the universe, Light! They also wondered why the sun God only shed
its rays on the royal family and not everyone.

According to present evidence, however, it appears that it was only the upper
echelons of society which embraced the new religion with any fervor. Excavations at
Amarna have indicated that even here the old way of religion continued among the
ordinary people. On a wider scale, throughout Egypt, the new cult does not seem to
have had much effect at a common level except, of course, in dismantling the
priesthood and closing the temples; but then the ordinary populace had had little to do
with the religious establishment anyway, except on the high days and holidays when
the god's statue would be carried in procession from the sanctuary outside the great
temple walls.

THE END TIMES

Akhenaten lived in his dream in Amarna for ten years as conditions grew worse in
Egypt. He remained isolated from the true problems of the people. Akhenaten
apparently neglected foreign policy, allowing Egypt's captured territories to be taken
back, though it seems likely that this image can be partially explained by the
iconography of the time, which downplayed his role as warrior.
Nefertiti is depicted in her advanced years. She wears a long, white linen dress that
allows the contours of her body to be seen. It has been speculated that this small
statuette was the model for a life size representation that was never executed. Arnold
points out that, although she is past her prime, she is not old. While this may be true,
the sagging features of the statuette do indicate that she is no longer the vivacious
Queen.

In 1335 BC Nefertiti, Akhenaten's wife and companion, is said to have disappeared

and most likely died. His mother Tiy had also died as did his minor wife, Kia. That
combined with the loss of his daughter made Akhenaten feel alone and depressed.

Nefertiti's disappearance coincided with the sudden appearance of a young man

named Smenkhkare. Smenkhkare, who was given the same title (Neferneferuaten) as
the now vanished Nefertiti, was crowned co-regent to Akhenaten when he
(Smenkhkare) was about sixteen. He was married to Akhenaten's eldest daughter,
Merytaten.

There is uncertainty about the relationship between Akhenaten and his successors,
Smenkhkare and Tutankhamun. The biggest mystery associated with Smenkhkare was
where he came from. It is possible that both he and Tutankhamun were Akhenaten's
sons by another wife, possibly Kiya who was 'much loved' of the Pharaoh. As there
was inbreeding to keep the line pure we may never know the relationships within their
family.

It is also a matter of great controversy as to whether or not Smenkhkare continued to

reign after Akhenaten died. According to Dr. Donald Redford, a professor of
Egyptology and the director of the Akhenaten Temple Project, Smenkhkare may have
succeeded Akhenaten by a short while, during which he made half-hearted attempts at
going back to the old religion (something which probably wouldn't have happened
while Akhenaten was alive). Another thing that suggests that he outlived Akhenaten
are references to him made in certain tombs. He was also buried in the old capital.
But here one has to consider the way Akhenaten behaved concerning those people
who were known to be his children. Every one of his six daughters, whenever referred
to in writings from the period, was repeatedly called 'the king's daughter, of his loins,
(daughter's name)'.

In Egypt, as with any other kingdom of the ancient or not so ancient world, male heirs
were much desired. If Akhenaten had a son, he almost certainly would have
repeatedly said so.

Cyril Aldred, a prominent Egyptologist who has written several books about
Akhenaten, uses the argument that Smenkhkare must have been born three years
before Akhenaten's reign began, thereby reducing the likelihood of his being
Akhenaten's child.

Yet another possibility is that one of Akhenaten's many sisters was the mother of
Smenkhkare. Because Smenkhkare appeared at the same time that Nefertiti seemingly
vanished from view, and because he shared the title "Beloved of Akhenaten" with
Nefertiti, some scholars believe that Nefertiti and Smenkhkare were one and the same.
Nefertiti did have more power than many of the other queens in Egypt, and is often
depicted wearing certain crowns that were normally reserved for kings. Thus, it is
perhaps not too out of line to think that she might have disguised herself as a man and
shared kingship with Akhenaten. However, Redford notes that, for one thing, it would
be odd even for the Amarna family to have Nefertiti posing as a man and marrying
her own daughter. Not only that, but to deny the existence of Smenkhkare, one would
have to ignore one major finding: the body in Tomb 55.

Tutankhaten came to the throne when he was about eight years old and became
known as "The boy king" by modern people. He became quite famous when his tomb
was discovered by Howard Carter in the 1920s. Tutankhaten succeeded Akhenaten
and Smenkhkare and was married to Akhenaten's daughter Ankhesenpaaten. Th
couple soon changed their names to Tutankhamen and Ankhesenamun, moved away
from Akhetaten, and reestablished the old religion. Tutankhaten reigned until he was
about eighteen when he died.

Tutankhaten's origins are just as hazy as Smenkhkare's. Some would claim that he
was Kiya's son by Akhenaten. However, if Tutankhaten and Smenkhkare were really
brothers, as the bodies of the two suggest, then this would again bring up the question
of the likelihood of Smenkhkare being Akhenaten's son.

One theory is that Tutankhaten was Akhenaten's brother. That would lead to the
conclusion that both Smenkhkare and Tutankhaten were sons of queen Tiye.They
both bear a strong resemblance to certain portraits of Tiye, but Tiye may have been
too old to have children by the time Tutankhaten was born. Another problem is that
Amenhotep III was, in all probability, well dead by this time, although there is much
speculation about a co-regency between Akhenaten and his father.

One intriguing discovery is an inscription which calls Tutankhaten "The king's son, of
his loins". This could be interpreted in a number of ways. One is that Tutankhaten
really was Akhenaten's child. However, this possibility has already been mostly ruled
out. Another possibility is that Amenhotep III remained virile and active even in his
last years and was able to father Tutankhaten just before he died (assuming that there
was a co-regency).

Yet a third possibility is that Tutankhaten was Smenkhkare's son. If Smenkhkare

fathered Tutankhaten the same year that he married Merytaten, and then went on to
outlive Akhenaten by about three years, then that would make Tutankhaten just barely
seven when he came to the throne of Egypt (Tutankhaten was thought to have come to
the throne when he was eight or nine).

In 1332 BC Akhenaten died, the circumstances never explained. His memory and all
that he had created soon to erased from history not to be found for centuries later.

AKHENATEN ROYAL TOMB IN AMARNA

In 1344 BC the building of the Royal Tomb at Akhetaten began. It was completed
while Akhenaten was pharaoh.

The Royal Tomb of Akhenaten was very similar to a 'standard' tomb found in the
Valley of the Kings - a straight forward design of corridors and rooms along a single
axis, but this tomb was to change with the addition of two more separate suites of
rooms:
Research at the Royal Tomb has given evidence that Akhenaten was buried in a pink
granite sarcophagus - although both this and the remains of another sarcophagus
found at the tomb, were smashed to pieces and then scattered over some distance.

Akhenaten's Sarcophagus

However enough of Akhenaten's sarcophagus has been recovered to reconstruct it, the
corners had figures of Queen Nefertiti extending protective arms like the guardian of
the four quarters.

Royal Tomb at Amarna: Akhenaten and Nefertiti grieve over daughter

Drawing of Relief (N. Davies, The Rock Tombs of el-Amrna, 1903-08)

TOMB 55 IN THE VALLEY OF THE KINGS

Of all the royal mummies ever discovered none has ever caused more controversy
then the one found in tomb 55 of the Valley of the Kings.
At the beginning of the 20th Century, Theodore Davis, a wealthy American
excavating in Egypt, discovered a tomb in which a burial from the Armana period had
been reinterred. This tomb was clearly unfinished, and the burial a hasty one. Gilded
wooden inlay panels on the floor and against the wall. They bore the damaged image
of Akhenaten worshiping the sun disc and the name of Queen Tiy.

In a niche were four beautiful alabaster jars that held the internal organs of the
mummies. Lying on the floor was a badly damaged but beautiful coffin made with
thousands of paste in-lays and semi-precious stones in the shape of protective wings.
The cartouches containing the occupants name had been hacked out.

When they opened the coffin they found a mummy wrapped in gold-leaf. But as they
touched the mummy it crumbled to dust leaving the excavators with a pile of
disarticulated bones at the bottom of the coffin. But beneath the skeleton, the last
sheet of gold, seemed to have the damaged named of Akhenaten written on it. The
pelvis was wide like a female's. The head was elongated.

What really became of Akhenaten's mummy still remains a mystery. Fragments of

sculpture and carving from the royal tomb at Akhetaten shows that his body was
originally put there, but no sign of the mummy remains. It is possible that followers of
the Aten feared for it's destruction, which would deny him eternal life, and moved the
body to a place of safety.

Akhenaten is perhaps unfairly not credited with being a particularly successful

Pharaoh. Records seem to indicate that he allowed Egyptian influence wane but this
may not be true. These ideas are based on the famous Amarna Tabletsfound in
Akhetaten in many of which Egyptian vassal cities plead for assistance, but no replies
are preserved.

As there is no surviving record of Egyptian territory being lost at this time it is

possible that Akhenaten was merely skillfully playing one city against the other to
achieve through diplomacy what would otherwise require military force.

THE AMARNA TABLETS - LETTERS

The el-Amarna letters, a collection of correspondence between various states and
Egypt, were found in the remains of the ancient city of Akhetaten, built by Akhenaten
around 1370 BCE. Some of the documents belong to the time of Amenhotep III, while
others are from the time of Akhenaten. They provide invaluable insight into the
foreign affairs of several countries in the Late Bronze Age.

The first Amarna tablets were found by local inhabitants in 1887. They form the
majority of the corpus. Subsequent excavations at the site have yielded less than 50
out of the 382 itemized tablets and fragments which form the Amarna corpus known
to date.

The majority of the Amarna tablets are letters. These letters were sent to the Egyptian
Pharaohs Amenophis III and his son Akhenaten around the middle of the 14th century
B.C. The correspondents were kings of Babylonia, Assyria, Hatti and Mitanni, minor
kings and rulers of the Near East at that time, and vassals of the Egyptian Empire.

Almost immediately following their discovery, the Amarna tablets were deciphered,
studied and published. Their importance as a major source for the knowledge of the
history and politics of the Ancient Near East during the 14th Century B.C. was
recognized. The tablets presented several difficulties to scholars.

The Amarna tablets are written in Akkadian cuneiform script and present many
features which are peculiar and unknown from any other Akkadian dialect. This was
most evident in the letters sent from Canaan, which were written in a mixed language
(Canaanite-Akkadian).

The Amarna letters from Canaan have proved to be the most important source for the
study of the Canaanite dialects in the pre-Israelite period.
 AFTER AKHENATEN'S DEATH

Soon after his death the followers at Amana, unable to understand what their Pharaoh
had been preaching, abandoned the city, and returned to Thebes and the familiar
Gods. The priests branded the name Akhenaten, as a heretic. It was erased from the
monuments of Egypt.

It was his son, a young Pharaoh named Tutankhamen who the world would get to
know. King Tut moved the capital back to Thebes and returned to the old religion.

Akhenaten's successors, the generals Ay and Horemheb reestablished the temples of

Amun they selected their priests from the military, enabling the Pharaoh to keep
tighter controls over the religious orders.

Later Pharaohs attempted to erase all memories of Akhenaten and his religion. Much
of the distinctive art of the period was destroyed and the buildings dismantled to be
reused. Many of the Talitat blocks from the Aten temples in Thebes were reused as
rubble infill for later pylons where they were rediscovered during restoration work
and reassembled.

Three thousand years ago, the rebel Pharaoh Akhenaten preached monotheism and
enraged the Nile Valley. Less than 100 years after Akhenaten's death, Moses would
be preaching monotheism on the bank of the Nile River, to the Israelis. The idea of a
single God once the radical belief of an isolated heretic is now embraced by Moslems,
Christians, and Jews throughout the world. The vision of Akhenaten lives on!

Amarna was lost in antiquity until the end of the 19th Century. It was uncovered by
the founder of modern Egyptology, Sir Flinders Petrie. They discovered a vast lost
city in the dessert with temples, palaces and wide streets.

The cult of the Aten is considered by some to be a predecessor of modern

monotheism.

Freud on Akhenaten
There are prophets who brought the concept of Monotheism to the World.

Among them were Akhenaten, Moses and Zarathrusta.

Many people feel they were all the same soul.

One of Europe's great thinkers, particularly affected by the abundant mysteries being
uncovered in Egypt, was Sigmund Freud. The founder of modern day Psychoanalysis,
he spent many years studying ancient Egypt. Toward the end of his life, after nearly
two decades of research, Freud published what would become his final book. It was
titled Moses and Monotheism.

Here Freud investigated several unorthodox theories regarding the true histories of
Moses and the roots of Judaism and Christianity. Supported by historical facts, Freud
concluded that Moses had been an Egyptian who brought out of his native country the
doctrine which was given to his followers, thus forming the foundation of Judaism.

Freud places Moses in Egypt, as an initiate of the Aten religion of Pharaoh Akhnaton.
Although, one of the most significant of Egypt's ancient royals, Akhenaten stands, to
this day, as one of history's great enigmas. Although, he was not the central figure, the
inclusion of him in Freud's book would add to a growing interest in this hidden king.

Akhenaten has also been known to be the same soul as Hermes, Thoth and Oedipus.
 Smenkhkare (Ankhkheperure) 1336-1334 BC

Smenkhkare was the eleventh pharaoh of Egypt's famous 18th Dynasty. In point of
fact, he may never have ruled on his own, though in the later years of Akhenaten
reign, he was probably a co-regent.

His birth name was Smenkh-ka-re (or Djeser-kheperu, meaning "Vigorous is the Soul
of Re, Holy of Manifestations").  His name can also be found as Smenkhkara.  His
Throne name was Ankh-khepery-re, meaning "Living are the Manifestations of Re".

Smenkhkare is a study in the difficulties of Egyptology, and why the list of kings of
Egypt vary from scholar to scholar.  While there are many times we are able to
determine the factual history of Egypt in some great detail, at other times, even in
otherwise well documented eras, darkness suddenly surrounds events due to an
absolute lack of good evidence. Sometimes this evidence has simply not been
discovered, but at other times, the evidence would exist, had it not been hacked away
by the ancient Egyptians themselves.  Such is the case with Smenkhkare. 

We know very little of Smenkhkare's life, or even where he was buried, though he is
entwined with the mysteries of tomb KV 55 on the West Bank at Luxor (ancient
Thebes). If the mummy found in that tomb was indeed Smenkhkare, then he probably
died at around the age of 20 to 25. However, because of the heresy of the Amarna
kings, the cartouches and much other evidence within KV 55 were mostly destroyed.
One of the factors that has led scholars to believe that the mummy is in fact
Smenkhkare is a process of elimination. 

At first the mummy was thought to be that of Queen Tiy, but subsequent examination
of the remains indicate that instead, it is the mummy of a young man. 
It was also speculated that the mummy could have been Akhenaten, who we think
was Smenkhkare's father, but Akhenaten ruled Egypt for 17 years and it seems
difficult to believe he could therefore have died at such an early age.  Hence, the
plausibility that the mummy is that of Smenkhkare.

Further analysis has also revealed that the mummy's blood type and that of
Tutankhamun are the same, and that the skull dimensions are very similar, leading
scholars to believe that not only is this Smenkhkare, but that he was indeed
Tutankhamun's older brother.

He was probably either a younger brother or older son of Akhenaten, but if a son, he
would not have probably been also a son of Nefertiti. We believe she had only
daughters. He would have therefore probably been the son of some minor wife,
perhaps even Kiya, who we also believe to be the mother of Tutankhaman. Most
Egyptologists believe that if he ruled at all after the death of Akhenaten, it would
probably only have been for a few months, but there is also a strong possibility that he
did not survive Akhenaten's reign.

He was succeeded by the famous Tutankhamun.

He was married to Merytaten who was probably his eldest sister, the senior heiress of
the royal blood line, but she seems to have died early, leaving her sister,
Ankhesenpaten in this position.  It was Ankhesenpaten who married a somewhat
younger Tutankhamun. Smenkhkare and Merytaten are pictured in the tomb of
Meryre ii at Amarna, and were once shown on a relief at Memphis.

Yet there has, over time, been a great deal of controversy on all these facts.  It would
seem that Smenkhkare became co-regent shortly after the death of Ankhenaten's
principle wife, Nefertiti.  Speculation at times have run rampant, including one theory
that Nefertiti herself had actually disguised herself as a male in the custom of
Hatahepsut, becoming co-regent.

Lending some credence to this is the "Co-regency Stela, a fragment of which was
found in Amarna. Originally, the stele depicted three figures, identified as Akhenaten,
Nefertiti, and princess Merytaten. In later years, however, the name of Nefertiti had
been excised and replaced with the name of King Ankhkheperure Neferneferuaten,
and the name of the princess had been replaced with that of Akhenaten and Nefertiti's
third daughter, Ankhesenpaaten. It is curious that Nefertiti's figure, clearly that of a
female, would be relabled with the name of a king. Second, the erasure of Merytaten's
name and the usurpation by Ankhesenpaaten suggests that Merytaten died before the
end of Akhenaten's reign.

There is even controversy surrounding Smenkhkare's wife, Merytaten.  It has been

suggested that rather then dying early, she outlived her husband and served as a
nominal co-regent under the name of Ankhetkheperure, a feminization of her late
husband's throne name.

However, the dominant theory today seems to place Smenkhkare as an older son of
Ankhenaten, though there is almost an equal likelihood that he was Ankhenten's
brother, and that he was likely made co-regent at about the age of 16. For his
coronation, a huge brick hall was added to the Great Palace at Amarna, with no fewer
than 544 square columns in its main room.

He most probably had differences with Ankhenaten's religious philosophies early on. 
The funerary equipment that he had made for a possible unfinished tomb at Amarna
had almost no sign of the sun cult of Akhenaten.

Yet he seems to have wavered, perhaps out of respect to his father or brother.

Inscriptions on elements of his funerary equipment also show that he altered his name
to Neferneferuaten, the -aten indicating an acquiescence to Akhenaten's religious
beliefs.

However, this is another area of confusion about Smenkhkare among scholar. We are
also told by authoritative sources that Neferneferuaten was perhaps one of Nefertiti
names, and thus the continued controversy surrounding the possibility that
Smenkhkare was non other than Nefertiti herself.

However, the name of Smenkhkare and Neferneferuaten are actually never used
together, suggesting that they were two different people.

Later still, we read of the existence of a "priest and scribe of divine offerings of Amun
in the "House of Ankh-khepery-re" at Thebes", suggesting that he intended to not be
buried at Amarna, but rather in the Valley of the Kings at Thebes.

This information comes from a stele dating from Smenkhkare's third year of rule, and
partly states that:

Regnal year 3, third month of Inundation, day 10. The King of Upper and Lower
Egypt, Lord of the Two Lands Ankhkheperure Beloved of Aten, the Son of Re
Neferneferuaten Beloved of Waenre. Giving worship to Amun, kissing the ground to
Wenennefer by the lay priest, scribe of the divine offerings of Amun in the Mansion of
Ankhkheperure in Thebes, Pawah, born to Yotefseneb. He says:

"My wish is to see you, O lord of persea trees! May your throat take the north wind,
that you may give satiety without eating and drunkenness without drinking. My wish
is to look at you, that my heart might rejoice, O Amun, protector of the poor man: you
are the father of the one who has no mother and the husband of the widow. Pleasant
is the utterance of your name: it islike the taste of life . . . [etc.]

"Come back to us, O lord of continuity. You were here before anything had come into
being, and you will be here when they are gone. As you caused me to see the darkness
that is yours to give, make light for me so that I can see you . . . 

"O Amun, O great lord who can be found by seeking him, may you drive off fear! Set
rejoicing in people's heart(s). Joyful is the one who sees you, O Amun: he is in
festival every day!" 

For the Ka of the lay priest and scribe of the temple of Amun in the Mansion of
Ankhkheperure, Pawah, born to Yotefseneb: "For your Ka! Spend a nice day amongst
your townsmen." His brother, the outline draftsman Batchay of the Mansion of
Ankhkheperure. (Murnane, 1995).

It is likely that Smenkhkare tired of the religious heresy of Akhenaten's reign, and late
in his life, possibly moved to Memphis, the old secular capital of Egypt. Perhaps over
time his role in Egypt's history will become clearer to us, but for now, his existence is
one of the great mysteries of Egypt's past.
 King Tutankhamen

Tutankhamun, named Tutankhaten early in his life, was the 12th Pharaoh of the
Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt. He ruled from 1334-1323 BC and lived ca. 1341 BC -
1323 BC, during the period known as the New Kingdom.

His original name, Tutankhaten, meant "Living Image of Aten", while Tutankhamun
meant "Living Image of Amun". He is possibly also the Nibhurrereya of the Amarna
letters.

In historical terms, Tutankhamun is of only moderate significance, primarily as a

figure managing the beginning of the transition from the heretical Atenism of his
predecessor Akhenaten back to the familiar Egyptian religion.

As Tutankhamun began his reign at age 9, a considerable responsibility for his reign
must also be assigned to his vizier and eventual successor, Ay. Nonetheless,
Tutankhamun is in modern times the most famous of the Pharaohs, and the only one
to have a nickname in popular culture ("King Tut").

The 1922 discovery by Howard Carter of his (nearly) intact tomb received worldwide
press coverage and sparked a renewed public interest in Ancient Egypt, of which
Tutankhamun remains the popular face.

Family

Tutankamun's parentage is uncertain. An inscription calls him a king's son, but it is

debated which king was meant. Most scholars think that he was probably a son either
of Amenhotep III (though probably not by his Great Royal Wife Tiye), or of
Amenhotep III's son Amenhotep IV (better known as Akhenaten), perhaps with his
enigmatic second queen, Kiya. It should be noted that when Tutankhaten succeeded
Akhenaten to the throne, Amenhotep III had been dead for some time; the duration is
thought by some Egyptologists to have been seventeen years, although on this, as on
so many questions about the Amarna period, there is no scholarly consensus.
Tutankhamun ruled Egypt for eight to ten years; examinations of his mummy show
that he was a young adult when he died. Recent CT scans place Tut at age 19. This
conclusion was reached after images of Tut's teeth were examined, and were found to
be consistent with the teeth of a 19 year old. That would place his birth around 1342
BC-1340 BC, and would make it less likely that Amenhotep III was his father.

Tutankhamun from the back of his gold throne.

Ankhesenpaaten, Tutankhamun's wife -

Image from the back of his gold throne.

Tutankhamun was married to Ankhesenpaaten, a daughter of Akhenaten.

Ankhesenpaaten also changed her name from the 'aten' endings to the 'amun' ending,
becoming Ankhesenamun. They had two known children, both stillborn their
mummies were discovered in his tomb.
Reign

During Tutankhamun's reign, Akhenaten's Amarna revolution (Atenism) began to be

reversed. Akhenaten had attempted to supplant the existing priesthood and gods with
a god who was until then considered minor, Aten.

In year 3 of Tutankhamun's reign (1331 BC), when he was still a boy of about 11 and
probably under the influence of two older advisors (notably Akhenaten's vizier Ay),
the ban on the old pantheon of gods and their temples was lifted, the traditional
privileges restored to their priesthoods, and the capital moved back to Thebes.

The young pharaoh also adopted the name Tutankhamun, changing it from his birth
name Tutankhaten. Because of his age at the time these decisions were made, it is
generally thought that most if not all the responsibility for them falls on his vizier Ay
and perhaps other advisors.

Tutankhamun died at the age of 19 by a head injury. Many suspect that he was
murdered. He was buried in the Valley of the Kings. Two mummified fetuses were
found in coffins that had been sealed by his name. These are believed to have been his
children that were born prematurely.

Events after his death

A now-famous letter to the Hittite king Suppiluliumas I from a widowed queen of

Egypt, explaining her problems and asking for one of his sons as a husband, has been
attributed to Ankhesenamun (among others). Suspicious of this good fortune,
Suppiluliumas I first sent a messenger to make inquiries on the truth of the young
queen's story. After reporting her plight back to Suppilulumas I, he sent his son,
Zannanza, accepting her offer.

However, he got no further than the border before he died, perhaps murdered. If
Ankhesenamun were the queen in question, and his death a murder, it was probably at
the orders of Horemheb or Ay, who both had the opportunity and the motive.

In any event, after Tutankhamun's death Ankhesenamun married Ay (a signet ring,

with both Ay and Ankehesenamun's name was found), possibly under coercion, and
shortly afterwards disappeared from recorded history.

Tutankhamun was briefly succeeded by the elder of his two advisors, Ay, and then by
the other, Horemheb, who obliterated most of the evidence of the reigns of
Akhenaten, Tutankhamun, and Ay.

