Geometric Design Manual With Appendices Final - Chapter 1-4

FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
MANUAL
2013
Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Foreword
FOREWORD
The road network in Ethiopia provides the dominant mode of freight and passenger
transport and thus plays a vital role in the economy of the country. The network comprises
a huge national asset that requires adherence to appropriate standards for design,
construction and maintenance in order to provide a high level of service. As the length of
the road network is increasing, appropriate choice of methods to preserve this investment
becomes increasingly important.
In 2002, the Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) first brought out road design manuals to
provide a standardized approach for the design, construction and maintenance of roads in
the country. Due to technological development and change, these manuals require periodic
updating. This current version of the manual has particular reference to the prevailing
conditions in Ethiopia and reflects the experience gained through activities within the road
sector during the last 10 years. Completion of the review and updating of the manuals was
undertaken in close consultation with the federal and regional roads authorities and the
stakeholders in the road sector including contracting and consulting industry.
Most importantly, in supporting the preparation of the documents, a series of thematic peer
review panels were established that comprised local experts from the public and private
sector who provided guidance and review for the project team.
This Manual supersedes the Geometric Design Manual part of the ERA 2002 series of
Manuals. The standards set out shall be adhered to unless otherwise directed by ERA.
However, I should emphasize that careful consideration to sound engineering practice shall
be observed in the use of the manual, and under no circumstances shall the manual waive
professional judgment in applied engineering. For simplification in reference this manual
may be cited as ERA’s Geometric Design Manual - 2013.
On behalf of the Ethiopian Roads Authority I would like to thank DFID, Crown Agents
and the AFCAP team for their cooperation, contribution and support in the development of
the manual and supporting documents for Ethiopia. I would also like to extend my
gratitude and appreciation to all of the industry stakeholders and participants who
contributed their time, knowledge and effort during the development of the documents.
Special thanks are extended to the members of the various Peer Review Panels, whose
active support and involvement guided the authors of the manual and the process.
It is my sincere hope that this manual will provide all users with a standard reference and a
ready source of good practice for the geometric design of roads, and will assist in a cost
effective operation, and environmentally sustainable development of our road network.
I look forward to the practices contained in this manual being quickly adopted into our
operations, thereby making a sustainable contribution to the improved infrastructure of our
country.
Comments and suggestions on all aspects from any concerned body, group or individual as
feedback during its implementation is expected and will be highly appreciated.
Addis Ababa, 2013
Zaid Wolde Gebriel

Director General, Ethiopian Roads Authority
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page i

Preface Geometric Design Manual – 2013
PREFACE
The Ethiopian Roads Authority is the custodian of the series of technical manuals, standard
specifications and bidding documents that are written for the practicing engineer in
Ethiopia. The series describes current and recommended practice and sets out the national
standards for roads and bridges. The documents are based on national experience and
international practice and are approved by the Director General of the Ethiopian Roads
Authority.
The Geometric Design Manual -2013 forms part of the Ethiopian Roads Authority series
of Road and Bridge Design documents. The complete series of documents, covering all
roads and bridges in Ethiopia, is as follows:
1. Geometric Design Manual

2. Site Investigation Manual
3. Geotechnical Design Manual
4. Route Selection Manual
5. Pavement Design Manual Volume I Flexible Pavements
6. Pavement Design Manual Volume II Rigid Pavements
7. Pavement Rehabilitation and Asphalt Overlay Design Manual
8. Drainage Design Manual
9. Bridge Design Manual
10. Low Volume Roads Design Manual
11. Standard Environmental Procedures Manual
12. Standard Technical Specifications
13. Standard Detailed Drawings.
14. Best Practice Manual for Thin Bituminous Surfacings
15. Standard Bidding Documents for Road Work Contracts – A series of Bidding
Documents covering the full range of projects from large scale works unlimited in
value to minor works with an upper threshold of $300,000. The higher level
documents have both Local Competitive Bidding and International Competitive
Bidding versions.
These documents are available to registered users through the ERA website:
www.era.gov.et
Manual Updates
Significant changes to criteria, procedures or any other relevant issues related to new
policies or revised laws of the land or that are mandated by the relevant Federal
Government Ministry or Agency should be incorporated into the manual from their date of
effectiveness.
Other minor changes that will not significantly affect the whole nature of the manual may
be accumulated and made periodically. When changes are made and approved, new
page(s) incorporating the revision, together with the revision date, will be issued and
inserted into the relevant chapter.
Page ii Ethiopian Roads Authority

Geometric Design Manual - 2013 Preface
All suggestions to improve the manual should be made in accordance with the
following procedures:
1. Users of the manual must register on the ERA website: www.era.gov.et

2. Proposed changes should be outlined on the Manual Change Form and forwarded with
a covering letter of its need and purpose to the Director General of the Ethiopian Roads
Authority.
3. After completion of the draft review period, proposed modifications will be assessed by
the requisite authorities in ERA.
4. Agreed changes will be approved by the Director General of the Ethiopian Roads
Authority on recommendation from the Deputy Director General (Engineering
Operations).
5. The release date will be notified to all registered users and authorities.
Addis Ababa, 2013
Zaid Wolde Gebriel

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page iii

Preface Geometric Design Manual – 2013
ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY

CHANGE CONTROL DESIGN MANUAL
This area to be completed by the ERA

MANUAL CHANGE Director of Quality Assurance
Manual Title:____________________________ CHANGE NO._____________

_______________________________________ (SECTION NO. CHANGE NO.
_________________________
Section
Table
Explanation Suggested Modification
Figure
Page
Submitted by:
Name:____________________________________Designation:______________________________
Company/Organisation Address
____________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________email:__________________________Date:________
Manual Change Action
Authority Date Signature Recommended Action Approval

Registration
Director Quality Assurance
Deputy Director General Eng.Ops
Approval / Provisional Approval / Rejection of Change:
Director General ERA:__________________________________ Date: __________________
Page iv Ethiopian Roads Authority

Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Acknowledgements
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA) wishes to thank the UK Government’s Department
for International Development (DFID) through the Africa Community Access Programme
(AFCAP) for their support in developing this Geometric Design Manual – 2013. The
manual will be used by all authorities and organisations responsible for the provision of
roads in Ethiopia.
This Geometric Design Manual-2013 is based on a review of the design standards of

several countries including the USA (AASHTO, FHWA), the United Kingdom (TRL,
HA), RSA (CSIR, SANRAL), and Ethiopia (TCDE). It is based largely on ERA’s
Geometric Design Manual – 2002 but includes improvements resulting from recent
research and extensions to deal with topics that were not included in the earlier manual.
This manual is consistent with the relevant sections of ERA’s Low Volume Roads Design
Manual.
From the outset, the approach to the development of the manual was to include all sectors
and stakeholders in Ethiopia. The input from the international team of experts was
supplemented by our own extensive local experience and expertise. Local knowledge and
experience was shared through review workshops to discuss and debate the contents of the
draft manual. ERA wishes to thank all the individuals who gave their time to attend the
workshops and provide valuable inputs to the compilation of the manual.
In addition to the workshops, Peer Review Groups comprising specialists drawn from
within the local industry were established to provide advice and comments in their
respective areas of expertise. The contribution of the Peer Review Group participants is
gratefully acknowledged.
The final review and acceptance of the document was undertaken by an Executive Review
Group. Special thanks are given to this group for their assistance in reviewing the final
draft of the document.
Finally, ERA would like to thank Crown Agents for their overall management of the
project.
As with the other manuals of this series, the intent was, where possible, and in the interests
of uniformity, to use those tests and specifications included in the AASHTO and/or ASTM
Materials references. Where no such reference exists for tests and specifications mentioned
in this document, other references are used.
Executive Review Group
No. Name Organization
1 Alemgena Alene, Dr. Ethiopian Roads Authority
2 Daniel Nebro, Ato Ethiopian Roads Authority
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page v

Acknowledgements Geometric Design Manual – 2013
List of Persons Contributing to Peer Group Review
No. Name Organization
1 Alemgena Alene, Dr. Ethiopian Roads Authority
2 Amanuel Haddush, Ato ICT
3 Andualem H/Georgis, Ato BEZA Consulting Engineers
4 Bizuneh Kebebe, Ato Civil Works Consulting Engineers
5 Daniel Nebro, Ato Ethiopian Roads Authority
6 Ezra Mersha, Ato Associated Engineering Consultants
7 Jemal Ali, Ato WT Consult
8 Tibebu Gebre, Ato Ethio Infra Engineering
Project Team
No. Name Organization Role
1 AFCAP Coordinator for

Bekele Negussie ERA
Ethiopia
2 Abdo Mohammed ERA Project Coordinator
3 Daniel Nebro ERA Project Coordinator
4 Frew Bekele ERA Project Coordinator
5 Robert Geddes AFCAP/Crown Agents Technical Manager
6 Les Sampson AFCAP/Crown Agents Project Director
7 John Rolt AFCAP/TRL Lead Author
Addis Ababa, 2013
Zaid Wolde Gebriel

Page vi Ethiopian Roads Authority

Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD ....................................................................................................................... I
PREFACE .......................................................................................................................... II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... V
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................... VII
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS .................................................................................................. XI
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ XIII
GLOSSARY OF TERMS ..................................................................................................... XV
ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................................................... XXIX
1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 1-1
1.1 General.................................................................................................................. 1-1
1.2 Organization of the Manual .................................................................................. 1-1
2 SUMMARY OF STANDARDS AND DEPARTURES FROM STANDARDS .......................... 2-3
2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 2-3
2.2 Design Standards .................................................................................................. 2-3
2.3 Departures from Standards ................................................................................... 2-4
3 SITE INVESTIGATION FOR ROUTE SELECTION AND DESIGN................................... 3-1
3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 3-1
3.2 Site Investigation Techniques............................................................................... 3-2
4 SURVEY REQUIREMENTS ....................................................................................... 4-1
4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 4-1
4.2 Method of Data Collection: Photogrammetry and Field Survey .......................... 4-1
4.3 Survey Data Products ........................................................................................... 4-1
4.4 Survey Data by Project Type ................................................................................ 4-3
4.5 Field Surveys ........................................................................................................ 4-3
4.6 Topography........................................................................................................... 4-5
4.7 Bench Marks ......................................................................................................... 4-5
4.8 Profile and Cross Sections .................................................................................... 4-6
4.9 Photogrammetry ................................................................................................... 4-7
4.10 Detailed Survey and Alignment Design ............................................................... 4-8
5 DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA: THE PRINCIPAL FACTORS DETERMINING
GEOMETRIC STANDARDS ........................................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
5.1 Introduction ........................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.2 Traffic .................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.3 The Design Vehicle ............................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.4 Design Speed ......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.5 Traffic Composition – Proportion of Heavy Vehicles.......... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
5.6 Terrain ................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.7 Roadside Population and Adjoining Land Use ..... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.8 Pavement Type ...................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
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Table of Contents Geometric Design Manual – 2013
5.9 Soil Type and Climate ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.10 Construction Technology ....................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.11 Administrative Function......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.12 Safety ...................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
5.13 Matrix of Standards ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
6 CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS ................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
6.1 Introduction ............................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.2 Lane Widths ........................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.3 Shoulders ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.4 Normal Crossfall .................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.5 Side Slopes and Back Slopes ................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.6 Roadside Ditches .................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.7 Clear Zone .............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.8 Right-of-Way ......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.9 Four-Lane and Divided Roads ............................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.10 Medians .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.11 Single Lane Roads .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
6.12 Typical Cross Sections and Standard Cross Sections .......... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
7 DESIGN SPEED AND SIGHT DISTANCES ................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
7.1 Design Speed .......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.2 Stopping Sight Distance ......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.3 Stopping Sight Distance for Single Lane Roads (Meeting Sight Distance) ... Error!
Bookmark not defined.
7.4 Intersection Sight Distance..................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.5 Decision Sight Distance ......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.6 Control of Sight Distance ....................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.7 Passing Sight Distance ........................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.8 Minimum Provision of Passing Sight Distance...... Error! Bookmark not defined.
8 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT ..................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
8.1 General ................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
8.2 Cross-fall ................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
8.3 Elements of a Circular Curve ................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
8.4 Minimum Turning Radii ........................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
8.5 Isolated Curves ....................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
8.6 Length of Tangent Sections and Curves ................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
8.7 Reverse Curves, Broken-Back Curves, and Compound Curves . Error! Bookmark
not defined.
8.8 Widening on Curves and Embankments ................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
8.9 Switchback Curves ................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
8.10 Transition Curves ................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
8.11 Super-elevation....................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
8.12 Super-elevation Runoff .......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
8.13 Shoulder Super-elevation ....................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
9 VERTICAL ALIGNMENT .......................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
9.2 Vertical Curve Formula .......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
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Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Table of Contents
9.3 Crest curves ........................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

