The relationships between engineering and true strain are:

σ = s (1+e) ε = ln (1+e)

The true strain (e) is defined as the instantaneous elongation per unit length of the specimen.

Engineering strain is the change in length divided by the original length.

Engineering strain is a small strain measure which is invalid once the strain in your model is no
longer 'small' (approximately 5%). True strain, which is a nonlinear strain measure that is
dependent upon the final length of the model, is used for large strain simulations.

The Gibbs Phase Rule

• The phase rule allows one to determine the Number of degrees of freedom (F) or variance of
a Chemical system. This is useful for interpreting Phase diagrams. F = 2 + C - P

Where F is the number of degrees of freedom is the number of chemical components and P is
the number of phases in the system. The number two is specified because this formulation
assumes that both T and P can be varied.

Schmid's Law

Schmid's law defines the relationship between shear stress, the applied stress, and the
orientation of the slip system. It is an equation for finding the stress in the slip plane given an
axial force and the angle of the slip plane.

A resolved shear stress τ is produced on a slip system

Resolved shear stress in the slip (τr )= σ cos ψ cos Schmid's

direction λ Law

Fourier's Law of Conduction

Fourier's law states that the rate of heat flow, dQ/dt, through a homogeneous solid is directly
proportional to the area, A, of the section at right angles to the direction of heat flow, and to
the temperature difference along the path of heat flow, dT/dx i.e.

The proportionality ratio, is called thermal conductivity of the material.

Curie temperature

The Curie temperature (Tc), or Curie point, is the temperature at which a ferromagnetic
material becomes paramagnetic on heating; the effect is reversible. A magnet will lose its
magnetism if heated above the Curie temperature. The term is also used in piezoelectric
materials to refer to the temperature at which spontaneous polarization is lost on heating. An
analogous temperature, the Neel temperature, is defined for antiferromagnetic materials. The
Curie temperature is named after Pierre Curie. Tc for nickel is 631K, while that for iron is 1043K.

Burgers vector

The Burgers vector is a precise statement of the magnitude and direction of shear that a
dislocation produces. It is defined by means of a circuit around the dislocation on any surface
which intersects the dislocation.

The Burgers vector is the same at all points along the dislocation line. The dislocation is in edge
orientation when normal to the Burgers vector and in screw orientation when parallel to it.
Bauschinger effect

A phenomenon by which the plastic deformation of a metal increases the tensile yield strength
and decreases the compressive yield strength. The Bauschinger effect is named after the
German engineer Johann Bauschinger.

Fick's first law

Fick's first law relates the diffusive flux to the concentration under the assumption of steady
state. It postulates that the flux goes from regions of high concentration to regions of low
concentration, with a magnitude that is proportional to the concentration gradient (spatial
derivative). In one (spatial) dimension, the law is

Where

J is the "diffusion flux"

D is the diffusion coefficient or diffusivity.

(For ideal mixtures) is the concentration in dimensions of [amount of substance per unit

volume], example

x Is the position [length]

D is proportional to the squared velocity of the diffusing particles, which depends on the
temperature, viscosity of the fluid and the size of the particles.

Fick's second law

Fick's second law predicts how diffusion causes the concentration to change with time:

Where,

is the concentration in dimensions of [(amount of substance) length−3], example

 T is time [s]

 D is the diffusion coefficient in dimensions of [length2 time−1], example

 is the position [length],
Hume-Rothery rules

The Hume-Rothery rules, named after William Hume-Rothery, are a set of basic rules describing
the conditions under which an element could dissolve in a metal, forming a solid solution. There
are two sets of rules, one which refers to substitutional solid solutions, and another which refers
to interstitial solid solutions.

Substitutional Solid Solution Rules

For substitutional solid solutions, the Hume-Rothery rules are:

1. The atomic radii of the solute and solvent atoms must differ by no more than 15%:

2. The crystal structures of solute and solvent must match.

3. Complete solubility occurs when the solvent and solute have the same valency. A metal will
dissolve a metal of higher valency to a greater extent than one of lower valency.

4. The solute and solvent should have similar electronegativity. If the electronegativity difference
is too great, the metals will tend to form intermetallic compounds instead of solid solutions.

Interstitial Solid Solution Rules

For interstitial solid solutions, the Hume-Rothery rules are:

1. Solute atoms must be smaller than the interstitial sites in the solvent lattice.

2. The solute and solvent should have similar electronegativity.

Hall–Petch strengthening

Grain-boundary strengthening (or Hall–Petch strengthening) is a method of strengthening

materials by changing their average crystallite (grain) size. It is based on the observation that
grain boundaries impede dislocation movement and that the number of dislocations within a
grain have an effect on how easily dislocations can traverse grain boundaries and travel from
grain to grain. So, by changing grain size one can influence dislocation movement and yield
strength. For example, heat treatment after plastic deformation and changing the rate of
solidification are ways to alter grain size.