Although all the other tombs in the Valley of the Kings at Thebes were later
plundered, the tomb in which Tutankhamen was ultimately buried was hidden by rock
chips dumped from cutting the tomb of a later king. Tutankhamen's tomb was
discovered in 1922 by Howard Carter It was filled with extraordinary treasure,
including a solid gold coffin, a gold mask, jewelry, and many artifacts.
 Enter King Tutankhamun's Tomb

Cause of death

For a long time the cause of Tutankhamun's death was unknown, and was the root of
much speculation. How old was the king when he died? Did he suffer from any
physical abnormalities? Had he been murdered? Many of these questions were finally
answered in early 2005 when the results of a set of CT scans on the mummy were
released.The body was originally inspected by Howard Carter's team in the early
1920s, though they were primarily interested in recovering the jewelry and amulets
from the body.

To remove the objects from the body, which in many cases were stuck fast by the
hardened embalming resins used, Carter's team cut up the mummy into various
pieces: the arms and legs were detached, the torso cut in half and the head was
severed. Hot knives were used to remove it from the golden mask to which it was
cemented by resin. Since the body was placed back in its sarcophagus in 1926, the
mummy has subsequently been X-rayed three times: first in 1968 by a group from the
University of Liverpool, then in 1978 by a group from the University of Michigan and
finally in 2005 a team of Egyptian scientists led by Dr. Zahi Hawass, Secretary
General of the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities, conducted a CT scan on the
mummy.

Early (pre-2005) X-rays of his mummy had revealed a dense spot at the lower back of
the skull. This had been interpreted as a chronic subdural hematoma, which would
have been caused by a blow. Such an injury could have been the result of an accident,
but it had also been suggested that the young pharaoh was murdered. If this is the
case, there are a number of theories as to who was responsible: one popular candidate
was his immediate successor Ay. Interestingly, there are seemingly signs of
calcification within the supposed injury, which if true meant Tutankhamun lived for a
fairly extensive period of time (on the order of several months) after the injury was
inflicted.
Much confusion had been caused by a small loose sliver of bone within the upper
cranial cavity, which was discovered from the same X-ray analysis. Some people have
mistaken this visible bone fragment for the supposed head injury. In fact, since
Tutankhamun's brain was removed post mortem in the mummification process, and
considerable quantities of now-hardened resin introduced into the skull on at least two
separate occasions after that, had the fragment resulted from a pre-mortem injury, it
almost certainly would not still be loose in the cranial cavity. It therefore almost
certainly represented post-mummification damage.

2005 research

On March 8, 2005, Egyptian archaeologist Zahi Hawass revealed the results of a CT

scan performed on the pharaoh's mummy. The scan uncovered no evidence for a blow
to the back of the head as well as no evidence suggesting foul play. There was a hole
in the head, but it appeared to have been drilled, presumably by embalmers. A
fracture to Tutankhamun's left thighbone was interpreted as evidence that suggests the
pharaoh badly broke his leg before he died, and his leg became infected; however,
members of the Egyptian-led research team recognized as a less likely possibility that
the fracture was caused by the embalmers. 1,700 images were produced of
Tutankhamun's mummy during the 15-minute CT scan.

Much was learned about the young king's life. His age at death was estimated at 19
years, based on physical developments that set upper and lower limits to his age. The
king had been in general good health, and there were no signs of any major infectious
disease or malnutrition during childhood. He was slight of build, and was roughly 170
cm (5‡ ft) tall. He had large front incisor teeth and the overbite characteristic of the
rest of the Thutmosid line of kings to which he belonged.

He also had a pronounced dolichocephalic (elongated) skull, though it was within

normal bounds and highly unlikely to have been pathologic in cause. Given the fact
that many of the royal depictions of Akhenaten (possibly his father, certainly a
relation), often featured an elongated head, it is likely an exaggeration of a family
trait, rather than a distinct abnormality more typical of a condition like Marfan's
syndrome, as had been suggested.

A slight bend to his spine was also found, but the scientists agreed that that there was
no associated evidence to suggest that it was pathological in nature, and that it was
much more likely to have been caused during the embalming process. This ended
speculation based on the previous X-rays that Tutanhkamun had suffered from
scoliosis.

The 2005 conclusion by a team of Egyptian scientists, based on the CT scan findings,
confirmed that Tutankhamun died of a swift attack of gangrene after breaking his leg.
After consultations with Italian and Swiss experts, the Egyptian scientists found that
the fracture in Tutankhamun's left leg most likely occurred only days before his death,
which had then become gangrenous and led directly to his death.

The fracture was not sustained during the mummification process or as a result of
some damage to the mummy as claimed by Howard Carter. The Egyptian scientists
have also found no evidence that he had been struck in the head and no other
indication he was killed, as had been previously speculated.Despite the relatively poor
condition of the mummy, the Egyptian team found evidence that great care had been
given to the body of Tutankhamun during the embalming process. They found five
distinct embalming materials, which were applied to the body at various stages of the
mummification process. This counters previous assertions that the king s body had
been prepared carelessly and in a hurry.

Tutankhamun in popular culture

Tutankhamun is the world's best known pharaoh, partly because his tomb is among
the best preserved, and his image and associated artifacts the most-exhibited. He has
also entered popular culture - he has, for example, been commemorated in the
whimsical song "King Tut" by comedian Steve Martin, and in a series of historical
novels by Lynda Robinson. As Jon Manchip White writes, in his forward to the 1977
edition of Carter's The Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamun, "The pharaoh who in
life was one of the least esteemed of Egypt's kings has become in death the most
renowned."

Facial Reconstruction - 2005

In 2005, three teams of scientists (Egyptian, French and American), in partnership

with the National Geographic Society, developed a new facial likeness of
Tutankhamun. The Egyptian team worked from 1,700 three-dimensional CT scans of
the pharaoh's skull. The French and American teams worked plastic molds created
from these -- but the Americans were never told whom they were reconstructing. All
three teams created silicon molds bearing what decades of archaeological and forensic
research show to be the most accurate replications of Tutankhamun's features since
his royal artisans prepared the splendors of his tomb.

Face of Tutankhamun reconstructed BBC May 10, 2005

Tut's life and death unmasked BBC - October 2002

A high-tech facial reconstruction has shed new light on the looks of King
Tutankhamun, the teenage king of ancient Egypt immortalized for nearly a century by
his golden death mask. Scientists and special effects artists used digital techniques
applied in crime investigations to fashion a fiberglass model they say provides the
closest possible likeliness of the pharaoh's looks. The model shows a wide-faced
young man with high cheekbones, smaller eyes and a heavy brow.

References:

Howard Carter, Arthur C. Mace, The Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamen. 1977

C. Nicholas Reeves, The Complete Tutankhamun: The King, the Tomb, the Royal
Treasure. 1990

Bob Brier, The Murder of Tutankhamen: A True Story 1998

 In the News ...

Tut's gem hints at space impact BBC - July 20, 2006

Research: Meteorite Crash Helped Form King Tut Necklace - Discovery News - June
30, 2006

Yellow-green glass carved into a beetle-shaped ornament and found on a necklace

worn by the ancient King Tutankhamen was created by a meteorite fireball, according
to new research. The carving is known as a scarab, which are ancient Egyptian
fertility symbols shaped like dung beetles. In 1999, Italian geologists performed a
chemical composition test on Tut's scarab, which is the centerpiece of a colorful
necklace that archaeologist Howard Carter found in King Tut's Valley of the Kings'
tomb in Luxor.

The geologists determined the scarab was made out of natural desert glass for the
king, who reigned from 1333 to 1323 B.C. Such glass is only found in the Great Sand
Sea of the eastern Sahara desert. With a silica content of 98 percent, it is the purest
known glass in the world. The desert region, located 500 miles southwest of Cairo,
yields this glass in a remote 49.7 by 15.5 rectangular area. "I think an Egyptian
craftsman obtained the glass and worked it into a point or scraper tool," said Mark
Boslough, who led a recent study on how the glass formed.

Boslough, an impact physics expert at Sandia National Laboratories in New Mexico,

added, "Glass fractures in ways that create sharp, useful shapes, so pieces commonly
were used for tools. The glass is also often quite beautiful with interesting colors, so a
jewelry maker might have taken an old tool and reworked it into the scarab. "Since
most scientists believe heat from a meteorite strike produced Great Sand Sea glass,
otherwise known as Libyan Desert glass, Boslough created computer simulations of
how that could have happened.

He determined a 390-foot-wide asteroid traveling at 12.4 miles per second likely

broke up in Earth's atmosphere around 30 million years ago, when the glass formed.
"The velocity of the impacting object would have produced more energy than a
nuclear explosion," he told Discovery News. "It not only would have had nuclear
explosive scale, but its energy would all have been concentrated downwards. After the
meteorite broke up in Earth№s atmosphere, the temperature of the resulting fireball
would have been as hot as the sun's surface. Like a blowtorch melting wax, the heat
would have melted sand and sandstone into thin layers, which, when cooled, resulted
in glass that later was blown into piles across the desert."

Boslough said additional evidence supports the fireball theory. "Shock minerals," for
example, have been found in the same desert. These are minerals, such as quartz,
which reveal sheer plane structures under magnification. Scientists believe such
structures resulted from the sudden deformation caused by asteroid and fireball
impacts.

Farouk El-Baz, a research professor and director of the Center for Remote Sensing at
Boston University, at first was critical of Boslough№s theory. He said, "If this glass is
of meteoric origin, there should be a crater of that age." In March, however, El-Baz
himself found remnants of the largest crater in the Saharan desert. It is a double-
ringed crater the size of Cairo's urban region. El-Baz now suggests an extraterrestrial
impact that resulted in the crater may have been responsible for the desert glass. This
theory differs from Boslough's in that it means the asteroid collided with Earth in a
sudden hit and did not break into a fireball beforehand. Boslough countered, "The
newly discovered crater is 100 kilometers (around 62 miles) away from where the
desert glass is located. Also, why don't we see this glass elsewhere?" Boslough and
his team studying desert glass to determine what trace gases it might contain. The
information could help to further explain what happened millions of years ago when
the glass formed.
 In the News ...

Ay (Kheperkheperure) 1325 - 1321

Ay was probably an old man (at least 70) when he inherited the thrown from
Tutankhamun, apparently by marrying Tutankhamun's widow, Ankhesenamun. There
seems to have been considerable intrigue to this marriage, likely against her wishes,
as Ay was probably her grandfather.

Further, is would seem that she was not even regarded as a dominant wife, as
paintings in his tomb usually showed Ay accompanied by Tiy, an older wife. In fact,
we learn from Hittite archives that Ankhesenamun wrote to Suppiliumas, the Hittite
king, requesting one of this sons for her to marry and make pharaoh. After some
investigation by Suppiliumas, this request was granted, but his son, Zannanza was
killed enroute while traveling through Syria.

Evidence of Ankhesenamun's marriage to Ay was noted by Professor Percy

Newberry, who recorded a ring he found in Cairo in the 1920s with he cartouches of
Ay and Ankhesenamun inscribed side by side, a typical way of indicating marriage.
This wedding must have happened rapidly, for Ay officiated at Tutankhamun's
funeral as a king wearing the Blue Crown, thus enhancing his claim to the thrown.

His reign was brief, believed to only have been four years. It is likely that
Ankhensenamun died very shortly afterwards, for there is no mention of her beyond
the Cairo ring. In fact, her image has been hacked out on several monuments, and it
has been suggested that her dealings with the Hittites may have disgraced her,
resulting in her death.

Ay (it-netjer) means "Father of God.  His Throne name was Kheperkheperu-re,

meaning "Everlasting are the Manifestations of Re".
He is first documented as a Master of Horses at the court of Akhenaten, though he
was probably originally from Akhmin, where was responsible for the rock chapel to
the local god, Min.

His career is fairly well documented during the reign of Akhenaten, when he rose to
the position of Vizier and royal chancellor. He probably never held any priestly office
prior to becoming king, however, but was instead a military man like most of the men
of power during this period. He may have been related to Yuya, the father of Queen
Tiye, making him the brother-in-law of Amenophis III

Is is believed Ay reigned in Egypt between 1325 and 1321 BC, and was burred in
Tomb KV 23 in the Valley of the Kings, though his mummy has never been positively
identified. It has been suggested that the mummy from the 1881 cache originally
identified as Amenhotep III might rather be that of Ay, but this is probably doubtful.
This tomb was probably originally meant for Tutankhamun.

Ay's sarcophagus was very similar to Tutankhamun's with winged goddesses at each
corner. Also present, as in Tutankhamun's tomb, were decorative designs featuring the
representation of the twelve monkeys, symbolizing the night hours on one of the
burial chamber walls.

Totally unique to any royal tomb are beautiful bird hunting scenes.  The tomb was
discovered by Belzoni in 1816.

It was probably Horenheb who succeeded Ay and who wrecked havoc in Ay's tomb in
the Valley of the Kings.  When Belzoni found the tomb, the sarcophagus was in
fragments and his figure was hacked out and his name excised in the wall paintings
and text. Likewise, little of Ay's building projects can be identified probably because
Horenheb probably usurped these as well.

In Ay's mortuary temple near Medinet Habu, he had his name inscribed on two
quartzite colossi of Tutankhamun, but these too were modified by Horenheb when he
took over Ay's temple complex. Ay had nominally carried on the heretic religious
practices of Akhenaten, and it would be Horemheb who would put an end to this.

It should also be noted that early on, Ay began construction of one of the largest
tombs at El-Amarna, containing the longer of the two surviving versions of the Hymn
to the Aten.  The last decoration in Ay's el-Amarna tomb was probably created in the
ninth year of Akenaten's reign. However, this tomb was later abandoned in favor of
the tomb in the Valley of the Kings.

Horemheb (Djeserkheperure) 1323 - 1295

The fourteenth king of the 18th Dynasty was chief of the army during Tutankhamun's
reign.

When Tutankhamun died, Ay succeeded the throne. Ay favored Horemheb and kept
him on as a military leader.
When Ay died without an heir, Horemheb was made king.

Restoring order was his main objective. Once accomplished, Horemheb moved to
Memphis and began work on internal affairs.

He returned properties of the temples to the rightful priests and lands to the rightful
owners.

He had restoration projects and building additions in Karnak.

He erected shrines and a temple to Ptah.

He built tombs at Thebes, in the Valley of the Kings, and Memphis.

He was noted for admonishing high ranking officials against cheating the poor and
misappropriating the use of slaves and properties.

He promised the death penalty for such offenses.

Horemheb had no heir so he appointed a military leader to succeed him. That leader
was Ramesses I.

Inside his tomb

 19th DYNASTY

Ramesses I (Menpehtyre) 1295 - 1294

The first king of the 19th Dynasty was the son of a military commander named Seti.

Ramesses I entered the military service and worked his way up to commander of
troops, superintendent of the cavalry and eventually general.

A short time later he became vizier to King Horemheb. He was also Primate of Egypt,
which was the high priest of Amon, and was in charge of all the temples in Egypt.

Horemheb died with no heir so Ramesses I assumed the throne.

His queen, Sitre, was the mother of Seti I, who was already a veteran military
commander. Ramesses was originally buried in the Valley of the Kings.

His tomb was later vandalized so the priests removed the body to Deir el Bahri.

The tomb of Ramesses I, founder of the great lineage of Ramessid rulers, is one of the
smallest in the Valley of the Kings.

Ramesses I was a soldier chosen by Horemheb, who also began his career as a soldier,
to be his successor.

Ramesses I is regarded as the first ruler of Egypt's 19th Dynasty, but only ruled for
less then two years.

The tomb (KV 16) was discovered on or before October 11, 1817 by Giovanni
Battista Belzoni just before his discovery of the much more significant tomb of Seti I.
It is located in a small lateral valley perpendicular to the main Valley of the Kings
Wadi. While small, the tomb has wall paintings of excellent workmanship.
Having proceeded through a passage thirty-two feet long, and eight feed wide, I
descended a staircase of twenty-eight feet, and reached a tolerably large and well-
painted room - seventeen feet long, and twenty-one wide.

The ceiling was in good preservation, but not in the best style. There is a sarcophagus
of granite, with two mummies in it, and in a corner a statue standing erect, six feet six
inches high, and beautifully cut out of sycamore-wood: it is nearly perfect except the
nose.

There are a number of little images of wood, well carved, representing symbolical
figures. Some had a lion's head, others a fox's, others a monkey's.

One had a land-tortoise instead of a head.

There is a calf with the head of a hippopotamus.

At each side of this chamber is a smaller one, eight feet wide, and seven feet long; and
at the end of it another chamber, ten feet long by seven wide.

The sarcophagus was covered with hieroglyphics merely painted, or outlined: it faced
south-east by east.

The tomb is rectilinear in structure with only a single corridor, unlike most the rest of
the royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings. The corridor is located between two
descending sets of stairways, and is the shortest of any royal tomb in the valley. The
second set of stars opens directly into the burial chamber.

A large, granite sarcophagus dominates the burial chamber. The paintings on the
sarcophagus are not finished, and were hurriedly done. The decorations of the tomb,
like those of Horemheb, are related to the Book of Gates and all have blue
backgrounds.

While the decorations are well done, their are no reliefs. In the burial chamber,
Ramesses, presenting offerings to Atum-Re-Khepri, is led into the presence of Osiris
by Horus, Atum and Neith.  There is also an unusual depiction of the Pharaoh in a
ceremony of jubilation between a hawk and jackal-headed figure representing the
spirits of the cities of Nekhen and Pe.

The burial chamber and left annex are the only rooms in the tomb that are decorated,
and it is very likely that the same craftsman who worked on Horemheb's tomb also
worked on this one.
The Mummy Returns Ananova News - October 2003

3,000-year-old mummy - Pharaoh Ramesses I - ruled Egypt from 1292-1290 BC

returning to Egypt from the US - 150 years after it was looted from its home.

Seti I - Sethos I - Menmaatre 1394 - 1279

Seti I was the father of perhaps Egypt's greatest rulers, Ramesses II, and was in his
own right also a great leader. His birth name is Seti Mery-en-ptah, meaning "He of the
god Seth, beloved of Ptah.

To the Greeks, he was Sethos I, and his throne name was Men-maat-re, meaning
"Eternal is the Justice of Re". 
He ruled Egypt for 13 years (though some Egyptologists differ on this matter, giving
him a reign of between 15 and 20 years) from 1291 through 1278 BC. In order to
rectify the instability under the Amarna kings, he early on set a policy of major
building at home and a committed foreign policy.

Seti was the son of Ramesses I and his queen, Sitre. He probably ruled as co-regent,
evidenced by an inscription on a statue from Medamud. Seti married into his own
military caste. His first wife was Tuya, who was the daughter of a lieutenant of
charioteers. His first son died young, but his second son was Ramesses II. There was
also a daughter, Tia, and a second daughter named Henutmire, who would become a
minor queen of Ramesses II.

This was truly a great period in Egypt, and perhaps the greatest in regards to art and
culture. In the building projects that Seti I undertook, the quality of the reliefs and
other designs were probably never surpassed by later rulers.

He is responsible for beginning the great Hypostyle Hall in the Temple of Amun at
Karnak, which his son Ramesses II later finished. Seti's reliefs are on the north side
and their fine style is evident when compared to later additions.

However, at Abydos, he built perhaps the most remarkable temple ever constructed in
Egypt. It has seven sanctuaries, dedicated to himself, Ptah, Re-Harakhte, Amun-Re,
Osiris, Isis and Horus. Interestingly, in this temple a part called the Hall of Records or
sometimes the 'Gallery of Lists', Seti is shown with his son before a long official list
of the pharaohs beginning with the earliest times. However, the names of the Amarna
pharaohs are omitted, as if they never existed, and the list jumps from Amenhotep III
directly to Horemheb.

Behind the temple at Abydos Seti build another remarkable structure known as the
Osireion.

Completely underground,originally a long tunnel decorated with painted scenes from

the 'Book of Gates' led to a huge hall. This whole structure with a central mound
surrounded by canal water was symbolic of the origins of life from the primeval
waters. It was here that Seti rested after his death and before being taken to his tomb
in the Valley of the Kings.

Other building projects included a small temple at Abydos dedicated to Seti's father,
Ramesses I, his own mortuary temple at Thebes, and his best building project of all,
his tomb in the Valley of the Kings. This tomb, one of the few actually completed,
was without doubt the finest in the Valley of the Kings, as well as the longest and
deepest.

Militarily, Seti I let an expedition to Syria as early as his first year as king. This was
probably understandable, as he had also led campaigns to Palestine during the last
months of his father, Ramesses I's rule. This, and other campaign during his first six
years of rule are documented on the outer north and east wall of the great temple of
Amun at Karnak. There is also a stele from Beth-Shan, for some time a major
Egyptian center in Palestine, that records his early campaign. The attack was up the
coast of Gaza, where he secured wells along the main trade route, and then taking the
town, before pressing on further north. He took the area up to Tyre before returning to
the fortress of Tjel in the north east Delta.

There was a latter attack on Syria and Lebanon where he (and the Egyptians) fought
the Hittites for the first time. One scene at Karnak shows the capture of Kadesh,
which would also be attacked later by Ramesses II.
He also fought campaigns against the Libyans of the western desert. We further learn
that in year eight of Seti's reign, he had to crush a rebellion in Nubia in the region of
Irem, where he carried off over six hundred prisoners. However, apparently this was a
minor problem as the campaign only lasted for seven days.

Seti's mummy is said to be the finest of all surviving royal mummies, though it was
not found in his tomb.  Rather, it was found in the Deir el-Bahari cache in 1881.

Dockets on the mummy show that it had been restored during the reign of the High
Priest of Amun, Heribor (1080-1074 BC) and again in year 15 of Smendes (about
1054 BC).

Ramesses II (Usermaatresetepenre) 1279 - 1213 B.C.

Ramesses the Great, the third ruler of Egypt's 19th Dynasty

During 67 year reign, everything was done on a grand scale. No other pharaoh
constructed so many temples or erected so many colossal statues and obelisks. No
other pharaoh sired so many children. Ramesses' 'victory' over the Hittities at Kadesh
was celebrated in one of the most repeated Egyptian texts ever put on record. By the
time he died, aged more than 90, he had set his stamp indelibly on the face of Egypt.

It is difficult to tell from most of Ramesses II's statues and depictions on monuments
exactly what he looked like physically. This is because the ancient Egyptian artists
were not always intend on portraying the king in a totally realistic manner. The king
probably never set for specific statues. Rather, they were based upon approved
models.

Hence, the official image of Ramesses II promoted by the royal artists is not unlike
the ageless portraits we find of the British monarch on stamps or American presidents
on currency. His images depict him as a traditional king: tall, dignified, physically
perfect and forever young. His many statues and reliefs show his physical
characteristics to include a prominent nose set in a rounded face with high cheek
bones, wide, arched eyebrows, slightly bulging, almond-shaped eyes, fleshy lips and a
small, square chin. He is often portrayed with a regal smile.
We have a better idea of his looks as an old man from his mummy, which has a very
prominent, long, thin, hooked nose set in a long, narrow, oval face with a strong jaw.
He was large for an ancient Egyptian, standing some five foot seven inches (1.333
meters) tall, and it has been suggested that he shows many Asiatic traits, which might
also be recognizable in the mummies of Seti I and Merenptah.

Interestingly, the mummy's gray hair had been died red, and indeed, modern
technology has proven that in his youth he was a red head, which was also not a
common trait of ancient Egyptians.

The son of Seti I and Queen Tuya was the third king of the 19th Dynasty. Upon the
death of Seti I, Nefertari, Ramesses II's chief wife, took on the duties of the queen,
while Tuya immediately shed those responsibilities for the influential role of King's
Mother. During this period, the function of King's Mother seems to have been
accorded a political role, functioning as her son's advisor. In fact, it may have even
fallen on her shoulders to protect the king's interest at home while he was away on
foreign campaigns.

In fact, our best recordings of Tuya's life were provided from the period after her
husband's death. We know that she was important enough politically to have
corresponded with the Hittite court. We find her image in important monuments, such
as the facade of her Abu Simbel temple where she appears on the same scale as the
other royal women and sons., standing beside the second and fourth colossi. She was
also featured in the Ramesseumwhere she sat in colossal form beside her much larger
son in the first courtyard, and along with Nefertari, she shakes her sistrum on the
walls of thehypostyle hall.

Her promotion by Ramesses II probably went beyond love, however. A king could
gain status from that of his mother, and in fact he set out to rewrite the story of his
own miraculous birth so as to provide himself with a divine father. Ramesses had
actually been born to his common mother prior to his father ascending the throne.
However, Ramesses, always a self promoter, which was not an unusual trait in
Egyptian pharaohs, had inscribed a new tale of his birth where he was not only the
son of Seti I, but of Amun, the high god himself. To many of those who study ancient
Egyptian history, this is of course nothing new, but indeed, he was only the third New
Kingdom pharaoh to make such a claim

However, though mothers often outlived their sons in ancient Egypt, because of
Ramesses II's extremely long life, Tuya did not. She appears to have died soon after
his 22nd year as ruler of Egypt, and was interred in an impressive tomb in the Valley
of the Queens (QV80).