9.4 Sag Curves ............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
9.5 Minimum Lengths of Vertical Curves ................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
9.6 Maximum Gradients .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
9.7 Maximum Gradients at Switchbacks ..................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
9.8 Minimum Gradients............................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
9.9 Gradients through Villages .................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
9.10 Critical Length of Gradient ................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
9.11 Climbing Lanes ..................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
9.12 Vertical Clearances ................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
10 PHASING OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL ALIGNMENT ........ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT
DEFINED.
10.1 Alignment Defects Due to Mis-phasing ................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
10.2 Types of Mis-phasing and Corresponding Corrective Action ..... Error! Bookmark
not defined.
10.3 Vertical Curve Overlaps One End of the Horizontal Curve . Error! Bookmark not
defined.
10.4 Insufficient Separation between the Curves .......... Error! Bookmark not defined.
10.5 Both Ends of the Vertical Curve Lie on the Horizontal Curve ... Error! Bookmark
not defined.
10.6 Vertical Curve Overlaps Both Ends of the Horizontal Curve ..... Error! Bookmark
not defined.
10.7 Other Mis-Phasing ................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
10.8 The Economic Penalty Due to Phasing ................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
11 AT-GRADE JUNCTIONS ........................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
11.1 Introduction ........................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
11.2 Design Requirements............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
11.3 Selection of Junction Type .................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
11.4 Angle of Intersection ............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
11.5 Distance between Adjoining Junctions ................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
11.6 Sight Distances and Visibility ............................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
11.7 Lane Width and Manoeuvrability .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
11.8 Horizontal and Vertical Alignment ....................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
11.9 Channelisation ....................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
11.10 Speed-Change Lanes ............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
11.11 Turning Roadways ................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
11.12 Private Access ....................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
11.13 Roundabouts .......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
11.14 Checklist for Junction Design................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
12 GRADE – SEPARATED JUNCTIONS AND INTERCHANGES .........ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT
DEFINED.
12.1 General................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

12.2 Choice of Scheme .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
12.3 Types of Junction .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
12.4 Geometric Standards.............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
12.5 Design Principles ................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page ix

Table of Contents Geometric Design Manual – 2013
13 ADDITIONAL SAFETY AND MISCELLANEOUS DESIGN ITEMS . ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT

DEFINED.

13.2 The Road Accident Situation ................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
13.3 Traffic Calming ...................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
13.4 Bus Lay-Bys and Parking Bays .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
13.5 Parking Lanes ......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
13.6 Passing Points ......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
13.7 Safety Rest Areas and Scenic Overlooks ............... Error! Bookmark not defined.
13.8 Safety Barriers ........................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
13.9 Emergency Escape Ramps ..................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
13.10 Safety Audits .......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
13.11 Public Utilities ........................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
13.12 Railway Grade Crossings ....................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
14 ROAD FURNITURE AND MARKINGS ........................ ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
14.2 Traffic Signs ........................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
14.3 Road Markings ....................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
14.4 Marker Posts ........................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
14.5 Traffic Signal.......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
14.6 Lighting .................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
15 REFERENCES .......................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
APPENDIX A CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF ROADS .... A-ERROR! BOOKMARK
NOT DEFINED.
APPENDIX B COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION ........... B-ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

APPENDIX C SIGHT DISTANCE AT INTERSECTIONS AND JUNCTIONS ............ C-ERROR!
BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
APPENDIX D MEASURING AND RECORDING SIGHT DISTANCE ON PLANS ..... D-ERROR!
APPENDIX E UTILITIES ........................................ E-ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
APPENDIX F TYPICAL CROSS SECTIONS AND STANDARD CROSS SECTIONS . F-ERROR!
APPENDIX G PROCEDURE FOR DESIGN ................ G-ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
APPENDIX H PLANS AND DRAFTING .................... H-ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.
APPENDIX I PERSPECTIVES IN GEOMETRIC DESIGN .......... I-ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT
DEFINED.
Page x Ethiopian Roads Authority

Geometric Design Manual – 2013 List of Illustrations
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 4-1: Standard Bench Mark (alternative designs are available) ............................... 4-6
Figure 5-1: Selection Procedure for Appropriate Geometric Standards.... Error! Bookmark
not defined.
Figure 5-2: Dimensions and Turning Radius Path for Single Unit Bus (DV3)............ Error!
Figure 5-3: Dimensions and Turning Radius for a Semi-Trailer Combination ............ Error!
Figure 5-4: Flat Terrain; Flat Roadway Alignment ............. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 5-5: Rolling Terrain; Flat Roadway Alignment ....... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 5-6: Rolling Terrain; Flat to Rolling Roadway Alignment ..... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Figure 5-7: Rolling Terrain; Rolling Roadway Alignment . Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 5-8: Mountainous Terrain; Flat Roadway Alignment ............. Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Figure 5-9: Mountainous Terrain; Mountainous Roadway Alignment ..... Error! Bookmark
not defined.
Figure 5-10: Escarpment Terrain; Mountainous Roadway Alignment ..... Error! Bookmark
not defined.
Figure 5-11: Escarpment Terrain; Escarpment Roadway Alignment Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Figure 6-1: Designation of Roadside Regions..................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 6-2: Side Drain Ditch Location in Expansive Soils . Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 7-1: Sight Distance for Horizontal Curves ............... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 7-2: Passing Sight Distance...................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 8-1: Ratio of radii of consecutive horizontal curves Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 8-2: Curve Elements................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 8-3: Reverse Curves, Broken-Back Curves, and Compound Curves................ Error!
Figure 8-4: Switchback Curve ............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 8-5: Switchback Curve for the Passage of Single DV4 Vehicle .... Error! Bookmark
not defined.
Figure 8-6: Spiral Curve Transition..................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 8-7: Circular Curve Transition ................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 8-8: Shoulder Super-elevation (for Surfaced Roads) Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 9-1: Crest Curve ....................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 9-2: Sag Curve ......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 9-3: Hidden Dip and Roller Coaster Profiles ........... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 9-4: Layout for Climbing Lane ................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 10-1: Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Curves .... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 11-1: Types of at-grade junctions ............................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 11-2: Junction Selection Based on Traffic Flows .... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 11-3: T-Junction Selection for Various Major and Minor Road Traffic Flows Error!
Figure 11-4: Staggered X-Junctions .................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 11-5: Visibility Splay for ‘Yield’ Conditions .......... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 11-6: Visibility Splay for ‘Stop’ Conditions ............ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 11-7: Traffic Islands ................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 11-8: Typical Triangular Island ............................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
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List of Illustrations Geometric Design Manual – 2013
Figure 11-9: Splitter Island .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Figure 11-10: Median End Treatment .................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 11-11: Layout for Right Turn Lane .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 11-12: Layout for Left Turn Lane, Single Carriageway ......... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Figure 11-13: Layout for Left Turn Lane, Dual Carriageway ........... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Figure 11-14: Typical Cross-road Intersection .................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 11-15: Typical Access .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 11-16: Roundabout Layout ....................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 11-17: Vehicle Path through Roundabout ................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 11-18: Roundabout Dimensions ............................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 11-19: Checklist for Junction Design ....................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 12-1: Typical Layouts for Grade-Separated Junctions ........... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Figure 12-2: Principles of Lane Balance .............................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 13-1: Engineering Design Features Affecting Road Safety.... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Figure 13-2: Bus Lay-Bys and Parking Bays ....................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 13-3: Guardrail .......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 13-4: Basic Types of Emergency Escape Ramps (AASHTO) Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Figure 13-5: Utilities placement detail ................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 13-6: Railway Crossing Details with Rumble strips. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 13-7: Railway Crossings Details on Vertical Curve . Error! Bookmark not defined.
Page xii Ethiopian Roads Authority

Geometric Design Manual – 2013 List of Tables
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1: Road Classification, AADT, Carriageway Widths and Design Speeds............ 2-3
Table 2-2: Shoulder Widths on Each Side of the Carriageway .......................................... 2-4
Table 2-3: Adjustments for excessive numbers of large heavy vehicles............................ 2-5
Table 2-4: PCU values........................................................................................................ 2-5
Table 2-5: Adjustments for PCUs greater than 300 AADT. .............................................. 2-6
Table 2-6: Geometric Parameters for Design Class DC8 Paved ........................................ 2-7
Table 2-9: Geometric Parameters for Design Class DC5 Paved ...................................... 2-10
Table 2-10: Geometric Parameters for Design Class Paved DC4(1) ................................. 2-11
Table 2-11: Geometric Parameters for Unpaved DC4(1) .................................................. 2-12
Table 2-13: Geometric Parameters for Design Class Unpaved DC3(1) ............................ 2-14
Table 2-15: Geometric Parameters for Design Class Unpaved DC2 (1, 2)......................... 2-16
Table 2-16: Geometric Parameters for Design Class DC1 ............................................... 2-17
Table 2-17: Minimum Standards for Basic Access .......................................................... 2-17
Table 4-1: Survey Data Requirements................................................................................ 4-2
Table 4-2: Required Level of Accuracy for Surveys.......................................................... 4-6
Table 4-3: Air Photo Scales for Various Project Tasks ...................................................... 4-8
Table 5-1: PCU Values for non-4-wheeled motorised vehicles ......... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Table 5-2: Design Vehicle Characteristics .......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 5-3: Design Vehicle for Each Road Class ................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 6-1: Slope Ratio Table – Vertical to Horizontal........ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 7-1: Design Speeds .................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 7-2: Stopping and Passing Sight Distances for Paved Roads ... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Table 7-3: Stopping Sight Distances for Unpaved Roads ... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 7-4: Decision Sight Distances (metres) ..................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 7-5: Clearance Distance (d3) for Different Ambient Speeds .... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Table 7-6: Guide Values for the Minimum Provision of Passing Sight Distance ........ Error!
Table 8-1: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves for Paved Roads . Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Table 8-2: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves for Unpaved Roads .... Error! Bookmark
not defined.
Table 8-3: Widening on Curves and High Fills ................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 8-4: Transition Curve Requirements ......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 8-5: Super elevation Rates and Length of Run-Off: 8% .......... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Table 8-6: Super elevation Rates and Length of Run-Off: 4% .......... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Table 9-1: Minimum Values for Crest Vertical Curves (Paved Roads) .... Error! Bookmark
not defined.
Table 9-2: Minimum Values for Crest Vertical Curves (Unpaved Roads) .................. Error!
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List of Tables Geometric Design Manual – 2013
Table 9-3: Minimum Values of K for Sag Curves ............... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 9-4: Maximum Gradients for Paved Sections ............ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 9-5: Climbing Lanes................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 9-6: Vertical Clearance from Superstructure to Design Flood Level (DFL) ..... Error!
Table 11-1: Access Control .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 11-2: Minimum Sight Distances for ‘Yield’ Conditions.......... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Table 11-3: Minimum Sight Distances for ‘Stop’ Conditions ........... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Table 11-4: Length of Right Turn Lane ............................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 11-5: Lengths of Storage Sections for Left Turn Lanes ........... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Table 11-6: Length of Acceleration/Merging Lane ............. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 11-7: Turning roadway widths ................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 12-1: Widths for Loops .............................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 13-1: Length (including tapers) of Passing Points ..... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Table 13-2: Rolling Resistance of Roadway Surfacing Materials ..... Error! Bookmark not
defined.
Table 14-1: Spacing of Guide Posts at Curves ..................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Page xiv Ethiopian Roads Authority

Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Glossary of Terms
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Acceleration/ An auxiliary lane used by a vehicle about to enter (acceleration

deceleration lane lane) or leave (deceleration lane) the travelled way to adjust its
speed as required for safety.
Access Way whereby the owner or occupier of any land has access to a
public road, whether directly or across land lying between his land
and such public road.
Access Control The condition whereby the road agency either partially or fully
controls the right of direct access to and from a public highway or
road.
Arterial Highway designed to move relatively large volumes of traffic at
high speeds over long distances. Typically, arterials offer little or no
access to abutting properties.
At-grade Junction Junction where all roadways join or cross at the same level.
Auxiliary Lane Part of the roadway adjoining the carriageway for parking, speed
change, turning, storage for turning, weaving, truck climbing, and
for other purposes supplementary to through traffic movement.
Aggregate Hard mineral elements of construction material mixtures, for
example: sand, gravel (crushed or uncrushed) or crushed rock.
Asphalt In American literature asphalt is another term for bitumen. The
term is also commonly used in this way in Ethiopia. In other
countries, asphalt is commonly used as a shorthand for asphaltic
concrete or, indeed, any design of high quality bitumen/aggregate
mixture.
Asphalt Concrete A mixture to predetermined proportions of aggregate, filler and
bituminous binder material plant mixed and usually placed by
means of a paving machine.
Asphalt Surfacing The layer or layers of asphalt concrete constructed on top of the
roadbase, and, in some cases, the shoulders.
Average Annual The total yearly traffic volume in both directions divided by the
Daily Traffic number of days in the year.
(AADT)
Average Daily The total traffic volume during a given time period in whole days
Traffic (ADT) greater than one day and less than one year divided by the number of
days in that time period.
Axis of Rotation The line about which the pavement is rotated to super-elevate the
roadway. This line normally maintains the highway profile.
Back Slope Area between the ditch bottom and the limit of the earthworks.
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xv