Where K is a constant and d is the mean grain size, that the grain size dependence is related to
the length of a slip band, and that the maximum slip band length is determined by the grain size.

Polymorphism& Isomorphism

Polymorphism is the term used to describe the various crystal forms a single compound can
form. A very good example is the amino acid glycine. Polymorphs form under different
conditions, depending on which form is the most stable at the time of formation. Calcium
carbonate is dimorphous (two forms), crystallizing as calcite or aragonite. Titanium dioxide is
trimorphous; its three forms are brookite, anatase (or octahedrite), and rutile. Polymorphism of
an element is called allotropy.

Isomorphism is the term used for similar crystal structures of different compounds. Alums, for
example (double salts of aluminium, sulfate and another metal) are isomorphous, forming similar
crystals, but they are not the same compounds. Sodium nitrate and calcium sulfate are
isomorphous

Polymerization

In polymer chemistry, polymerization is a process of reacting monomer molecules together in a chemical

reaction to form polymer chains or three-dimensional networks.

Chain growth polymerization Step growth polymerization

*Concentration of monomers disappears early in * Concentration of monomers decreases steadily
the reaction. throughout the reaction
*Reaction is fast and polymer is formed at once. *The polymer is formed in gradual steps.
*There is very little change in the molecular mass *The molecular mass of polymer increases
throughout the reaction. throughout the reaction.
*Increase in reaction time increases the yield but *Long reaction time is required to get high
molecular weight is affected a little. molecular mass polymer.
*Only one repeating unit is added at a time. Any two species present can react.
*Reaction mixture contains only a monomer, *All molecular species are present at any stage.
polymer and growing chain.
Degree of polymerization

The degree of polymerization, or DP, is usually defined as the number of monomeric units in a
macromolecule or polymer or oligomer molecule.

Where, Mt = molecular weight at time t

M0 = molecular weight of one monomeric unit

Kirkendall effect

The Kirkendall effect is the motion of the boundary layer between two metals that occurs as a
consequence of the difference in diffusion rates of the metal atoms. The Kirkendall effect
describes the differing diffusion rates that exist between two or more dissimilar layers (e.g. thin
films). If one is able to insert markers on the interface between the layers of a sample (call it an
A/B thin film system), one would see that the markers migrate into one layer, depending on the
difference of the diffusion coefficient of element A in B and B in A. So, if A diffuses faster into
B, the markers will move into layer A.

Schottky & Frenkel defect

A Schottky defect is when 2 oppositely charged ions leave their normal lattice positions forming
2 vacancies in the lattice structure.
This contrasts to a Frenkel defect, where 1 ion simple moves from its normal lattice position to
an interstitial site (tetrahedral/octahedral hole).

Nanomaterials

Nanomaterial is a field that takes a materials science-based approach to nanotechnology. It

studies materials with morphological features on the nanoscale, and especially those that have
special properties stemming from their nanoscale dimensions. Nanoscale is usually defined as
smaller than a one tenth of a micrometer in at least one dimension,[1] though this term is
sometimes used for even smaller materials.

Zone melting

Zone melting (or zone refining or floating zone process) is a group of similar methods of
purifying crystals, in which a narrow region of a crystal is molten, and this molten zone is moved
along the crystal.
Age hardening

Precipitation hardening, also called age hardening, is a heat treatment technique used to increase
the yield strength of malleable materials, including most structural alloys of aluminium,
magnesium, nickel, titanium, and some stainless steels. In super alloys, it is known to cause yield
strength anomaly providing excellent high temperature strength.

Isomorphous systems

Isomorphous systems are the alloy systems which contain metals which are completely
soluble in each other and have a single type of crystal structure.

Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT ) Diagram

T (Time) T (Temperature) T(Transformation) diagram is a plot of temperature versus the

logarithm of time for a steel alloy of definite composition. It is used to determine when
transformations begin and end for an isothermal (constant temperature) heat treatment of a
previously austenitized alloy. When austenite is cooled slowly to a temperature below LCT
(Lower Critical Temperature), the structure that is formed is Pearlite. As the cooling rate
increases, the pearlite transformation temperature gets lower. The microstructure of the material
is significantly altered as the cooling rate increases. By heating and cooling a series of samples,
the history of the austenite transformation may be recorded. TTT diagram indicates when a
specific transformation starts and ends and it also shows what percentage of transformation of
Austenite at a particular temperature is achieved.
Dislocations

In edge dislocations, distortion exists along an extra half-plane of atoms. These atoms also
define the dislocation line. Motion of many of these dislocations will result in plastic
deformation Edge dislocations move in response to shear stress applied perpendicular to the
dislocation line.