Called Ramesses the Great, he lived to be 96 years old, had 200 wives and
concubines, 96 sons and 60 daughters.
 Nefertari at the large temple at Abu Simbel

The wife of an Egyptian pharaoh is often referred to by Egyptologists as a consort.

This is probably due to the fact that in some people's minds, the Egyptian queen was
not a wife because of the lack of a specific religious celebration of marriage. There
appears to have been marriage contracts, but little in the way of our modern concept
of a marriage ceremony. The 'Chief King's Wife' was the closest counterpart of our
modern concept of a wife.

Ramesses II's first principle wife (Chief King's Wife), was Nefertari. She had to have
probably been of royal blood (though almost certainly not of the immediate royal
family). It has been suggested that she may have been a daughter or at least related to
King Ay (granddaughter, niece or great-niece), one of the last rulers of the 18th
Dynasty. Ramesses II was the first ruler of the 19th Dynasty who, at the time he chose
his principle queen, was already destined to rule Egypt. Several of his queens, such as
Merit-Amun, were also his daughters.

These queens would have been the top tier in his harem, and some would have
remained by his side much of the time (though during different periods of his rule).
While the king would have maintained harems all along the Nile Valley in regional
locations, with many women who he hardly knew, or knew not at all, these queens
would have probably resided near their husband in the main palace harem.

Undoubtedly, Nefertari held some power over Ramesses II. It was probably love, but
we cannot say for certain.

There could be only one Chief King's Wife at any one time, and Nefertari held that
designation from the beginning. What we do know is that Ramesses II lavished upon
her at least several important monuments, including the small temple at Abu Simbel
and her wonderful tomb in the Valley of the Queens.

Yet the many monuments that Ramesses II lavished upon Nefertari cannot simply be
attributed to love. There is no question that a revered, respected and occasionally
worshipped wife brought nothing but glory to her husband and so these monuments
were also meant to honor their builder as well. In fact, within Nefertari's temple at
Abu Simbel, it is not she, but rather the image of Ramesses II himself that adorns the
inner walls of the sanctuary.

From the very beginning of her husband's reign, Nefertari appears as a dutiful wife,
supporting Ramesses on all appropriate ceremonial occasions. She received the two
titles, Mistress of the South and North, and Lady of the Two Lands, which parallel
Ramesses II's titles.

Regrettably, while we may find any number of monuments, statues and decorations
depicting Nefertari, we know precious little about her actual life. We do know that she
was not the only one of his queens to be honored in an age when Egyptian kings did
not always give outward recognition to their women.

We really do not know for certain who became the Chief King's Wife after Nefertari,
but it may well have been one of his daughters. The dynamics these incestuous
relationships are largely unknown. In some situations, the father, in this case
Ramesses II, married a daughter it would seem as a replacement after the death of her
mother. However, at other times the mother and daughter were married to the king at
the same time.

Her tomb is the most beautiful and famous of all queens' tombs and the summit of art
in Egypt.
Ramesses was named co-ruler with his father, Seti I, early in his life.
He accompanied his father on numerous campaigns in Libya and Nubia. At the age of
22 Ramesses went on a campaign in Nubia with two of his own sons. Seti I and
Ramesses built a palace in Avaris where Ramesses I had started a new capital.

When Seti I died in 1290 B.C., Ramesses assumed the throne and began a series of
wars against the Syrians. The famous Battle of Kadesh is inscribed on the walls of
Ramesses temple.

Ramesses' building accomplishments are two temples at Abu Simbel, the hypostyle
hall at Karnak, a mortuary complex at Abydos, the Colossus of Ramesses at
Memphis, a vast tomb at Thebes, additions at the Luxor Temple, and the famous
Ramesseum. Among Ramesses' wives were Nefertari, Queen Istnofret, his two
daughters, Binthanath and Merytamon, and the Hittite princess, Maathornefrure.

Ramesses was originally buried in his tomb in the Valley of the Kings. Because of the
widespread looting of tombs during the 21st Dynasty the priests removed Ramesses
body and took it to a holding area where the valuable materials such, as gold-leaf and
semi-precious inlays, were removed. The body was then rewrapped and taken to the
tomb of an 18th Dynasty queen, Inhapi.

The bodies of Ramesses I and Seti I were done in like fashion and all ended up at the
same place. Amenhotep I's body had been placed there as well at an earlier time.
Seventy-two hours later, all of the bodies were again moved, this time to the Royal
Cache that was inside the tomb of High Priest Pinudjem II. The priests documented
all of this on the linen that covered the bodies. This іsystematicІ looting by the priests
was done in the guise of protecting the bodies from the "common" thieves.

Ramesses was followed to the throne by his thirteenth son, with his queen Istnofret,
Merenptah.

Due to a fortunate combination of circumstances, including optimal Nile floods

resulting in good harvests, international stability, a large family and of course, the
extraordinary longevity which caused Ramesses to outlive not only his
contemporaries, but many of his children and grandchildren, Egypt enjoyed a
continuity of government that was the envy of the ancient world. Whether by luck, or
good kingship, Egypt flourished under Ramesses II and her people were grateful.

Within his lifetime, Ramesses II was venerated as a god, particularly in Nubia. This
cult following continued to flourish, even after the end of Egypt's pharaonic period.
Unlike many Egyptian kings, who always sought to have their name remembered and
repeated so that their soul could live on, the Egyptians continued to make pilgrimages
to Abydos, Memphis, Tanis and Abu Simbel in order to make offerings to Ramesses
the deity for centuries after his death. During the Graeco-Roman period, in order to
elevate the status of a god named Khons, the priests literally rewrote their mythology
to allow Ramesses II a starring role alongside the deity.

Ramesses II's reputation resulted in an amazing following, and even a period of

Egyptian history we often refer to as the Ramesside period. During the 20th Dynasty,
though not descendents, all but one of the kings took the name Ramesses in their
efforts to emulate him. Unfortunately, only one of the kings, Ramesses III, would
come anywhere close to Ramesses II's achievements, and in the end, this much
weakened era would spell the end of the New Kingdom. Later still, the weak dynasty
of Tanite kings who only had a tenuous grip on Upper Egypt also attempted to
recapture some of the lost brilliance of Egypt's golden age by choosing to use
Ramesses II's throne name, Usermaatre, as their own.

Hence, Ramesses II's name lived on. In 1822, when we first began to decipher the
ancient Egyptian language, many new pharaohs became known to us, and later, as
new tombs were discovered, along with other documents, we began to piece together
a long line of rulers. Only then did we know the names of Egyptian kings and queens
such as Hatshepsut, Akhenaten and Tutankhamun. However, Ramesses II was never
in need of rediscovery, for his name, perhaps corrupted somewhat, was not forgotten.

Even in our modern world, he has also been remembered, though often not very
realistically. He was the handsome, courageous and good hearted king of Christian
Jacq's Egyptian novels, and a more lonely, complicated man in Anne Rice's "The
Mummy". On the silver screen, he was introduced in the 1909 film, "Mummy of the
King Ramses, and in 1923, became the great pharaoh of Cecil B DeMille's silent
screen epic, "The Ten Commandments".

Afterwards, Yul Brynner would become Ramesses in DeMille's more famous 1956
movie by the same name, and just recently, he was not very accurately portrayed in
the DreamWorks animated interpretation of the Exodus called the "Prince of Egypt".

The great king was given the birth name of his grandfather, Re-mise, or Ramesses I
(meryamun), which means, "Re has Fashioned Him, Beloved of Amun." We often
find his birth name spelled as Ramses. We may find many variations of his name
throughout classical history. Ramesses fame was not limited to Egypt, for he was
known throughout the ancient classical world, due perhaps to a highly efficient royal
propaganda machine. From the Christian bible we hear of both Ramesses, as well as
his capital city of Pi-Ramesses.

Manetho, a famous ancient Egyptian historian, included Ramesses II in his Egyptian

chronology as Ramesses Miamun, or Rapsakes.

The Greek historian, Herodotus, refers to him as King Rhampsinitus.

Writing in 60 BC, Diodorus Siculus, who was especially impressed by the monument
we today call the Ramesseum, the mortuary temple of Ramesses II on the West Bank
at Thebes, knew him as Ozymandias, which is an obvious corruption of the king's pre-
noimen, Usermaatre. Pliny and Tacitus would later write about him, calling him King
Rhamsesis or Rhamses, and two thousand years later, in 1817, Percy Bysshe Shelley
published Ozymandias, a poem giving his impression of the once mighty Ramesses:

I met a traveller from an antique land

Who said: Two vast and trunkless legs of stone
Stand in the desert. Near them, on the sand,
Half sunk, a shattered visage lies, whose frown,
And Wrinkled lip, and sneer of cold command
Tell that its sculptor well those passions read
Which yet survive, stamped on these lifeless things,
The hand that mocked them, and the heart that fed:
And on the pedestal these words appear: My name is Ozymandias, king of kings:
Look on my works, ye mighty, and despair! Nothing besides remains. Round the
decay
Of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare
The lone and level sands stretch far away.

Prior to our modern discipline of Egyptology, the Pharaoh Ramesses II became

legendary becoming a fabled king not unlike England's (Celtic) King Arthur. Like that
king, an ill defined combination of real kings grew about his person, combining
perhaps the deeds of the 12th Dynasty Kings Senusret I and III with those of
Ramesses II under the general umbrella of Sesothes.

Yet, it was not until after Jean Francois Champollion decoded the Hieroglyphics of
the Rosetta Stone that the immensity of Ramesses II's monumental building works
could be appreciated by modern observers. Now, the real king became famous all
over again, and not only among Egyptologists, though they certainly began to study
Ramesses the Great with a new fervor. Because of the number of his monuments, he
seems to have constantly been in the news, as discovery after discovery turned up
bearing his name.

Modern thought on Ramesses undulates from scholar to scholar, and depending on

what role is discussed. However, somewhat of a consensus among Egyptologists
seems to be that Ramesses II simply did what Egyptian pharaohs were suppose to do,
though he had a longer period of time than average to do so. Essentially, Ramesses II
is believed to have been a very traditional king in many respects, who followed in the
footsteps of his predecessors.

Ideally, an Egyptian pharaoh was simply a link in a long chain of custodians who's ill
defined but well understood role passed from king to king. He was the mortal link
with the gods upon who's shoulders rested the responsibility of maintaining Ma'at in
Egypt, and to some extent throughout the known world. Ma'at might be defined as
"truth", but might be better explained as a continuity of "rightness" which could
insure that things would continue to function normally. If Ma'at were in balance, there
would be reasonable Nile inundations (floods) which would nourish the soil and
produce good harvests, victory in battle and there would not be illness in the land.
Ma'at was mostly obtained by pleasing the gods, which involved supporting their cults
as well as following a righteous path. And among other requirements such as making
offerings, participating in festivals and protecting the sacred land of Egypt, pleasing
the gods often involved building temples and supporting their priesthood.

Of course, there would be little need for a king to actually promote himself in order to
fulfill these duties.Yet, despite the belief by the ancient Egyptians that the King was at
least semi-divine, they were, as we now know, all too human.

Almost every Egyptian pharaoh seems to have felt a need to prove himself to his
people (as well as to the gods). In fact, they wanted to prove themselves superior to
their predecessors, and yet, at the same time, many of these kings actually suffered
considerable self doubt, particularly when they were not born to a long dynasty of
kings and also not to a "Great Wife" of the king, as was the case with Ramesses II.

Therefore, they exerted considerable efforts to build monuments and grand statues in
order to re-enforce their role as a living god, as well as to defeat the enemies of Egypt
in battle and in each case, they ensured that their name and titles were celebrated in
connection with these deeds.

Furthermore, they often exaggerated every possible deed, even to the point of
fabricating war victories and usurping the monuments and statues of their
predecessors.

Ramesses II was not the first, nor the last to follow such practices. He was certainly
an avid builder, erecting temples and statues from one end of the Nile Valley to the
other. And even when he may have failed in war, he nevertheless made it a victory by
inscribing it as such on his monuments.

So in reality, regardless of our modern misgivings about Ramesses II, as a king of

Egypt's New Kingdom, Ramesses fulfilled his functions, as he was basically expected
to, and in return, Ma'at seems, at least to his ancient Egyptian subjects, to have been
fulfilled, for the country experienced a long period of prosperity during his equally
long reign.
 Merenptah (Baenrehotephirmaat) 1213 - 1203 BC

By the time Ramesses II died, he had apparently outlived twelve of his sons. His 13th
son, Merenptah ascended the throne of Egypt. Merenptah was old himself by this
time, probably nearly sixty years old, and his reign was rather dull, as well as short
lived (perhaps only nine or ten years) in comparison with that of his father's reign.
According to the Oxford History of Ancient Egypt, he ruled from 1213 until 1203 BC.

Merenptah (also hetep-her-maat, and commonly also called Merneptah) was the king's
birth name, meaning "Beloved of Ptah, Joyous is Truth).

His throne name was Ba-en-re Mery-netjeru, which means "The Soul of Re, Beloved
of the Gods". 

Merenptah was probably the fourth child of Ramesses II's second principle wife,
Istnofret (Isisnofret).

He was married to queens Istnofret (Isisnofret), who must have surely been his sister,
and possibly a queen Takhat. His son was Seti-Merenptah, who probably ascended the
throne sometime after his father as Seti II.

However, Seti II's reign may have been initially usurped by a Amenmesse who may
have been a son of Takhat, though Takhat's marriage to Merenptah is far from certain.

Merenptah is almost completely unknown until the 40th year of Ramesses II's reign.
In fact he may have been heir to the throne of Egypt for about twelve years prior to
Ramesses II's death, but in Ramesses II's year 40, we known the prince was made
General of the Army.

Perhaps it is not surprising that what we know of Merenptah's rule is mostly about his
military activities. However, he appears not to have become the heir to the throne
until Ramesses II's 55th regnal year, when Ramesses II was celebrating his 80th
birthday, and Merenptah his 48th. In fact, in the last decade of Ramesses II's life,
Merenptah was probably the real power behind the throne, as Ramesses II was well
advanced in age.
In fact, he is mainly attested to by three great inscriptions, including 80 lines on a wall
in the Temple of Amun at Karnak, a large stele with 35 readable lines from Athribis
in the Delta and the great Victory Stele from his ruined mortuary temple at Thebes,
with 28 lines.

All of these text refer to his military campaigns.

The Victory Stele is unique. It was usurped by Merenptah from the mortuary temple
of Amenhotep III at Thebes, and is dated to the third day of the third month of the
third season so it may have been written around the summer of 1207. In it, Merenptah
lists enemy conquests, but the most interesting reference is a very rare mention of
Israel. It may be the oldest non biblical reference to that country. Because of this,
Merenptah has often been thought to be the pharaoh of the Exodus, though modern
opinion leans against such an identification.

Merenptah apparently did face a number of military problems.These included a

"flash" revolt in Syria, which was quickly crushed. There were also problems on
Egypt's western borders involving the southern Libyans and the Sea People, who
apparently had silently infiltrated the Delta, and around year five of Merenptah's rule,
attempted an invasion.

However, with rapid mobilization of his forces and a pre-emptive strike, Merenptah
was able to vanquish these enemies, apparently slaughtering many of them. Also, the
Libyans apparently inspired the Nubians to the south to also revolt, but Merenptah's
quick response to the Libyans allowed him to immediately turn south and inflict a
crushing blow on those rebels as well.

However, Merenptah did attempt to maintain the peaceful relations of his father. The
Hittite King in Syria faced a possible invasion from the north and widespread famine,
so under the term of the treaty they had made with Ramesses II, they requested
assistance from Merenptah, who provided them with much needed grain.

One interesting facet to Merenptah's reign was that he moved the administrative
center for Egypt from Piramesse (Pi-Ramesse), his fathers capital, back to Memphis,
where he constructed a royal palace next to the temple of Ptah. This palace was
excavated in 1915 by the University of Pennsylvania Museum led by Clarence
Fischer, and yielded fine architectural elements.

Merenptah's tomb is number KV 8 located in the Valley of the Kings on the West
Bank of Luxor (ancient Thebes). The king probably died around 1202 BC, but his
mummy was not found within his tomb. In the 19th century, this apparently added to
the speculation about him being the Pharaoh of the Exodus, since that king's body
would have probably been washed away in the Red Sea. However, that theory was
confounded when, in 1898, his mummy was discovered among 18 others in the
mummy cache discovered in the tomb of Amenhotep II (KV 35).

He also built a mortuary temple that lies behind the Colossi of Memnon on the West
Bank at Luxor. Much of it was built with stone robbed from the mortuary temple of
Amenhotep III. The structure is currently being studied by Horst Jartz with the Swiss
Institute in Cairo. Reports indicate that some of the fragments discovered include well
preserved reliefs, perhaps some of the finest to be found in any temple at Thebes. T

In addition to his tomb and temple we also know that he added to the Osireion at
Abydos and also built at Dendera. Merenptah is further attested to by a "wall stele" at
Amada, four almost identical stele from Nubia (at Amada, Amarah West, Wadi
Sebua, Aksha), blocks from Elephantine, a decree from West Silsila, an inscription in
the small temple of Medinet Habu, stele from Kom el-Ahmar and Hermopolis (along
with other inscriptions), a victory column at Heliopolis,and several monument
remains at Piramesse.

Amenmesse (Menmire) 1203 - 1200 B.C.

Amenmesses is generally considered to be the 5th ruler of Egypt's 19th Dynasty,

though most Egyptologists believe he was probably not the legitimate heir to the
throne. He succeeded Merneptah as pharaoh, but it was probably Merneptah's son,
prince Seti-Merneptah who should have ascended the throne on his father's death.

Various theories exist about why he did not. It is very possible that Merenptah may
have died suddenly while the crown prince was away, and Amenmesses simply took
advantage of the situation. Interesting, but not unpredictable, is that this disorder came
only a generation after the strong, but long rule of Ramesses II (Ramesses the Great).

However, it is also very likely that Seti-Merneptah was no other then Seti II, who
ruled Egypt just after Amenmesses. It was probably Seti II who scraped the images
and inscriptions from that kings monuments, and otherwise usurped Amenmesses'
building projects. Therefore, very little is known about this king, who apparently
ruled for three or four years. Various Egyptologists give him a reign from between
1202 - 1199 BC and 1203 - 1200 BC.

Amenmesses would have been his birth name, but a Greek version. Manetho called
him Ammenemes and assigned five years to his rule, though we may also find his
named as Amenmeses. His Egyptian name was probably Heqa-waset, which means
"Fashioned by Amun, Ruler of Thebes".

His throne name was Men-mi-re Setep-en-re, meaning "Eternal like Re, Chosen by
Re. 

It was long believed that Amenmesses was a son of Merneptah by a queen Takhat,
though really his origins are unknown, and that he probably married a woman named
Baktwerel. However, some Egyptologists have suggested that Takhat and Baktwerel
were actually the mother and wife of Ramesses IX.

Originally, his parentage was based on the fact that there were scenes and inscriptions
related to these two women in Amenmesses tomb, but recent excavations seem to
indicate that the tomb, originally meant for Amenmesses was actually usurped for
these women. If so, this would probably negate any argument of them being his
mother and wife.

There is enough confusion surrounding Amenmesses that some Egyptologists actually

place his rule after that of Seti II. Yet, Seti II's name has been written over the name
of Amenmesses in several Theban locations, it is generally believed that Seti II
succeeded him. Still others believe that Amenmesses usurped Seti II in the middle of
Seti II's reign, sometime between years three and five of his rule, which would seem
more probable then him ruling after Seti II. It is also possible that Amenmesses only
ruled the southern parts of Egypt during Seti II's reign.

If this is true, he may have been a vizier over Nubia named Messui during the time of
Merneptah, but this theory has recently been called into question. There has even been
speculation that a queen Ti'a, supposed mother of Saptah, the penultimate ruler of the
dynasty, may have been a wife of Amenmeses, thus making him the father of the
successor to Sety II as part of a rival dynastic branch.

It should also be noted that Amenmesses usurped a number of preexisting monuments

himself, and though we now believe that tomb KV 10 in the Valley of the Kings was
originally began by this king, little other building work exists. Inscriptions bearing his
name are mostly only found in Upper Egyptian sites, primarily in the Theban region
and in Nubia. These include inscriptions at Karnak, a dedication inscription at the
small temple at Medinet Habu, an inscriptions at a chapel at Deir el-Medine and a
stela found at Buhen.

Perhaps as many as six quartzite statues originally placed along the axis of the
hypostyle hall in the Amun Temple at Karnak are thought to be his, though these were
also usurped (in the name of Seti II). However, one of these statues thought to belong
to Amenmesses has an inscription bearing the title, "the Great Royal Wife". Takhat,
lending support to the argument that she actually was his wife. Amenmesses was also,
among others, responsible for restoration work on a barque shrine dating from
Tuthmosis III that stands before a small temple at Tod.

The Tomb of Amenmesses (KV 10)

Amenmesses' tomb cannot be visited as it is being excavated, and unless some sort of
amazing recovery process is discovered, it may never be a popular tourist attraction.
The tomb, located in the Valley of the Kings on the West Bank at Luxor (ancient
Thebes) is mostly incomplete, and much of its decorations have been destroyed.

The tomb has been known since antiquity, and there are signs that it has been visited
from classical times. Pococke noted it on hs map of the area in 1743 and it was
examined by Burton and Hays, Champollion, Lepsius and Wilkinson during the early
19th century. The decorations of the tomb were mostly recorded and published by
Edgene Lefebure in 1883. In the excavation season of 1907 Edward Ayrton used the
tomb's corridor as a dinning or work room.

However, full scale investigation of the tomb is currently underway by Otto Schaden
as a project of the University of Arizona and the University of Memphis. There is
little doubt that the results will shed light on this dim corner of Egyptian history. It
would seem though, at the moment, that we still do not know whether Amenmesses
was ever interred here, or the actual relationship he might have had with Takhat and
Baketwerel, for whom part of the tomb was redecorated.

The tomb is a fairly simple affair, and as stated, unfinished. Three descending
corridors lead down to a room where the ritual shaft was to be dug, but never was.
Within these corridors, we find scenes of king Amenmesses (destroyed) before Re-
Horakhty, passages (scenes) from the 'Litany of Re' the 'Amduat' and in the well
room, a scene of Takhat making offerings before deities.
After the shaft room, where the tomb becomes level, is the first four pillared hall, with
several more scenes. They include Baketwerel making offerings before the gods, and
scenes from the 'Book of the Dead'.

To the west of the four pillared hall is an unfinished annex. The ceiling of this
chamber has been penetrated by the tomb of Ramesses III (KV 11). The original
decorative program of the tomb never reached beyond the four pillared hall, though
up to that point it was almost identical to that found in the tomb of Merenptah (KV 8).
Later, the outer corridors, shaft room and four pillared hall were plastered over and
redecorated for Takhat and Baketwere, who we know were royal women. We just do
not know their exact position in regards to their son and husband, because the
redecoration calls into question their relationship to Amenmesses. Some of this later
decoration has fallen off, so that now we find some of the original and some of the
later decorations.

After the four pillared hall there is another corridor leading to the burial chamber.
However, the burial chamber is in reality another corridor that was adapted as for this
purpose.

There were three mummies found within the tomb including those of two women and
a man. They have never been identified.

However, fragments of canopic jars and part of a red granite sarcophagus lid, usurped
itself from someone named Anketemheb, both inscribed with the name of Takhat,
probably indicate that at least she was buried here, so one of the mummies may be
hers. Little else has been found (and at least reported at this time). Much of what was
found within the tomb was actually intrusive, including fragmentary shabti figures
from Seti I, sarcophagus fragments of Ramesses VI and a few other items.

Seti II (Userkheperuresetepenre) 1200 - 1194 B.C.

Seti II was probably the fifth or sixth king of Egypt's 19th Dynasty, depending on the
treatment we give Amenmessses who may have ruled before, concurrently or even
after him (though that is less likely). Seti (mer-en-ptah) was this king's birth name,
meaning "He of the god Seti, Beloved of Ptah". He is also sometimes referred to by
his Greek name, Sethos II. His throne name was User-kheperu-re Setep-en-re,
meaning "Powerful are the Manifestations of Re, Chosen of Re".

It was not unusual in ancient Egypt for the successful, long reign of a king to be
followed by succession problems. Of course, few kings had a longer, more successful
reign than Ramesses II, and when he died, he left a son who was now old himself as
the new King. This was Merneptah, who was almost certainly the father of Seti II. It
is believed that an usurper named Amenemesses probably ruled either before him, or
concurrently with Seti II during the early part of his rule. It may have been
Amenemesses who erased the name of Seti II in his tomb and elsewhere, but it was
likewise Seti II who probably did likewise to the names and images of Amenemesses
after taking complete control of Egypt. It is believed that Seti may have only reigned
for about six years, from about 1199 until 1193 BC.