Glossary of Terms Geometric Design Manual – 2013
Base Course This is the main component of the pavement contributing to the
spreading of the traffic loads. In many cases, it will consist of
crushed stone or gravel, or of good quality gravelly soils or
decomposed rock. Bituminous base courses may also be used (for
higher classes of traffic). Materials stabilised with cement or lime
may also be contemplated.
Binder Course The lower course of an asphalt surfacing laid in more than one
course.
Bitumen The most common form of bitumen is the residue from the refining
of crude oil after the more volatile material has been distilled off. It
is essentially a very viscous liquid comprising many long-chain
organic molecules. For use in roads it is practically solid at ambient
temperatures but can be heated sufficiently to be poured and sprayed.
Some natural bitumens can be found worldwide that are not distilled
from crude oil but the amounts are very small.
Borrow Area An area within designated boundaries approved for the purpose of
obtaining borrow material. A borrow pit is the excavated pit in a
borrow area.
Borrow Material Any gravel, sand, soil, rock or ash obtained from borrow areas,
dumps or sources other than cut within the road prism and which is
used in the construction of the specified works. Not including
crushed stone or sand obtained from commercial sources.
Boulder A rock fragment, usually rounded by weathering or abrasion, with an
average dimension of 0.30 m or more.
Bound Pavement Pavement materials held together by an adhesive bond between the
Materials materials and another binding material such as bitumen.
Broken back Two curves in the same direction with a tangent shorter than 500
curve metres connecting them.
Bus Lay-byes Lay-by reserved for public service vehicles.
Camber The convexity given to the curved cross-section of a roadway.
Capacity Maximum practicable traffic flow in given circumstances.
Capping Layer (Selected or improved subgrade). The top of an embankment or
bottom of an excavation prior to construction of the pavement
structure. Where very weak soils and/or expansive soils (such as
black cotton soils) are encountered, a capping layer is sometimes
necessary. This consists of better quality subgrade material
imported from elsewhere or subgrade material improved by
stabilisation (usually mechanical), and may also be considered as a
lower quality sub-base.
Carriageway That portion of the roadway including the various traffic lanes and
auxiliary lanes but excluding shoulders.
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Centre Line Axis along the middle of the road

Circular Curve Usual curve configuration for horizontal curves.
Clear Zone Unencumbered roadside recovery area.
Climbing Lane An auxiliary lane in the upgrade direction for use by slow moving
vehicles and to facilitate overtaking, thereby maintaining capacity
and freedom of operation on the carriageway.
Coefficient of Ratio of the frictional force on the vehicle and the component of
Friction the weight of the vehicle perpendicular to the frictional force
Collector Roads Secondary roads linking locally important centres to each other, to
more important centres, or to higher class roads
Compound Curve Curve consisting of two or more arcs of different radii curving in
the same direction and having a common tangent or transition
curve where they meet.
Contraction Joint A joint normally placed at recurrent intervals in a rigid concrete
slab to control transverse cracking.
Control of Access Conditions where the right of owners or occupants of adjoining
land or other persons to access, light, air or view in connection with
a road is fully or partially controlled by public authority.
Crest Peak formed by the junction of two gradients.
Crest Curve Convex vertical curve with the intersection point of the tangents
above the road level.
Critical Slope Side slope on which a vehicle is likely to overturn.
Cross Roads Four-leg junction formed by the intersection of two roads at
approximately right angles.
Cross-Section A vertical section showing the elevation of the existing ground,
ground data and recommended works, usually at right angles to the
centreline.
Crossfall The difference in level measured transversely across the surface of
the roadway.
Crown Highest portion of the cross-section of a cambered roadway.
Crown Runoff Also referred to as Tangent Runout. The rotation of the outer lane of
a two lane road from zero cross fall to normal camber (NC).
Critical Length of The maximum length of a specific upgrade on which a loaded truck
Grade can operate without an unreasonable reduction in speed. Very often,
a speed reduction of 15 km/h or more is considered “unreasonable”.
Culvert A structure, other than a bridge, which provides an opening under the
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xvii

carriageway or median for drainage or other purposes.

Curb Border of stone, concrete or other rigid material formed at the edge
of the roadway or footway.
Cutting Cutting shall mean all excavations from the road prism including
side drains, and excavations for intersecting roads including, where
classified as cut, excavations for open drains.
Chippings Stones used for surface dressing (treatment).
Deceleration Lane An auxiliary lane to enable a vehicle leaving the through traffic
stream to reduce speed without interfering with other traffic.
Decision Sight Allows for circumstances where complex decisions are required by
Distance a driver or unusual manoeuvres have to be carried out. As such, it is
significantly longer than Stopping Sight Distance.
Deflection Angle Successive angles from a tangent subtending a chord and used in
setting out curves.
Deformed Bar A reinforcing bar for rigid slabs conforming to “Requirements for
Deformations” in AASHTO Designations M 31M.
Depressed Median A median lower in elevation than the travelled way and so designed
to carry a portion of the storm water falling on the road.
Design Capacity Maximum number of vehicles that can pass over a lane or a
roadway during a given time period without operating conditions
falling below a pre-selected design level.
Design Period The period of time that an initially constructed or rehabilitated
pavement structure will perform before reaching a level of
deterioration requiring more than routine or periodic maintenance.
Design Speed An index which links road function, traffic flow and terrain to the
design parameters of sight distance and curvature to ensure that a
driver is presented with a reasonably consistent speed environment.
In practice, most roads will only be constrained to minimum
parameter values over short sections or on specific geometric
elements.
Design Traffic Number of vehicles or persons that pass over a given section of a
Volume lane or roadway during a given time period.
Design Vehicle Vehicle whose physical characteristics and proportions are used in
setting geometric design.
Directional The percentages of the total flow moving in opposing directions, e.g.
Distribution 50:50, 70:30, with the direction of interest being quoted first.
Diverging Movement of a vehicle out of a traffic stream.
Diverted Traffic Traffic that changes from another route (or mode of transport) to the
project road because of the improved pavement, but still travels
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between the same origin and destination.

Divided Road Road in which there are two physically separated roadways reserved
for travelling in opposite directions.
Dowel A load transfer device in a rigid concrete slab, usually consisting of
a plain round steel bar. Unlike a tie bar, a dowel may permit
horizontal movement.
Economical Limit Distance through which it is more economical to haul excavated
of Haul material than to waste and borrow.
Embankment That portion of the road prism composed of approved fill material,
which lies above the original ground and is bounded by the side
slopes, extending downwards and outwards from the outer shoulder
breakpoints and on which the pavement is constructed.
Equivalent A measure of the potential damage to a pavement caused by a
Standard Axles vehicle axle load expressed as the number of 8.16 metric tonnes
(ESAS) single axle loads that would cause the same amount of damage. The
ESA values of all the traffic are combined to determine the total
design traffic for the design period.
Equivalency Used to convert traffic volumes into cumulative equivalent
Factors standard axle loads.
Equivalent Single Summation of equivalent 8.16 ton single axle loads used to
Axle Load (ESA) combine mixed traffic to design traffic for the design period.
Escarpment Geological features that are very steep and extend laterally for
considerable distances, making it difficult or impossible to
construct a road to avoid them. They are characterised by more
than 50 five-metre contours per km and the transverse ground
slopes perpendicular to the ground contours are generally greater
than 50%.
Expansion Joint A joint located to provide for expansion of a rigid concrete slab
without damage to itself, adjacent slabs, or structures.
Eye Height Assumed height of a driver's eyes above the surface of the roadway
used for the purpose of determining sight distances.
Feeder Road Lowest level of road in the network hierarchy with the function of
linking traffic to and from rural areas, either directly to adjacent
urban centres, or to the Collector road network.
Fill Material of which a man-made raised structure or deposit such as an
embankment is composed, including soil, soil-aggregate or rock.
Material imported to replace unsuitable roadbed material is also
classified as fill.
Flexible Includes primarily those pavements that have a bituminous (surface
Pavements dressing or asphalt concrete) surface. The terms "flexible and rigid"
are somewhat arbitrary and were primarily established to
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xix

differentiate between asphalt and Portland cement concrete

pavements.
Footpath Portion of a road reserved exclusively for pedestrians.
Formation Level Level at top of subgrade.
Free Haul Maximum distance through which excavated material may be
transported without added cost above the unit bid price.
Freeway Highest level of arterial characterised by full control of access and
high design speeds.
Gap The elapsed time between the back of one vehicle passing a point
on the road or highway and the nose of the following vehicle
passing the same point.
Generated Traffic Additional traffic which occurs in response to the provision of
improvement of the road.
Grade Separated Junction where two roads cross at different levels and are
Junction connected by ramps.
Gradient Rate of rise or fall on any length or road, with respect to the
horizontal. The slope of the grade between two adjacent Vertical
Points of Intersection (VPI), typically expressed in percentage form
as the vertical rise or fall in metres/100 metres. In the direction of
increasing stake value, upgrades are taken as positive and
downgrades as negative.
Grading Modulus Related to the cumulative percentages by mass of material in a repre-
(GM) sentative sample of aggregate, gravel or soil retained on the 2.36
mm, 0.425 mm and 0.075 mm sieves;
 P + P0.425 + P0.075 
GM = 3 −  2.36 
 100 
where: P2.36 = percentage passing 2.36 mm sieve
P0.425 = percentage passing 0.425 mm sieve
P0.075 = percentage passing 0.075 mm sieve
Guard Rail Continuous barrier erected alongside a road to prevent traffic from
accidentally leaving the roadway or from crossing the median.
Heavy Vehicles Those having an unloaded weight of 3000 kg or more.
Horizontal Direction and course of the road centreline in plan.
Alignment
Horizontal Lateral clearance between the edge of shoulder and obstructions.
Clearance
Horizontal Curve Curve in plan-view.
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Hot mix asphalt Generic name for all high quality mixtures of aggregates and
(HMA) bitumen that use the grades of bitumen that must be heated in order
to flow sufficiently to coat the aggregates. Includes Asphaltic
Concrete, Dense Bitumen Macadam and Hot Rolled Asphalt.
Interchange Network of roads at the approaches to a junction at different levels
that permits traffic movement from one to the other or to more
roadways or roads.
Junction Common zone of two or more roads allowing vehicles to pass from
one to the other. Meeting of one road with another.
Kerb Concrete, often precast, element adjacent to the travelled way and
used for drainage control, delineation of the pavement edge or
protection of the edge of surfacing. Usually applied only in urban
areas.
K Value Ratio of the minimum length of vertical crest curve in meters to the
algebraic difference in percentage gradients adjoining the curve.
Lane Strip of roadway intended to accommodate a single line of moving
vehicles.
Lay-by Part of the road set aside for vehicles to draw out of the traffic lanes
for short periods.
Left Hand Lane On a dual roadway, the traffic lane nearest to the central reserve.
Left Turn Lane An auxiliary lane to accommodate deceleration and storage of left-
turning vehicles at junctions.
Level of Service Qualitative rating of the effectiveness of a road in serving traffic,
measured in terms of operating conditions.
Limited Access Road with right of access only at a limited number of places.
Road
Link Road National Road linking nationally important centres.
Local Road Road (or street) primarily for access to adjoining property. It may
or may not be a classified road.
Longitudinal Joint A joint normally placed between traffic lanes in rigid pavements to
control longitudinal cracking.
Longitudinal Outline of a vertical section of the ground, ground data and
Profile recommended works along the centreline.
Maintenance Routine work performed to keep a pavement as nearly as possible in
its as-constructed condition under normal conditions of traffic and
forces of nature.
Markers Post, generally fitted with reflective material or small reflecting
studs, but not usually lighted, erected off the roadway to give
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xxi

warning or guidance to traffic.