The motion of a screw dislocation is also a result of shear stress. Motion is perpendicular to
direction of stress, rather than parallel (edge). However, the net plastic deformation of both edge
and screw dislocations is the same.

Most dislocations can exhibit both edge and screw characteristics. These are called mixed
dislocations

Intrinsic & Extrinsic Semiconductor

A semi-conductor in its purest form is known as intrinsic semi-conductor. Impurity content in an

intrinsic semi-conductor will be less than one part in 100 million parts of semi-conductor.
Pure or intrinsic semiconductor is not used in construction of semi-conductor devices, since its
conductivity is extremely small at room temperature and is highly temperature sensitive .So that
intrinsic semi-conductors are used only for the construction of heat or light sensitive devices. But
the conductivity of the intrinsic semi-conductor can be increased by adding small amount of
impurity. The process of adding impurity to pure semi-conductor is called doping. The doped
semi-conductor is known as extrinsic (Impure) semi-conductor.
Depending on the dopant (Impurity) used, extrinsic semi-conductor can be divided in to two
classes.
* N-type Semi-conductor
* P-type Semi-conductor

An intrinsic semiconductor is the purest form of semiconductor. Group 14 elements like

Germanium and Silicon are typical examples of intrinsic semiconductors. These are free from the
presence of any doping agents.

An extrinsic semiconductor is obtained by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with other

elements.

When we dope group 14 elements with a group 13 element, we get a p type semiconductor where
the majority charge carriers are holes. When the group 14 element, that is , the intrinsic semi-
conductor is doped with a group 15 element we get a n type semiconductor. Here the majority
charge carriers are electrons.
Solid solution

A solid solution is formed when two metals are completely soluble in liquid state and also
completely soluble in solid state. In other words, when homogeneous mixtures of two or more
kinds of atoms (of metals) occur in the solid state, they are known as solid solutions.

Substitutional Solid Solutions

If the atoms of the solvent or parent metal are replaced in the crystal lattice by atoms of the
solute metal then the solid solution is known as substitutional solid solution.
For example, copper atoms may substitute for nickel atoms without disturbing the F.C.C.
structure of nickel.

Interstitial Solid Solutions

In interstitial solid solutions, the solute atom does not displace a solvent atom, but rather it enters
one of the holes or interstices between the solvent atoms.

Elastic, viscous and viscoelastic materials

An elastic material obeys Hooke’s law which states, in its simplest form, that the extension or
change in length of a piece of material is equal to the force applied multiplied by the elastic (or
Young’s) modulus. However, the change in length is maintained only as long as the weights
continue to hang from the spring and provide a force. When the weights are removed the spring
oscillates for a while and then settles down again at its original length. A spring is a very good
mental model of an elastic material in 1-dimension because the important thing about the
response to stresses (or forces) by an elastic material is that the stress is maintained while the
material is deformed. However, if the force applied to elastic material is too great then the
material will stretch beyond its elastic limit and will ‘yield’. After yielding, the material will
deform permanently - this is known as plastic deformation and is usually associated with
breakage.

Some materials are viscous rather than elastic. When a force is applied to a viscous material the
material does not stretch, it flows like a liquid. Most materials used in electronics don't flow as
easily as water but at high temperatures can be a bit like extremely ‘thick’ (or viscous to give it a
scientific name) syrup. The important thing about a viscous material is that when the force is
removed it does not return to its original shape because the force has been ‘used up’ in the fluid
flow. A good mental model of a viscous material is a dash-pot, in which a plunger is pushed
through a liquid.
Many materials show viscoelastic behavior. Figure 1 illustrates a mental model of ‘series
viscoelastic’ behavior; it is a series combination of a dashpot and a spring; the spring has
elasticity, G, and the dash-pot has viscosity, η. When a force is applied across the combination,
at first, the spring stretches. Later, however, the dash-pot will start to flow and the spring will
gradually return to its original length. It takes some time for the material to respond fully to the
force and, once it has responded fully, if the force is removed the material does not necessarily
return to its original dimensions, since flow has occurred.

Martempering

Martempering is a heat treatment for steel involving austenitisation followed by step quenching,
at a rate fast enough to avoid the formation of ferrite, pearlite or bainite to a temperature slightly
above the martensite start (Ms) point. Soaking must be long enough to avoid the formation of
bainite. The advantage of martempering is the reduction of thermal stresses compared to normal
quenching. This prevents cracking and minimizes distortion.

Austempering

Austempering is an isothermal heat treatment that is applied to ferrous metals, most notably steel
and ductile iron. In steel it produces a bainite microstructure whereas in cast irons it produces a
structure of acicular ferrite and high carbon, stabilized austenite known as ausferrite. It is
primarily used to improve mechanical properties or reduce / eliminate distortion. Austempering
is defined by both the process and the resultant microstructure. Typical austempering process
parameters applied to an unsuitable material will not result in the formation of bainite or
ausferrite and thusly the final product will not be called austempered.

RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION,AND GRAIN GROWTH

RECOVERY, RECRYSTALLIZATION,AND GRAIN GROWTH are microstructural changes

that occur during annealing after cold plastic deformation and/or during hot working. These three
mechanisms are sometimes referred to as restoration processes, because they restore the
microstructural configuration to a lower energy level. All three processes involve diffusion and
thus depend on thermal activation to cause rearrangement of dislocations and grain boundaries.
The mechanisms of recovery and recrystallization also depend on the extent of plastic
deformation (either during hot working or by cold work prior to annealing). In contrast, grain
growth is not in direct response to deformation, but it is a thermally driven restoration process
that results in lower surface energy of individual grains. Recovery and recrystallization can occur
during hot working or during annealing after cold plastic deformation. When a metal is cold
worked by plastic deformation, a small portion of the mechanical energy expended in deforming
the metal is stored in the specimen.
Case hardening or surface hardening
Case hardening or surface hardening is the process of hardening the surface of a metal, often a
low carbon steel, by infusing elements into the material's surface, forming a thin layer of a harder
alloy. Case hardening is usually done after the part in question has been formed into its final
shape, but can also be done to increase the hardening element content of bars to be used in a
pattern welding or similar process.

Carburizing
Carburizing is a process used to case hardens steel with a carbon content between 0.1 and 0.3 wt.
% C. In this process steel is introduced to a carbon rich environment and elevated temperatures
for a certain amount of time, and then quenched so that the carbon is locked in the structure; one
of the simpler procedures is repeatedly to heat a part with an acetylene torch set with a fuel-rich
flame and quench it in a carbon-rich fluid such as oil.
Carburization is a diffusion-controlled process, so the longer the steel is held in the carbon-rich
environment the greater the carbon penetration will be and the higher the carbon content. The
carburized section will have a carbon content high enough that it can be hardened again through
flame or induction hardening.
It's possible to carburize only a portion of a part, either by protecting the rest by a process such
as copper plating, or by applying a carburizing medium to only a section of the part.
The carbon can come from a solid, liquid or gaseous source; if it comes from a solid source the
process is called pack carburizing. Packing low carbon steel parts with a carbonaceous material
and heating for some time diffuses carbon into the outer layers. A heating period of a few hours
might form a high-carbon layer about one millimeter thick.
Liquid carburizing involves placing parts in a bath of a molten carbon-containing material, often
a metal cyanide; gas carburizing involves placing the parts in a furnace maintained with a
methane-rich interior.

Nitriding
Nitriding heats the steel part to 482–621 °C (900–1150 °F) in an atmosphere of ammonia gas and
dissociated ammonia. The time the part spends in this environment dictates the depth of the case.
The hardness is achieved by the formation of nitrides. Nitride forming elements must be present
for this method to work; these elements include chromium, molybdenum, and aluminium. The
advantage of this process is it causes little distortion, so the part can be case hardened after being
quenched, tempered and machined.

Cyaniding
Cyaniding is a case hardening process that is fast and efficient; it is mainly used on low carbon
steels. The part is heated to 871-954 °C (1600-1750 °F) in a bath of sodium cyanide and then is
quenched and rinsed, in water or oil, to remove any residual cyanide.
2NaCN + O2 → 2NaCNO
2NaCNO + O2 → Na2CO3 +CO + N2
2CO → CO2 + C
This process produces a thin, hard shell (between 0.25 - 0.75 mm, 0.01 and 0.03 inches) that is
harder than the one produced by carburizing, and can be completed in 20 to 30 minutes
compared to several hours so the parts have less opportunity to become distorted. It is typically
used on small parts such as bolts, nuts, screws and small gears. The major drawback of cyaniding
is that cyanide salts are poisonous.
Slip
Dislocations move on a certain crystallographic plane: slip plane
Dislocations move in a certain crystallographic direction: slip direction
The combination of slip direction and slip plane is called a slip system

Slip planes are normally close-packed planes

Slip directions are normally close-packed directions
Recall for fcc close-packed planes are {111} Close-packed directions are <110>

Twinning
Common in hcp and bcc structures
Limited deformation but help in plastic deformation in hcp and bcc crystals
Occurs on specific twinning planes and twinning directions.