Seti II took at least three wives, consisting of Takhat II, Tausret and Tiaa. Tausret
apparently was the mother of his oldest son and heir named Seti-Merenptah, but that
child did not live to inherit the throne. Instead, it was Siptah, a younger son who
replaced the king, though probably only as a child under Tausret's regency even
though his mother is considered to have been Queen Tiaa. In fact, Tausret appears to
have outlived this young king, taking full possession of the throne herself with full
royal titles much as Hatshepsut had done some 300 years earlier.

Seti II's reign was apparently relatively peaceful. We have no evidence of foreign
policy during his reign, though there was probably activity at the mines around
Serabit el-Khadim in the Sinai. He made a number of claims regarding building
projects, though there is little indication that his words translate into physical
accomplishments. We find surviving trances of his work at Hermopolis, where he
apparently finished some decorations in his grandfather's, Ramesses II, temple. He
also did some work in Karnak, where he was probably responsible for a new way
station of the sacred barks in the First Court of the temple of Amun-Re, and he
probably also completed some work in the temple of Mut.

KV15, the Tomb of Seti II

KV15, the tomb of Seti II, has been known since antiquity and must have lied open
during most of the classical period, judging from the 59 Greek and Latin graffiti
found on its walls.

The tomb was investigated superficially by Pococke, along with others who followed
after him.

However, it was Howard Carter who cleared most of the tomb between 1903 and
1904, though apparently the ritual well was never excavated. One may find the
entrance to KV15, rather than having steps cut below a retaining wall, directly
quarried into the base of an almost vertical cliff face at the head of the wadi running
south west from the main Valley of the Kings on the West Bank at Luxor (ancient
Thebes).

However, at present the tomb has been temporarily closed to allow the installation of
new flooring, hand rails and lighting. It is expected to soon.
The history of the tomb is really unknown at this time. It is very likely that Seti II may
have originally been buried with his wife, Tausret, in her tomb and later moved to this
tomb which appears to have been hastily and incompletely finished, by Sethnakht
(Setakht). In fact, the tomb may have originally been started for Seti II but the work
interrupted at some point. This may have had to do with the reign of Amenmeses, if
that king ruled concurrently with Seti II rather than before him. It appears that within
the tomb, Seti's name was carved, erased, and then carved out once again. The erasure
may be attributable to Amenmeses, or possibly to Saptah. It has been suggested that
his wife Tausert then had her husband's namerestored.

The tomb, which takes a Northwest to Southeast axis, consists of a short entryway
corridor followed by three long corridors in turn followed by a well room. The well
room then communicates with a four pillared hall and then a makeshift burial
chamber, formed from what would have been another corridor, where the king's
sarcophagus was located.

This tomb is literally a straight shot leading 75.38 meters into the cliff face with only
a mild descent for the most part leading about 6.53 meters deep, and with no lateral
rooms. However, a rectangular niche on the right side of the pillared hall may mark
the location where the usual annex would have been cut. Missing also is the high
trapezoidal niches often found at the beginning of the third corridor.

Much of the painted decoration is intact and the plaster appears to be relatively stable.
None of the well-preserved relief was ever painted. Breaks in the surface of the walls
have recently been filled in by Antiquities Inspectorate restorers. Due to the hurried
completion of the tomb, decorations in clearly take two forms. While those in the
initial part of the tomb are well formed using both sunk and raised reliefs, they give
way to less accomplished work executed in paint only deeper within the tomb, with
the four pillared hall being the only exception. There, the decorations again revert to
sunk reliefs, though paint was not always applied. In some of the deepest corridors,
only preliminary sketches were made on the plaster surface. Throughout the tomb,
even including the first corridor where we find the raised and sunk reliefs, there are
stylistic differences within the craftsmanship of the work that might suggest the use of
different artisans.

While the tomb may have been unfinished, unusually, the walls of the entrance were
carefully smoothed and covered with a layer of white plaster, as elsewhere within the
tomb. However, no decorative theme was applied to the entrance and entrance
corridor walls.
However, in the next, longer corridor (Corridor One) on the doorway lintel is depicted
the kneeling goddesses Isis and Nephthys, and between them a sun disk with a scarab
and a ram headed god. Inscribed on the jambs of the doorway are the names of Seti II
with an image of Ma'at, also shown kneeling. Within this corridor, are depictions of
Seti II making offerings to Re-Horakhty and offering vases to Nefertem followed by
the initial passages of the Litany of Re on the east wall. The scene of Seti II and
Nefertem were cut over the original opening vignette of the Litany of Ray which was
then reinscribed further down the corridor. On the west wall are scenes of Sokar and
Seti II making offerings of incense and libations to Re-Horakhty.

The remainder of the corridor continues with the tests of the Litany of Re. On the
ceiling of this corridor we find painted flying vultures, some with the head of a cobra
and not completely painted. Between the vultures the king's name is inscribed, and
along the edges of the ceiling are texts relating to Osiris and Re-Horakhty. The scenes
on the next two corridors are oriented towards the rear of the tomb on the eastern
walls, while on the west they run towards the tomb's entrance.

Over the outer lintel of the second corridor is found a winged disk, while on the
doorjambs the Litany of Re is continued. On the walls within this corridor, the
decorative theme is executed in red, preliminary sketches only. On the east wall we
find Seti II making offerings to Re-Horakhty, while on the west wall he makes an
offering to Sokar.

The remainder of this corridor continues with sections of the Litany of Re, including
the 75 forms of the sun god. Further on, we also find the second and third hours of the
Amduat on both the east and west walls. In this corridor, the ceiling once again
portrays Isis and Nephthys, this time as kites, on either side of a sun disk containing
the ram headed bird representing the ba (soul) of Re. This scene is followed by more
text from the Litany of Re. Stars were to have filled the remainder of the ceiling, but
were never completely rendered.

The outer lintel of the third corridor is decorated with a winged disk, while on the
door jams we find the names and a depiction of Seti II. Within this corridor, the east
wall is inscribed with representations from the fourth hour of the Amduat, while the
west wall depicts the fifth hour.

Within the well room (ritual shaft) the niches at the entrance are, for the first time,
fully cut. Here, an innovation is the depiction of various divine statues, many
imitations of actual wooden figures similar to those found in the tomb of
Tutankhamun.
 Double scene of Seti II making

Normally we would find the depiction of protective deities such as the Four Sons of
Horus and the related goddesses, but for unexplained reasons these figures have been
omitted.

The walls within the four pillared chamber are rendered with the fourth and fifth
divisions of the Book of Gates. On the rear wall is a double scene of Seti II offering
an image of Ma'at and two vases to Osiris. Here, the pillars depict Seti II, Horus -Iwn-
mutef, Ptah, who is in a shrine, along with other deities. The innovative decorations
on the pillars, which have only one figure on each side and two adjacent sides forming
a "scene, was a development used consistently from this time forward.

Scenes from within the Well Room

The walls within the four pillared chamber are rendered with the fourth and fifth
divisions of the Book of Gates. On the rear wall is a double scene of Seti II offering
an image of Ma'at and two vases to Osiris. Here, the pillars depict Seti II, Horus-Iwn-
mutef, Ptah, who is in a shrine, along with other deities. The innovative decorations
on the pillars, which have only one figure on each side and two adjacent sides forming
a "scene, was a development used consistently from this time forward.
Finally, in the makeshift burial chamber are several registers. The upper of these
contain images of Anubis the jackal on a shrine and two rows of deities representing
the followers of Re and Osiris. On the lower registers are scenes of mummified
figures on snake style beds representing the fifth division of the Book of Gates. Along
the length of the ceiling is Nut, with down swept wings, and above her head perhaps
the remains of depictions of ba of Re.

It seems they bought in the body before the tomb was finished and then went on
working - a large figure of a Deity with outspread wings painted on the ceiling of
above the sarcophagus - very rough. Some beautifully drawn figures of the king in red
lines.

Not much in the way of funerary equipment was discovered within this tomb, and the
body of Seti II had been removed during antiquity to the tomb of Amenhotep II
(KV35), along with the mummies of other royalty, for safe keeping. Fragments of his
red granite sarcophagus lid were present within this tomb, but no trance of the actual
box was ever discovered. These fragments remain in the tomb, and have been restored
and placed on supports so as to suggest the original appearance of the sarcophagus.

On the top of this sarcophagus is an Osirian depiction of Seti II, while the goddess
Nut stretches across the reverse side. Unfortunately, the top of the lid is missing,
along with the face of the king. However, the head of the goddess Nut is now in the
Egyptian collection at the Louvre in Paris. Because this is the smallest of any New
Kingdom sarcophagus ever discovered, it has been suggested by Aidan Dodson that it
might in fact have been meant to nest within a larger sarcophagus, similar to that of
Ramesses III.
 Siptah (Akhenresetepenre) 1194 - 1188 B.C.

Siptah (mer-en-ptah), who's name means "Son of Ptah, Beloved of Ptah. His throne
name was Akh-en-re Setep-en-re, meaning Beautiful for Re, Chosen by Re.
Apparently he was not very chosen, for he suffered the deformity of a club foot. His
reign lasted from about 1193 until 1187 BC.

Like his father we know precious little about Siptah, though perhaps, there is little for
us to know. He was probably the seventh ruler of Egypt's 19th Dynasty, though in fact
he may have never actually ruled at all. He was questionably the second son of Seti II,
by Tiaa, a relatively minor queen, and came to the throne because his older brother,
Seti-Merenptah, died prior to the death of Seti II. However, he apparently inherited
the throne while still a minor and it was his stepmother, Tausret, along with her
Chancellor ("kingmaker" Bay) who actually controlled Egypt during the kings short
life. Siptah seems to have died in the 6th year of his reign, after which his stepmother
took full royal titles. 

Like his father, or perhaps even because of his father, his tomb was entered shortly
after his death and his cartouches were erased, though they were subsequently
restored, possibly by Chancellor Bay but that is by no means proven.

Siptah's deformed feet

Besides his tomb number KV47 in the Valley of the Kings, Siptah is also attested to
by the Bilgar stele, the burial of an Apis bull dated to the king, and an inscription at
Buhen.

KV47, the Tomb of Siptah

KV47 was discovered by Edward Ayrton on December 18th, 1905 while working for
Theodore Davis. However, he noted that the debris in the entrance had been partially
dug out, creating a passage that subsequently filled back up. In addition, he felt,
because of the bad condition of the rock, that the likelihood of finding anything of
interest would be slim. Therefore, he only excavated partially down to the
antechamber. Later, beginning in 1912, Harry Burton excavated the tomb for Davis,
mostly working between the four pillared chamber and up to and including the the
burial chamber.

Yet the tomb was never really completely cleared until 1994. In addition, Howard
Cartercleared the area around the tomb in 1922, discovering a few objects belonging
to this tomb.

In the summer of 1994, the local Antiquities Inspectorate cleared what Burton left
behind, as well as performing restoration and repair work so that the tomb could be
opened for tourists. This work included cleaning and repairing reliefs, filling in gaps
with plaster, fixing damaged doorways and the lintels in several chambers, as well as
replacing substantially damaged pillars with limestone blocks. They laid down wood
floors for walkways, and erected glass panels over painted decorations, and also
installed a lighting system.

From these excavations it would appear that Siptah and possibly his mother, Queen
Tiaa, a minor wife of Seti II, were both originally buried in the tomb. The evidence
suggesting his mother was also buried in this tomb mostly consists of fragmentary
calcite canopic equipment, along with a model coffin inscribed with the name of Tiaa
and several ostraca found by Carter.
 The top of Siptah's Sarcophagus

The tomb is found on the north face of a hill that divides the southeast and southwest
branches of the central wadi within the Valley of the Kings on the West Bank at
Luxor (ancientThebes). It is oriented north-south running fairly straight for a distance
of 114.04 meters intothe hill, reaching a depth of about 13.12 meters.

Though the first part of this tomb structure closely follows that of his father, Seti II,
the rear sections are somewhat unusual. The initial opening corridor leading into the
tomb is in the open air, and consists of a central ramp with two stairways of cut stone
blocks imbedded into the bedrock to either side of the ramp. The first true corridor
descends, leading to a second level corridor. Here, we find a pair of beam slots used
for lowering the sarcophagus. This corridor gives way to a third corridor that, like the
first, descends once more. At the rear of this corridor are a pair of rectangular niches.
Afterwards, we find the well room that lacks a shaft, followed by a four pillared
chamber The tomb continues through the pillared chamber with a descending passage
that leads into the first of two more level corridors before communicating with an
antechamber. Normally, we might expect to find a corridor followed by a stairway
before the antechamber.
A final wider corridor leads past two abandoned lateral corridors before giving way
into the unfinished, transverse burial chamber. Here, a granite sarcophagus is set into
an roughly finished rectangular niche in the floor just behind a transverse row of four
pillars. The abandoned lateral corridors may have been meant to give into a burial
chamber or storage annexes, but this work was stopped after the a corridor broke into
the nearby tomb, KV32. The openings were then sealed with limestone slabs.

Do to successive floods, no decorations remain beyond the first four pillared chamber,
and little exist beyond the second, level corridor. In addition, this tomb also suffered
the fate of KV15, having the cartocuhes of the tomb owner removed, and later re-
carved. However, here, we have little idea who originally destroyed the cartouches, or
for that matter, who later restored them, though the process probably revolved around
the rivalry of Ramesses II's descendents and their quest for the throne after the death
of Merenptah

On the lintel above the doorway to the first true corridor we find the usual scene
depicting a scarab and ram headed god flanked by Isis and Nephthys. On the outer
thickness and reveals of the door jambs are found the name of the deceased king,
along with inscribed prayers to the sun god and Osiris. On the inner thickness of the
door jambs is a depiction of the goddess Ma'at, winged and kneeling on baskets
supported by the heraldic plants of Upper and Lower Egypt.

Inside this corridor on the northeast wall is a fairly well preserved depiction of Siptah
addressing Re-Horakhty followed by the opening lines of the Litany of Re. Further
text and scenes from these passages, including a scene of Anubis before the bier of
Osiris, fill the remainder of this wall, the opposite wall, and then flow into the next
corridor. On the ceiling of this first corridor we also find representations of a series of
flying vultures.
 Siptah before Re-Horakhty from the Litany of Re

Within the next (second), level corridor, along with the text from the Litany of Re, are
found the 74 forms of Re giving way to two scenes from spell 151 of the Book of the
Dead. On the ceiling of this corridor is found the best preserved depiction of Isis and
Nephthys as kites to either side of the soul of Re.

Anubis from the tomb of Siptah

Beyond this, mostly only traces of decorations exist. For example, on the inner
thickness of the door jamb into the next descending passage appears the winged figure
of Ma'at, but few details are visible. Only fragmentary painted plaster reveal that the
forth and fifth hours of the Amduat were once painted upon this corridor's walls.
After the well room on the back wall of the four pillared chamber, we can just barely
make out a fragment of plaster that once portrayed the god Osiris in a shrine. This was
probably once a double scene of Siptah making offerings to the god of the
underworld, as found in other tombs in the Valley. While no other decorations survive
in this tomb, there are a few red painted mason's guidelines indicating a doorway that
was never cut into the west wall of the pillared chamber. It would have probably led
to an annex.

In addition, we may also make out four pairs of vertical red lines that would have
marked the location for a second row of pillars within the burial chamber.

Burial Chamber and Sarcophagus

The only material item of funerary equipment found within KV47 was the red granite
outer sarcophagus of Siptah. It is shaped like a cartouche, with the image of the king
carved into the upper surface of the lid. He is flanked by figures of Isis and Nephthys
and surrounded by a crocodile, a snake and a pair of cobras with human heads and
arms. The sarcophagus box is decorated with alternating triple khekher-ornaments and
recumbent jackals surmounting a register of underworld demons. This was a new
composition that subsequently was used by other kings on their sarcophagi through
the reign of Ramesses VI. Interestingly, there was no destruction of Siptah's name on
his sarcophagus.

Otherwise, only fragmentary funerary equipment was discovered, including a calcite

inner mummform sarcophagus decorated with passages from the Book of Gates and
the Amduat, along with calcite canopic equipment for Siptah and his mother, calcite
shabtis figures for Siiptah, and possibly a sarcophagus for queen Tiaa. All of these
calcite fragments are now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in the New York.

Burton discovered bones within Siptah's sarcophagus, but it is now believed that this
was an intrusive burial, probably of the Third Intermediate Period. In fact, Siptah's
mummy has been identified as one of those moved to the cache in tomb KV35
belonging to Amenhotep II.

Queen Tausert (Sitremeritamun) - 1185-1187 B. C.

As one of the few queens who ruled Egypt as Pharaoh (between 1187 and 1185 BC),
it is regrettable that we have so little information on Tausert, traditionally the last
ruler of Egypt's 19th Dynasty. Her name appears even in modern works in many
different forms, including Twosre, Twore, Tawosret and Twosret.

Her birth name appears to have been Two-sret (setep-en-mut) which means "Might
Lady, Chosen of Mut".  Her Throne name was Sit-re Mery-amun which means
"Daughter of Re, Beloved of Amun".

Tausert becomes known to us as the wife of Seti II, and apparently a very beloved
wife at that, even though she was not his first. That was an honor given to a lady
named Takhat II, though she apparently did not supply him with an heir.
Tausert gave birth to his first born sun, Sethos Merneptah, but unfortunately he died
young. It was Seti II who initially ordered her tomb to be built in the Valley of the
Kings, an honor given to few queens.

Upon Seti II's death, a son by what appears to be a Syrian wife, his third, named Tiaa,
ascended to the throne of Egypt. His name was Ramesses-Siptah (Siptah Merenptah),
but he was very young, probably in his early teens. He also suffered from a deformed
left leg.

It was Tausert who assumed the role of regent as the "Great Royal Wife", though it
appears that for the remainder of her life, another powerful non-royal personage
would perhaps be the power behind the throne.

In effect, Siptah was under the double supervision of his stepmother and a certain
chancellor Bay. Bay was originally the royal scribe of Seti II, and is thought to have
also been of Syrian decent. If tradition is to be believed, Bay seduced the pharaoh's
widow, who then gave him total control of Egypt's treasury.

Siptah held the throne of Egypt for approximately six years before his death, when
Tausert formally ascended the throne of Egypt herself.  In fact, in the fifth year of
Siptah's rule, Tausert elevated herself considerably, taking full royal titles as
Hatshepsut had done several hundred years in the past. However, it is believed that
Bay continued to largely rule in the background.

Her reign was short, lasting perhaps two years.

While little is known of this time, we do believe that campaigns were waged in the
Sinai and Palestine, and there is evidence of her building work at Heliopolis, where a
statue of the queen was found as well as at Thebes.

At Thebes, she constructed a mortuary temple discovered by William Petrie to the

south of the Ramesseum, and of course, continued work on her tomb in the Valley of
the Kings.

Her name also appears at Abydos, Hermopolis and Memphis.

She was probably originally buried in her tomb in the Valley of the Kings, but this
tomb was later taken by Ramesses III for his father, Setnakht.

Her mummy has not been positively identified, though it has been suggested that the
remains of an "Unknown Woman D" for KV 35 is that of Tausert.
 20TH DYNASTY (1186-1069)

Setnakht - Userhauremeryamun - 1186-1184 B.C.

Refusing to acknowledge the previous two pharaohs, the first king of the 20th
Dynasty dated the beginning of his reign to that of Seti II. He probably usurped the
throne from Tworse, Seti II1s widow, and later queen-pharaoh. He was at an
advanced age when he took the throne but managed to accomplish peace and order in
a short period of time. His tomb was not completed when he died so he was placed in
that Tworse's. His coffin was found in Amenophis II's tomb but his mummy has not
been found. Setakht was the father of Ramesses III and the husband of Ramesses'
mother, Tiye-merenese.

The tomb of Tausert (Tawosret) and Setnakht (Sethnakhte) (KV 14) is one of the most
unusual tombs in the Valley of the Kings, as is the story behind this tomb. It is also
one of the largest tombs in the Valley, encompassing two complete burial chambers.
The tomb has been open and known since antiquity.

Between 1983 and 1987, it was studied in detail by Hartwig Altenmiller. This tomb
was originally built by Tausert, a queen and wife of Sethos II who would later rule
Egypt as Pharaoh. It shows four distinct phases of construction, beginning when
Tausert was still simply the queen. The construction was thus originally ordered by
Seti II. The second phase of construction occurred after the death of Seti II, under the
reign of King Siptah, who allowed the construction to go on much as Seti II had
instructed.

During this period, a sarcophagus hall was created for the tomb, but was not of course
designed as a king's burial chamber. Around 1190 BC, Tausert became the co-regent
of Siptah, accepting the royal regalia and and began work on the second burial
chamber with the proper dimensions for a king. In fact, the entrance to the tomb and
the corridors had to be enlarged to accommodate the size of what was now to be a
royal coffin. Around 1187 BC, Queen Tausert actually ascended to the thrown of
Egypt as Pharaoh, and she ordered modifications to the tomb to reflect her exclusive
royal status.
 The Final Scene from the Book of Caverns

However, this is only part of the story. Setnakht, the father of Ramesses III had
created his own tomb, KV 11 in the Valley of the Kings, as was the normal custom
for kings of this period. While KV 11 was unfinished at the time of the king's death,
there appears to have been plenty of time for it to be completed prior to the Kings
burial. Yet, and apparently against the final wishes of his father, Ramesses III decided
at the last minute to have his father interred in the tomb of Tausert, rather then his
own.

In fact, Ramesses III, against the current custom, would likewise not build his own
tomb, but take his fathers original tomb ashis own (KV 11). We know nothing about
his reasoning on these sharp departures from custom. Almost all the other Pharaohs
buried in the Valley of the Kings built their own tombs, which they then occupied
upon their deaths. However, KV 14 is not really Setnakht's tomb at all, as it was
almost exclusively built for Tausert.

Typically, the first part of the tomb includes an entrance and three corridors that lead
to a ritual shaft and then a small hall with no pillars. A fourth corridor leads to a small
antechamber and then to the first burial chamber with several annexes. Just past this
burial chamber are several more annexes and then two more corridors that lead to the
second burial chamber, which also has four annexes and a corridor leading off from
its rear. Both the first and the second burial chambers have eight pillars. Interestingly,
the axis of the tomb approximates an east-west alignment, but the various extensions
constructed at different times shift slightly in their orientation.
In the first corridor, we find images of Tausert before deities, though some of these
have been usurped to show a king rather then Tausert herself. These images appear to
be about the only decorations which were changed for Setnakht. Most of the
remaining decorative plan remained the same, with the exception that most of the
places where the queens image or name appears, the area was plastered over and
painted with king Setnakht's image and name.

Within the second and third corridors are passages from the Book of the Dead and in
the ritual shaft are images of various deities. In the first small hall are again scenes
from the Book of the Dead, and in the following antechamber are images of deities.
Just prior to the antechamber to the first burial chamber, we find scenes from the
Opening of the Mouth ritual.

The first burial chamber has scenes from the Book of Gates and the closing scenes
from the Book of Caverns, along with an astronomical ceiling.

After the first burial chamber, the corridors are decorated with scenes from the
Amduat, and the second burial chamber has an astronomical ceiling, along with
scenes from the Book of Gates on its walls.

Very little in the way of funerary equipment was found in this tomb, other then a
smashed sarcophagus.

Ramses III- Usermaatremeryamun - 1184-1153 B.C.

The second king of the 20th Dynasty was the son of Sethnakhte and was the last great
king of the New Kingdom. Ramesses III assumed the throne after his father's short
two year reign.

Ramesses III fought the Libyans twice during his reign. He compared himself to
Mont, the god of war and was confident in his abilities. He overcame an attack by the
Sea Peoples in his eighth year as pharaoh. After defeating the Sea People (of which he
took many captives) he attacked the Palestinian tribes and was again victorious.
Ramesses received tributes from all conquered peoples.

Egypt, however, was experiencing financial problems. Workers were striking for pay
and there was a general unrest of all social classes. Consequently, an unsuccessful
harem revolt led to the deaths of many, including officials and women. During his
thirty-one year reign, Ramesses III built the vast mortuary complex at Medinet Habu.
 Mortuary Temple of Ramesses III at Medinet Habu

The entire Temple of Ramesses III, palace and town is enclosed within a defensive
wall. Entry is through the Highgate, or Migdol, which, in appearance resembles an
Asiatic fort.

Just inside the Highgate, to the south, are the chapels of Amenirdis I, Shepenwepet II
and Nitoket, wives of the god Amun. To the north side is the chapel of Amun. These
chapels were a later addition dating to the 18th Dynasties, by Hatsepsut and Tutmose
II. Later renovations were done by the Ptolemaic kings of the XXV Dynasty.