Meeting Sight Distance required to enable the drivers of two vehicles travelling in
Distance opposite directions on a two-way road with insufficient width for
passing, to bring their vehicles to a safe stop after becoming visible
to each other. It is the sum of the stopping sight distances for the
two vehicles plus a short safety distance.
Median Area between the two carriageways of a dual carriageway road.
Excludes the inside shoulders.
Merging Movement of a vehicle or vehicles into a traffic stream.
Mountainous Terrain that is rugged and very hilly with substantial restrictions in
(Terrain) both (terrain) horizontal and vertical alignment. Defined as having
26-50 five-metre contours per km. The transverse ground slopes
perpendicular to the ground contours are generally above 25%.
Normal Crown The typical cross-section on a tangent section of a two-lane road or
(NC) four-lane undivided road.
Normal Traffic Traffic which would pass along the existing road or track even if no
new pavement were provided.
Non-recoverable Transverse side slope where the motorist is generally unable to stop
Slope or return to the roadway
Object Height Assumed height of a notional object on the surface of the roadway
used for the purpose of determining sight distance.
Operating Speed Highest overall speed at which a driver can travel on a given road
under favourable weather conditions and under prevailing traffic
conditions without at any time exceeding the safe speed as
determined by the design speed on a section-by-section basis.
Overlay One or more courses of asphalt construction on an existing
pavement. The overlay often includes a levelling course, to correct
the contour of the old pavement, followed by a uniform course or
courses to provide needed thickness.
Overpass Grade separation where the subject road passes over an intersecting
road or railway.
Parking Bay Area provided for taxis and other vehicles to stop outside of the
roadway.
Passenger Car A measure of the impedance offered by a vehicle to the passenger
Equivalents (PCE) cars in the traffic stream. Usually quoted as the number of
passenger cars required to offer a similar level of impedance to the
other cars in the stream.
Passing Bay Widened section of an otherwise single lane road where a vehicle
may move over to enable another vehicle to pass.
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Passing Sight Minimum sight distance on two-way single roadway roads that
Distance must be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another
vehicle safely and comfortably without interfering with the speed
of an oncoming vehicle travelling at the design speed, should it
come into view after the overtaking manoeuvre is started.
Pavement Layers The layers of different materials which comprise the pavement
structure.
Pedestrian Transverse strip of roadway intended for the use of pedestrians
Crossing crossing the road. The crossing may be uncontrolled or controlled.
Pedestrian Refuge Raised platform or a guarded area so sited in the roadway as to
divide the streams of traffic and to provide a safe area for
pedestrians.
Point of Curvature Beginning of a horizontal curve, often referred to as BC.
(PC)
Point of Point of intersection of two tangents.
Intersection (PI)
Point of Reverse Point where a curve in one direction is immediately followed by a
Curvature (PRC) curve in the opposite direction. Typically applied only to kerb lines.
Point of Tangency End of horizontal curve, often referred to as EC.
(PT)
Point of Vertical The point at which a grade ends and the vertical curve begins, often
Curvature (PVC) also referred to as BVC.
Point of Vertical The point where the extension of two grades intersect. The initials
Intersection (PVI) are sometimes reversed to VPI.
Point of Vertical The point at which the vertical curve ends and the grade begins. Also
Tangency (PVT) referred to as EVC.
Project The specifications relating to a specific project, which form part of
Specifications the contract documents for such project, and which contain
supplementary and/or amending specifications to the Standard
Specifications.
Pumping The ejection of foundation material, either wet or dry, through
joints or cracks, or along edges of rigid slabs resulting from vertical
movements of the slab under traffic.
Quarry An area within designated boundaries, approved for the purpose of
obtaining rock by sawing or blasting.
Ramp a) Inclined section of roadway over which traffic passes for the
primary purpose of ascending or descending so as to make
connections with other roadways.
b) Interconnecting length of road of a traffic interchange or any
connection between roads of different levels, on which vehicles
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xxiii

may enter or leave a designated road.

Reconstruction The process by which a new pavement is constructed, utilizing
mostly new materials, to replace an existing pavement.
Recoverable Side slope of limited grade such that a motorist can generally return
Slope to the roadway.
Recycling The reuse, usually after some processing, of a material that has
already served its first-intended purpose.
Rehabilitation Work undertaken to significantly extend the service life of an
existing pavement. This may include overlays and pre overlay
repairs, and may include complete removal and reconstruction of the
existing pavement, or recycling of part of the existing materials.
Reinforcement Steel embedded in a rigid slab to resist tensile stresses and
detrimental opening of cracks.
Reverse Camber A super-elevated section of roadway sloped across the entire
(RC) travelled way at a rate equal to the normal camber.
Reverse Curve Composite curve consisting of two arcs or transitions curving in
opposite directions.
Right Hand Lane On a dual roadway, the traffic lane nearest to the shoulder.
Right Turn Lane Auxiliary lane to accommodate deceleration and storage of right-
turning vehicles at junctions.
Right of Way Strip of land legally awarded to the Roads Authority, in which the
road is or will be situated and where no other work or construction
may take place without permission from the Roads Authority. The
width of the road reserve is measured at right angles to the
centreline.
Rigid Pavement A pavement structure which distributes loads to the subgrade
having, as the main load bearing course, a Portland cement
concrete slab of relatively high-bending resistance.
Roadbase A layer of material of defined thickness and width constructed on top
of the sub-base, or in the absence thereof, the subgrade. A roadbase
may extend to outside the carriageway.
Road Bed The natural in situ material on which the fill, or in the absence of fill,
any pavement layers, are to be constructed.
Road Bed The material below the subgrade extending to such depth as affects
Material the support of the pavement structure.
Road Prism That portion of the road construction included between the original
ground level and the outer lines of the slopes of cuts, fills, side fills
and side drains. It does not include sub-base, roadbase, surfacing,
shoulders, or existing original ground.
Page xxiv Ethiopian Roads Authority

Roadway The area normally travelled by vehicles and consisting of one or a

number of contiguous traffic lanes, including auxiliary lanes and
shoulders.
Rolling (Terrain) Terrain with low hills introducing moderate levels of rise and fall
with some restrictions on vertical alignment. Defined as terrain with
11-25 five-metre contours per km. The transverse ground slopes
perpendicular to the ground contours are generally between 3% and
25%.
Roundabout Road junction designed for movement of traffic in one direction
around a central island.
Safety Rest Area Roadside area with parking facilities for the motorist to stop and
rest.
Sag Curve Concave vertical curve with the intersection point of the tangents
below the road level.
Shoulder Part of the road outside the carriageway, but at substantially the
same level, for accommodation of stopped vehicles for emergency
use, and for lateral support of the carriageway.
Shoulder The point on a cross section at which the extended flat planes of the
Breakpoint surface of the shoulder and the outside slope of the fill and
pavement intersect.
Side Fill That portion of the imported material within the road prism which
lies outside the fills, shoulders, roadbase and sub-base and is
contained within such surface slopes as shown on the Drawings or as
directed by the Engineer. A distinction between fills and side fill is
only to be made if specified.
Side Friction The resistance to centripetal force keeping a vehicle in a circular
path. The designated maximum side friction represents a threshold of
driver discomfort and not the point of an impending skid.
Side Drain Open longitudinal drain situated adjacent to and at the bottom of cut
or fill slopes.
Side Slope Area between the outer edge of shoulder or hinge point and the
ditch bottom.
Sight Distance Distance visible to the driver of a passenger car measured along the
normal travel path of a roadway to the roadway surface or to a
specified height above the roadway surface, when the view is
unobstructed by traffic.
Sight Triangle The area in the quadrants of an intersection that must be kept clear
to ensure adequate sight distance between the opposing legs of the
intersection.
Speed Hump Device for controlling the speed of vehicles, consisting of a raised
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xxv

(Bump) area or recess on the roadway.

Spiral Curve Transition curves from straight (tangent) sections of road and a
circular curve.
Stabilisation The treatment of materials used in the construction of the road bed,
fill or pavement layers by the addition of a cementitious binder such
as lime or Portland Cement or the mechanical modification of the
material through the addition of a soil binder or a bituminous binder.
Concrete and asphalt are not considered as materials that have been
stabilised.
Stopping Sight Distance required by a driver of a vehicle, travelling at a given
Distance speed, to bring his vehicle to a stop after an object on the roadway
becomes visible. It includes the distance travelled during the
perception and reaction times and the vehicle braking distance.
Sub-base The layer of material of specified dimensions on top of the subgrade
and below the roadbase. It is the secondary load-spreading layer
underlying the base course. It will usually consist of a material of
lower quality than that used in the base course and particularly of
lower bearing strength. Materials may be unprocessed natural
gravel, gravel-sand, or gravel-sand-clay, with controlled gradation
and plasticity characteristics. The sub-base also serves as a
separating layer preventing contamination of the base course by the
subgrade material and may play a role in the internal drainage of
the pavement.
Subgrade The surface upon which the pavement structure and shoulders are
constructed. The top portion of the natural soil, either undisturbed
(but re-compacted) local material in cut sections, or soil excavated
in cut or borrow areas, and placed as compacted embankment.
Subsurface Drain Covered drain constructed to intercept and remove subsoil water,
including any pipes and permeable material in the drains.
Super-elevation Inward tilt or transverse inclination given to the cross section of a
roadway throughout the length of a horizontal curve to reduce the
effects of centrifugal force on a moving vehicle; expressed as a
percentage.
Super-elevation Length of road over which super-elevation is reduced from its
Run-off maximum value to zero.
Surface Treatment The sealing or resealing of the carriageway or shoulders by means of
one or more successive applications of bituminous binder and an
aggregate such as crushed stone chippings.
Surfacing This comprises the top layers(s) of the flexible pavement and
consists of a bituminous surface dressing or one or two layers of
premixed bituminous material (generally asphalt concrete). Where
premixed materials are laid in two layers, these are known as the
wearing course and the binder course.
Page xxvi Ethiopian Roads Authority

Switchbacks Sequence of sharp curves at or near minimum radius employed to

traverse a mountainous or escarpment terrain section.
Tangent Portion of a horizontal alignment of straight geometrics.
Taper Transition length between a passing place, auxiliary lane or
climbing lane and the standard roadway.
Tie Bar A deformed steel bar or connector embedded across a joint in a
rigid concrete slab to prevent separation of abutting slabs.
Traffic Vehicles, pedestrians and animals travelling along a route.
Traffic Capacity Maximum number of vehicles which has a reasonable expectation
of passing over a given section of a lane or a roadway in one
direction or in both directions for a two-lane single roadway road,
during a given time period under prevailing road and traffic
conditions.
Traffic Flow Number of vehicles or persons that pass a specific point in a stated
time, in both directions unless otherwise stated.
Traffic Lane Part of a travelled way intended for a single stream of traffic in one
direction, which has normally been demarcated as such by road
markings.
Traffic Island Central or subsidiary area raised or marked on the roadway,
generally at a road junction, shaped and placed so as to direct
traffic movement.
Traffic Volume Volume of traffic usually expressed in terms of average annual
daily traffic (AADT).
Transition Curve Curve whose radius changes continuously along its length, used for
the purpose of connecting a tangent with a circular arc or two
circular areas of different radii.
Transition Length Length of the transition curve.
Trunk Road International Trunk Road linking centres of international
importance and crossing international boundaries or terminating at
international ports.
Turning Lanes Lanes which separate turning vehicles from the through traffic
lanes.
Turning Roadway Channelized turning lane at an at-grade intersection.
Typical Cross- A cross-section of a road showing standard dimensional details and
Section features of construction.
Turning Template A graphic representation of a design vehicle’s turning path for
various angles of turn. If the template includes the paths of the
outer front and inner rear points of the vehicle, reference is to the
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xxvii

swept path of the vehicle.

Unbound Naturally occurring or processed granular material which is not held
Pavement together by the addition of a binder such as cement, lime or bitumen.
Materials
Vertical Direction of the centreline of a road in side profile.

Alignment
Vertical Curve Curve on the longitudinal profile of a road, normally parabolic.
Warrant A guideline value indicating whether or not a facility should be

provided. For example, a warrant for signalisation of an
intersection would include the traffic volumes that should be
exceeded before signalisation is considered as a traffic control
option. Note that, once the warranting threshold has been met, this
is an indication that the design treatment should be considered and
evaluated and not that the design treatment is automatically
required.
Waste Material excavated from roadway cuts but not required for making
the embankments. It must be pointed out that this material is not
necessarily wasted as the word implies, but can be used in
widening embankments, flattening slopes, or filling ditches or
depressions for erosion control.
Wearing Course The top course of an asphalt surfacing or, for gravel roads, the
uppermost layer of construction of the roadway made of specified
materials.
Weaving Movement in the same general direction of vehicles within two or

more traffic streams intersecting at a shallow angle so that the
vehicles in one stream cross other streams gradually.
Welded Wire Welded steel wire fabric for concrete reinforcement.

Fabric
Page xxviii Ethiopian Roads Authority

Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Abbreviations
ABBREVIATIONS
AADT Average Annual Daily Traffic

AASHO American Association of State Highway Officials (previous
designation)
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials
ADT Average Daily Traffic
AC Asphalt Concrete
ACV Aggregate Crushing Value – a measure of aggregate strength
a1, a2, a3 Strength coefficients. The empirical strength coefficients used
for weighting the contribution of each layer of the pavement to
the overall structural number (SN). They are modified by the
drainage coefficients, m (see below).
ASTM American Society for Testing Materials
BS British Standard
BVC Beginning of Vertical Curve
CADD Computer Aided Design and Drafting
CBR California Bearing Ratio (as described in AASHTO T 193)
CMP Corrugated Metal Pipe
CRCP Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement
DCP Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
DHV Daily High Volume
DS Design Standard
DTM Digital Terrain Model
DV Design Vehicle
EELPA Ethiopian Electric Light and Power Authority
ELH Economic Limit of Haul
EMA Ethiopian Mapping Authority
ERA Ethiopian Road Authority
Equivalent standard axles. A measure of the damaging effect of
ESA
vehicle axles (see ERA Pavement Design Manual Volume I).
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xxix

Abbreviations Geometric Design Manual – 2013
ETB Ethiopian Birr

ETC Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation
EVC End of Vertical Curve
FH Free Haul
FWD Falling Weight Deflectometer
GM Grading Modulus
GPS Global Positioning System
h1, h2, h3 Thicknesses of pavement surface, base and sub-base layers
(existing or required)
HAL Horizontal Alignment Listing
HMA Hot Mixed Asphalt
IDA International Development Agency
ICL Initial Consumption of Lime test
IRI International Roughness Index
JPCP Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement
JRCP Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pavement
LAA Los Angeles Abrasion Value – a measure of aggregate strength
LoS Loss of Service
m2, m3 Drainage coefficients. Factors used to modify layer coefficients
in flexible pavements to take account of climate, the
effectiveness of internal pavement drainage and moisture
sensitivity.
MDD Maximum Dry Density
MUTCD Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices
NC Normal Crown section (or Normal Camber)
NDT Non-destructive test
PC Point of Curvature
PCC Portland Cement Concrete
PI Point of Intersection
PMS Pavement Management System
PSD Passing Sight Distance
Page xxx Ethiopian Roads Authority

Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Abbreviations
PT Point of Tangency
PVI Point of Vertical Intersection
RCP Reinforced Concrete Pipe
RoW Right of Way
RPSD Reduced Passing Sight Distance
RRD Representative Rebound Deflection
RTA Road Transport Authority
SC Spiral to circular curve transition point
SSD Stopping Sight Distance
S1 to S6 Subgrade strength classes used to characterize the subgrade in
pavement design (see ERA Pavement Design Manual Volume I
Flexible Pavements).
SN and MSN Structural Number and Modified Structural Number. An index
of overall pavement strength based on the thicknesses and
strengths of each pavement layer.
SNeff and MSNeff Effective Structural Number of an existing pavement
T1 to T8 Traffic classes used to characterize the anticipated traffic in
terms of ESA for flexible pavement design purposes
TBM Temporary Benchmark
ToR Terms of Reference
TRL Transport Research Laboratory, UK (formerly TRRL)
TRRL Transport and Road Research Laboratory, UK
TS Tangent to Spiral transition point
VOC Vehicle Operating Costs
VFB Voids Filled with Bitumen
VIM Voids in the Mix
VMA Voids in the Mineral Aggregate
VPI Vertical Point of Intersection
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xxxi

Chapter 2
Geometric Design Manual-2013 Summary of Standards
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
The procedures for the geometric design of roads presented in this manual are applicable to
most trunk roads, link roads, main access roads, collector roads, feeder roads and
unclassified roads as defined by ERA in this Geometric Design Manual.
The manual does not deal in detail with the design of major grade separated junctions
between restricted access freeways (motorways) although the topic is introduced
sufficiently for some of the simpler designs to be carried out; nor does the manual deal
with the detailed design of drainage features. For this the reader should refer to ERA’s
Drainage Design Manual.
The use of the procedures described in this manual will help in achieving reasonable
uniformity in geometric design for a given set of conditions.
1.2 Organization of the Manual
The organization of this manual and the design process are outlined in this Section.
After this introduction, a summary of the standards developed within the manual together
with departures from standards and the method of dealing with departures from standards,
are given in Chapter 2.
Chapter 3 deals with preliminary design considerations. Specifically, it lists procedures for
identifying potential alignments in a ‘route corridor’ selection process.
Chapter 4 discusses survey requirements.
Chapter 5 discusses those external controls and criteria affecting the selection of the
geometric design values. These include a discussion of the road hierarchy and functional
classification; terrain considerations; the design vehicle; the importance of population
density and character of adjoining land use; design traffic volume; and design speed.
Cross sectional elements of the road include lane widths, shoulders, cross-fall, side slopes
and back slopes, roadside ditches, clear zones, and right-of-way. These issues are discussed
in Chapter 6.
A significant element in the geometric design of roads is sight distance. Chapter 7 develops
the formulae and application of both stopping and passing sight distances.
Chapter 8 deals with horizontal alignment and provides information on tangent sections,
transition curves, curve elements including circular curves, reverse, broken-back,
compound and isolated curves. Lane widening requirements for curves are explained, and
the special considerations in switchback, or hairpin, curves are discussed. Super-elevation
standards are then developed, including rates, run-off and shoulder super-elevation.
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page 1-1

Chapter 2
Summary of Standards Geometric Design Manual-2013
Chapter 9 is devoted to the issue of vertical alignment. Sub-sections deal with the topics of
crest and sag curves, maximum and minimum gradients, climbing lanes, and vertical
clearances.
Chapter 10 discusses the need for phasing between horizontal and vertical design,
problems associated with mis-phasing and possible corrective actions.
Chapter 11 discusses at-grade junctions, including design requirements, selection of

junction type, T-junctions, cross junctions and roundabouts; sight distances; and junction
elements including turning lanes and traffic islands.
Grade-separated junctions are discussed in a similar manner in Chapter 12. Topics

included are the choice of scheme, geometric standards, design principles and types of
junctions.
Safety and miscellaneous items are dealt with in Chapter 13. These include the design of
safety rest areas and scenic overlooks, bus lay-bys and parking bays, parking lanes, public
utilities, railway grade crossings, safety barriers and emergency escape ramps.
Items defined as roadway furniture are discussed in Chapter 14. This includes traffic signs,
road markings, marker posts, traffic signals and lighting.
Finally, the appendices provide information on numerous aspects deemed best placed in an
appendix rather than in the main body of the text. This includes the classification of roads
and the current extent of ERA’s road network; details of friction factors for road surfaces;
further explanation of the method of determining sight distances; requirements for the
location of utilities; typical cross sections; supplementary information on procedures for
design and on the preparation of plans and drafting; terms and definitions, and
abbreviations used in the manual; and information concerning the use of mass haul
diagrams for minimizing the extent of earthworks.
Page 1-2 Ethiopian Roads Authority

Chapter 2
2 SUMMARY OF STANDARDS AND DEPARTURES FROM STANDARDS

2.1 Introduction
Geometric design is the process whereby the layout of the road through the terrain is
designed to meet the needs of the road users. The principal geometric features are the road
cross-section and the horizontal and vertical alignments. Appropriate standards depend
upon the following factors:
1. Topography.
2. Traffic volume and traffic composition.
3. Design vehicle characteristics.
4. Road function.
5. Design speed and other speed controls.
6. Control of access.
7. Road safety considerations.
8. Land use and physical features.
9. Economic and financial considerations.
10. Environmental considerations.
11. Alternative construction technologies.
2.2 Design Standards
The design standards apply to divided highways, trunk and link roads, main access and
collector roads, and feeder roads.
An overview of the design standards for each road class is shown in Table 2-1 relating road
functional classification, traffic volumes and design speeds. Table 2.2 summarises shoulder
widths and the widening of shoulders to provide the facilities required in urban and peri-
urban areas.
It will be noted that the design standards do not include any three-lane, two-way roads.
Such roads were intended to function as two-lane two-way roads but with a continuous
central lane for overtaking manoeuvres to minimise congestion. Such roads were found to
have a considerably higher capacity than two-lane, two-way roads but they were found to
be dangerous because the practical effect of the three-lane cross-section was to concentrate
the faster vehicles of the two opposing traffic streams in a common lane resulting in unsafe
operations. Such roads have been universally abandoned.
Table 2.3 summarises the geometric adjustments to be made to the standards for roads that
generally carry only relatively light traffic, when the number of large and heavy vehicles
(3-axles and > 10 tonnes) comprises a significant proportion of the traffic stream.
Similarly Table 2.5 summarises the geometric adjustments to be made if the number of non
4- wheeled (and above) motorised traffic (i.e. motor cycles, etc.) and non-motorized traffic
including pedestrians exceeds certain values and requires special provision for reasons of
safety and smooth traffic flow.

Chapter 2
Finally, Tables 2.6 to 2.17 show the design standards in more detail for each class of road.
The manual describes the derivation of the standards and provides information on how to
use them.
2.3 Departures from Standards
It is anticipated that there may be situations where the designer will be compelled to
deviate from these standards. An example of a Departure from Standard is the inclusion of
a switchback or the use of a gradient greater than the desirable value. Where the designer
departs from a standard, he must obtain written approval from ERA. The Designer shall
submit the following information to ERA:
i) The number, name, and description of the road;
ii) The facet of design for which a Departure from Standards is desired;
iii) A description of the standard, including normal value, and the value of the
Departure from Standards;
iv) The reason for the Departure from Standards, and
v) Any mitigation to be applied in the interests of safety.
The Designer must submit all major and minor Departures from Standards to the respective
regional directorate for evaluation. If the proposed Departures from Standards are
acceptable, the Departures from Standards will be submitted to the Quality Assurance,
Road Inspection and Safety Directorate for final approval.

Chapter 2
Table 2-1: Road Classification, AADT, Carriageway Widths and Design Speeds
Road Design Design Traffic Width (m) Design Speed (km/hr.)
Surface
Functional Standa Flow (AADT) Urban/Peri-
Type Carriageway Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment
Classification rd (Mid-life) Urban
DC8 10,000 –15,000 Paved Dual 2 x 7.3 120 100 85 70 50
DC7 3,000 – 10,000 Paved 7.3 120 100 85 70 50

T
R DC6 1,000 – 3,000 Paved 7.0 100 85 70 60 50
U
M L N DC5 300 – 1,000 Paved 7.0 85 70 60 50 50
A I K
C I N Paved 6.5 – 7.0 (1) 50
DC4 (2) 150 – 300 70 60 30 50
O N K Unpaved 7.0 – 7.5 (1) 45(3)
L
L A Paved 6.0 50
E C DC3 (2) 75 – 150 70 60 30 50
C C Unpaved 7.0 45(3)
F
E T E
O S Paved 3.3 40
E
R S DC2 (2) 25 – 75 60 50 25 50
D Unpaved 6.0 35(3)
E
R DC1 1 – 25 Unpaved 4.5 50 40 30 20 40
Basic
<10 Unpaved 3.5
Access
Notes 1 Choice of carriageway and shoulder widths also depends on numbers of Large Heavy Vehicles defined as vehicles with 3 or more
axles and with GVW > 10 tonnes (see Table 2.3)
2 The choice of design standard depends on the numbers of Large Heavy Vehicles as well as AADT.
3 Design speed is adjusted slightly to provide the same minimum radius of horizontal curvature as for the paved road option in
mountainous terrain.
4 Transition curves are required for all road standards except roads traversing escarpments and road classes DC1 and Basic Access.