To the west is the temple proper, which was styled after the Ramesseum. On the north
wall of the temple are reliefs depicting the victory of Ramesses with the Sardinians,
Cretans, Philistines and the Danu. This was perhaps the greatest victory in ancient
Egypt.

Pharaoh watched as the invaders crossed the plains, destroying everything in their
path. The multitude came with oxen-drawn wagons, laden down with all of their
possessions, their families and their newly discovered iron weapons. No tribe or
settlement was able to survive their passing.

The horde came over the land and the sea heading straight for Egypt. Ramesses
gathered together his army and defeated the land invaders. He then proceeded to the
shore to meet the ships. Ramesses archers released their arrows against the landing
ships.

(The Egyptians's had an advantage over the enemy; the Egyptian's ships had both sails
and oars, while the invader's had only the sail.) The Egyptian army then rowed out to
sea and overturned the invaders' ship drowning all that survived the archers' attack.
These are the only know reliefs of a sea battle in Egypt.

The Egyptians were excellent accountants and counted everything that was taken
from the enemy and all that were slain. The reliefs show the bookkeepers counting the
spoils. Entering through the massive Pylon (27m high and 65m long) is the First
Court where athletic sporting events, such as wrestling, were held. Reliefs on the
south wall are of Ramesses' victory over the Libyans and the Window of Appearances
is on the west wall, flanked by eight columns. Behind this lies the audience hall with
the kings' shower room nearby. The stone tank is still intact. On the east side are
seven Osiride pillars.

The Second Court, accessed via ramp up and through the Pylon, is made up of eight
Osiride pillars and six columns. Of the scenes in the Second Court are the Feast of
Sokar and the lower part of the back wall being dedicated to Ramesses children. Of
interest in the entrance at the right end of the hall is a relief of Ramesses kneeling on
the symbol of Upper and Lower Egypt and a defaced scene of Ramesses before Seth,
with the Pharaoh changed into Horus. The Hypostyle Hall through the west entrance
was badly damaged in 27 B.C. by an earthquake. Originally, The Hall would have
opened into many rooms but none remain due to the earthquake.

Close to the temple is the remains of a Nilometer. These 'flood warnings' were
positioned strategically along the river to determine the position of the river every
year. Not only did these register the height of the river, but also determined the
amount of silt that was being deposited. With this information, the governors could, in
advance, determine which crop would thrive and thus base the tax levy.

Ramesses III's tomb is in the Valley of the Kings. His mummy was found in a cache
at Deir el-Bahri and is now in the Cairo Museum. Ramesses III is thought to have
been about sixty-five years of age at his death.

Ramesses III built three shrines at Karnak that were dedicated to the gods Amun, Mut
and Khonsu, and a palace at Leontopolis, just north of Cairo. Ramesses III's tomb is
in the Valley of the Kings.

Ramses IV - Hekamaatresetepenamun - 1153-1147 B.C.

Ramesses IV was the son of Ramesses III. His reign lasted no more than six years. He
did survive the harem conspiracy which was designed to spoil his claims to the
throne. He placed a document in the tomb of his father which is now known as the
Papyrus Harris I, that gives an elaborate account of the reign of Ramesses III.
Ramesses IV is thought to have been in his forties when he became king.
There are two stele that were found at Abydos by Mariette that proclaim his piety and
exceptional devotion to the gods. The quarrying of the stone is said to have involved
more than 8,000 people. Ramesses IV caused the high-priest Mont, as well as other
capable officials and scribes to visit the site.

There were 5,000 soldiers that were most likely sent to haul the huge stones over the
rough desert roads. He is also known for the continuation of the Khonsu at Karnak,
which was begun by his father, Ramesses III. A temple at Asasif, which is on the
western bank of the Nile at Thebes, was erected by Ramesses. Ramesses' tomb was
found in the Valley of the Kings and his mummy is now in the Cairo Museum. The
remains indicate that Ramesses was a small man who was bald, had a long nose and
good teeth.

The tomb of Ramesses IV (KV 2) in the Valley of the Kings is rather different then
most other royal tombs built here. Ramesses III, had been assassinated, and when his
some, Ramesses IV took the thrown, he did so in a period of economic decline in
Egypt. Though large, his tomb is highly simplistic, and unique in many ways. The
tomb was known early on, and was in fact used as a sort of hotel by early explorers
such as Champollion and Rosellini (1829), Robert Hay, Furst Puckler, Theodore
Davis and others. It was also an important Coptic Christian dwelling, and was also
frequently visited in antiquity. There was considerable Coptic and Greek graffiti on
the tomb walls.

Interestingly, two sketched plans of this tomb are known, the most famous and
complete of which is contained within the a papyrus in Turin.

One unusual aspect of the tomb is that there is very little decline as one travels from
the first part of the tomb through to its rear. The entrance begins with a split stairways
to either side of a ramp, opening into a first, second and third corridors. The final
corridor leads to a smallish antechamber, and then to the burial chamber. To the rear
of the burial chamber are some small annexes, but otherwise the tomb contains no
lateral annexes.The corridors are unusual for their width and height, some measuring
three meters (10 feet) wide and four meters (15 feet high).

The facade of the tomb is decorated with scenes of the king's coronation, as well as a
scene depicting Isis and Nephthys venerating the sun disk.  Within the first two
corridors are scenes and text from the Litany of Ra, proceeded by a typical painting of
the king worshipping the falcon headed sun god, Ra-Horakhthy.

On the ceilings are vultures, falcons and winged scarabs with spread wings. In the
third corridor we find the first and second parts of the Book of Caverns, with simple
ceilings decorated with stars, but which later becomes vaulted. From this corridor, a
ramp leads through the antechamber into the burial chamber. The antechamber is
decorated with scenes from the Book of the Dead, mostly chapter 125 which deals
with the judgement of the dead.

The burial chamber, which is not large, is almost filled by the still resident
sarcophagus. However, this sarcophagus is unusually large. The burial chamber is
decorated with the second, third and fourth hours from the Book of Gates. The ceiling
is uniquely decorated with two large figures representing Nut, rather then the usual
stellar constellations.

There are also scenes from the Book of Nut, and the Book of the Night. The annexes
behind the burial chamber contain text from the first part of the Book of Caverns.
Other parts of this annex are painted with burial offerings such as beds, shrines and
canopic jars.

L ittle funerary equipment is known to have been found within the tomb itself. The
sarcophagus was broken into at one end during antiquity and the lid displaced. The
king's mummy was eventually found in KV 35.

Ramses V - Usermaatresekheperenre - 1147-1143 B.C

Ramesses V is thought to have reigned no more than four years. He was the son of
Ramesses IV and Queen Ta-Opet. The mummy was found in the tomb of Amenophis
II and is now located in the Cairo Museum. The mummy shows that he died of
smallpox at about the age of 35.

His tomb was unfinished and was in the Biban el-Moluk, but was annexed by
Ramesses VI. All that is found of his reign is a stela that was discovered at Gebel
Silsilh.

he Pharaoh Ramses V (left) died of smallpox in 1157 B.C. The disease reached
Europe in 710 A.D. and was transferred to America by Hernando Cortez in 1520 - 3.5
million Aztecs died in the next 2 years. In the cities of 18th century Europe, smallpox
reached plague proportions and was a feared scourge - highly infectious. Five
reigning European monarchs died from smallpox during the 18th century.
 Ramses VI - Nebmaatremeryamun - 1143-1136 B.C.

The fifth king of the 20th Dynasty usurped the throne from his nephew, Ramesses V.
However, the son of Ramesses III allowed mortuary ceremonies to continue for
Ramesses V, who was only on the throne for four years. He usurped cartouches of
previous kings and left his name on inscriptions in the Sinai. His built statues in
Bubastis, Coptos, Karnak and Nubia. After his tomb was vandalized, the priests had
to pin the corpse on a board in order to provide the remains with a decent burial.

The tomb of Ramesses V (KV 9) is one of the most interesting tombs in the Valley of
the Kings. Its decorations represent sort of a treatise on theology, in which the
fundamental elements are the sun and its daily journey in the world of darkness. In
general, the decorations provide the story of the origins of the heavens, earth, the
creation of the sun, light and life itself. The decorative plan for this tomb is one of the
most sophisticated and complete in the Valley of the Kings.

However, as it turns out, Ramesses VI was not much of a tomb builder, for this tomb
was originally build by his predecessor, Ramesses V.

It was only enlarged by Ramesses VI.  Why Ramesses VI did not build his own tomb,
as was certainly the tradition, is unknown to us. However, the inscriptions for
Ramesses V found in the first parts of the tomb were not usurped, and it is clear that
the brothers probably shared a common theology.

The tomb has been known of since antiquity, attested to by numerous graffiti.  It was
known to the Romans as the tomb of Memnon, and to the scholars of the Napoleonic
Expedition as La Tombe de la Metempsychose. It was cleared of debris by George
Daressy in 1888.
The tomb itself is somewhat simplistic, with no true stairways, but otherwise similar
to other 20th Dynasty tombs. There are three corridors that lead to the ritual shaft, and
then to a four pillared hall.This is followed by by two more corridors, a vestibule and
then the burial chamber with its single annex at the rear. The last corridor (number 5)
is unique, as the floor is sloping while the roof is horizontal.This was done to avoid
part of tomb KV 12

In this tomb, astronomical ceilings are found in each passage. The walls of the first
through third corridors are painted with images from the Book of Gates and the Book
of Caverns, a theme which is continued on into the vestibule.

The beginning of the first corridor has a scene of the king making offerings to Ra-
Horakhty followed by Osiris, now shown on both sides of the corridor.
But rather then the Litany of Ra, the Book of Gates follows on the south wall and the
Book of Caverns on the north. In the fourth and fifth corridors there are also passages
from the Book of Amduat, and in the vestibule passages from the Book of the Dead.
The walls of the burial chamber, where there is to be found a broken sarcophagus, are
painted with illustrations from the Book of the Earth, while the astronomical ceiling
have decorations from the Book of the Day and the Book of the Night. While the
decorations are well colored with sunk reliefs, stylistically the art is inferior to most of
the 19th Dynasty tombs.
The mummy of Ramesses VI was not found in his tomb, but rather that of Amenophis
II. This tomb is also included in the subject of the well known Papyrus Mayer B,
which records the robbery of the tomb during antiquity, probably before Year 9 of
Ramesses IX.

Ramses VII - Usermaatresetepenre - 1136-1129 B.C.

Ramesses VII is probably the son of Ramesses VI and was the sixth king of the
Twentieth Dynasty. He built a tomb in the Valley of the Kings, but there are no other
monuments that he built. He did have a son that did not live to succeed him.

Ramses Vlll - Usermaatreakhenamun - 1129-1126 B.C.

Ramesses VIII was the seventh king of the Twentieth Dynasty and was probably
Ramesses III's son. His mummy has never been found and all that remains of his reign
is an inscription at Medinet Habu and some plaques. His tomb was found but was
very modest.

Ramses IX - Neferkaresetepenre - 1126-1108 B.C.

Ramesses IX was the eighth king of the Twentieth Dynasty. He is thought to have
reigned for about seventeen or more years. During his reign, there was a scandal in
which the tombs in the Theban necropolis were being robbed. There were also
campaigns by Libyan bandits. He had a son, Montuherkhopshef, who did not live to
succeed Ramesses. His tomb was found in the Valley of the Kings.

The tomb of Ramesses IX (KV 6) is the first tomb one encounters within the modern
entrance to the Valley of the Kings. It is a rather simplistic tomb in most respects,
though the art work is interesting.
Entrance is made to the tomb down a corridor with steps on either side, which then
connects to the first true corridor with two annexes on either side. However, one of
the annexes was never completed.  This is followed by a second and third corridor,
prior to reaching a vestibule. Note the absence of a ritual shaft. The vestibule opens
into a four pillared hall, and then a very short corridor which leads to the burial
chamber with no annexes. It is possible that the burial chamber was originally meant
to be another corridor, as it is very small, but was converted because of the kings
death. An unusual feature of the burial chamber is a two tiered pit in the floor. No
sarcophagus has ever been found.

The decorative theme for this tomb begins with the king's adoration of the sun disk,
accompanied by Isis and Nephthys on the lintel over the entrance. Variations of this
are also found on the door lintels of the second and third corridors. The art in this
tomb is similar to that of Ramesses VI, though here, the first two corridors have
passages from the Litanies of Re, rather then the Book of Gates. It appears that only
decorative theme of the first corridor was completed during Ramesses IX's lifetime,
with the remainder of the artwork completed with much less care and skill after his
death.
In the second and third corridors, in addition to the Litanies of Re, there are also
passages from the Book of the Dead, the Book of Caverns, and in the last part, the
Book of Amduat. Probably due not only to the changing concept of the Afterlife, but
also the lack of space, most of the texts are abbreviated, and the Book of Gates does
not show up at all. There are figures of two priests to either side of the door to the
pillared hall representing the Opening of the Mouth ritual. The burial chamber has a
vaulted ceiling with a double representation of Nut and passages from the Book of the
Day and the Book of the Night.

There is little in the way of funerary equipment which was discovered in the tomb. No
sarcophagus was found.

Ramses X - Khepermaatresetepenre - 1108-1099 B.C.

Ramesses X was the ninth king of the Twentieth Dynasty. During his reign the
workers went on strike for wages not paid. There are few monuments of Ramesses
that have survived. He left a tomb in the Valley of the Kings.
Tomb KV18 in the Valley of the Kings on the West Bank at Luxor (Thebes) was cut
for Ramesses X, the second to last ruler of Egypt's 20th Dynasty. It is located in the
southwest wadi. The tomb was unfinished and has only recently been cleared, though
apparently some amount of debris remains. It has had a number of visitors over the
years, beginning with Richard Pococke in the early 1700s. No real funerary material
of the owner has ever been discovered, and even the foundation deposits discovered
by Howard Carter were uninscribed.

The tomb consists of little more than an entranceway and two corridors (that we know
of). It was probably open during antiquity, before being buried under mud and rubble.

The entrance to the tomb continues with the Ramessid tendency to create ever larger
facades, this one being some 10 cm (4 inches) wider than that of the previous king's
tomb.

However, it is simple and has little slope. There was a divided stairway, though only a
few steps remain. At the end of the entrance there was a step-down into the first
corridor. Here, on the reveals and thickness of the doorjamb are the remains of the
king's name.

The tomb's first corridor was blocked by the electric lighting installations for the
Valley of the Kings which was housed there by Howard Carter in 1904. Here, Carter
also had the walls whitewashed, and had a level base built as a foundation for the
generating equipment! Furthermore, he constructed retaining walls at the sides and
end of the chamber, adding additional roofing. Some of this equipment remains in the
tomb today. There has been some ceiling collapse at the rear of this corridor. This
corridor was originally fully cut and decorated.

The first corridor leads into a second corridor that was blocked by a modern wall
which has recently been stripped away. There is a step down into this second corridor,
that was never completely cut. There remains actual rough steps leading up to the
abandoned workface. The ceiling here has collapsed, but a couple of large rectangular
recess were cut in each wall near the ceiling. 

Within the outer areas, little decoration remains. Due to flooding, the beautiful
example of the Ramessid entrance motif of the king kneeling on either side of the sun
disc on the horizon and ram headed god, along with attendant goddesses Isis and
Nephthys) that was drawn by Champollion's artists in 1826 are lost to us.
Most of the plaster and paint have fallen away. Only a portion of the left-hand side of
the design is still visible along with modern European graffiti probably dating from
between 1623 and 1905 AD. Trances of other badly damaged scenes may be found in
the first corridor on the east and west walls. These include a rough head of Re-
Horakhty on the left wall of the first passage. On the right wall we can also recognize
the king in front of Re-Horakhty and Meretseger, followed by a sun disk.

There are no decoration in the second corridor. The only artifacts we are aware of that
have been removed from the tomb (area) are those found in the foundation deposit by
Howard Carter. They included blue glazed models of tools, mostly, including
according to Carter "adze, hoe and yoke".

We know know that Ramesses X was not put to rest in this tomb, though his mummy
has never been found anywhere else, either.

Ramses XI - Menmaatresetepenptah - 1099-1069 B.C.

Ramesses XI was the tenth and the last king of the Twentieth Dynasty as well as the
New Kingdom. The reign of this king was a period of turmoil. Ramesses was not a
very energetic or vital ruler. The viceroy of Nubia, Panehsi, went from Elephantine to
Thebes to try to stop the unrest that was arising from contention over the region that
was between the high priest of Amon and others. At the same time there was a famine
and was called the "Year of the Hyena." Hrihor was left in Thebes by Panehsi to
control the affairs there.

He soon assumed the role of the high priest of Amon and eventually became the vizier
as well. This was the cause of the eventual downfall of Panehsi.

Panehsi rebelled and stopped Egypt's domination in Nubia. Hrihor administered the
affairs of Egypt while Ramesses XI remained in seclusion. Upon the death of
Ramesses, Hrihor and Smendes divided Egypt between themselves. Ramesses was
technically pharaoh until his death, but Hrihor was the ruler of Upper Egypt for all
practical purposes. Ramesses' death marked the end of the Twentieth Dynasty and the
New Kingdom.

His tomb is located in the Valley of the Kings.

Tomb KV4, located in the Valley of the Kingson the West Bank at Luxor has been
known and open since antiquity (though not open to the public now), and it received
many ancient tourists, as evidenced by the Demotic Egyptian, Greek, Latin, Coptic
and later, French and English graffiti on its walls, and was noted by the French
expedition to Egypt in the late 18th century.

The tomb consists of an initial entrance, a first corridor followed by a relatively sharp
descending ramp, with a second, and then a third corridor prior to reaching the
undecorated and undug ritual well room. The entrance and first two corridors have a
shallow slope, and in the second corridor we find a pair of rectangular niches in the
usual positions, near the corridor's entrance, on the north and south walls. The
unfinished pillared hall follows, after which a ramp leads into the unfinished burial
chamber with a deep burial shaft in its center. Interestingly, within the burial chamber
the pillars are rectangular rather then square. The ceiling is vaulted. While there were
no barriers in this tomb, pivot holes for door leafs were present in most of the inner
corridors and chambers.

The only decorations discovered within the tomb were on the doorway between the
entrance and the first corridor, and at the beginning of the first corridor. In the
doorway lintel between the entrance and the first corridor, we find Ramesses XI
kneeling between two goddess flanked by the sun disk, Atem. We also find the king's
name on the door jamb.

Currently, we do not know the location of Ramesses XI's actual burial, but it has been
suggested that he may have been laid to rest somewhere in Northern Egypt.
 THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD (1070-715 BC)

DYNASTIES 21-24

The period of the 21st Dynasty represents one of the most confused spots in Egyptian
history! To call it a dynasty is actually somewhat of a misnomer since they were
primarily powerful priests rather than royalty.

One of the results of revised chronology is, that now we have internal political and
social conditions in neighboring countries matching each others circumstances. In
conventional chronology the 21st Dynasty of priest-princes was in power in the days
of the early Israelite monarchy.

In the 21st Dynasty the capital of Egypt moved from Tanis to Libyan, to Nubia, to
Thebes, to SAIS, and then back to Nubia and Thebes.

After 1085 BC, Egypt split between a northern 21st dynasty claiming national
recognition reigning from Tanis and a line of Theban generals and high priests of
Amen who actually controlled the south from Thebes. Relations between the two
authorities were peaceful. The Tanites were driven from power by Libyan warriors
who established their own Twenty-Second Dynasty.

There was a tradition of representing the high priest as the king's representative:
Herihor does not claim royal dignity. With the exception of Piankh, Herihor and his
successors Pinedjem, Masaharta, and Menkheperre all used the title of High Priest of
Amen as their principal title. The titles gradually diminished in number, reflecting not
so much a reduction in power but an emphasis on their role as the highest authority in
the Thebais and Upper Egypt. The title of High Priest of Amen gave the bearers
control over the domains of Amen and at the same time emphasised the fact that they
derived their power from Amen. In the peculiar combinations of royal titles and that
of High Priest, it becomes clear that the rulers of Tanis and Thebes only represented
an ideal kingship.

The reign of the Pharohas mentioned below is debatable. The establishment of

flawless genealogies has thus far proved a baffling task. This is based on the writings
of Manetho.

The part played by women in ancient Egypt had always been great, but at this juncture
it was greater than ever. The inscriptions are abnormally communicative in the use of
such epithets as 'King's Daughter', 'King's Great Wife'.

A perplexing feature of the problem is that the same female name was often born by
several individuals. The title 'God's Wife of Amun', of which the first component goes
back far into the past, has won an ever increasing political importance, though its
exact implications are mysterious. Under Pinudjem I the Ma'kare' who bears this title
is depicted as a mere child, though she has often been credited with being his wife.

Very possibly she was the daughter of Psusennes I. She is certainly to be

distinguished from a later Ma'kare' who was a daughter of the Tanite king Psusennes
II and whose rights as an heiress were set forth on a long inscription in the temple of
Karnak. This is but one example of the difficulties which cluster round the names of
such princesses as Henutowe, Isimkheb, and others. Here it need only be added that
some of these royal ladies enjoyed no inconsiderable wealth through their tenure of
priestly offices.

For instance Neskhons, the well-known wife of Pinudjem II, is described on a coffin
bearing her name as 'first chief of the concubines of Amen-Re', King of the Gods;
Major-domo of the house of Mut the great, lady of Ashru; prophetess of Anhur-Shu
the son of Re'; prophetess of Min, Horus, and Isis in Ipu; prophetess of Horus, lord of
Djuef; god's mother of Chons the child, first one of Amen-Re', King of the Gods; and
chief of noble ladies' - to which an accompanying column of inscription adds four
more local priesthoods.

Unhappily the name of Neskhons has been painted over that of Isimkheb to whom,
therefore, these titles doubtless properly belong. If the localities mentioned in them
are to be taken seriously, it would seem that the Theban influence extended far
northwards into Middle Egypt, a fact confirmed at El-Hiba by bricks bearing the
names of the high-priests Pinudjem I and Menkheperre. Of El-Hiba we shall hear
again in connection with Dyn. XXII. These complications are typical of the
difficulties which attended the unraveling of the problems of Dyn. XXI. Further
attempts at elucidation must be left to the future. The material is abundant, but mostly
ambiguous. Here we must content ourselves with giving some account of two great
discoveries by which the views of the historians have been completely transformed.

Almost since the times of their actual burial the mighty kings of Dyns. XVII to XX
had been exposed to violation and theft on the part of the rapacious inhabitants of the
Theban necropolis, and it was only as a last frantic effort to put an end to such
sacrilege that the high-priests of Dyn. XXI intervened.

This they could do with greater confidence since the golden ornaments and other
precious possessions had long ago disappeared, so that little more than the coffins and
corpses remained to be salvaged.

However, for the modern world thus to recover the remains of many of the greatest
Pharaohs was a sensation till then unequaled in the annals of archaeology. To be able
to gaze upon the actual features of such famous warriors as Tuthmosis III and Sethos I
was a privilege that could be legitimately allowed to the serious historian, though it
was for a time denied to the merely curious. Besides the nine kings who were found
there were a number of their queens, as well as some princes and lesser personages.
Hieratic dockets on certain coffins or mummy wrappings disclosed the dates of the
reburials and the authorities responsible for them.

More important from the purely historical point of view were the intact coffins of
high-priests of Dyn. XXI and their womenfolk. The hieroglyphic inscriptions
furnishing no small portion of the material for the discussions contained in Maspero's
fundamental monograph on the find. Among the latest burials were those of Pinudjem
II and his already-mentioned spouse Neskhons. After them the cache was sealed up in
the tenth year of the Tanite king Siamun, but was reopened once more in the reign of
King Shoshenk I in order to enter a priest of Amun named Djedptahef'onkh.
From the end of Dyn. XX onwards the outstanding feature of the Theban
administration was its recourse to oracular decisions on all occasions. We have seen
how under the high-priest Pay'onkh a temple appointment was effected by this
method, the great god Amen-Re' halting his processional bark to nod approval when
the right name was presented to him.

Later when the inheritance of the princess Ma'kare' was in dispute, it was Amen-Re',
accompanied by the goddess Mut and the child-god Chons, the two other members of
his triad, who decided the issue. Again, when Menkheperre' became high-priest his
first act was to inquire from the supreme god whether certain persons who had been
banished to the oasis could now be pardoned and allowed to return to Thebes.

To judge by the size of a great inscription engraved on a wall at Karnak the trial of an
official for dishonesty which Pinudjem II was called upon to initiate must have been
one of exceptional importance. In this trial a whole series of questions were addressed
to the deity, who seems to have been unwilling to proceed to his yearly ceremonial
visit to Luxor until the matter was settled.