Chapter 2
Table 2-2: Shoulder Widths on Each Side of the Carriageway

Rural Terrain/Shoulder Width (m) High Town Section Widths(2) (m)
Design Standard numbers of Parking Foot
Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment PCUs(2) Median!
Lane way
DC8 3.0 3.0 0.5 – 2.5 0.5 – 2.5 3.5 2.5 (min) 5.0 (min)
DC7 3.0 3.0 0.5 – 2.5 0.5 – 2.5 3.5 2.5 Barrier!
DC6 1.5 - 3.0++ 1.5 - 3.0 0.5 – 1.5 0.5 – 1.5 3.0 3.5 2.5 n/a
DC5 1.5 1.5 0.5 0.5 2.75 3.5 2.5 n/a
DC4 paved 1.25 1.25 0.5 0.5 2.75 3.5 2.5 n/a
DC4 unpaved Note 1 Note 1 Note 1 Note 1 +2.0 3.5 2.5 n/a
DC3 paved 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 2.5 3.5 2.5 n/a
DC3 unpaved Note 1 Note 1 Note 1 Note 1 +1.5 3.5 2.5 n/a
DC2 paved 1.5 1.5 1.0 1.0 None n/a n/a n/a
DC2 unpaved Note 1 Note 1 Note 1 Note 1 +1.25 n/a n/a n/a
DC1 Note 1 Note 1 Note 1 Note 1 None n/a n/a n/a
Basic Access Note 1 Note 1 Note 1 Note 1 None n/a n/a n/a
Notes 1 Shoulders not defined for unpaved roads.
2 Additional widths not applicable on escarpments and may not be possible in mountainous terrain.

Chapter 2
Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Summary of Standards
Modifications to the standards summarised above are made for excessive numbers of large
heavy vehicles in the traffic stream and for high volumes of non-motorized vehicles, motor
cycles, pedestrians (and other forms of intermediate transport) on some of the lower road
standards. Large heavy vehicles are defined as vehicles with three or more axles and gross
vehicle weights of greater than 10 tonnes.
Table 2-3: Adjustments for excessive numbers of large heavy vehicles

Original No. of large heavy Revised design class or
AADT
design class vehicles modification to standards
Heavy vehicles > 80 DC 5
150 - 300 DC 4 paved Increase running surface to 7.0m
40 < Heavy vehicles < 80
and decrease shoulders to 1.0m
150 - 300 DC 4 unpaved
40 < Heavy vehicles < 80 Increase road width to 7.5m
DC 3 paved
75 - 150 Heavy vehicles > 30 DC 4
DC 3 unpaved
25 - 75 DC 2
Heavy vehicles < 10 DC 1 may be used
Passenger Car Units (PCUs) are defined as shown in Table 2.4 and the modifications are
summarised in Table 2.5. The modifications are not possible on escarpments. In
mountainous terrain they are only possible along relatively flat sections. In these
circumstances the PCU values are only likely to be high where the population is high, and
this is likely to be defined as a populated area where widening is justified for that reason
alone.
Table 2-4: PCU values
Vehicle PCU value
Pedestrian 0.15
Bicycle 0.2
Motor cycle 0.25
Bicycle with trailer 0.35
Motor cycle taxi (bajaj) 0.4
Motor cycle with trailer 0.45
Small animal-drawn cart 0.7
Bullock cart 2.0
All based on a passenger car = 1.0

Chapter 2
Table 2-5: Adjustments for PCUs greater than 300 AADT.

Standard AADT Surface Modification
DC 8 >10,000 Paved None
DC 7 3,000 – 10,000 Paved None
DC 6 1,000 – 3,000 Paved Shoulders width increased to 3.0 m each side
DC 5 300 – 1,000 Paved Shoulders increased to 2.75 m each side
Paved Shoulder width increased to 2.75 m each side
DC 4 150 - 300
Unpaved Increase carriageway width by 4.0 m
Paved Shoulder width increased to 2.5 m each side
DC 3 75 - 150
Paved None (paved sections will be short)
DC 2 25 - 75

Chapter 2
Table 2-6: Geometric Parameters for Design Class DC8 Paved

(AADT > 10,000 Dual Carriageway)
Urban
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarp’t Peri-
Urban
Design Speed km/hr 120 100 85 70(2) 50
Width of running surface m 2x7.3 2x7.3+
Width of shoulders m Table 2.2
g = 0% m 285 210 155 110 65
Minimum.
Stopping Sight g = 5% m 330 240 175 120 70
Distance
g = 10% m 400 285 205 140 75
SE = 4% m 780 515 350 215 95
Minimum
Horizontal SE = 6% m 685 455 310 195 85
Curve Radius(2)
SE = 8% m 610 410 280 175 80
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes Yes No No
Max. Gradient (desirable) % 3 4 6 6 6
Max. Gradient (absolute) % 5 6 8 8 7
Minimum Gradient % 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Maximum Super-elevation % 8 8 8 8 4
Min. Crest Vertical Curve (1) K 185 100 55 30 10
Min. Sag Vertical Curve K 36 25 18 12 7
Normal Cross-fall % 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Shoulder Cross-fall % 4 4 4 4 4
Right of Way m 50 50 50 50 50
Notes
1 These values are based on an object height of 0.2m. Use of a different sized object (see
Chapter 9) requires ERA approval.
2 The design speed on escarpments may be dictated by the severity of the terrain and the
curve radius (plus curve widening) that can be achieved on the hairpin bends.

Chapter 2

(AADT 3,000-10,000)
Urban
Urban
Width of Running Surface m 7.3 7.3+
Width of Shoulders m Table 2.2
g = 0% m 285 210 155 110 65
Minimum.
Distance
g = 10% m 400 285 205 140 75
Min. Passing Sight Distance m 805 675 330(2) 270(2) 180(2)
% Passing Opportunity % 50 50 25 0 20
SE = 4% m 780 515 350 215 95
Minimum
Horizontal SE = 6% m 685 455 310 195 85
Curve Radius(3)
SE = 8% m 610 410 280 175 80
Right of Way m 50 50 50 50 50
Notes
2 To abort passing manoeuvre.

Chapter 2

(AADT 1,000-3,000)
Urban
Urban
Width of running surface m 7.0 7.0+
Width of shoulders m Table 2.2 and Table 2.5
g = 0% m 210 155 110 85 65
Minimum.
Distance
g = 10% m 285 205 140 105 75
Min. Passing Sight Distance(2) m 375 330 270 230 180
SE = 4% m 515 350 215 145(3) 95
Minimum
(3)
Horizontal SE = 6% m 455 310 195 135 85
Curve Radius(4)
SE = 8% m 410 280 175 120(3) -
Right of Way m 50 50 50 50 50
Notes
3 Target value. The design speed on escarpments may be dictated by the severity of the
terrain and the curve radius (plus curve widening) that can be achieved on the hairpin
bends.

Chapter 2

(AADT 300-1,000)
Urban
Urban
Width of Running Surface m 7.0 7.0+
Width of Shoulders m Table 2.2 and Table 2.5
g = 0% m 155 110 85 65 65
Minimum.
Distance
g = 10% m 205 140 105 75 75
Min. Passing Sight Distance(2) m 330 270 230 180 180
SE = 4% m 350 215 145 95(3) 95
Minimum
(3)
Horizontal SE = 6% m 310 195 135 85 85
Curve Radius(4)
SE = 8% m 280 175 120 80(3) -
Transition Curves Required Yes Yes No No No
(4) (4)
Right of Way m 50 50 50 50 50
Notes
4 Length not to exceed 200m and relief gradients required (< 6% for minimum of 200m).
5 In some circumstances in very flat terrain this can be reduced to 0.3%

Chapter 2
Table 2-10: Geometric Parameters for Design Class Paved DC4(1)

(AADT 150-300)
Urban
Urban
Design Speed km/hr 70 60 50 25 50
(2) (2)
Width of Running Surface m 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5(2)
Width of Shoulders m Table 2.2, Table 2.3 and Table 2.5
g = 0% m 110 85 65 25 65
Minimum.
Distance
g = 10% m 140 105 75 25 75
Min Passing Sight Distance m 270 230 180 50 180
(3)
SE = 4% m 215 145 95 20 95
Minimum SE = 6% m 195 135 85 18(3) 85
Horizontal (3)
Curve Radius SE = 8% m 175 120 80 17 -
SE = 10% m 160 110 75 16(3) -
Max. Gradient (absolute) % 6 8 10(4) (5) 10(4) (5) 9
7
Normal Cross-fall % 3 3 3 3 3
Notes
1 If there are more than 80 Large Heavy Vehicles per day then DC5 should be used (Table 2.9).
2 If the number of Large Heavy Vehicles is >40 per day then this should be increased to 7.0m.
(Table 2.3).
3 On hairpin stacks the minimum radius may be reduced to a minimum of 15m.
5 If the number of Large Heavy Vehicles < 10 this can be increased to 12%.
7 In some circumstances in very flat terrain this can be reduced to 0.3%

Chapter 2
Table 2-11: Geometric Parameters for Unpaved DC4(1)

(AADT 150-300)
Urban
Urban
Design Speed km/hr 70 60 45(7) 25 50
(4) (2,3) (2,3)
Road Width m 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0(2, 3, 4)
Minimum. g = 0% m 125 95 60 25 70
Stopping
g = 5% m 145 110 70 25 80
Sight
Distance g = 10% m 175 130 75 30 90
Min. Passing Sight Distance m 270 230 165 50 180
Min. Horizontal Radius m 255 175 90 25(5) 115
9
Max. Super-elevation % 6 6 6 6 6
(8)
Min Crest Vertical Curve K 35 20 9 1 11
Min Sag Vertical Curve K 12 9 5 2 7
(6)
Notes
1 If there are more than 80 Large Heavy Vehicles then DC5 should be used (Table 2.3).
2 If the number of Large Heavy Vehicles is >40 but <80 then the road width should be increased
to 7.5m (Table 2.3).
3 If the number of PCUs is high, see Table 2.5.
4 In urban and peri-urban areas parking lanes and footpaths might be required and the roadway
may need to be paved (Table 2.2).
6 Cross-fall can be reduced to 4% where warranted (e.g. poor gravel - for safety, low rainfall).
7 The design speed has been adjusted to provide the same minimum radii of curvature as for the
paved DC4 standard.
9 In some circumstances in very flat terrain this can be reduced to 0.3%.

Chapter 2

(AADT 75-150)
Urban
Urban
Width of Running Surface m 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0
Width of Shoulders(2) (3) m Table 2.2 and Table 2.5
g = 0% m 110 85 65 25 65
Minimum.
Distance
g = 10% m 140 105 75 25 75
Min. Passing Sight Distance m 275 225 175 60 175
(3)
SE = 4% m 215 145 95 20 95
Minimum
Horizontal SE = 6% m 195 135 85 18(3) 85
Curve Radius (3)
SE = 8% m 175 120 80 17 -
Max. Gradient (desirable) % 6 7 10(4) 10(4) 7
(4)) (4)
(5)
Min. Crest Vertical Curve K 30 17 10 2 10
Notes
1 If there are more than 30 Large Heavy Vehicles, then DC4 should be used (Table 2.3).
3 In urban and peri-urban areas parking lanes and footpaths may be required (Table 2.2).

Chapter 2
Table 2-13: Geometric Parameters for Design Class Unpaved DC3(1)

(AADT 75-150)
Urban(2)
Urban
(3) (3)
Road Width m 7.0 7.0 6.5 6.5 7.0(2) (3)
Minimum g = 0% m 125 95 60 25 70
Stopping
g = 5% m 145 110 70 25 80
Sight
Distance g = 10% m 175 130 75 30 90
(4)
Min Horizontal Radius m 255 175 90 25 115
8
(7)
(5)
Notes
1 If there are more than 30 Large Heavy Vehicles, then DC4 should be used (Table 2.3).
2 In urban and peri-urban areas, parking lanes and footpaths may be required and the
roadway may need to be paved (Table 2.2)
5 Cross-fall can be reduced to 4% where warranted (e.g. poor gravel -for safety, low rainfall).
6 Design speed is adjusted to provide the same minimum radii of curvature as for the paved
DC3 standard.

Chapter 2

(AADT 25-75)
Urban
Urban
Width of Running Surface m 3.3
Width of Shoulders(3) m 1.5 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.5(2)
Minimum. g = 0% m 85 65 45 20 65
Stopping
g = 5% m 90 70 47 20 70
Sight
Distance g = 10% m 105 75 50 20 75
Minimum SE = 4% m 145 95 55 15(7) 95
Horizontal (7)
SE = 6% m 135 85 50 15 85
Curve
Radius SE = 8% m 120 80 50 15(7) -
(4) (4)
Max. Gradient (absolute) % 8 9 12(4) 12(4) 9
6
(5)
Notes
1 If there are more than 20 Large Heavy Vehicles, then DC3 should be used.
roadway may need to be paved (Table 2.2).

Chapter 2
Table 2-15: Geometric Parameters for Design Class Unpaved DC2 (1, 2)
(AADT 25-75)
Urban
Urban
(4,5)
Road Width m 6.0 6.0(3)
Minimum. g = 0% m 85 65 40 20 65
Stopping
g = 5% m 90 70 45 20 70
Sight
Distance g = 10% m 105 75 50 20 75
10
(9)
(8)
Notes
1 If the number of Large Heavy Vehicles >20 then DC3 should be used.
2 If the number of Large Heavy Vehicles <10 then DC1 may be used.
roadway may need to be paved (Table 2.2).
5 Road widths may be reduced at the discretion of the Engineer and approval of the Client to
address specific local conditions, especially in mountainous areas.
7 Design speed is adjusted to provide the same minimum radii of curvature as for paved
standard.
8 Cross-fall can be reduced to 4% where warranted (e.g. poor gravel-for safety, low rainfall).

Chapter 2
Table 2-16: Geometric Parameters for Design Class DC1

(AADT 1-25)
Urban
Escarp’t
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain (1) (2) Peri-
Urban
Road Width m 4.5
g = 0% m 70 60 30 20 50
Minimum.
Stopping g = 5% m 80 70 35 20 55
Sight Distance
g = 10% m 90 75 37 20 60
Max. Gradient (absolute) % 102 102 122 12(2) 9
3
Notes
1 On hairpin stacks the minimum radius may be reduced to 13m.
2 Length not to exceed 200m and relief gradient required (< 6% for minimum of 200m).
For the lowest category of road it may sometimes be necessary to adopt a basic access only
approach. For such roads it may be too expensive to provide a design speed but minimum
absolute standards must be applied. These are summarised in Table 2.17.
Table 2-17: Minimum Standards for Basic Access
Characteristic Minimum requirements
12m absolute but up to 20m depending
Radius of horizontal curvature
on expected vehicles
Vertical curvature
K value for crests 2.5
K value for sags 0.6
Maximum gradients
Open to all vehicles 14%
Open only to cars and pick-ups 16%
Minimum stopping sight distance Flat and Rolling terrain 50m
Mountainous 35m
Escarpments 20m

Chapter 3
Geometric Design Manual-2013 Site Investigation for Route Selection and Design
3 SITE INVESTIGATION FOR ROUTE SELECTION AND DESIGN

3.1 Introduction
Site investigation is a vital and integral part of the location, design and construction of a
road. It provides essential information on the characteristics of the soils along the possible
alignments, availability of construction materials, topography, land use, environmental
issues and socio-political considerations related to the following:
i) Selection of the route/alignment of the road;
ii) Location of water crossings and drainage structures;
iii) Design information for the road pavements, bridges and other structures;
iv) Identifying areas of possible geotechnical problems requiring specialist
investigation;
v) Identifying areas of possible problem soils requiring additional investigation and
treatment;
vi) Location and assessment of suitable, locally available, borrow and construction
material.
This list indicates that the main component of site investigations is focussed on what is
generally described as ‘engineering’ or, more precisely, ‘geotechnical engineering’.
However, various other types of survey are required. Hydrological surveys are required to
determine the water flows that determine the drainage design of the road, including
bridges; traffic surveys are required to estimate the numbers of vehicles, both motorised
and non-motorised, that will use the road; surveys are required to evaluate environmental
impacts and how to control them; surveys are required in which the local communities are
consulted about the road project; and so on.
Information obtained during the site investigation is used by the design engineer to prepare
and refine the detailed engineering design. This information is usually contained within a
series of documents that are prepared by the design engineer, initially for consideration by
the client and, ultimately, to develop the tender and draft contract documents. These
documents normally include separate volumes dealing with the following design aspects:
i) Alignment survey and geometric design;
ii) Traffic volume and traffic loading;
iii) Construction materials and subgrade properties;
iv) Pavement structural design;
v) Hydrology, drainage and water crossings;
vi) Ground stability and geotechnical design;
vii) Environmental considerations (EIA and outline EMP);
viii) Social and complementary activities;
ix) Engineer’s cost estimate.
Not all projects require the same detailed surveys. Road projects fall into the following
categories:
1) A new road that follows the general alignment of an existing track or trail;
2) Upgrading a lower class of road to a higher class

Chapter 3
Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Site Investigation for Route Selection and Design
3) A completely new road where nothing currently exists.
Some realignment, and therefore site investigation, will almost certainly be necessary
when upgrading an existing road and considerably more will be required when converting
a track into an all-weather route. Major site investigations are usually only needed when
designing and building a completely new road. In all cases the extent and quality of any
investigation has a strong influence on the selection of the most cost-effective route and
road design.
Roads of all standards require sufficient investigation to provide enough data and
information to enable the engineer to optimise the design. In this respect, it is the job of the
design engineer to ensure that a well-designed and organised site investigation is
undertaken. The design engineer must therefore specify a programme for the site
investigation teams (survey, materials, geotechnical, socio-environmental) that will
provide adequate information and data to examine the feasibility of all the options under
consideration.
3.2 Site Investigation Techniques
Site investigation techniques encompass a large range of methods. The amount and type of
investigation that is needed for a specific road depends on the nature of the proposed project
and the environment in which it is to be built. For full details of individual site investigation
techniques the reader is referred to the appropriate manuals as follows:
Route Selection Manual (ERA). This deals with the selection of the optimal route for a new
road. It provides guidance on the appraisal of factors affecting route selection including
topography, engineering geology, hydrology, social and environmental factors, and economic
return on investment. It recommends a multi-criteria analysis for the comparison of
competing options, and the identification of the most favourable solution.
Site Investigation Manual (ERA). This deals with site investigation procedures for materials
for road construction and geotechnical factors affecting the performance of the road. It covers
subgrade soil investigations, including problem soils, selection of materials for the
construction of the pavement layers, foundation investigations for structures, and the
assessment of slope stability.
Pavement Design Manual Volume I Flexible Pavements (ERA). This manual includes
information on surveys for estimating traffic volumes and axle loads for design purposes,
information on the use of subgrade strength data and information on the required properties
of the materials for the pavement layers.
Drainage Design Manual (ERA). This includes information for assessing the size of
culverts and bridge openings based on estimates of the water flows obtained from survey
information including rainfall intensity, catchment area and catchment characteristics.
Design Manual for Low Volume Roads (ERA). This manual includes guidance on all
required survey information for the design of low volume roads. For such roads a lower
level of survey effort is acceptable in view of the lower cost of a typical LVR compared
with the cost of higher road classes.

Chapter 4
Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Survey Requirements
4 SURVEY REQUIREMENTS
4.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the survey requirements associated with the geometric design
process. Survey data for design purposes consist of mapping in sufficient detail for the
level of design being undertaken. In some instance a Digital Terrain Model (DTM) for use
with computer design software may be required.
The survey data are dependent on project type and can be collected by aerial photography,
field topographical survey, or a combination of the two.
The following factors should be considered when determining the survey data required:
1. Size and scope of the project
2. Time requirements to move from data collection to the start of design
3. Estimated data collection cost
4. Level of accuracy and detail needed
The project designer is responsible for identifying the appropriate survey data requirements
(type of data, accuracy, area of coverage). The project designer is also responsible for
obtaining the survey data and for selecting the method of data collection.
4.2 Method of Data Collection: Photogrammetry and Field Survey
Topographical ground survey has the capability of achieving greater accuracy than
photogrammetry. The effectiveness of aerial photography depends on location (urban or
rural), ground cover, etc.
Photogrammetry is sufficiently accurate for most applications and can be more cost
effective for all but small projects. For mapping and DTMs, photogrammetry is usually the
preferred choice. However, if a project road is short, has dense foliage, or requires only
mapping of limited features, a field survey is the logical choice. Some fieldwork will be
required for most projects to compile property lines, right-of-way (ROW) information, and
data for utilities, culverts, trees, buildings, bridges and road sign data unavailable through
aerial photography.
Elevations of photogrammetric DTM points on hard surfaces are accurate to within ±60
millimetres. If more precise vertical accuracy is required for areas of a project, the data
must be obtained through a field survey. If precise vertical accuracy is required, such as for
highway pavement elevations, or if obstructed views occur, photogrammetric data can be
supplemented with survey elevations. It is recommended that survey data be collected
before the photogrammetric data to help assure the accuracy of the DTM. Table 4-1
provides guidelines for when photogrammetry, survey, or a combination of both should be
used. It should be noted that this table is a guideline only, and that appropriate methods
also depend on factors such as project location (rural or urban), and road length.
4.3 Survey Data Products
While survey data requests will typically originate from the unit responsible for the design,
they should also serve the requirements of construction. Thus the project designer has the

Chapter 4
Survey Requirements Geometric Design Manual – 2013
responsibility to ensure that survey data obtained for design meets construction needs,
eliminating the need for additional pre-construction ground data.
Mapping used for design development and right-of-way is generally provided at 1:2000
scale. In addition, 1:500 scale mapping can be provided for highly complex projects or
bridge sites.
If vertical data is required, it is provided as DTMs that have replaced contours and cross
sections. DTMs allow more flexibility for the designer and potential follow-up use in
construction. Using the DTM approach, earthwork quantities for payment purposes can be
calculated based on the final design centreline. With DTM data, cross sections for stakeout
purposes can be generated at any desired interval and with any desired station numbering.
DTMs should be requested if the project will be designed using CADD design software, if
cross sections along multiple alignments are required, or if construction needs require
centreline cross section data.
Photogrammetric mapping products consist of 2D graphic files and 3D DTM surfaces (i.e.
*.ttn or *. dtm files) for use in the CADD system.
Field survey data must be obtained using Total Stations or GPS, the output from which
should be compatible with the CADD system to be used.
Table 4-1: Survey Data Requirements

Appropriate Collection Typical
Project Type
Terrain Data Method Bandwidth
Photogrammetry
New Construction or Upgrading Mapping1& DTM2 100 m - 150 m
and field survey
Resurfacing or Rehabilitation
Over 0.5 km long Mapping1& DTM2 Field survey 30-120m
2
Under 0.5 km long No Mapping N/A N/A
1
Mapping and DTM
Resurfacing Field survey 30-100m
(may be required)
Photogrammetry
Intersection Reconstruction Mapping1 and DTM 100-150m
and field survey
New Bridge and Bridge
Replacement
Over 6 ha Mapping1 and DTM Survey 100-150m
Under 6 ha No Mapping2 N/A 100-150m
1. Mapping scales will be 1:2000

2. Instead of new mapping, consider the use of record plans and photo enlargements supplemented by field
survey checks.
3. For bridges, mapping scales must be enlarged. The bandwidth should be a distance up/downstream
consistent with the ERA Bridge Design Manual.

Chapter 4
4.4 Survey Data by Project Type
Table 4.1 shows the amount and type of survey data that is generally required and the
method of data collection for each project type. Some projects may require a combination
of products.
Bridge rehabilitation projects generally do not require any terrain data unless necessary for
major rehabilitation. When terrain data is necessary, use the same terrain guidelines used
for new bridges and bridge replacement projects.
Resurfacing and rehabilitation projects usually do not require project wide mapping.
However, limited data may be required such as pavement elevations where super-elevation
adjustments are anticipated. Other projects may require very limited data such as pavement
and shoulder edges. If only limited data is needed then a field survey is preferred.
4.5 Field Surveys
Detailed ground surveys along the length of the proposed project roads should use the most
up-to-date surveying equipment such as Total Stations or GPS to examine the road
alignment and cross sections and any bridge sites and culvert sites that are considered
necessary to complete the detailed design and the estimation of quantities.
A controlled traverse should be established using GPS, coordinated and tied into the
national grid system. These points shall be referenced in the field in permanent concrete
posts and shall be shown on the plan and profile drawings. Since projects are to be carried
out using CADD it is essential to organize the topographic surveys as the first step of a
coherent data collection - design chain. Therefore the whole topographic survey should be
made using Total Stations which will directly record the alignment, profile, and cross
section data on computer files which will be retrieved by the CADD system during the
design stage.
The existing road centreline should be identified and staked every 20 metres. The
coordinates are recorded automatically using the Total Station.
The start and end of horizontal curves, and roadway cross sections are also recorded.
The following methodology is used to establish the original setting out data for the
reestablishment of the centreline:
i) The control traverse is established, monumented, and the coordinates in X, Y, Z
accurately measured and tied in to the National Grid System. Concrete beacons
are established at intervals of 150 - 300 metres. These beacons are located as close
as possible to the limit of the road reserve and where one beacon is visible from
the other along the road.
ii) Using the established polygon network of beacons, each of the centreline points is
coordinated.
iii) Using the method of least squares, the best-fit horizontal alignment through the
coordinated points is established.
Cross sections are levelled for each centreline point to a minimum of 25 metres distance
from the centreline. Road edges, cuts, ditch edges, culverts, hilltops, water crossings and