The first step consisted in placing before him two tablets, the one affirming and the
other denying that there was a case calling for investigation. In short, so far as our
limited material goes, there was no subject demanding the high-priest's personal
intervention which was not settled by an oracular response.

21ST DYNASTY (1070 - 945 B.C.)

Smedes - Hedjkheperresetepenre - Nesbaneb-Djedet - Nesbaneb-Djedet) - 1070-

1044 B.C.

Smedes was an official during the reign of Ramesses XI of the 20th Dynasty. Smedes
began his rule in Tanis. There he was the high priest of Amon and the viceroy of
Lower Egypt. Hrihor was also a high priest of Amon and the viceroy of Upper Egypt.
Together these two kept Ramesses XI in seclusion on his estates. Upon the death of
Ramesses, Smedes and Hrihor divided Egypt among them, which started the Twenty-
first Dynasty. As a native of Djede, Smedes could have no personal right to the
throne. The only record of Smedes' reign is a damaged inscription on a pillar in a
quarry at Gebelen.

Amenemnisu - Nephercheres - Neferkarehikwast - 1040 B.C.

Amenemnisu was the second ruler of the Twenty-first Dynasty. He is thought to have
ruled for four years possibly as the co-regent with Psusennes I.

Psusennes I - Akheperre-setepanamun Psibkhaemne - 1040-992 B.C.

 'The Star which arose in Thebes'

Funeral Mask

Sarcophagus

At Tanis Psusennes I often uses the epithet 'high-priest of Amen-Re'.

Once in a very full titulary describes himself as 'great of monuments in Ipet-eswe' at

Karnak.

Psusennes I was the third king of the Twenty-first Dynasty and is probably the best
known of all this dynasty's kings. This is because of the discovery of his intact tomb
during the excavation of Tanis. His mummy was found in the tomb and was that of an
old man. Also is the tomb was a second burial chamber was for his sister and wife,
Queen Mutnodjme. At some time later, her mummy and funerary objects were
removed. King Amunemope's mummy and funerary objects were placed there after he
was moved from another tomb that was not too far away. There were also several
other mummies found in this tomb as well. These mummies were thought to have
been placed here to be protected from the destruction of the other tombs around.
Amenope - (Amunemope)(Amenophthis)(Usermare-setepenamun) - 993-984 B.C.

Amenope was the fourth king of the Twenty-first Dynasty. It is possible that he wrote
one of the most famous Egyptian books of wisdom, known as the Instruction of
Amenope. In this book, advice is offered to his son on integrity, honesty, self-control
and kindness. He teaches that it is reliance on god that this tranquillity and the
freedom from overanxiety can be attained.

Osochor 984-978

Siamun - (Amunemope)(Amenophthis)(Usermare-setepenamun) - 978-959 B.C.

Siamun is listed as the sixth king of the Twenty-first Dynasty. Very little is known
about his reign except that he is the one who sealed up the great Der el-Bahri cache.
He is believed to have reigned for seventeen years.

Psusennes II - Titkheperure-setepenamun - Psibkhaemne

Psusennes II was the seventh and final king of the Twenty-first Dynasty. He is
believed to have ruled for 14 years. There are inscriptions on monuments which are
the only information showing his reign.

22ND DYNASTY (945-712 B.C.)

The 22nd Dynasty is often referred to as the Libyan Bubastite Dynasty. Manetho lists
the kings of this Dynasty as being from Bubastis which is located in the eastern delta.
The Libyan element is evident in the founder, Sheshonq I, who inaugurated the
sequence of Libyan Chiefs which ruled Egypt for the next 200 years.

Shoshenq I - Hedjkheperre-setepenre - Sheshonq - 945-924 B.C.

The 22d dynasty (945-730 BCE) was founded by Sheshonq I, probably descended
from long-settled Libyan mercenaries, the Meshwesh. Shoshenq I ruled for twenty-
one years.

His name first appeared in a long inscription found at Abydos while he was the 'great
chief of the Meshwesh, prince of princes.' His father was Nemrat, who was the son of
the lady Mehetemwaskhe, died and Shoshenq asked the king at that time to allow a
funerary cult to be built at Abydos in his honor. The king must have been the last
Psusennes of the Twenty-first Dynasty. Shoshenq's son had married Psusennes'
daughter, Makare.

Sheshonq I supported Jeroboam against King Solomon's son, Rehoboam and

campaigned later in Palestine (ca.930) laying tribute upon the king of Judah. He
instituted a decentralized system, with kings based in the north and their sons ruling
key centers elsewhere. Rivalries and sporadic civil wars followed, and by the 8th
century BCE Egypt had been divided into eleven autonomous states, whose
inhabitants depended on congested, walled towns for security. Their increased anxiety
found expression in their worship of local rather than national gods.

It is possible that the transition from the Twenty-first to the Twenty-second Dynasty
was a peaceful one. Shoshenq's wife, Karoma, was the mother of Osorkon I who was
Shoshenq's successor. Shoshenq did considerable building at home in Egypt. He
added a new colonnaded forecourt with a triumphal gate that formed an extension of
the hypostyle hall in the Amun temple. No work had been done at Karnak since the
end of the Nineteenth Dynasty. He also had a successful campaign against the
kingdom of Judah and the kingdom of Israel. His tomb is located at Tanis.

Osorkon I - (Sekhemkheperre-setepenre) - 924-909 B.C.

Osorkon bringing offerings

Osorkon I is in the second king of the Twenty-second Dynasty. Between the reigns of
Osorkon I and Takelot I, a Shoshenq II is often shown as a co-regent for a brief period
of time.

Osokon I, who succeeded his father, continued to provide strong patronage for the
various leading priesthoods, thereby consolidating his position as well as maintaining
a continuous building program, especially at his native city of Bubastis. The chief
priesthood of Amun at Karnak was taken from his brother Input and given to one of
his sons, Sheshonq(II) whom he took as a co-regent in 890 B.C.E. Sheshonq,
however, died a few months earlier than his father, and both were buried at Tanis.

Takelot I - (Usermare-setepenamun) - 909-894 B.C.

Takelot I was the third king of the Twenty-second Dynasty. He was the successor to
Osorkon I, but is shown to have had a co-regent, Sheshonq II, for a brief period before
his reign began.
This reign, although 15 years in length, has left no major monuments, but saw the
beginning of the fragmentation of Egypt once more into two power bases.

Shoshenq II - (Heqakheperre-setepenre) - 894-883 B.C.

Shoshenq II is thought to have been the co-regent during the period between Osorkon
I and Takelot I during the Twenty-second Dynasty. His mummy was found at Tanis in
the tomb of Psusennes I.

Osorkon II - (Usermare-setepenamun) - 883-855 B.C.

Osorkon II was the fifth king of the Twenty-second Dynasty. There are inscriptions in
the hypostyle hall of the Luxor temple that indicate that there was a very high
inundation of the Nile during the third year of his reign. The inscription says, "All the
temples of Thebes were like marshes." During his twenty-second year, he celebrated
the Sed Festival.

He built a granite gateway at the great temple at Bubastis and decorated the gateway
with scenes of this festival. During his reign, there was weakness internally and there
were threats from the Assyrians. Egypt's borders did not extend as far as they once
had and tried to resist the increasing pressures from the east by joining the states of
Palestine and Syria. It is possible that a co-regent ruled with Osorkon II named
Harsiese, who was the high priest of Amun at Thebes. It is possible that Harsiese was
the son of Osorkon. His tomb has been found at Tanis. It was constructed of large
stones with several chambers inside. Several other bodies were found inside such as
King Takelot II.

Takelot II - (Hedjkheperre-setepenre) - 860-835 B.C.

Takelot II was the sixth king of the Twenty-second Dynasty. He was the father to the
high priest of Amun, Osorkon. This Osorkon was responsible for the longest
inscription on the Bubastite Gate. According to his inscription, during the fifteenth
year of Takelot's reign, there was warfare in the North and South and a great
convulsion broke out in the land.

Takelot II maintained stability in the South where his half brother Nimlot had
consolidated his position by extending North to Herakleopolis and placing his son
Ptahwedjankhef in charge there. Nimlot then married his daughter Karomama II to
Takelot II, thereby cementing a bond between North and South and becoming the
father-in-law of his half brother.

The remains of Takelot II were found in a usurped sarcophagus from the Middle
Kingdom in Tanis. His Canopic jars and ushabti-figures were found with him as well.

Shoshenq III - (Usermare-setepenre) - 835-783 B.C.

Shoshenq III was the seventh king of the Twenty-second Dynasty. He is thought to
have ruled for fifty-two years. During the twenty-eighth year of his reign, an Apis bull
was born. This is recorded on the Serapeum stela by a priest named Pediese. His tomb
was found at Tanis and was similar in structure to those of Psusennes I and Osorkon
II.

Pami - (Usermare-setepenre Pimay)(Pemay) - 783-773 B.C.

Pami was the eighth king of the Twenty-second Dynasty. He reigned for
approximately six years following the fifty-two year reign of Shoshenq III. Pemay is
translated to "The Cat".

Shoshenq IV - (Akheperre-setepenre) - 773-735 B.C.

Shoshenq IV was the ninth king of the Twenty-second Dynasty. The Serapeum stela
of Pasenhor is dated as the thirty-seventh year of Shoshenq IV. This shows that he
reigned at least this long. In the year 732, toward the end of his reign, an Assyrian,
Tiglath-pileser III took Damascus and killed Rezin. He then captured many cities of
northern Israel and took the people to Assyria. The Egyptian troops had at one time
joined forces with Damascus, Israel and some other states to resist Shalmaneser III at
Qarqar. There is no indication that Shoshenq IV made any attempt to help the former
allies.

Osorkon IV - (Akheperre-setepenamun) - 735-712 B.C.

Osorkon IV was the tenth and final ruler of the Twenty-second Dynasty. During his
reign, Hoshea, the king of Israel, sent messengers to Osorkon in Egypt. He was
requesting help against Shalmaneser V. No help was sent. Samaria was captured and
the Israelites were taken away to Assyria. There was also threats from Sargon II, who
was the Assyrian king. To try to avoid an attack, Osorkon IV tried a rich gift and it
apparently worked. The Assyrian king came no further.

23RD DYNASTY (740- 725 BC)

Pedubaste I - (Usermare-setepenamun)(Petubastis) - 740-?

Pedubaste I was the first king of the Twenty-third Dynasty. He is mentioned several
times in the inscriptions at Karnak. Pedubaste is thought to have been the son of the
high priest of Amun, Harsiese.

Osorkon IV 777-749

Peftjauwybast 740-725
 24TH DYNASTY (725 - 715 BC)

Shepsesre Tefnakht I - 725-720 B.C.

Tefnakht I was the first king of the 24th Dynasty, also known as the Sais Dynasty.

In the Piankhy stela, he is called the "chief of the West," "chief of Me," and "chief of
Sais." He also gives himself titles as prophets and royal titles.

He attempted to put a stop to an invasion by organizing other Northern Kings with

him against the invaders from the south. This southern force was comprised of
Piankhi№s Nubian forces that wanted to gain control of all of Egypt. The four
northern armies under Tefnakht, Osorkon IV of Tanis, Peftjauabastet of Hernopolis,
and Nimlot, Input of Leontopolis all enjoyed a relatively easy time in their conquering
of the people down to the south, but Piankhi was actually drawing them down. When
Tefnakht's forces finally reached Memphis they were massacred and Tefnakht
conceded to Piankhi. Tefnakht and the four other leaders were allowed to remain
governors of their territories under the new Pharaoh Piankhi.

Wahkare Bakenranef - 720-715 B.C.

Bakenranef was the second king of the Twenty-fourth Dynasty. His name was found
on a vase that was found in an Etruscan tomb at Tarquinia which is located 100
kilometers northwest of Rome. Papyrus plants on the vase suggest the area of the
Delta. He is shown in the company of gods and goddesses, such as goddess Neith of
Sais.
 LATE KINGDOM

25TH DYNASTY (712 - 657 BC)

Piye - 747-716 BC

Most references point to Piye as being the first ruler of the 25th Dynasty. Different
references refer to him under different names. He supposedly ruled Kush (Nubia)
from about 750 to 719 BC.

Piankhi was his birth name. But in various references, we see his birth name referred
to as Piankhy, Piye, Piy and Piyi. However, some references point out that his true
name was Piye, and that this was wrongly read as Piankhi.

His Throne Name was Men-kheper-re, meaning "The Manifestation of Re Abides".

This name too will vary, being also spelled Menkheperra. Of course, this king, as
most others, had several other names which are not generally provided. Piye ascended
the Nubian (Kushite) thrown (or at least its northern half) as the successor of Kashta,
which explains why at least one reference refers to Kashta as the founder of the 25th
Dynasty. Kashta apparently had made some earlier advances into Egypt. But it was
Piye who, for the first time, consolidated the rulership of Nubia and Egypt.

From the earliest dynastic periods, Nubia was always a matter of conquest for the
Egyptian pharaohs, and as such, much of Nubia was often under the control of Egypt.
At times, it was very much a part of Egypt, and the customs of Nubia were a
reflection of those in at least Upper Egypt. This perhaps explains Piye's seemingly
strong emotional ties with Egypt, what he considered to be part of his motherland,
even though he was not from Egypt proper.

So at least towards the end of the Third Intermediate Period, when Egypt seems to
have surrendered to chaos with four kings claiming rule within Egypt, as well as a
number of local chieftains exercising control, particularly in the Delta, Piye decided to
step in and fix Egypt's problems. Kashta had a stele erected at the Elephantine Temple
of Khnum (current day Aswan), but in the early ears of Piye's reign, he extended his
rule toThebes itself.

There, he had his sister, Amenirdis I, named as the successor of Shepenwepet I, who
had the title, God's Wife of Amun. Shepenwepet I was the sister of Rudamun of the
Theban 23rd Dynasty, and apparently both Rudamun and Piye were recognized at
Thebes at the same time. After the death of Rudamun, the Theban royal line seems to
have abandoned Thebes in favor of Hierakleopolis , where Peftjauawy-bast, the last
king of his dynasty remained an ally of Piye.

Soon, Piye was given a reason to intervene further north.Tefnakhte (a Lybian), the
Prince of Western Egypt based in the Delta city of Sais extended his control south by
taking the city of Memphis, as well as the old Middle Kingdom of Itj-tawy (Lisht).

At first, Piye merely checked Tefnakhte's movement south with a pair of naval battles
in Middle Egypt, though he left the Saite rulers in control of the North. However, after
spending New Years in Nubia, Piye returned to Thebes in time for the great Opet
Festival, and subsequently set about taking the remainder of Egypt under his control.
His troops moved north, capturing three towns, and killing one of Tefnakhte's sons in
the process.

Soon, Piye attacked the city of Ashmunein which was ruled by Nimlot, once an ally
of Piye. Using wooden siege towers, the city fell after five months.

Further North, Hierakleopolis, ruled by Piye's loyal ally, King Peftjauawybast, had
been threatened by Tefnakhte, but the capture of Nimlot relieved the pressure on
Hierakleopolis, and soon Piye had control of every major center south of Memphis, as
well as capturing another of Tefnakhte's sons.

The only real obstacle left for Piye was Memphis, the ancient capital of Egypt. While
the city was heavily fortified and defended, as well as the water of the Nile protecting
its walls, Piye was able to use the masts of boats and ships in the Memphite harbor to
assault the city and scale the walls. In very short order, Memphis too was bought
under his control. It is said that his first act was to protect the temple of Ptah, and then
to go there himself to be anointed and to worship.

With the capture of Memphis, most of the Delta rulers soon yielded to the Kushite
king. One notable exception was Tefnakhte, who even went so far as to mount
another, but unsuccessful campaign against Piye. Finally, he to submitted to Piye's
rule of Egypt, taking an oath of loyalty.

After conquering Egypt, Piye simply went home to Nubia, and to our knowledge,
never again returned to Egypt. He is portrayed as a ruler who did not glory in the
smiting of his adversaries, as did other kings, but rather preferred treaties and
alliances. He left the rule of the country largely in the hands of his vassals, but
recorded his victories on a stela (called the Victory Stela, now in the Egyptian
Museum) at Napata. He left few monuments in Egypt, other than an expansion of
theTemple of Amun at Thebes (current day Luxor). Later, Tefnakhte would again
claim kingdom and as the founder of the 24th Dynasty, rule at least the western Delta.
However, later successors to Piye would consolidate their control over Egypt, at least
for a time.

Upon Piye's death, he was buried at El-Kurru, where he erected a small pyramid
resembling the tall, narrow structures that had been built above many private tombs of
Egypt's New Kingdom.

Shebaka (Shabaka) - 712-698 BC

Shebaka is consdiered by some to be the first king of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty.

During his reign, he undertook some building projects. The Fourth Pylon at Karnak
has an inscription that tells of Shebaka's restoration of the gate. He also started work
on the second pylon in front of the temple of Thutmose III at Medinet Habu.
Shebaka's sister, Amunirdis I held a position that was very important politically as
well as religiously. She was called "god's wife of Amun" at Thebes. Her funerary
temple was at Medinet Habu and was in front of the temple of Ramesses III.

Shebitku - Shabataka - 698-690 BC

Shebitku was the second king of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty. He was the nephew and
successor of Shebaka. During Shebaka's reign, there was a policy of conciliation and
cooperation with the Assyrians. This kept the Assyrians from coming further into
Egypt. Shebitku had a different policy; resistance. A stela from Kawa tells of
Shebitku asking his brothers, including Taharqa, to come to him at Thebes from
Nubia. The army went with Taharqa. On another stela that is the story told that when
Jerusalem was under attack by the Assyrians, that the king of Ethiopia (Kush) came
against Sennacherib (of Assyria). Shebitku joined in the resistance against
Sennacherib and an Egyptian army was sent to Palestine, led by Shebitku's brother,
Taharqa.

Taharqa - 690-664 BC

Taharqa was the brother of Shebitku and was the third king of the Twenty-fifth
Dynasty. Shebitku died and Taharqa was crowned. Taharqa is responsible for building
done both in Nubia as well as Egypt. He built the colonnade in the first court of the
temple of Amun at Karnak. There is one column that stands twenty-one meters high
and is still standing. During his reign, the Assyrians threatened Egypt once again. The
Assyrians were successful in one invasion in which they captured Memphis, wounded
Taharqa and stole his family and property. Taharqa survived the attack. It is thought
that Taharqa died in 664 BC and was buried in his pyramid at Nuri near Napata.

Tantamani 664-657 BC
Tanwetamani (Assyrian Tandamane or Tantamani, Greek Tementhes, also known as
Tanutamun) was Egypt's last ruler of the 25th Dynasty as well as the last Nubain
(Kushite) Ruler, ruling from about 664 to 657 BC. We are told his throne name was
Ba-ka-re, meaning "Glorious is the Soul of Re". He succeeded Taharqa, though he
was probably the son of that king's sister, queen Qalhata. His succession to the throne
is recorded in a record known as the Dream Stela, not to be confused with that of
Tuthmosis IV. It was discovered along with the Victory Stela of Piye at Gebel Barkal
in 1862, and now resides in the Nubian Museum in Aswan.

Tanwetamani may have served as a co-regent with Taharqa, but his parentage and
family relationships are difficult.  From his stela we find depicted two women, one of
whom is referred to as "the royal sister, the Mistress of Egypt, Qalhata", while the
other is "the royal sister, the Mistress of Ta-Seti, Pi-(ankh)-Arty". An analysis of the
text associated with the stela would seem to indicate that Qalhata was Tanwetamani's
mother, while the second woman was his wife. The fact that Qalhata was his mother
is also supported by her tomb at Nuri in the modern Sudan, where she is given the title
of "King's Mother". Foundation deposits also show that the tomb was build during the
reign of Tanwetamani.

Most recent histories which discuss the 25th dynasty identify Tanwetamani
(Urdamani) as a son of Shabataka, Taharqa's brother, not of his uncle Shabaka as the
Rassam cylinder annalist appears to suggest.. The errant orthography can be explained
by the fact that the name Shabaka is more properly vocalized as Shebitku. If so then
the "t" in the doubled consonant "tk" in the name of Shebitku would easily be lost to a
foreign ear. The annalist wrote what he heard and recorded Shabataku instead of
Shabitku. 

In the narrative of his stela, the king is referred to as "lord of valor like Montu, great
of strength like a fierce-eyed lion". It goes on to explain that in the first year of his
reign, Tanwetamani had a dream of two serpents, one on his right hand and one on his
left. After waking, the king's advisors interpreted the dream, saying that, "the
southland is already thin, seize the northland". Hence, he should bring Egypt back
under control of the Kushite empire. After this passage, another states that
Tanwetamani then "rose on the throne of Horus", a term which may be interpreted as
his having ascended the throne. This is the primary evidence we have for his co-
regency with Taharqa, but we are also told that Assyrian text provides that he did not
do so until after Taharqa's death. 

We assume that at the time of his accession, Tanwetamani was most likely inside
Egypt proper, for the text on the stela states that "he went from where he was to
Napata (Nubia), and there was none who stood up to oppose him". Hence, he went to
the Temple of Amun and was acknowledged as god and king. 

Other text within the stela confirms that he was at this time in control of southern, or
Upper Egypt, but at the very least was not in control of parts of the north. After
ascending the throne, he went north from Nubia, first stopping at Elephantine where
he participated in a festival procession of the God Khnum. From there he sailed
further north to Waset (Thebes) where he once again participated in the festival.

Nekau of Sais may have been killed in this battle, but his son, Psamtek, who was loyal
to the Assyrians fled to Asia. After this victory, Tanwetamani honored the God, Ptah-
Sokar and his wife Sakhmet in the great temple of Memphis, and afterwards ordered
the building of a chapel dedicated to Amun at Napata in Nubia. The temple, we know,
was to be built of stone overlaid with gold, sections of cedar wood and the leaves of
the door plated with electrum. This temple may be associated with parts of the great
temple of Amun at Gebel Barkal. 

Tanwetamani apparently spared the lives of the Delta princes, sending them home, but
this victory was short lived.

The "door posts of the temple" may refer to the great gate of electrum erected by
Tuthmosis IV and renewed by Shabaka. This attack on Thebes was one of the great
tragedies of the ancient world, and was remembered by a Jewish prophet fifty years
later.

Interestingly, Tanwetamani seems to have continued to be acknowledged as pharaoh

in Thebes until his eighth year. There are inscriptions at Luxor that date the
installation of priests by his name and the Kushites still maintained a large official
presence in the city. Piye's daughter, Shepenwepet II we know as God's Wife of
Amun, with Taharqa's daughter, Amenirdis II as her designated successor. Even in
year none of Tanwetamani's reign, his cousin remained the High Priest of Amun, and
we have other evidence of the Kushite's continued power within the region. 

It is possible that Tanwetamani one again tried to assert control over Egypt, though
the evidence is slight. In a brief passage in the work of Polyaenus from a 2nd Century
(AD) text, we hear of a later battle near the temple of Isis at Memphis that may have
involved Tanwetamani. He states that Psamtik, aided by Carian mercenary troops,
defeated "Tementhes". A few Egyptologist believe, based on a hellenistic Jewish
source, that Tanwetamani may have even retaken Memphis, but much of this is
conjecture.

In any case, Tanwetamani probably continued to rule in Nubia for at least a few more
years, and was buried in the necropolis at Nuri.
 26TH DYNASTY (657 - 525 BC)

Psammetichus I (Psam-tik) 664-610 BC

Psammetikhos I was the first ruler of the 26th Dynasty, though his reign overlaps that
of the 25th Dynasty. We believe he ruled from about 664 through 610 BC. This is
often referred to as the Saite period in Egyptian history, named for the power center of
the Delta.   It was not until Psammetikhos' ninth regnal year that he completely
control Egypt. His birth name was Psamtik I, but he was known as Psammetichus I by
the Greeks.  His thrown name was Wah-ib-re, meaning "Constant is the Heart of Re"
(Horus Name: Aib, Nebty Name: Neba, Bik-nub Name: Qenu). 

Some Egyptologists place the 26th Dynasty in to Third Intermediate Period of Egypt's
history, while others place it in the Late Period.  Certainly, when Psammetikhos began
his rule of Egypt, things were still chaotic, with various rulers claiming power. But
Psammetikhos would consolidate his rule over Egypt, and reign for about a half a
century, returning Egypt to stability. 

Both Psammetikhos I and his father, Necho I of Sais were originally involved with an
intrigue associated with the Kushite ruler, Taharqo against Assyria, but were then
captured, held and indoctrinated by the Assyrians. Psammetikhos I was even given the
Assyrian name, Nabu-shezibanni, before finally being returned to Egypt where his
father assumed power in the Delta.

Upon the death of Necho in 664, Psammetikhos was recognized by his Assyrian
overlords as King of Egypt, but this was a title at first without substance.  He had rule
over Memphis and Sais, but mostly the country was controlled by the old advisories
of the Nubian Kings, who had been driven back to their own land. His was tasked
with the responsibilities of controlling not only the unruly princes and petty kings of
the Delta, but also to reconcile with the power center at Thebes.  
Working with Thebes turned out to be easier then one might imagine, because he was
able to align himself with the daughter of a great Theaban nobleman named
Mentuemhet.  At that time, she held the title, "Adoratice of Amun" (God's Wife of
Amun). He was able to insert his own daughter, Nitokris,  as her successor He was
therefor able to effect both secular and religious ties that were to hold his growing
presence in Egypt together, while he went after his Delta opponents.  In order to do
this, he raised a conscript army, as well as employing the services of mercenaries,
many of whom were Greek, including Carians.  This involvement with foreign
mercenaries apparently caused some concern about their control within Egypt, and
archaeological evidence suggests that sites such as Naukratis, among others, were
established to facilitate this, along with offering Egypt an increased commercial
presence within the Mediterranean world. 

Psammetikhos also took as his principle wife Mehtemweskhet who was the daughter
of Harsiese S, High Priest at Heliopolis, further cementing his rule. 

To all appearances, Psammetikhos I had been a loyal subject of his Assyrian

overlords, but as that empire's glories waned, Psammetikhos took his opportunity to
break their hold, and in so doing became the absolute ruler of Egypt.

During the remaining four decades of Psammetikhos I's rule, he continued to

consolidate his power and bring the country under complete unity, something Egypt
had really not seen in a number of years.  He undertook a number of building projects,
including fortresses in the Delta at Naukratis and Daphnae, as well as at Elephantine. 
He also greatly expanded the Serapeum at Saqqara.  

After consolidating Egypt, militarily, Psammetikhos I was mostly concerned with

keeping Egypt's sovereignty strong. There were expeditions into northern Nubia
probably to discourage any further ambitions of the Kushite kings. In the north east,
Babylon had become such an important power that the king actually formed an
alliance with his old masters in Assyria in order to combat Babylon's growing
menace. This enabled Egypt to obtain control of the Palestinian coast.  There were
also actions required on the Libyan frontier in order to combat the threat posed by the
fugitive Delta princes.

Psammetikhos I, as well as other kings of this dynasty, followed the archaistic

tendencies of the previous dynasty in art, as well as in many customs, such as the
formulation of their names.  The renaissance in art is such that it is sometimes
difficult to tell whether an artifact came from this period of time, or from the Old or
Middle Kingdoms.

Psammetikhos I was succeeded by his son, Necho (Nekau) II, who continued to build
on his father's accomplishments in Egypt.

Nekau (Necho) II 610-595 BC

Nekau (II), who we know better as Necho, was either the 2nd or 3rd  king of Egypt's
26th Dynasty, depending on whether we allow the rule of a nominal king Nekau I at
the beginning of the Dynasty. Nekau was his Birth name, and Necho is actually his
Greek name. His Throne name was Wah-em-ib-re, which means "Carrying out the
Wish of Re Forever".

He came to the throne, succeeding his father, Psammetichus I in about 610 BC., and
probably ruled Egypt until about 595 BC. He continued the foreign involvement of his
father, and Palestine once more became an Egyptian possession. In fact, much of
Egypt's involvement in that area is found in the Biblical account of the Book of
Kings. Initially things went well for Nekau II and we find the Egyptian forces
campaigning east of the Euphrates river against the Chaldaeans, defeating Josiah of
Judah in 609 BC. at Harran. This allowed the Egyptians to establish themselves on the
Euphrates for a short while, though apparently the Egyptians did not end up
controlling that city.  He then intervened in the kingdom of Israel and deposed
Josiah's son Jehoahaz, replacing him with his brother Eliakim (Jehoiakim (II Kings
23: 29-35). Afterwards, we are told that Jerusalem paid tribute to Egypt. He also ruled
Syria at least as for as Carchemish. 

But this position was also soon lost, when in 605 BC, the king suffered a catastrophic
loss. The son of the Babylonian king, Nabopolassar was sent to deal with Syria. This
was Nebuchadrezzar, and he captured Carchemish from the Egyptians, and then
pursued the fleeing army as far as Hamath, where he apparently overwhelmed them.
Hence, this was followed by a retreat to by the Egyptians to their eastern frontier at
Gaza. 

Necho is known to have been responsible for monuments honoring the Apris Bull in
Memphis. We also find inscriptional evidence of the king in the quarries of the
Mokattam Hills. 

But in many ways, Necho was a very foresighted individual who's vision included a
"Suez Canal" almost 2,500 years prior to the modern construct. He had a navigable
canal dug, using some 12,000  workers, through the Wadi Tumilat between the
Pelusiac branch of the Nile (where the great frontier fortress of Pelusium was located)
and the Red Sea. He caused a great port city, Per-Temu-Tjeku ("the House of Atum of
Tjeku", modern Tell el-Mashkuta) west of modern Ismailia to be built on the canal,
and like Suez later, its fortunes were inevitably linked with this new waterway.
Tradition held that this was the Biblical city of Pithom, but recent excavations have
shown this to be incorrect. 

At this time, Greece was expanding her trading contacts and Necho took the
opportunity to recruit displaced Ionian Greeks to form an Egyptian Navy. This was,
militarily, revolutionary, for the Egyptians had an inherent distaste for and fear of the
sea. While this new navy was probably not much threat to his rivals, it did lead to
other benefits, such as the creation of a new African trade route. He also encouraged
some Greek settlement in the Delta.

When Nacho II died in 595 BC., he left behind a son and three daughters. His son,
Psammetichus II, only ruled for a brief period - 595-589. 

Apries 589-570
The King commonly referred to as Apries (his Greek name), who's birth name was
Wah-ib-re, meaning "Constant is the Heart of Re" and who's Throne name was Haa-
ib-re, meaning "Jubilant is the Heart of Re Forever", succeeded his father, Psamtik II
in February of 589 BC., of Egypt's 26th Dynasty. We believe he ruled Egypt until his
defeat at the hands of Amasis in 570 BC. Some sources provide that Apries was the
Biblical Hophra.

Herodutus claimed that the wife of Apries was called Nitetis, but there appears to be
no contemporary souses evidencing her name. We are also told that in the fourth year
of his reign, he managed to have Ankhnesneferibre, apparently the daughter of
Psammetichus II, adopted as the successor of Nitigret for the title, God's Wife of
Amun.

He did build, as all Egyptian kings felt was their duty, in locations such as the temples
at Athribis (Tell Atrib), in the Bahariya Oasis, at Memphis and Sais. 

He continued a foreign policy of his father of intervention in Palestinian affairs, but

was plagued with a number of military problems at home and abroad. He addressed
himself vigorously to a Chaldaean problem that had plagued his predecessors, initially
operating on a large scale basis against them in conjunction with the Phoenician cities
and Zedekiah of Judah. However, this ended up being a disaster and possibly caused
an invasion of Egypt in the late 580s BC. However, he also conducted some well
conceived campaigns against Cyprus and Phonenicia between 574 and 570 BC.

However, during his reign, a strategically important military garrison of native

Egyptian troops at Elephantine (modern Aswan) mutinied, though that was
contained. 

His worse nightmare transpired after he sent his Egyptian native army to help Libya
against the Dorian Greek invaders (against the Greek city of Cyrene), they were badly
beaten, and upon the survivor's return, civil war broke out. Apris was blamed for this
disaster, resulting in a confrontation between the regular Egyptian army (the
machimoi) and foreign mercenaries (Greek) under his command. 
Actually, the defeat at Cyrene probably only provided an excuse for the revolt. For
sometime, the mercenaries under his command had been treated considerably better
than the native Egyptian army. When Apris sent his general, Amasis (Ahmose II) to
put down the revolt, instead he was implored by the Egyptians instead to be their
leader, a plead which he accepted.

The history of what followed this is somewhat difficult. Various sources actually give
considerably different accounts. However, it appears that  a messenger arrived to tell
Apries of Amasis' treason, and was abruptly killed for his bad news. Now according
to almost all accounts, the Greek mercenary troops of Apries under his command
advanced on the native Egyptian army. They may have met in the northwest Egyptian
Delta in around January or February of 570 BC at a location called Momemphis.
Afterwards, many sources provide conflictive information, but it appears Apries
probably survived this first battle, though his army was defeated and he was forced to
retreat. He may have fled the country, but most sources indicate that he returned to his
palace at Memphis, where he may have continued to control a part of Egypt.
However, for a somewhat different account of these events, see our section on Amasis
(Ahmose II).

Regardless, most sources provide that his body was treated with respect by Amasis.
The new king allowed the remains of Apries to be transported to Sais, where he was
buried with full royal honors. 

Only one definite statue of the king survives, though there are several others,
including one that might also be attributable to Amasis, that may be of that of Apries.

Amasis 570-526 BC

Amasis who was probably the 5th ruler of Egypt during the 26th Dynasty, has been
called the last great Egyptian Pharaoh.  This is because the rule of his son,
Psammetichus III, was very short lived, and in fact even in the last days of Amasis'
life the Persians were already advancing on Egypt. They were the overwhelming
power of the region, and would control Egypt up until Alexander the Great's conquest
of Egypt, and the ensuing Greek rulers. After his son, never again would an Egyptian
rule ancient Egypt.

Amasis was actually the king's Greek name.  His birth name was Ahmose II, which
means "The Moon is Born, Son of Neith".  His throne name was Khnem-ib-re,
meaning "He who embraces the Heart of Re".  We believe he ruled Egypt between
570 and 526 BC. We believe that Amasis was the son of a Lady Takheredeneset, and
married two women by the names of Tentheta and Nakhtsebastetru.  He may have had
a third wife named Khedebneithireretbeneret, who was actually a daughter of his great
nemesis, Apris. He had a number of children by the first two wives, including his
successor, Psammetichus III. Another child we specifically know of was General
Ahmose, who, along with his mother Nakhtsebastetru, were buried in tomb LG 83 at
Giza.  A daughter, Nitokris II, may have come to Thebes for adoption as prospective
God's Wife. If so, she was probably the daughter of Khedebneithirerebeneret, because
the current God's Wife, Ankhesenneferibre, was a sister of Apries. 

From Herodutus, we learn that he was a likeable, popular ruler who is said to have
had such a strong inclination for drink that he sometimes delayed state matters in
order to indulge in a drinking bout.  

However, he did not ascend the throne easily, nor was he in line to do so. We first
know of Amasis as a general in Nubia under Psammetikhos I. It would seem that his
predecessor, Apries, undertook several military campaigns, but his last against the
Greek city of Cyrene ended in disaster.  Apries was blamed for the failure, and so a
revolt broke out.  

In reality, the defeat at Cyrene was really only an excuse for this revolt by Egyptian
troops. For some time, the Greek mercenaries within the Egyptian army, who were
probably treated better then the Egyptians themselves, were apparently the subject of
jealously and contempt by the native Egyptian elements.  

Actually, Amasis, as a general in the Egyptian army, was sent to put down the revolt
of the machimoi (the native Egyptian soldiers), but instead the soldiers proclaimed
him as Pharaoh.

When word reached Apries of Amasis' treason, he slaughtered the messenger and
proceeded to advance on the forces of Amasis.  By this late date in Pharaonic history,
Apries' army was mostly made up of of Aegean mercenaries.  The two armies met
somewhere in the north-west Egyptian Delta in about January or February of 570 BC,
and Apries was forced to retreat.

However, this did not give Amasis complete control of Egypt. Apries's apparent
retreat was only as far south as Memphis and he continued to control southern Egypt,
while Amasis established himself at Sais in Northern Egypt.  Yet Apries was not
content with this, and aided by his Greek troops, once again marched on Amasis in
October of 570 BC, where he was once again defeated by his former general.  With
this defeat, Apries could only find safety abroad, and he eventually turned up in the
court of Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon. Now, Amasis took control of a united Egypt.
This was complete when sometime between October 19th and December 9th of 570
BC, Thebes submitted to his reign.
Yet poor Apries was not yet finished.  In March of 567, he again marched on Egypt at
the head of a Babylonian army, but once again, Amasis defeated him, this time
capturing the former king. It seem that Amasis allowed Apries to live for a short time,
however.

Apparently, Amasis still held some respect for his former ruler, because he buried
Apries with kingly honors in the royal necropolis at Sais. This may very well be
explained if indeed Amasis was married to Apries' daughter. However, various
sources differ somewhat on these events. For an alternative version, see our section on
Apries.

Now as the ruler of all Egypt, Amasis took on the traditional role of builder, and is
attested to by quarry inscriptions at Tura and Elephantine, and with building projects
at Memphis, including two granite colossi and a temple of Isis, Philae, Elephantine,
Edfu, Sohag, Abydos, Koptos, Karnak and any number of Delta sites, including his
tomb at Sais.  While we have never discovered this tomb, again Herodotus steps in to
describe it for us:

(It is) a great cloistered building of stone, decorated with pillars carved in the
imitation of palm-trees, and other costly ornaments.  Within the cloister is a chamber
with double doors, and behind the doors stands the sepulchre." 

This was really a very prosperous time for Egypt. We are told that agriculture, always
the backbone of Egypt, met a spectacular level of success, and Herodotus again tells
us that the number of inhabited cities in Egypt reached as high as 20,000.

After consolidating his power, Amasis was apparently somewhat weary of the Greeks,
who had been around since the beginning of the Dynasty, and of course, fought
against him on the side of Apries. Psammetikhos I had encouraged the Greek
merchants in the city of Naukratis, and Amasis consolidated them in that area only.
This made for easier control of these merchants, and created a lucrative income for
the crown in the form of taxes.

Prior to Apries' defeat, the Greek mercenaries were established in camps between
Babastis and the sea on the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, where Herodotus tells us they
had remained for over a century. Apparently, he first moved them to Memphis, where
he could keep an eye on things.

But, Amasis was not willing to push the Greeks too far because he needed their
alliance against the expanding threat of the Persians, as well as an attempted invasion
by the Chaldaeans. Apparently after this unsuccessful invasion, he formed an alliance
with the Chaldaeans, Croesus of Lydia and Sparta.

Unfortunately, the Persians destroyed the alliance by first capturing Lydia in 546 and
then the Chaldaeans. So instead, he cultivated his relationship with the Aegean world,
extending his foreign relationships to include Cyprus. He is said to have even
financed the rebuilding of the temple of Apollo at Delphi after its destruction in 548
BC. According to archaeological records, he probably even allowed the Greek
soldiers to return their old mercenary camps. Regrettably, for all his efforts, the
Persians would eventually prove too ambitious to stop. 
By the time of Amasis' death after a long reign of some 44 years, the Persians had
long ago conquered Babylon, and were already at the frontiers of Egypt. His son was
eventually captured by the Persians, and Herodotus tells us that the Persian ruler
Cambyses had Amasis's mummy exhumed, and:

"subjected to every indignity, such as lashing with whips and the plucking of its hairs,
until the executioners were weary.  At last, as the corpse had been embalmed and
would not fall to pieces under the blows, Cambyses ordered it burnt.""

Psammetichus III 526-525 - No information is available.

 27TH DYNASTY (525 - 404 BC)

With the conquest of Egypt, the Persian kings became pharaohs, constituting the 27th
and 31st dynasties. Cambyses appointed a satrap, Aryandes, who ruled Egypt, Kyrene
and Barca from Memphis. Economically the country formed an important part of the
empire, being its breadbasket (as it was to be Rome's). It paid the highest tribute of all
the Persian satrapies, 700 talents of silver. (Cilicians were taxed 500 talents as were
the Lydians, Ionians and Carians 450, Phrygians 350 and Phoenicia, Cyprus and
Palestine another 350.) Moreover it was responsible for the upkeep of the occupying
army.
 Cambyses 525-522 BC

Cambyses was the first ruler of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty. He was the ruler of Persia
and treated the last ruler of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, Psammetichus III (Psamtik III)
with some consideration. Psammetichus then tried to revolt and Cambyses caused him
to be killed. There is an inscription on a statue that tells of Cambyses going to Sais to
worship Neith and restore the revenues and festivals of the temple. But according to
Herodotus, Cambyses did many reprehensible things against Egyptian religion and
customs and eventually went mad.

In 525 BC the Persian emperor Cambyses II, son of Cyrus the Great, who had already
named his son as king of Babylon though Cambyses II resigned that position after
only one year, invaded Egypt and successfully overthrew the native Egyptian
pharaoh, Psamtek III, last ruler of Egypt's 26th Dynasty to become the first ruler of
Egypt's 27th Persian Dynasty. His father had earlier attempted an invasion of Egypt
against Psamtek III's predecessor, Amasis, but Cyrus' death in 529 BC put a halt to
that expedition.  

The empire of Cyrus passed to his son Cambyses (530-522 BC), who was as savage
and ugly of temper as Cyrus had been mild and generous. The father had conquered
Asia, the son undertook the conquest of Africa. Having skillfully and successfully led
his army across the deserts which separate the two continents, Cambyses met and
defeated the Egyptians in front of their city at Pelusium in 525 BC just a few weeks
after the death of Pharaoh Amasis of the 19th/26th Dynasty when Psammetichus II
was king. Cambyses captured Pelusium by using a clever strategy. The Egyptians
regarded certain animals, especially cats, as being sacred, and would not injure them
on any account. Cambyses had his men carry the `sacred' animals in front of them to
the attack. The Egyptians did not dare to shoot their arrows for fear of wounding the
animals, and so Pelusium was stormed successfully. After the taking of the city
Cambyses seized the opportunity to show his contempt of the Egyptians. He himself
carried a cage of cats in front of him upon his horse, and hurled them with insulting
taunts and laughter, in to the faces of his foes.

After capturing Egypt, Cambyses took the Throne name Mesut-i-re (Mesuti-Ra),
meaning "Offspring of Re". Though the Persians would rule Egypt for the next 193
years until Alexander the Great defeated Darius III and conquered Egypt in 332 BC,
Cambyses II's victory would bring to an end (for the most part) Egyptians truly ruling
Egyptians until the mid 20th century, when Egypt finally shrugged off colonial rule. 

We know very little about Cambyses II through contemporary texts, but his reputation
as a mad tyrannical despot has come down to us in the writings of the Greek historian
Herodotus (440 BC) and a Jewish document from 407 BC known as 'The Demotic
Chronicle' which speaks of the Persian king destroying all the temples of the Egyptian
gods. However, it must be repeatedly noted that the Greeks shared no love for the
Persians. Herodotus informs us that Cambyses II was a monster of cruelty and
impiety.

Herodotus gives us three tales as to why the Persians invaded Egypt. In one,
Cambyses II had requested an Egyptian princess for a wife, or actually a concubine,
and was angered when he found that he had been sent a lady of second rate standing.
In another, it turns out that he was the bastard son of Nitetis, daughter of the Saite
(from Sais) king Apries, and therefore half Egyptian anyway, whereas the third story
provides that Cambyses II, at the age of ten, made a promise to his mother (who is
now Cassandane) that he would "turn Egypt upside down" to avenge a slight paid to
her. However, Ctesias of Cnidus states that his mother was Amytis, the daughter of
the last king of independent Media so we are really unsure of that side of his
parentage. While even Herodotus doubts all of these stories, and given the fact that his
father had already planned one invasion of Egypt, the stories do in fact reflect the later
Greek bias towards his Persian dynasty.

Regardless of Cambyses II's reason for his invasion of Egypt, Herodotus notes how
the Persians easily entered Egypt across the desert. They were advised by the
defecting mercenary general, Phanes of Halicarnassus, to employ the Bedouins as
guides. However, Phanes had left his two sons in Egypt. We are told that for his
treachery, as the armies of the Persians and the mercenary army of the Egyptians met,
his sons were bought out in front of the Egyptian army where they could be seen by
their father, and there throats were slit over a large bowl. Afterwards, Herodotus tells
us that water and wine were added to the contents of the bowl and drunk by every
man in the Egyptian force. 

This did not stop the ensuing battle at Pelusium, Greek pelos, which was the gateway
to Egypt. Its location on Egypt's eastern boundary, meant that it was an important
trading post was well and also of immense strategic importance. It was the starting
point for Egyptian expeditions to Asia and an entry point for foreign invaders. 

Here, the Egyptian forces were routed in the battle and fled back to Memphis.
Apparently Psamtek III managed to escape the ensuing besiege of the Egyptian
capital, only to be captured a short time afterwards and was carried off to Susa in
chains.  Herodotus goes on to tell us of all the outrages that Cambyses II then inflicted
on the Egyptians, not only including the stabbing of a sacred Apis bull and his
subsequent burial at the Serapeum in Saqqara, but also the desecration and deliberate
burning of the embalmed body of Amasis (a story that has been partly evidenced by
destruction of some of Amasis' inscriptions) and the banishment of other Egyptian
opponents. 

The story of Cambyses II's fit of jealousy towards the Apis bull, whether true or
simply Greek propaganda, was intended to reflect his personal failures as a monarch
and military leader. In the three short years of his rule over Egypt he personally led a
disastrous campaign up the River Nile into Ethiopia. There, we are told, his ill-
prepared mercenary army was so meagerly supplied with food that they were forced
to eat the flesh of their own colleagues as their supplies ran out in the Nubian desert.
The Persian army returned northwards in abject humiliation having failed even to
encounter their enemy in battle. 

Then, of course, there is also the mystery of his lost army, some fifty thousand strong,
that vanished in the Western Desert on their way to the Siwa Oasis along with all their
weapons and other equipment, never to be heard of again. Cambyses II had also
planned a military campaign against Carthage, but this too was aborted because, on
this occasion, the king's Phoenician sea captains refused to attack their kinfolk who
had founded the Carthagian colony towards the end of the 8th century BC. In fact, the
conquest of Egypt was Cambyses' only spectacular military success in his seven years
of troubled rule over the Persian empire.

However, we are told that when the Persians at home received news of Cambyses'
several military disasters, some of the most influential nobles revolted, swearing
allegiance to the king's younger brother Bardiya. With their support, the pretender to
the great throne of Cyrus seized power in July 522 BC as Cambyses II was returning
home. 

The story is told that, on hearing of this revolt, and in haste to mount his horse to
swiftly finish the journey home, Cambyses II managed to stab himself in the thigh
with his own dagger. At that moment, he began to recall an Egyptian prophecy told to
him by the priests of Buto in which it was predicted that the king would die in
Ecbatana. Cambyses II had thought that the Persian summer capital of Ecbatana had
been meant and that he would therefore die in old age. But now he realized that the
prophecy had been fulfilled in a very different way here in Syrian Ecbatana. 

Still enveloped in his dark and disturbed mood, Cambyses II decided that his fate had
been sealed and simply lay down to await his end. The wound soon became
gangrenous and the king died in early August of 522 BC. However, it should be noted
that other references tell us that Cambyses II had his brother murdered even prior to
his expedition to Egypt, but apparently if it was not Bardiya (though there is
speculation that Cambyses II's servants perhaps did not kill his brother as ordered),
there seems to have definitely been an usurper to the throne, perhaps claiming to be
his brother, who we are told was killed secretly.

Cambyses II

Modern Egyptologists believe that many of these accounts are rather biased, and that
Cambyses II's rule was perhaps not nearly so traumatic as Herodotus, who wrote his
history only about 75 years after Cambyses II's demise, would have us believe. In
reality, the Saite dynasty had all but completely collapsed, and it is likely that with
Psamtek III's (Psammetichus III) capture by the Persians, Cambyses II simply took
charge of the country. The Egyptians were particularly isolated at this time in their
history, having seen there Greek allies defect, including not only Phanes, but
Polycrates of Samos. In addition, many of Egypt's minorities, such as the Jewish
community at Elephantine and even certain elements within the Egyptian aristocracy,
seem to have even welcomed Cambyses II's rule. 

A depiction of Cambyses II worshipping the Apris Bull

The Egyptian evidence that we do have depicts a ruler anxious to avoid offending
Egyptian susceptibilities who at least presented himself as an Egyptian king in all
respects. It is even possible that the pillaging of Egyptian towns told to us by Greek
sources never occurred at all. In an inscription on the statue of Udjadhorresnet, a Saite
priest and doctor, as well as a former naval officer, we learn that Cambyses II was
prepared to work with and promote native Egyptians to assist in government, and that
he showed at least some respect for Egyptian religion. For example, regardless of the
death of the Apris Bull, it should be noted that the animal's burial was held with
proper pomp, ceremony and respect. Indeed, Cambyses II continued Egyptian policy
regarding sanctuaries and national cults, confirmed by his building work in the Wadi
Hammamat and at a few other Egyptian temples. 
 The statue recording the autobiography of Udjadhorresnet

Udjadhorresnet goes on to say in his autobiography written on a naophorous statue

now in the Vatican collection at Rome, that he introduced Cambyses II to Egyptian
culture so that he might take on the appearance of a traditional Egyptian Pharaoh.

However, even though Cambyses II had his name written in a kingly Egyptian
cartouche, he did remained very Persian, and was buried at Takht-i-Rustam near
Persepolis (Iran). It has been suggested that Cambyses II may have originally
followed a traditional Persian policy of reconciliation in the footsteps of their
conquests. In deed, it may be that Cambyses II's rule began well enough, but with the
his defeats and losses, his mood may very well have turned darker with time, along
with his actions. 

We do know that there was a short lived revolt which broke out in Egypt after
Cambyses II died in 522 BC, but the independence was lost almost immediately to his
successor, a distant relative and an officer in Cambyses II's army, named Darius. The
dynasty of Persian rulers who then ruled Egypt did so as absentee landlords from afar.
 The unfinished tomb of Cambyses II in Iran

The Lost Army of Cambyses II

Within recent years all manner of artifacts and monuments have been discovered in
Egypt's Western Desert. Here and there, new discoveries of temples and tombs turn
up, even in relatively inhabited areas where more modern structures are often difficult
to distinguish from ancient ruins. It is a place where the shifting sands can uncover
whole new archaeological worlds, and so vast that no more than very small regions
are ever investigated systematically by Egyptologists. In fact, most discoveries if not
almost all are made by accident, so Egypt antiquity officials must remain ever alert to
those who bring them an inscribed stone unearthed beneath a house, or a textile
fragment found in the sand.

Lately, there has been considerable petroleum excavation in the Western Desert.
Anyone traveling the main route between the near oasis will see this activity, but the
exploration for oil stretched much deeper into the Western Desert. It is not surprising
that they have come upon a few archaeological finds, and it is not unlikely that they
will come across others. Very recently, when a geological team from the Helwan
University  geologists found themselves walking through dunes littered with
fragments of textiles, daggers, arrow-heads, and the bleached bones of the men to
whom all these trappings belonged, they reported the discovery to the antiquity
service. 

Mohammed al-Saghir of the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA) now believes that
this accidental find may very well be at least remnants of the mysterious Lost Army
of Cambyses II, and he is now organizing a mission to investigate the site more
thoroughly. If he is successful and the discovery is that of Cambyses II's50,000 strong
lost army, than it will not only answer some ancient mysteries, but will probably also
provide us with a rich source of information on the Persian military of that time, and
maybe even expand our knowledge of Cambyses II himself. 

The Persian armed forces consisted of many elements, including companies of foreign
mercenaries such as Greeks, Phoenicians, Carians, Cilicians, Medes and Syrians.
Hence, if this is not another false lead, we may expect excellent preservation of
helmets, leather corselets, cloth garments, spears, bows, swords and daggers a
veritable treasure trove of military memorabilia. The rations and support equipment
will all be there, ready for detailed analysis.
However, it should be noted that some Egyptologists question the very existence of
such an army, rather believing that the whole affair was simply a fable told by a very
prejudiced Greek. 

Yet if true, Cambyses II probably sent his army to Siwa Oasis in the Western Desert 
to seek (or seize) legitimization of his rule from the oracle of Amun, much as
Alexander the Great would do in the 4th century BC. However, the army was
overtaken by a sandstorm and buried. For centuries adventurers and archaeologists
have tried to find the lost army, and at times, tantalizing, though usually false glues
have been discovered. 

Legitimizing his rule does not fully explain the need for taking such a large army to
the Siwa Oasis. Accounts and other resources provide that the priests of the oracle
were perhaps posing a danger to Cambyses II's rule, probably encouraging revolt
among the native Egyptians. Perhaps the priests felt slighted that Cambyses II had not
immediately sought their approval as Alexander the Great would do almost upon his
arrival in Egypt. Therefore, it is likely that Cambyses II intended to forces their
legitimization of his rule. In fact, some sources believe that his intent was to simply
destroy the Oasis completely for their treachery, while it is also know that the army
was to continue on after Siwa in order to attack the Libyans. 

Yet the Siwa Oasis, the western most of Egypt's Oasis, is much deeper into the desert
than others, such as Bahariya, and apparently, like many of Cambyses II's military
operations, this one too was ill conceived. Why he so easily entered Egypt with the
help of the Bedouins, and than sent such a large force into the desert only to be lost is
a mystery.

We know that the army was dispatched from the holy city of Thebes, supported by a
great train of pack animals. After a seven day march, it reached the Kharga Oasis and
moved on to the last of the near Oasis, the Bahariya, before turning towards the 325
kilometers of desert that separated it from the Siwa Oasis. It would have been a 30
day march through burning heat with no additional sources of water or shade.

According to Herodotus (as later reported to him by the inhabitants of Siwa), after
many days of struggle through the soft sand, the troops were resting one morning
when calamity struck without warning. "As they were at their breakfast, a wind arose
from the south, strong and deadly, bringing with it vast columns of whirling sand,
which buried the troops and caused them utterly to disappear." Overwhelmed by the
powerful sandstorm, men and animals alike were asphyxiated as they huddled
together, gradually being enveloped in a sea of drift-sand.

It was after learning of the loss of his army that, having witnessed the reverence with
which the Egyptians regarded the sacred Apis bull of Memphis in a ceremony and
believing he was being mocked, he fell into a rage, drew his dagger and plunged it
into the bull-calf. However, it seems that he must have latter regretted this action, for
the Bull was buried with due reverence. 

Cambyses left no heirs, and Darius I, one of his generals, fought his way to
sovereignty against many rivals.
 Darius I 520-486 BC

Darius I - Darius The Great - was the second ruler of the Twenty-seventh Dynasty. He
was king of Persia in 522-486 BC, one of the greatest rulers of the Achaemenid
dynasty, who was noted for his administrative genius and for his great building
projects. Darius attempted several times to conquer Greece; his fleet was destroyed by
a storm in 492, and the Athenians defeated his army at Marathon in 490.

Ascension to monarchy

Darius was the son of Hystaspes, the satrap (provincial governor) of Parthia. The
principal contemporary sources for his history are his own inscriptions, especially the
great trilingual inscription on the Bisitun (Behistun) rock at the village of the same
name, in which he tells how he gained the throne. The accounts of his accession given
by the Greek historians Herodotus and Ctesias are in many points obviously derived
from this official version but are interwoven with legends.

According to Herodotus, Darius, when a youth, was suspected by Cyrus II the Great
(who ruled from 559 to 529 BC) of plotting against the throne. Later Darius was in
Egypt with Cambyses II, the son of Cyrus and heir to his kingdom, as a member of
the royal bodyguard. After the death of Cambyses in the summer of 522 BC, Darius
hastened to Media, where, in September, with the help of six Persian nobles, he killed
Bardiya (Smerdis), another son of Cyrus, who had usurped the throne the previous
March.
In the Bisitun inscription Darius defended this deed and his own assumption of
kingship on the grounds that the usurper was actually Gaumata, a Magian, who had
impersonated Bardiya after Bardiya had been murdered secretly by Cambyses. Darius
therefore claimed that he was restoring the kingship to the rightful Achaemenid
house. He himself, however, belonged to a collateral branch of the royal family, and,
as his father and grandfather were alive at his accession, it is unlikely that he was next
in line to the throne. Some modern scholars consider that he invented the story of
Gaumata in order to justify his actions and that the murdered king was indeed the son
of Cyrus.

Darius did not at first gain general recognition but had to impose his rule by force. His
assassination of Bardiya was followed, particularly in the eastern provinces, by
widespread revolts, which threatened to disrupt the empire. In Susiana, Babylonia,
Media, Sagartia, and Margiana, independent governments were set up, most of them
by men who claimed to belong to the former ruling families. Babylonia rebelled twice
and Susiana three times.

In Persia itself a certain Vahyazdata, who pretended to be Bardiya, gained

considerable support. These risings, however, were spontaneous and uncoordinated,
and, notwithstanding the small size of his army, Darius and his generals were able to
suppress them one by one. In the Bisitun inscription he records that in 19 battles he
defeated nine rebel leaders, who appear as his captives on the accompanying relief.
By 519 BC, when the third rising in Susiana was put down, he had established his
authority in the east.

In 518 Darius visited Egypt, which he lists as a rebel country, perhaps because of the
insubordination of its satrap, Aryandes, whom he put to death.

Fortification of the empire

Having restored internal order in the empire, Darius undertook a number of

campaigns for the purpose of strengthening his frontiers and checking the incursions
of nomadic tribes. In 519 BC he attacked the Scythians east of the Caspian Sea and a
few years later conquered the Indus Valley.

In 513, after subduing eastern Thrace and the Getae, he crossed the Danube River into
European Scythia, but the Scythian nomads devastated the country as they retreated
from him, and he was forced, for lack of supplies, to abandon the campaign.

The satraps of Asia Minor completed the subjugation of Thrace, secured the
submission of Macedonia, and captured the Aegean islands of Lemnos and Imbros.
Thus, the approaches to Greece were in Persian hands, as was control of the Black
Sea grain trade through the straits, the latter being of major importance to the Greek
economy.

The conquest of Greece was a logical step to protect Persian rule over the Greeks of
Asia Minor from interference by their European kinsmen. According to Herodotus,
Darius, before the Scythian campaign, had sent ships to explore the Greek coasts, but
he took no military action until 499 BC, when Athens and Eretria supported an Ionian
revolt against Persian rule.
After the suppression of this rebellion, Mardonius, Darius' son-in-law, was given
charge of an expedition against Athens and Eretria, but the loss of his fleet in a storm
off Mount Athos (492 BC) forced him to abandon the operation. In 490 BC another
force under Datis, a Mede, destroyed Eretria and enslaved its inhabitants but was
defeated by the Athenians at Marathon. Preparations for a third expedition were
delayed by an insurrection in Egypt, and Darius died in 486 BC before they were
completed.

Darius as an administrator

Although Darius consolidated and added to the conquests of his predecessors, it was
as an administrator that he made his greatest contribution to Persian history. He
completed the organization of the empire into satrapies, initiated by Cyrus the Great,
and fixed the annual tribute due from each province. During his reign, ambitious and
far-sighted projects were undertaken to promote imperial trade and commerce.

Coinage, weights, and measures were standardized and land and sea routes developed.
An expedition led by Scylax of Caryanda sailed down the Indus River and explored
the sea route from its mouth to Egypt, and a canal from the Nile River to the Red Sea,
probably begun by the chief of the Egyptian delta lords, Necho I (7th century BC),
was repaired and completed.

While measures were thus taken to unite the diverse peoples of the empire by a
uniform administration, Darius followed the example of Cyrus in respecting native
religious institutions. In Egypt he assumed an Egyptian titulary and gave active
support to the cult. He built a temple to the god Amon in the Kharga oasis, endowed
the temple at Edfu, and carried out restoration work in other sanctuaries.

He empowered the Egyptians to reestablish the medical school of the temple of Sais,
and he ordered his satrap to codify the Egyptian laws in consultation with the native
priests. In the Egyptian traditions he was considered as one of the great lawgivers and
benefactors of the country. In 519 BC he authorized the Jews to rebuild the Temple at
Jerusalem, in accordance with the earlier decree of Cyrus. In the opinion of some
authorities, the religious beliefs of Darius himself, as reflected in his inscriptions,
show the influence of the teachings of Zoroaster, and the introduction of
Zoroastrianism as the state religion of Persia is probably to be attributed to him.

Darius was the greatest royal architect of his dynasty, and during his reign Persian
architecture assumed a style that remained unchanged until the end of the empire. In
521 BC he made Susa his administrative capital, where he restored the fortifications
and built an audience hall (apadana) and a residential palace.

The foundation inscriptions of his palace describe how he brought materials and
craftsmen for the work from all quarters of the empire. At Persepolis, in his native
country of Fars (Persis), he founded a new royal residence to replace the earlier
capital at Pasargadae.

The fortifications, apadana, council hall, treasury, and a residential palace are to be
attributed to him, although not completed in his lifetime. He also built at Ecbana and
Babylon.
Darius died while preparing a new expedition against the Greeks; his son and
successor, Xerxes I, attempted to fulfill his plan.

Tomb of Darius

Xerxes I Pharaoh, The Great (486-466 BC)

Xerxes I, detail of a bas-relief of the north courtyard in

the treasury at Persepolis, late 6th -early 5th century BC
Xerxes I - (Xerxes the Great) (zыrkґsz) - was the third ruler of the Twenty-seventh
Dynasty. His name in Old Persian is Khshayarsha, in the Bible Ahasuerus.

Xerxes became king of Persia at the death of his father Darius the Great in 485, at a
time when his father was preparing a new expedition against Greece and had to face
an uprising in Egypt. According to Herodotus, the transition was peaceful this time.

Because he was about to leave for Egypt, Darius, following the law of his country had
been requested to name his successor and to choose between the elder of his sons,
born from a first wife before he was in power, and the first of his sons born after he
became king, from a second wife, Atossa, Cyrus' daughter, who had earlier been
successively wed to her brothers Cambyses and Smerdis, and which he had married
soon after reaching power in order to confirm his legitimacy. Atossa was said to have
much power on Darius and he chosed her son Xerxes for successor. When his father
died, in 486 BC, Xerxes was about 35 years old and had already governed Babylonia
for a dozen years.

One of his first concerns upon his accession was to pacify Egypt, where a usurper had
been governing for two years. But he was forced to use much stronger methods than
had Darius. In 484 BC he ravaged the Delta and chastised the Egyptians.

Xerxes then learned of the revolt of Babylon, where two nationalist pretenders had
appeared in swift succession. The second, Shamash-eriba, was conquered by Xerxes'
son-in-law, and violent repression ensued: Babylon's fortresses were torn down, its
temples pillaged, and the statue of Marduk destroyed; this latter act had great political
significance.

Xerxes was no longer able to "take the hand of" (receive the patronage of) the
Babylonian god. Whereas Darius had treated Egypt and Babylonia as kingdoms
personally united to the Persian Empire (though administered as satrapies), Xerxes
acted with a new intransigence.

Having rejected the fiction of personal union, he then abandoned the titles of king of
Babylonia and king of Egypt, making himself simply "king of the Persians and the
Medes.І It was probably the revolt of Babylon, although some authors say it was
troubles in Bactria, to which Xerxes alluded in an inscription that proclaimed: "And
among these countries (in rebellion) there was one where, previously, daevas had
been worshipped. Afterward, through Ahura Mazda's favour, I destroyed this
sanctuary of daevas. Let daevas not be worshipped. There, where daevas had been
worshipped before, I worshipped Ahura Mazda."

Xerxes thus declared himself the adversary of the daevas, the ancient pre-Zoroastrian
gods, and doubtlessly identified the Babylonian gods with these fallen gods of the
Aryan religion. The questions arise of whether the destruction of Marduk's statue
should be linked with this text proclaiming the destruction of the daeva sanctuaries, of
whether Xerxes was a more zealous supporter of Zoroastrianism than was his father,
and, indeed, of whether he himself was a Zoroastrian.
It is said that the slaves' lives were much harder during the time of Xerxes. It is not
certain whether this is true since Xerxes was much more involved elsewhere and paid
little attention to Egypt.

During his reign he put down uprisings in both Egypt and Babylon, but his efforts to
invade Europe were thrown back by Greece in 480.

Xerxes was assassinated in 465 BC. Some believe that it was his son who had him
assassinated, but there is no proof.

Xerxes' Hall of the 100 Columns is the most impressive

building in the Persepolis Complex. jumble of fallen
columns, column heads, and column bases.

The Gate of Xerxes at Perespolis shows that the Winged Lion was placed at the
corner of one entrance. When you stood in front of the gate you saw a lion with four
legs and when you were inside the gate you also saw a lion with four legs.
 Artaxerxes I 465-424

The king of ancient Persia (464-425 BC), of the dynasty of the Achaemenis.
Artaxerxes is the Greek form of іArdashir the Persian.І He succeeded his father,
Xerxes I , in whose assassination he had no part. The later weakness of the Persian
Empire is commonly traced to the reign of Artaxerxes, and there were many uprisings
in the provinces.

The revolt of Egypt, aided by the Athenians, was put down (c.455 BC) after years of
fighting, and Bactria was pacified. The Athenians sent a fleet under Cimon to aid a
rebellion of Cyprus against Persian rule.

The fleet won a victory, but the treaty negotiated by Callias was generally favorable
to Persia. Important cultural exchanges occurred between Greece and Persia during
Artaxerxes' reign. He was remembered warmly in the books of Ezra and Nehemiah
because he authorized their revival of Judaism.

Darius II (424-404 BC)

Darius II was the fifth king of the Twenty-seventh Dynasty. 404 B.C., king of ancient
Persia (423?404 B.C.); son of Artaxerxes I and a concubine, hence sometimes called
Darius Nothus [Darius the Bastard].

His rule was not popular or successful, and he spent most of his reign in quelling
revolts in Syria, Lydia (413), and Media (410).

He lost Egypt (410), but through the diplomacy of Pharnabazus, Tissaphernes, and
Cyrus the Younger he secured much influence in Greece in the Peloponnesian War.

Artaxerxes II succeeded Darius, but the succession was challenged by Cyrus the
Younger.

During his reign, he did some work on the temple of Amun is the Kharga oasis.

There were also many foreigners in Egypt during this time, mostly Greeks and Jews.

He died in the spring of 404 BC.

28TH DYNASTY

Amyrtaios (Amyrteos) 404-399 B.C.

Amyrtaios was the only ruler of the Twenty-eighth Dynasty. He is thought to have
been a Libyan. He ruled Egypt from Sais for six years. He began his reign after the
death of Darius II when there was a renewed revolt in Egypt. They achieved
independence for a short time again. On the Elephantine Papyri, there is
documentation of a loan contract that is written in the year 5 of this king. This is
indication that he was recognized in Upper and Lower Egypt. He must have driven
the Persians out of the whole country.
 29TH DYNASTY (399 - 380 BC)

Nepherites I 399-393

Nepherites I was the first ruler of the Twenty-ninth Dynasty. Nepherites I sent a gift
to the Spartans after an allegiance had been entered into with Sparta against Persia.
This gift was lost to the Persians after the ships from Egypt approached Rhodes. The
Egyptians did not know that the Rhodians had defected to the Persians.

Psammuthis 393

No information available.

Hakoris - Hakor - Achoris - Hagor - 393-380 BC

There is some discrepancy as to whether Hakoris was the second of the third king of
the Twenty-ninth Dynasty. Psammuthis is the king in which the confusion is
associated with because he is shown to have ruled during the same year as Hakoris
(393 BC). Hakoris reigned for thirteen years and built many monuments which are
found in all parts of Egypt. During his reign there was peace between Persia and
Sparta. Persia was free to move against Egypt and there was a three-year war between
the two. Egypt was relatively strong during this time and became allies with Cyprus.
Egypt was delivered from Persia. The tomb of Hakoris has not been found.

Nepherites II 380 -

Nepherites II was the fourth and final ruler of the Twenty-ninth Dynasty. He reigned
for only four months before he was overthrown by the founder of the Thirtieth
Dynasty. He assumed the throne after the death of Hakoris, who was Nepherites'
father. The name Nepherites has an etymological meaning of "His great ones are
prosperous".

30TH DYNASTY (380-343 BC)

The 30th Dynasty contains the last of the Egyptian-born Pharaohs.

Nectanebo I - Nectanebus - Nakhthorhebe - 380-362 B.C.

Nectanebo I was the first ruler of the Thirtieth Dynasty and was a general from
Sebennytus. He is thought to have been related to the family of Nepherites I. He
imposed heavy taxes on the people of Egypt in order to conquer Syria from Persia. In
the spring of 373 BC, the Persian army moved in to attack Egypt. They got as far as
the Mendesian mouth of the Nile. Two of the commanders of the Persian forces could
not agree on their strategy. As the time passed, the Nile rose and flooded the Delta
area. The Persians abandoned their efforts and left. The Egyptians had successfully
turned back the Persians, with a little help from the Nile, and peace was established.
Nectanebo restored and built many monuments throughout Egypt.380-362

Teos - Tachos - Djeho - 365-360

Teos was the second ruler of the Thirtieth Dynasty and was the son of his predecessor,
Nectanebo I. After his father had died, Teos took over the throne and planned an
attack on the Persians. He had the help of mercenaries from Greece, but his own
generals disagreed with his leadership and the entire event was a fiasco. He was
deserted by both the Greeks and the Egyptians. He fled to Persia by way of Arabia
and Artaxerxes II, the ruler of Persia, gave him refuge. He lived in Persia until his
death.

Nectanebo II - Nectanebus - Nekhthorhebe - 360-343 BC

Nectanebo II was the third and final ruler of the Thirtieth Dynasty. He became king
after Teos' campaign into Persia which was a disaster. Teos had fled to Persia and
Nectanebo returned to Egypt as Pharaoh. Nectanebo ruled for eighteen years and built
many monuments in Egypt.

Much of Nectanebo's reign was peaceful and there was a final flowering of the local
Egyptian arts. Statues were erected at Abydos and Bubastis, a granite temple was built
at Horbeit in the Delta and bas-reliefs were carved at Karnak with a purity of style
comparable to that of the Saite renaissance.

After the disaster with the Persians, Nectanebo II risked no further expeditions against
the Syrians or the Palestinians. However, the Persians did attempt to subdue Egypt
and this time succeeded. Cyprus and Phoenicia were also fighting against the Persians
and were assisted with some troops from Nectanebo II.

Artaxerxes III (Persian) destroyed these troops and moved against Egypt. This time
the Nile flooding had already passed and the Persian attack was made much more
wisely that the last attack (Nectanebo I). The attack was made at three different points
at the same time. Nectanebo II retreated to Memphis where he thought he would make
a stand against the Persians. But, as city after city fell, he gathered up as much of his
possessions as he could and fled to Ethiopia.

Artaxerxes razed fortifications, desecrated temples and plundered the treasury. He

appointed Pherendares as satrap of Egypt and returned to Babylon laden with
treasures.

SECOND PERSIAN PERIOD (343-332 B.C.)

31ST DYNASTY (380-343 BC)

The 31st Dynasty in also known as the Second Persian Period and was added after
Manetho created his list of kings..

Ochus (Artaxerxes III) 343-338

Ochus was the first ruler of the Thirty-first Dynasty. He was the king of Persia for
twenty years when the Persians defeated the Egyptians and Ochus became ruler over
Egypt. He was the son of Artaxerxes II. He ruled over Egypt for six years. He was
murdered in 338 BC by his own commander Bagoas in the summer of 338 BC.

Arses - 360-343 BC

Arses was the second ruler of the Thirty-first Dynasty and was the youngest son of
Ochus. After Ochus was murdered, Arses succeeded him and ruled until he was
murdered in 336 BC by his commander Bagoas.

Darius III Codomannus 335-332

Darius III - king of ancient Persia. A cousin of Artaxerxes III, he was raised to the
throne by the eunuch Bagoas, who had murdered both Artaxerxes and his son, Arses;
Darius in turn murdered Bagoas. His rule was not stable, however. When Alexander
the Great invaded Persia, Darius was defeated in the battle of Issus (333 BC) and
again in the battle of Gaugamela near Arbela (331 BC). For the first time Persia was
confronted by a united Greece, and Darius' greatest error was in underestimating
Alexander's strength. Darius used the wrong tactics in battle and was forced to flee to
Ecbatana and then eastward to Bactria. It was there that the satrap of Bactria, Bessus,
had Darius murdered on Alexander's approach and took command himself in the
unsuccessful opposition to the Macedonian conqueror. These events brought the
Persian Empire to an end and marked the beginning of the Hellenistic period in the E
Mediterranean. Darius III is probably the Darius the Persian mentioned in the Bible
(Neh. 12.22).

GRECO-ROMAN PERIOD (332 B.C. - 395 A.D.)

Macedonian Kings - Alexandria

Alexander the Great 332-323
The Egyptians, oppressed under the Persian rule, welcomed Alexander the Great with
open arms when he entered the country in 332 B.C. While there he visited the Oracle
of Amon, at Siwa, where he was declared "the son of Amon." Exactly how this
happened is unclear. One story is that either upon entering or exiting the temple he
was greeted by the priest as "my son." Alexander's army and followers were not in a
strategic position to see the priest and thought the words came from the god himself.
However it happened, from that point on Alexander was instated as a son of god, like
the pharaohs of old. Alexander initiated the building of Alexandria, but never lived to
see the city. He left Egypt in 331 B.C. and left Cleomenes of Naukratis in charge of
the territory. This position was later claimed by Ptolemy. When Alexander died,
Ptolemy's generals divided the kingdom.