Chapter 4
embankments are taken. Topographic survey information is collected for an adequate

distance on each side of the centreline and cross sections at appropriate intervals,
depending on the type of terrain.
Each cross section comprises such numbers of points as to enable it to properly define the
existing road and such other spots as are required to define the ground shape for an
adequate distance beyond the existing construction width. The data are used to generate a
Digital Terrain Model (DTM) for the whole road. All pertinent features including
buildings, drainage structures details, built up areas, etc. should be recorded for inclusion
on the design drawings.
New alignments are recommended where inadequate horizontal sight distances and sharp
curves exist and wherever the existing route is not to the standards. Therefore, the vertical
and horizontal alignments should be given due attention with respect to sight distance,
maximum grade, maximum length of grade criteria, and safety. In introducing new
alignments, major bridges and drainage structures should be retained as control points or as
node points on the new centreline wherever they are in good condition. Should there be a
need for realignment of the existing road, topographic surveys along the chosen
realignment should be established. The centreline of the road is defined at every 20 metre
interval. Topographical cross-sections, extending at least 25 metres either side of the
centreline, are taken at each of the centreline reference points.
Recommended bridge and major culvert sites are surveyed and mapped at a scale of 1:500
with contours at 0.5 metres intervals or greater in the more severe sections. Each of the site
surveys is tied to the elevation of the primary traverse.
Topographic data are processed using the project computer as work progress.
Detailed site investigation and surveys should be carried out for areas susceptible to
flooding or landslide and at all recommended new or replacement drainage structure
locations including a sufficient length upstream and downstream to the structure. The full
requirements for survey data for drainage structures are provided in the ERA Drainage
Design Manual.
Each survey crew shall be equipped with an electronic Total Station, a three-prism line
road, and an electronic field book. The Total Station will have unlimited on-board data
storage by utilizing integrated circuit data storage cards. Each card should be capable of
storing 500 points. The use of an electronic field book allows the Total Station operator to
code in descriptions and other important information for each data point.
Survey teams can carry out the topographic field work requirements as follows:
i) One team for the location of the control points, whether GPS or National Grid;
ii) One team to survey the centre line and the longitudinal profile,
iii) One team to survey the cross sections, and
iv) One team for the land acquisition survey.
The output from the Total Station and data collection is a computer file which contains
horizontal coordinate points, vertical elevations, and a description of all points needed to
develop a full topographic map of the area. The computer file must be capable of being
downloaded directly into a computerized design and drafting program. These programs

Chapter 4
should then be able to generate, if so desired, a three-dimensional Digital Terrain Model.

The plot should be checked and verified by the surveyors shortly after the fieldwork. The
step-by-step procedure to be used for data collection is as follows:
i) Base map information may be obtained from the Ethiopian Mapping Authority.
ii) The road is divided into survey subsections at a distance of 2 km. A coordinate
system is established for the roadway sections.
iii) A Global Positioning System (GPS) Survey Control System is used to locate
precisely the topographic control points required for the project. A series of
receiver stations is used to generate these points with a high degree of accuracy
by measuring signals generated from a group of three or more geosynchronous
satellites. The establishment of the zero-zero coordinate point is determined
after a review of the existing coordinate information.
iv) A bench circuit is run using accepted level procedures and degrees of accuracy.
Each benchmark is monumented and assigned coordinate points. Once
horizontal and vertical controls are established, the survey crews cross-section
the roadway alignment. The width of each cross-section is dependent on the
terrain of the roadway and the different natural and man-made features. The
minimum distance from centreline for cross-sectioning is 25 metres. The
number of points depends on the topography, road lane characteristics, project
road features within the right-of-way, and as required for the purpose of design
and computations of quantities for earthwork and profile course. Areas where
existing roads cross the alignment and areas affected by cross drainage require
additional topographic survey. Such supplementary topographic survey is
carried out concurrently during the progress of survey along the alignment.
4.6 Topography
All points of detail are located by a right-angle offset wherever possible, with chainage and
offset being recorded. Only when this method is not possible are other techniques such as
bearing and distance, to be used. Structures (buildings, bridges, culverts, etc.) are checked
by detailed face measurements. All physical features adjacent to the line, whether natural
or artificial, are recorded within a range of 25 metres either side of the centreline in open
country and in small villages (market centres) and towns.
4.7 Bench Marks
Standard benchmark levelling procedure is followed with the following limitations

observed:
i) A benchmark is established every 300 - 500 metres along the line close to the
right of way, and at all major structures (bridges and box culverts). Bench marks
must be inter-visible (see Figure 4.1 Standard Bench Mark).
ii) Every benchmark is check levelled by a forward run and a subsequent backward
run forming a closed "loop".
iii) The following standard of accuracy is to be maintained:
C=±K
Where C = maximum permissible error of closure in centimetres,
K = distance between bench marks in kilometres

Chapter 4
This gives Table 4.2 for comparison of accuracy
Table 4-2: Required Level of Accuracy for Surveys

K (km) 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0 10.0
C (cm) ± 0.7 ± 1.0 ± 1.4 ± 2.2 ± 3.2
Figure 4-1: Standard Bench Mark (alternative designs are available)
4.8 Profile and Cross Sections
Profile and cross-section levelling can be run simultaneously. All profiling is done by
direct levelling to two decimal places of a metre, and wherever practicable the cross
section levels are to be obtained in the same manner. Where impracticable, direct levelling
may be replaced or extended by the use of either a hand level or Rhodes arc for cross-
section work.

Chapter 4
Where it is not possible to close a day's work on a permanent benchmark e.g. because of
failing light, a sudden storm, etc. a Temporary Benchmark (TBM) shall be established
from which the work may be resumed.
Cross-sections shall be taken to a minimum distance of 25 metres each side of the

centreline. Profile levelling is run between each pair of consecutive benchmarks,
previously established, and the leveller must close on each successive benchmark as a
turning point. For each succeeding length of profile any error from the preceding length
shall be discarded; the elevation of the previously established intervening benchmark is
accepted and used for the succeeding length of profile.
The disclosure on each previously established benchmark shall not exceed 3.2 centimetres.
The surveyor should check that closure on each successive benchmark is within the
prescribed tolerance. Where the difference is outside this limit the run must be repeated.
4.9 Photogrammetry
The processes of detailed survey, alignment design and setting out are time consuming,
especially if changes to the alignment are made later owing to unforeseen ground
conditions or changing design criteria. The use of photogrammetry can speed up these
procedures and provide the flexibility to allow additional off-site engineering works such
as access to borrow pits, spoil disposal sites and slope drainage works to be designed at a
later date.
As an example, photogrammetry from aerial photographs of 1:25,000 scale can yield

uncontrolled contour mapping at a maximum scale of 1:5,000, with contours at 5-metre
intervals. It is advisable to correct the contour model by establishing two ground control
points in each stereo pair, by tying points on the photographs either to the national or local
grid, or by GPS. The main problems associated with the use of photogrammetry relate to
the lack of ground definition in areas of shade, cloud or dense forest cover.
It may be worthwhile taking photography with an 80 percent photograph overlap in order

to be able to select an appropriate air base for the amount of exaggeration required. For
interpretation in areas of high relief the viewer should use every photograph in the run (80
percent overlap, giving a short air base and minimum relief exaggeration). For areas of low
relief the viewer can select every other photograph, to double relief exaggeration. In
extreme circumstances of very flat ground the viewer can select every third or even every
fourth photograph, doubling the relief exaggeration each time.
The scale of photography is an important factor to consider in the reliability and ground
resolution of the interpretation. Table 4.3 indicates the optimum scales of photography
required to perform various desk study and design tasks.

Chapter 4
Table 4-3: Air Photo Scales for Various Project Tasks

Optimum Air
Task Activity
Photo Scale
Feasibility Study:
Route corridor identification 1: 20,000 - 1: 30,000
Terrain classification 1: 15,000 - 1: 25,000
Drainage/Drainage Area mapping 1: 20,000 - 1: 30,000
Landslide hazard mapping 1: 10,000 - 1: 20,000
Contour Mapping for preliminary estimation of quantities 1: 15,000 - 1: 25,000
Preliminary Design:
Detailed interpretation of corridor(s) for geotechnical purposes 1: 10,000 - 1: 15,000
Ground (contour) model for preliminary alignment design and 1: 10,000 - 1: 15,000
Quantities
Detailed Design
Ground (contour) model for detailed alignment design and quantities 1: 5,000 - 1: 10,000
4.10 Detailed Survey and Alignment Design
With the route corridor confirmed, the alignment engineer, with a survey team, will flag
the approximate centreline. An approximate alignment should first be drawn onto
photogrammetrically plotted contour maps and enlarged prints of aerial photographs in the
office prior to embarking on detailed fieldwork.
If slope stability is critical to the alignment, then geotechnical-mapping surveys should be

undertaken at scales of between 1:1,000 and 1:5,000. It is easier for personnel to locate
themselves with the required accuracy if an approximate centreline has been set out, but
the engineer should be prepared to modify the location of the centreline in the light of the
geotechnical survey. In very difficult ground, these surveys should ideally be carried out
prior to the centreline flagging exercise using aerial photograph enlargements or compass
traverse as a means of location positioning.
With the alignment confirmed, detailed design of all subsequent works can proceed.
Design of the detailed vertical and horizontal alignments requires topographical mapping
at a scale of 1:1,000 with contour intervals at a maximum of 2 metres, using ground
survey, photogrammetry or a combination of the two. Ground survey may be preferable at
this stage due to the greater survey accuracy required. The use of photogrammetry requires
the establishment of a base line traverse and the commissioning of air photography at a
scale of between 1:5,000 and 1:10,000. Plan and profile drawings and schedules of
earthwork and retaining wall designs and quantities can then be produced for contract
documentation.

Appendix I
Geometric Design Manual – 2013 Perspective in Geometric Design
Ethiopian Roads Authority Page I-1

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FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA

ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY

Addis Ababa, 2013

Zaid Wolde Gebriel

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page i

1. Geometric Design Manual

Page ii Ethiopian Roads Authority

1. Users of the manual must register on the ERA website: www.era.gov.et

Addis Ababa, 2013

Zaid Wolde Gebriel

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page iii

ETHIOPIAN ROADS AUTHORITY

This area to be completed by the ERA

Manual Title:____________________________ CHANGE NO._____________

Manual Change Action

Authority Date Signature Recommended Action Approval

Approval / Provisional Approval / Rejection of Change:

Director General ERA:__________________________________ Date: __________________

Page iv Ethiopian Roads Authority

This Geometric Design Manual-2013 is based on a review of the design standards of

Executive Review Group

No. Name Organization

1 Alemgena Alene, Dr. Ethiopian Roads Authority

2 Daniel Nebro, Ato Ethiopian Roads Authority

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page v

List of Persons Contributing to Peer Group Review

No. Name Organization

1 Alemgena Alene, Dr. Ethiopian Roads Authority

2 Amanuel Haddush, Ato ICT

3 Andualem H/Georgis, Ato BEZA Consulting Engineers

4 Bizuneh Kebebe, Ato Civil Works Consulting Engineers

5 Daniel Nebro, Ato Ethiopian Roads Authority

6 Ezra Mersha, Ato Associated Engineering Consultants

7 Jemal Ali, Ato WT Consult

8 Tibebu Gebre, Ato Ethio Infra Engineering

No. Name Organization Role

1 AFCAP Coordinator for

2 Abdo Mohammed ERA Project Coordinator

3 Daniel Nebro ERA Project Coordinator

4 Frew Bekele ERA Project Coordinator

5 Robert Geddes AFCAP/Crown Agents Technical Manager

6 Les Sampson AFCAP/Crown Agents Project Director

7 John Rolt AFCAP/TRL Lead Author

Addis Ababa, 2013

Zaid Wolde Gebriel

Page vi Ethiopian Roads Authority

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page vii

Page viii Ethiopian Roads Authority

9.3 Crest curves ........................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

12.1 General................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page ix

13 ADDITIONAL SAFETY AND MISCELLANEOUS DESIGN ITEMS . ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT

13.1 Introduction ............................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

APPENDIX B COEFFICIENTS OF FRICTION ........... B-ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED.

Page x Ethiopian Roads Authority

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xi

Figure 11-9: Splitter Island .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Page xii Ethiopian Roads Authority

Ethiopian Roads Authority Page xiii

Manual Title:________________ CHANGE NO._

Director General ERA:________________ Date: