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3; September 2010

Medicinal Plant Diversity and Vegetation Analysis of Logged over

Hill Forest of Tekai Tembeling Forest Reserve, Jerantut, Pahang
Norhajar Eswani, Kamziah Abd Kudus (Corresponding author), M. Nazre & A.G. Awang Noor
Faculty of Forestry, University Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
Tel: 60-3-8946-7169 E-mail: kamziah@putra.upm.edu.my

M. Ali
Perak State Forestry Department, Persiaran Meru Utama
30020 Ipoh, Perak, Malaysia

The research is financed by Research University Grant Scheme, Universiti Putra Malaysia (03/01/07/0039RU)
Abstract
The study was carried out to analyze the species diversity and study of quantitative analysis of medicinal plants
in logged over forest in Tekai Tembeling Forest Reserve (TTFR). Four plots of 1-hectare size each were
established within the forest area. A total of 6788 individual medicinal trees and non trees representing 231
species, 179 genera and 87 families were recorded. The species area curve did not approach an asymptote
condition. The regression equation to estimate species richness was
with r2=0.95%. The most diverse species for trees was Cinnamomum porrectum and Lygodium circinnatum for
non trees. The most diverse plot was plot 2 with 7335 individuals and 188 species. Since the forest area was diverse
in medicinal species, it is necessary to begin conservation assessment that will improve medicinal plants
biodiversity.
Keywords: Species diversity, Importance value index (IVI), Medicinal plant
1. Introduction
Malaysia has been classified as one of the 12 megadiversity countries of the world. Altogether, these twelve
megadiversity countries comprise at least 60% of the world’s known species (Latiff, 2005). Plant has been used
for ages for food, shelter, treat human disorders and disease. Malaysia has about 15,000 species of flowering
plants of which about 10% are said to be medicinal (Faridah Hanum et. al. 2001a, Faridah Hanum et. al. 2001b).
Medicinal plant could be defined as plants which may have medicinal properties and many of them were
collected from forest. Medicinal plants is one of the valuable non-timber in the forest. Traditional medicine is an
important part in Malaysian culture and were practiced by ancestors long before the inroduction of modern
medicine. The complete reports on the Malay traditional medicinal plants was reported by Burkill (1935) in a
book entitled “A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula”. Burkill (1935) provided the first
comprehensive knowledge about the medicinal plants of Peninsular Malaysia, and that became the starting point
for the phytochemists and ethnobotanist to do some studies and research relating to the medicinal plants. All of
these works add a comprehensive knowledge to the account of the Malaysian medicinal plants. ‘In conjunction
with phytochemical screenings and chemical studies by the chemists, the above compilation attempted to
introduce the diversity of medicinal plants to the Malaysian public was made. This is the key for future
bioprospecting in Malaysia. It covers 135 families and more than 1000 species of medicinal plants. Those that
are commonly used in traditional practices only cover about 103 families and 768 dicotyledonous species
documented, and hence would definitely impeded the country’s efforts to better and judiciously utilize them for
the benefits of the populations’ (A. Latiff, 2007). According to Tuan Marina et. al. (2007), there was high
species richness, abundance and economic value of medicinal plants at Tranum Forest Reserved, Raub, Pahang.
This forest categorized as hill forest. The most popular and high demanding of medicinal plants within this area
are Phyllagathis rotundifolia, Labisia pumila, Mapania cuspidata, Homalomena sagittifolia, Peliosanthes teta
and Tacca integrifolia. It proved that, hill forest also have abundance of medicinal plants to look at. This paper
provides species diversity and quantitative analysis of medicinal plants in four hectare plots of hill forest of
Tekai Tembeling Forest Reserve (TTFR), Jerantut, Pahang. The findings of this study indicate that TTFR is most

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diverse for medicinal plant such as Cinnamomum porrectum, Lygodium circinnatum, Globba sp., Labisia pumila
and many else.
2. Methodology
2.1 Study site
This study were conducted at Tekai Tembeling Forest Reserve, Jerantut, Pahang. This is logged over hill
dipterocarp forest and majority of the stocks are dipterocarp species. The fieldwork was carried out during
May-December 2008. This forest area were logged over 2-5 years ago.
2.2 Data collection
Four plots each size 1 hectare were established at different elevation within the hill forest. Each of the 1 hectare
plot were divided into 100 of 10x10m quadrates. The elevation range from 340a.s.l - 520a.s.l. Data were
gathered from each quadrates. Data collected were divided into two groups, tree and non-tree. Plants with
diameter at breast height (dbh) more or equal to 5.0 cm were classified as tree while plants with dbh less than 5.0
cm were classified as non-tree. Parameters recorded for tree were species name, dbh and height. For non-tree
species name and number of individuals were recorded. Dbh for trees were measured at 1.37m above the ground
level by using diameter tape. The height of trees were measured using laser hypsometer. All the specimens
collected were brought to UPM herbarium for drying process and proceed to Forest Research Institute Malaysia
(FRIM) for identification and verification by expert. Then, all the specimens were identified again according to
Burkill (1935) to separate plant which possess medicinal value. Data on medicinal plants were recorded in
database for statistical analysis.
2.3 Data analysis
Data collected were used to calculate frequency, density and basal area. Density, frequency and basal area of
each species in each plot were calculated to seek importance value index (IVI). Vegetation analysis is the best
way to study species composition and vegetation structure in one ecosystem and IVI were calculated in
vegetation analysis (Bambang & Ati, 2006). Importance Value Index (IVI) is the sum of relative density, relative
dominance and relative frequency for a species and is calculated as follows (Curtis and Mclntosh, 1950). This
formula were used to calculate IVI for trees only.
IVI of sp. i = relative density of sp. i + relative frequency of sp. i + relative dominance of sp. i
where:

 
However, data on relative dominance which is derived from basal area is not possible for non-trees. According to
Bambang and Ati (2006), IVI for undergrowth (non trees) calculated using formula modified as below:
IVI of sp. i = relative density of sp. i + relative frequency of sp. i
The Family Value Index (FVI) is the sum of relative density, relative frequency and relative dominance (tree only)
for a family and was calculated using same formula as IVI, where species is replaced by family.
The data for computing species richness, evenness and diversity indices were analyzed using Ecological
Methodology Software (Krebbs, 1998) formula.
2.3.1 Species richness
Jackknife estimate
sˆ = s + ( n − 1/ n) k
where; ŝ = jack knife estimate of species richness
s = observed total number of species present in quadrates

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n = total quadrates
k = unique species
2.3.2 Species diversity
Simpson’s Index
Dˆ = 1 − ∑ Pi 2
where; D̂ = Simpson’s index
Pi = proportion of species i in the community
Shannon-Weiner measure
s
H ' = ∑ ( Pi )(log Pi )
i =1
where; H ' = information content of sample (bits/individual) and index of diversity
s = number of species
Pi = proportion of total sample belonging to i species
2.3.3 Species evenness
Simpson’s measure of evenness
E1/ D = (1/ Dˆ ) / s
where; E1/ D = Simpson measure of evenness
s = number of species in the sample
D̂ = Simpson index
Smith and Wilson’s index of evenness

where Evar = Smith and Wilson’s index of evenness

ni = Number of individuals in species i in sample (i = 1, 2, ..., s)
nj = Number of individuals in species j in sample (j = 1, 2, ..., s)
s = Number of species in entire sample
3. Results and discussion
(Note 1)
Figure 1 showed the species accumulation curve constructed from the four 1-hectare plots. The number of
medicinal plant species increase as the sample area increase but did not approach an asymptote condition. The
actual number of species almost reach an asymptote condition. But the estimated number of species showed the
number of species increase rapidly as the sample area increase and shows no signs to approach asymptotic
condition. The estimated species richness plotted in Figure 1 followed the estimate regression equation
with r2=0.95%.
(Note 2)
Table 1 showed most of the medicinal plant are from the group of tree, woody, climber and shrubs. 27 species
from herbaceous, 14 from fern, 4 from palm and 3 from epiphyte. The largest group of tree, woody, climber and
shrub represent 79.2% from all species occured.
(Note 3)
A total of 6,788 stems of medicinal plants comprising 231 species included in 179 genera and 87 families were
identified from all four 1-ha plots. Most of the stems conquered by non-trees because the plots were logged over
within 2-5 years ago, so it has lack number of large trees. The three most diverse families collected across all
categories were Euphorbiaceae, Annonaceae and Rubiaceae. Most of these species families were represented by
one genus and many species. These three families represent about 19.2% of the total species recorded in the study
area. In terms of individuals composition, the study area was dominated by three most abundance medicinal tree
species, namely Cinnamomum porrectum (Lauraceae), Garcinia scortechinii (Guttiferae) and Croton argyratus
(Euphorbiaceae). For non trees the three most abundance medicinal species were Lygodium circinnatum

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(Schizaeaceae), Globba sp. (Zingiberaceae) and Croton argyratus (Euphorbiaceae). Appendix 1 showed the uses
of each medicinal plants found in TTFR. The plants may be used internally or externally. The parts of plants
used for medical purpose were leaves, roots, bark, stems and shoot. The use of medicinal plants for treatments
such as skin disease, fever, coughs, post-natal mother, tonic and so many else. It were practised by our ancestors
for many centuries ago and has been passed for every generations. These herbal medicine is an alternative
remedy besides modern drugs. Nowadays, there were increasing of interest on value of medicinal plants.
Possibly, the demand of these plants will increase as well for future health care needs (Shaharuddin, 2005).
(Note 4)
The distribution of dbh classes shown in Figure 2 conformed to a reverse ‘J’ shape curve with 359 individuals
having dbh between 5.0-9.9 cm, 154 individuals of 10-14.9 cm dbh and 84 individuals of 15.0-19.9 cm dbh. The
number of individuals with a diameter greater than 50cm was 7. In dbh range 5-9.9cm showed plot 4 has the
highest number of species compared to others. The number of medicinal plants which have dbh less than 5cm
was 6108 individuals. The reverse ‘J’ shape size class distribution curve was obtained which is typical of all
types of forests particularly in the logged-over forest where small trees emerges due to canopy openings in the
forest area (Kunwar & Sharma, 2004). Low pioneer vegetation dominated the area after logging. For trees the
total number of medicinal plants is 674 while 6059 for non trees. The large proportion of medicinal plants with
dbh less than 5cm indicates that majority of the medicinal plants are undergrowth.
(Note 5)
Appendix 2 showed the quantitative analysis for medicinal trees with dbh ≥5cm. A total of 99 medicinal tree
species were observed from this study and the total of individual of trees is 674. Three most diverse species were
Cinnamomum porrectum, Garcinia scortechinii and Croton argyratus. However, when the study site were
evaluated in terms of importance value index (IVI), the three most important species are Cinnamomum
porrectum, Shorea leprosula and Ochanostachys amentaceae. The dominant and co-dominant species were
Cinnamomum porrectum and Shorea leprosula, showing their values of IVI of 20.84 and 18.43 respectively and
the highest (35 plants / 4ha) value of density was also recorded for Cinnamomum porrectum with their
contributions to the study site were 5.17% of the total density, 4.87% of frequency, 10.81% of basal area and
6.95% of IVI. Co-dominant species contribute 3.10% 0f total density, 3.02% of frequency, 12.31% of basal area
and 6.14% of IVI.
(Note 6)
The non trees composition from Appendix 3, shows a total of 228 medicinal species were recorded. The study
area were dominated by five most abundance species namely, Lygodium circinnatum (183), Globba sp. (147),
Labisia pumila (147), Tectaria singaporeana (142) and Croton argyratus (126). These five medicinal species
represent about 12.3% of the total medicinal plants species from non trees which found in the four hectare plots.
The IVI also indicates that the area was dominated by these five species.
(Note 7)
Referring to Appendix 4, the most five dominant family for tree were Lauraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Guttiferae,
Dipterocarpaceae and Annonaceae. While, the less dominant family were Styracacea with FVI 0.39 and
Menispermaceae with FVI 0.34. Appendix 5 indicates the highest value for FVI from non trees were dominated
by five family such Euphorbiaceae, Annonaceae, Rubiaceae, Melastomataceae and Zingiberaceae. Family from
Violaceae and Orchidaceae possess the same lowest value of FVI 0.03.
(Note 8)
Figure 3 showed the dominance-diversity curve plotted between importance value index and species sequence for
trees and non trees which indicates a relationship between different species showing importance value in study site.
Species dominance related to the availability of suitable niche and resource apportionment in a community has
often been interpreted from the dominance diversity curve (Kunwar & Sharma, 2004). For trees, at the beginning,
the curve quite steep because there were several species possess high IVI value than others, but then the curve
moving consistent with gentle slope. The gentle slope of dominance diversity curve indicates steady growth of
trees, while sharp depression of the curve representing the small size classes of trees is the results of human
disturbance (logging). For non trees the curve is not very clear. The different between the IVI value also not
obvious. Thus, indicates all the medicinal non trees contribute the same significant to the composition of medicinal
plants within this study site.

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3.1 Species Diversity

(Note 9)
Referring to Table 2, the species diversity in four hectare plots of TTFR was calculated using Ecological
Methodology Software (Krebbs, 1998). Comparison of the four plots in the study area showed the highest species
diversity index H’=6.189, plot 2 and plot 1 showed the lowest species diversity index H’ of 4.632.
Shannon-Weiner index (H’) was one of the most common indices used to evaluate forest diversity and the higher
value of Shannon-Weiner’s index indicates high species richness (Tuan Marina, et. al., 2007). Shannon-Weiner
measure assumes that a random sample is taken from an infinitely large population and that all the species in the
community population are represented in the sample (Robert, 1974). The average of diversity index for
Shannon-Weiner measure was 5.708 (above 5.0) indicates high diversity. The Brillouin’s index of diversity range
from 4.56 to 6.108 and the Simpsons index (S) range from 0.869 to 0.976. Smith and Wilson’s measure maximum
evenness value were recorded in plot 3 (0.38) while the minimum was registered at plot 2 (0.243).
4. Conclusion
This study showed that TTFR has a diverse population of medicinal plants. A total of 6788 medicinal trees and non
trees represented by 231 species, 179 genera and 87 family found within the study site. The most dominant
medicinal tree was Cinnamomum porrectum (Lauraceae) while Lygodium circinnatum (Schizaeaceae) for non tree
species. The most dense and diverse plot represent by plot 2 which comprise the greatest number of individuals and
species. This paper concludes that a proper management from human disturbance and scientific management of
medicinal plants of the forest area may lead a rich biodiversity site in Malaysia.
Acknowledgements
This study was conducted in collaboration with the Pahang State Forestry Department, Malaysia and was
supported by Research University Grant Scheme (03/01/07/0039RU).
References
Bambang Hero Saharjo & Ati Dwi Nurhayati. (2006). Domination and composition structure change at hemic peat
natural regeneration following burning; A case study in Pelalawan, Riau Province. BIODIVERSITAS, 7(2),
154-158.
Burkill, I.H. (1935). Economic Products of Malay Peninsula. 2 vols. Crown Agent for the Colonies, London.
Curtis, J.T. & McIntosh, R.P. (1950). An upland forest continuum in the prairie-forest border region of
Wisconsin. Ecology, 32, 476-496.
Faridah Hanum, I., Ahmed Zainudin Ibrahim, Shamsul Khamis, M. Nazre, P. Lepun, G. Rusea, J.J. Lajuni & A.
Latiff. (2001a). An annotated checklist of higher plants in Ayer Hitam Forest Reserve, Puchong, Selangor.
Pertanika Journal Tropical Agricultural Science, 24(1), 62-75.
Faridah Hanum, I., A. Rahim, P. Lepun, I. Edham & M. Nazre (2001b). Tree taxa inventory at Ayer Hitam
Forest Base-Camp. Pertanika Journal Tropical Agricultural Science, 24(1), 29-34.
Kamarudin, M.S. & A. Latiff. (2002). Tumbuhan Ubatan Malaysia. Pusat Pengurusan Penyelidikan Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia. ISBN: 983-2446-39-2.
Krebbs, C.J. (1998). Ecological Methodology. 2nd edition. Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers, Inc. pp.
410-454.
Kunwar, R.M. & Sharma, S.P. (2004). Quantitative analysis of tree species in two community forests of Dolpa
district, mid-west Nepal. Himalayan Journal of Sciences, 2(3), 23-28.
Latiff, A. (2007). Forestry, forest resources and forest biodiversity conservation in Peninsular Malaysia.
Proceedings of the National Conference on the Management and Conservation of Forest Biodiversity in Malaysia.
pp. 167-184.
Latiff, A. (2005). Valuing the biodiversity of medicinal plant species in Malaysia. Sustainable Managemnet and
Utilization of Medicinal Plant Resources in Proceedings of the International Conference on Medicinal Plants. pp.
3-16.
Robert, W. P. (1974). An introduction to quantitative ecology. International student edition. McGraw-Hill series in
population biology. ISBN: 0-07-050415-6.
Shaharuddin bin Mohamad Ismail. (2005). Medicinal plant resources from the forests of peninsular Malaysia:
Issues and challenges. Sustainable Managemnet and Utilization of Medicinal Plant Resources in Proceedings of
the International Conference on Medicinal Plants. pp. 51-66.

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Tuan Marina, T.I., Awang Noor, A.G. & Faridah Hanum, I. (2007). Species diversity and economic value of
medicinal plants in five-hectare plots of hill dipterocarp forest, Pahang. Proceedings of the National Conference on
the Management and Conservation of Forest Biodiversity in Malaysia. pp. 414-426.
Notes
Note 1. Figure 1 is placed here
Note 2. Table 1 is placed here
Note 3. Appendix 1 is placed here
Note 4. Figure 2 is placed here
Note 5. Appendix 2 is placed here
Note 6. Appendix 3 is placed here
Note 7. Appendix 4 and Appendix 5 is placed here
Note 8. Figure 3 is placed here
Note 9. Table 2 is placed here

Table 1. Number of species by class

Category of
plant no. of species
tree/ woody/ 183
climber/ shrub
herbaceous 27
fern 14
palm 4
epiphyte 3
TOTAL 231

Table 2. Diversity indices of Tekai Tembeling Forest Reserve

Diversity Plot 1 Plot 2 Plot 3 Plot 4

indices

N 4850 7335 2513 3119

Sobs 116 188 121 133

R 129.9 223.6 136.8 151.8

H 4.560 6.108 5.876 5.866

H’ 4.632 6.189 6.019 5.993

S 0.869 0.976 0.976 0.975

E 0.267 0.243 0.380 0.322

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Figure 1: Species area curve

Figure 1. Species area curve

Figure 2. Distribution of medicinal plants in different size classes

Figure 3. Dominance diversity curve for the medicinal plants (trees and non trees)

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Appendix 1. Uses of medicinal plants in TTFR based on Burkil (1935) and Kamarudin & Latiff (2002)
NO. SPECIES NAME USES
1 Acrotrema costatum protective medicine for women after childbirth.
2 Agelaea macrophylla rheumatism and in an aphrodisiac with smilax
3 Agrostistachys longifolia var for tooth-ache
4 Albizzia splendens diarrhoea
5 Alpinia malaccensis sores
6 Alstonia augustiloba for remittent fever
7 Amischotolype griffithii fever
8 Amischotolype molissima to treat malarial fever
9 Ancistrocladus tectorius dysentery and malaria
10 Antidesma montanum for headache in children, for measles, chicken-pox and malaria
11 Aralidium pinnatifitidum fever, rheumatism
12 Ardisia crenata applied to the skin for scurf, ear-ache and orchitis
13 Ardisia villosa for dropsyand jungle fevers.
14 Arenga pinnata for stone in the bladder, phthisis, dysentery and lactagogue.
15 Artabotrys grandifolius treatment after childbirth
16 Artocarpus elasticus dysentery, for poulticing ulcers and prevents conception.
17 Asplenium nidus for washing hair and to facilitate giving birth
18 Baccaurea brevipes to regulate menstruation
19 Baccaurea parviflora to ease urinating
20 Barringtonia scortechinii the fruit are edible and the seed used as a spice to flavour food.
21 Bauhinia bidentata given internally to women for nervous complaints and treatment of toothache
22 Blechnum orientale urinary complaints and for dropsy.
23 Bouea macrophylla poultice for headache and for thrush
24 Breynia discigera poulticing over the kidneys.
25 Bridelia tomentosa for colic, stomacache and for fever
26 Callicarpa candicans for abdominal troubles, for bringing on the menses and for poulticing wounds
27 Calophyllum rubiginosum for itch and other skin complaints
28 Calophyllum wallichianum for itch and other skin complaints
29 Campylospermum serratum for dysentery and for fever
30 Carallia brachiata the leaves for treatment in sapraemia. The bark is employed in the treatment of
31 Carallia suffruticosa for worms, coughs, after childbirth as protective medicine and for bathing in
32 Cayratia molissima pouticing swellings
33 Chassalia chartacea malaria, coughs, childbirth, cuts, wounds and ulcers.
34 Chrysophyllum roxburgii the fruit can be eaten
35 Cinnamomum porrectum tonic
36 Cinnamomum javanicum after childbirth
37 Cinnamomum sintoc diarrhoea and other intestinal complaints. As vermifuge. Also used for
38 Clerodendron deflexum for fever and bowel complaints
39 Clerodendron laevifolium contains saponin which beneficial to human body.
40 Clidemia hirta used as antidote
41 Cnestis palala for stomacache,after childbirth,malaria and gonorrhoea.
42 Colocasia esculenta for wounds, including snake bites.
43 Combretum sundaicum for head ache
44 Connarus ferrugineus as antiseptic for skin complaints
45 Coptosapelta griffithii for colic and fevers
46 Coptosapelta parviflora for colic and fevers
47 Coscinium fenestratum poultice cuts and sores with it.
48 Costus speciocus colds, rheumatism, pneumonia, tonic, depurative, small pox, coughs,
49 Cratoxylum cochinchinensis for colic, itch, skin complaints and stomach-ache.
50 Cratoxylum formosum used for antioxidants.

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51 Croton argyratus to cure purging, diarrhoea and after childbirth.

52 Croton laevifolium after childbirth
53 Ctenolophon parvifolius cooling lotion for elephants
54 Cyathea mollucana for sores on the legs.
55 Cyrtandra capulata after childbirth and cure fever
56 Cyrtandromoea grandis fever
57 Dalbergia pinnata for varicose veins, nervous disorders, itch and an embrocation for coughs
58 Desmos chinensis dysentery or after childbirth and for vertigo
59 Didisandra wrayii a genus of herbs.
60 Diospyros argenteum applying in herpes
61 Diospyros buxifolia treat venereal disease, diabetes and whiteness
62 Diospyros lanceifolia cure ill waist.
63 Diospyros latisepala venereal disease
64 Diospyros sumatrana used as a protective medicine after childbirth
65 Dipteris conjugata in lower Siam its roots are eagerly collected as being of medicinal value
66 Dissochaeta celebica affords an 'ubat meroyan'.
67 Dissochaeta intermedia after childbirth as protective medicine.
68 Donax grandis snake bites, to sore eyes and for blood poisoning
69 Donax parviflorus snake bites, to sore eyes and for blood poisoning
70 Dryobalanops aromatica treat wound, tooth-ache, stomach-ache, head-ache, eye complaints and urinary
71 Dysoxylum cauliflorum for rheumatism and for abdominal pains
72 Elaeocarpus floribundus used as a mouth-wash for inflamed gums
73 Elaeocarpus nitidus the fruit eaten by local in Sabah
74 Embelia ribes as an anthelmintic, alterative, tonic, coughs and diarrhoea
75 Entada rheedei for itch, abdominal complaints, colic and severe internal complaints.
76 Epipremnum giganteum treat ulcerated nose.
77 Epiprinus malayanus for healthy and ageless.
78 Erycibe albida used chiefly in childbirth
79 Eurycoma longifolia used as a febrifuge, for internittent fever, for childbirth, head-ache,wounds,
80 Euthemis leucocarpa the roots used medicinally
81 Fagerlindia fasciculata for poulticing sores
82 Fagraea acuminatissima as a poultice in fever and head-ache
83 Fagraea fragrans for passing blood in stools and for malaria
84 Fagraea racemosa a tonic after fever, for pains in the loins, for curing fever in children. Boiled
85 Fibraurea tinctoria after childbirth, dysentery, diabetes and for treating ulcerated noses.
86 Ficus hispida for fever, after childbirth, stomach-ache in children, fever, diarrhoea and
87 Fissistigma lanuginosum after childbirth and for stomach-ache
88 Flacourtia rukam for diarrhoea, dysentery, dysmenorrhoea, to inflamed eye-lids and for small
89 Forrestia griffithii for fever
90 Friesodielsia affinis for ringwormh
91 Galearia fulva for gonorrhoea
92 Garcinia atroviridis after confinement and for ear-ache
93 Garcinia griffithii for abortion.
94 Garcinia nigrolineata used in making a lotion for running eyes
95 Garcinia scortechinii curing cuts
96 Gironniera hirta after childbirth as a protective medicine
97 Globba patens used as a protective medicine (meroyan) after childbirth.
98 Globba sp. Cure a fever and ability to give invulnerability
99 Gnetum gnemon the fruit use to prevent constipation
100 Gnetum tenuifolium after childbirth
101 Goniothalamus macrophylla for colds, fever, administering after childbirth, applied to swelling and
102 Goniothalamus malayanus used to treat small-pox and arthritic illness

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103 Gynotroches axillaris for poulticing the head in fever

104 Hanguana malayana pain in the bones.
105 Henckelia platypus coughs
106 Homalomena sp. after childbirth and another is for the poulticing of yaws-sores
107 Hoya sp. tonic
108 Hulettia dumosa for all disease of the abdomen and to the gums for tooth-ache
109 Hydnocarpus castanea for internal disorders and skin disease
110 Intsia palembanica given to men who have become demented by reason of elephant spirits
111 Ixonanthes icosandra head-ache, cough
112 Ixonanthes reticulata used as potion (ubat pengasih)
113 Labisia Pumila after childbirth as a protective medicine, to expedite labour, for flatulence,
114 Lansium domesticum to cuts, ulcers, swellings,for rheumatism
115 Lasianthus oblongus after childbirth
116 Leea indica skin complaints, including caterpillar itch, poulticing for body pains and for
117 Lepidagathis sp. coughs, to procure abortion during the first three month of pregnancy.
118 Lepisanthes tetraphylla coughs and for bathing for fever
119 Leptonychia caudata during childbirth, for fever, ulcerated noses and cooling lotion in fever.
120 Litsea elliptica it supplies the 'perawas' bark of native medicines and very aromatic
121 Litsea grandis applied to wounds.
122 Litsea lancifolia var lancifolia the leaves are used for poulticing boils.
123 Luvunga scandens to reduce malaria fever.
124 Lycopodiella cernua lotion in beri-beri, coughs and uneasiness of the chest
125 Lygodium circinnatum protective medicines after childbirth and for wounds.
126 Macaranga conifera for malaria and dopsy.
127 Macaranga gigantea for diarrhoea and dysentery
128 Macaranga hypoleuca used as a febrifuge, expectorant and anti-spasmodic
129 Macaranga triloba for stomach-ache and poultice boils on the head.
130 Maclurodendron porteri to treat high blood pressure.
131 Maesa ramentacea for itch, other skin disease and for pain at the heart.
132 Mallotus macrostachys for cleansing wounds, fever
133 Mapania palustris has cooling properties. Good for kidney.
134 Medusanthera gracilis for rheumatism and used to blacken teeth
135 Melastoma malabathricum for diarrhoea, dysentery, women after childbirth, used for leucorrhoea,
136 Memecylon dichotomum var lotion for rheumatism, for vertigo and is given internally after childbirth
137 Memecylon minutiflorum one of the 'rempah ratus' or hundred ingredients given after childbirth
138 Merremia peltata for stomach-ache, for coughs, diarrhoea, worms, sore eyes, for washing hair
139 Mesua ferrae poulticing wounds, draught taken after childbirth
140 Mezettia leptopoda used for strengthen energy and maintain health
141 Microcos fibrocarpa the pulped use in cooking.
142 Microcos latifolia the fruit use in cooking.
143 Mitrella kentii for fever
144 Molineria capitulata one of the several drugs to be sprinkled over the body of an elephant to cure
145 Molineria latifolia for menorrhagia or used as lotion in ophthalmia, fever, used as a stomachic
146 Murraya paniculata for blistered in stomach, tooth-ache, tonic and for tapeworm problem.
147 Mussaenda sp. asthma, recurrent fevers and dropsy.
148 Nephrolepis auriculata itch and used for treat hypertension.
149 Ochanostachys amentacea for fever, after childbirth and rheumatic fever
150 Oncosperma horridum fever
151 Paramignya lobata to facilitate labour.
152 Parkia speciosa prevent diabetes, kidney relating problem, hypertension, stomach-ache and to
153 Payena lucida after childbirth
154 Peliosanthes teta treating diarrhoea

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155 Pentaspadon motleyi for itch and similar skin disease. kill the parasites but set up great irritation in
156 Peperomia sp. anti-rheumatic and head-ache.
157 Phyllanthus emblica fever, dysentery, head-ache, vertigo, dyspepsia, as a diuretic, conjunctivitis,
158 Pimelodendron griffithianum fruit edible.
159 Pinanga disticha an antidote to poison ingested
160 Piper sarmentosum to cure weakness and pains in the bones, head-ache, for 'panau' or
161 Pittosporum ferrugineum malaria
162 Pleocnemia irregularis cure diarrhoea and skin complaints.
163 Plocoglottis javanica for ear-ache.
164 Podocarpus polystachyus as a alternative in rheumatism and for painful joints.
165 Poikilospermum sp. prescribes leaves for application to an abscess or carbuncle before and roots
166 Polyalthia glauca give to women after chilbirth to shrink the uterus.
167 Polyalthia hypoleuca after childbirth as a protective medicine (ubat meroyan)
168 Polyalthia sumatrana the plants used for head-ache
169 Pometia pinnata fever and to festering sores
170 Popowia tomentosa ingredient for poison.
171 Porterandia anisophyllea for itch and abortion.
172 Prunus arborea var arborea the bitter bark tasting like laurel is medicinal. There is glucoside in it like
173 Psydrax nitidum f diarrhoea. Hydrocyanic acid occurs in the leaves.
174 Pteris ensiformis for cleansing unhealthy tongues of children and for glandular swelling of the
175 Pternandra coerulescens for poulticing in orchitis or hydrocele, for vomiting and administered after
176 Pternandra echinata for coughs and asthma.
177 Pyramidanthe prismatica for diarrhoea and snake-bite
178 Pyrenaria acuminata for sores on the legs.
179 Rhodamnia cinerea after chilbirth, protective medicine, for stomach-ache and used as a poultice
180 Rinorea anguifera as a protective draught after childbirth.
181 Rourea acutipetala var acutipetala for lumbago.
182 Rourea mimosoides colic, leprosy, as an 'ubat meroyan' after childbirth and to children for colds.
183 Rourea rugosa for constipation and apparently it is resorted to freely.
184 Salacca glabrescens fruit edible.
185 Salacia grandiflora after childbirth.
186 Sandoricum koetjape one of the rempah ratusas a protective medicine after childbirth, for remittent
187 Santiria griffithii prescribed for rheumatism.
188 Sapium baccatum to treat 'bisul'.
189 Saraca cauliflora the fruit is used medicinally.
190 Sauropus androgynus for fever and for stricture of the bladder.
191 Scaphium linearicarpum as a febrifuge.
192 Scaphium macropodum for fever and dysentery.
193 Schima wallichii one of the 'rempah ratus' infused to make a draught for a mother after
194 Selaginella intermedia for stomach-ache, rheumatism and asthma.
195 Selaginella plana to stop bleeding.
196 Selaginella wallichii as a protective medicine after childbirth
197 selaginella wildenowii for high fever, for pains in the back, tonic medicine and poultices for skin
198 Shorea leprosula a tonic for adolescent.
199 Sindora coriacea wood-oil is used for medicinal purposes.
200 Sindora wallichii Use after childbirth.
201 Smilax megacarpa the juice is given to a child at birth.
202 Smilex sp. after childbirth.
203 Spatholobus ferrugineus for colic and after childbirth, for irregular menstruation, uterine haemorrhage,
204 Sticherus truncatus useful in healing high fever.
205 Styrax benzoin used for asthma in children.
206 Symplocos crassipes var penangiana for stomach-ache.

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207 Symplocos rubiginosa for swollen spleen.

208 Syngramma alismifolia Used as a substitute for Helminthostachys (as a tonic, for fever, medicine for
209 Syzygium polyanthum for diarrhoea and for itch.
210 Tacca integrifolia as a poultice for a rash due to irritant hairy caterpillars.
211 Taenitis blechnoides use as protective medicine (ubat meroyan) after childbirth.
212 Tectaria singaporeana cure for fever and a post-natal tonic.
213 Tetracera indica for itch.
214 Tetracera scandens after childbirth also given in dysentery, diarrhoea, for burns and for coughs.
215 Thottea corymbosa for tooth-ache and as a diuretic during confinement.
216 Thottea tomentosa for poulticing skin complanits, Snake bites and for coughs.
217 Tinomiscium petiolare for rheumatism.
218 Toona sp. for dysentery, poultices to wounds.
219 Trema orientalis for sore tongue, for diarrhoea and the passing of blood in the urine.
220 Uncaria cordata used for sores and callus.
221 Urophyllum glabrum for fever.
222 Uvaria grandiflora to warm children body, after childbirth, stomach-ache, tooth-ache, scabies and
223 Ventilago sp. tonic
224 Xanthophyllum amoenum the fruit used for head skin itch and remove danddruff.
225 Ximenia americana for colic.
226 Xylopia ferruginea to stop vomiting.
227 Xylopia malayana var obscura one of the hundred ingredients (rempah ratus) given to a women after
228 Zingiber griffithii used for poulticing, for giddiness, fever and cure asthma.
229 Zingiber officinale ginger taken into stomach is a warm, stimulating carminative and when
230 Zingiber spectabile for poulticing swelling and for bathing eyes with inflamed lids.
231 Ziziphus kunstleri administered after childbirth.

Appendix 2. Quantitative analysis of vegetation of medicinal plants (trees) in TTFR

No. Species name Family D F BA RD (%) RF (%) RBA (%) IVI

1 Cinnamomum porrectum Lauraceae 35 29 1.542 5.19 4.89 10.85 20.93
2 Shorea leprosula Dipterocarpaceae 21 18 1.756 3.12 3.04 12.36 18.51
3 Ochanostachys amentacea Olacaceae 15 14 1.356 2.23 2.36 9.54 14.13
4 Garcinia scortechinii Guttiferae 30 27 0.538 4.45 4.55 3.79 12.79
5 Elaeocarpus floribundus Elaeocarpaceae 23 22 0.367 3.41 3.71 2.58 9.70
6 Xanthophyllum amoenum Polygalaceae 21 20 0.398 3.12 3.37 2.80 9.29
7 Croton argyratus Euphorbiaceae 29 20 0.182 4.30 3.37 1.28 8.96
8 Cinnamomum javanicum Lauraceae 20 16 0.396 2.97 2.70 2.79 8.45
9 Mallotus macrostachys Euphorbiaceae 22 15 0.314 3.26 2.53 2.21 8.01
10 Memecylon minutiflorum Melastomataceae 21 18 0.231 3.12 3.04 1.63 7.78
11 Scaphium linearicarpum Sterculiaceae 14 13 0.423 2.08 2.19 2.98 7.25
12 Mesua ferrae Guttiferae 13 13 0.340 1.93 2.19 2.39 6.51
13 Rhodamnia cinerea Myrtaceae 18 13 0.233 2.67 2.19 1.64 6.50
14 Artocarpus elasticus Moraceae 5 5 0.642 0.74 0.84 4.52 6.11
15 Flacourtia rukam Flacourtiaceae 16 16 0.131 2.37 2.70 0.92 5.99
16 Baccaurea parviflora Euphorbiaceae 17 16 0.097 2.52 2.70 0.68 5.90
17 Hydnocarpus castanea Flacourtiaceae 8 7 0.499 1.19 1.18 3.51 5.88
18 Xylopia ferruginea Annonaceae 12 12 0.226 1.78 2.02 1.59 5.39
19 Polyalthia hypoleuca Annonaceae 15 15 0.087 2.23 2.53 0.61 5.37
20 Polyalthia sumatrana Annonaceae 15 13 0.118 2.23 2.19 0.83 5.25

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21 Psydrax nitidum Rubiaceae 14 13 0.136 2.08 2.19 0.96 5.23

22 Medusanthera gracilis Icacinaceae 11 8 0.233 1.63 1.35 1.64 4.62
23 Memecylon dichotomum var Melastomataceae 15 7 0.155 2.23 1.18 1.09 4.50
24 Maclurodendron porteri Rutaceae 8 8 0.235 1.19 1.35 1.65 4.19
25 Diospyros lanceifolia Ebenaceae 13 10 0.073 1.93 1.69 0.51 4.13
26 Cinnamomum sintoc Lauraceae 9 8 0.202 1.34 1.35 1.42 4.11
27 Trema orientalis Ulmaceae 15 9 0.040 2.23 1.52 0.28 4.02
28 Sindora coriacea Leguminosae 5 5 0.257 0.74 0.84 1.81 3.39
29 Scaphium macropodum Sterculiaceae 9 9 0.076 1.34 1.52 0.53 3.39
30 Urophyllum glabrum Rubiaceae 10 8 0.043 1.48 1.35 0.30 3.14
31 Ptenandra echinata Melastomataceae 6 6 0.138 0.89 1.01 0.97 2.87
32 Diospyros buxifolia Ebenaceae 7 6 0.112 1.04 1.01 0.79 2.84
33 Agrostistachys longifolia var Euphorbiaceae 8 8 0.040 1.19 1.35 0.28 2.82
34 Macaranga gigantea Euphorbiaceae 7 6 0.105 1.04 1.01 0.74 2.79
35 Baccaurea brevipes Euphorbiaceae 7 6 0.097 1.04 1.01 0.69 2.74
36 Pittosporum ferrugineum Pittosporaceae 7 5 0.095 1.04 0.84 0.67 2.55
37 Ardisia crenata Myrsinaceae 7 7 0.046 1.04 1.18 0.32 2.54
38 Litsea elliptica Lauraceae 5 5 0.122 0.74 0.84 0.86 2.44
39 Sandoricum koetjape Meliaceae 5 5 0.096 0.74 0.84 0.68 2.26
40 Eurycoma longifolia Simaroubaceae 7 6 0.026 1.04 1.01 0.18 2.23
41 Fagraea fragrans Loganiaceae 5 4 0.099 0.74 0.67 0.70 2.11
42 Pentaspadon motleyi Anacardiaceae 5 5 0.074 0.74 0.84 0.52 2.11
43 Ixonanthes icosandra Ixonanthaceae 4 4 0.110 0.59 0.67 0.77 2.04
44 Agelaea macrophylla Connaraceae 3 3 0.149 0.45 0.51 1.05 2.00
45 Carallia brachiata Rhizophoraceae 5 5 0.046 0.74 0.84 0.32 1.91
46 Barringtonia scortechinii Lcythidaceae 6 5 0.022 0.89 0.84 0.15 1.89
47 Bouea macrophylla Anacardiaceae 3 3 0.126 0.45 0.51 0.89 1.84
48 Macaranga triloba Euphorbiaceae 4 4 0.072 0.59 0.67 0.51 1.77
49 Syzygium polyanthum Myrtaceae 4 4 0.065 0.59 0.67 0.46 1.73
50 Lepisanthes tetraphylla Sapindaceae 5 5 0.016 0.74 0.84 0.11 1.70
51 Parkia speciosa Leguminosae 1 1 0.186 0.15 0.17 1.31 1.63
52 Breynia discigera Euphorbiaceae 4 4 0.025 0.59 0.67 0.18 1.45
53 Ctenolophon parvifolius Ctenolophonaceae 1 4 0.088 0.15 0.67 0.62 1.44
54 Intsia palembanica Leguminosae 2 2 0.113 0.30 0.34 0.79 1.43
55 Pternandra coerulescens Melastomataceae 3 3 0.060 0.45 0.51 0.43 1.38
56 Calophyllum wallichianum Guttiferae 3 3 0.060 0.45 0.51 0.42 1.37
57 Rourea rugosa Connaraceae 4 4 0.012 0.59 0.67 0.08 1.35
58 Macaranga hypoleuca Euphorbiaceae 3 3 0.036 0.45 0.51 0.26 1.21
59 Garcinia nigrolineata Guttiferae 3 3 0.027 0.45 0.51 0.19 1.14
60 Elaeocarpus nitidus Elaeocarpaceae 3 3 0.022 0.45 0.51 0.16 1.11
61 Prunus arborea var arborea Rosaceae 3 3 0.020 0.45 0.51 0.14 1.09
62 Dryobalanops aromatica Dipterocarpaceae 1 1 0.106 0.15 0.17 0.74 1.06
63 Diospyros sumatrana Ebenaceae 3 3 0.015 0.45 0.51 0.11 1.06
64 Litsea grandis Lauraceae 2 2 0.057 0.30 0.34 0.40 1.03
65 Dissochaeta celebica Melastomataceae 3 3 0.010 0.45 0.51 0.07 1.02
66 Rourea mimosoides Connaraceae 3 2 0.023 0.45 0.34 0.16 0.95
67 Payena lucida Sapotaceae 2 2 0.033 0.30 0.34 0.23 0.87

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68 Pyrenaria acuminata Theaceae 2 2 0.016 0.30 0.34 0.12 0.75

69 Cratoxylum formosum Guttiferae 2 2 0.012 0.30 0.34 0.08 0.72
70 Microcos latifolia Tiliaceae 2 2 0.010 0.30 0.34 0.07 0.70
71 Santiria griffithii Burseraceae 2 2 0.009 0.30 0.34 0.06 0.69
72 Pimelodendron griffithianum Euphorbiaceae 2 2 0.008 0.30 0.34 0.06 0.69
73 Diospyros latisepala Ebenaceae 2 2 0.006 0.30 0.34 0.04 0.68
74 Peliosanthes teta Convallariaceae 1 1 0.045 0.15 0.17 0.32 0.63
75 Dysoxylum cauliflorum Meliaceae 1 1 0.033 0.15 0.17 0.23 0.55
76 Clerodendrum laevifolium Verbenaceae 2 1 0.010 0.30 0.17 0.07 0.54
77 Friesodielsia affinis Annonaceae 2 1 0.009 0.30 0.17 0.07 0.53
78 Pometia pinnata Sapindaceae 2 1 0.008 0.30 0.17 0.06 0.52
79 Symplocos rubiginosa Symplocaceae 1 1 0.028 0.15 0.17 0.20 0.51
80 Garcinia atroviridis Guttiferae 1 1 0.019 0.15 0.17 0.13 0.45
81 Murraya paniculata Rutaceae 1 1 0.015 0.15 0.17 0.11 0.42
82 Schima wallichii Theaceae 1 1 0.014 0.15 0.17 0.10 0.41
83 Uvaria grandiflora Annonaceae 1 1 0.012 0.15 0.17 0.08 0.40
84 Campylospermum serratum Ochnaceae 1 1 0.012 0.15 0.17 0.08 0.40
85 Styrax benzoin Styracaceae 1 1 0.010 0.15 0.17 0.07 0.39
86 Albizzia splendens Leguminosae 1 1 0.008 0.15 0.17 0.05 0.37
87 Entada rheedei Leguminosae 1 1 0.007 0.15 0.17 0.05 0.36
88 Leptonychia caudata Sterculiaceae 1 1 0.007 0.15 0.17 0.05 0.36
89 Porterandia scortechchinii Rubiaceae 1 1 0.006 0.15 0.17 0.04 0.36
90 Maesa ramentacea Myrsinaceae 1 1 0.006 0.15 0.17 0.04 0.36
91 Microcos fibrocarpa Tiliaceae 1 1 0.005 0.15 0.17 0.04 0.35
92 Paramignya lobata Rutaceae 1 1 0.003 0.15 0.17 0.02 0.34
93 Calophyllum rubiginosum Guttiferae 1 1 0.003 0.15 0.17 0.02 0.34
94 Fibraurea tinctoria Menispermaceae 1 1 0.003 0.15 0.17 0.02 0.34
95 Lansium domesticum Meliaceae 1 1 0.003 0.15 0.17 0.02 0.34
96 Mezettia parvilora Annonaceae 1 1 0.003 0.15 0.17 0.02 0.34
97 Xylopia malayana var Annonaceae 1 1 0.002 0.15 0.17 0.02 0.33
98 Polyalthia glauca Annonaceae 1 1 0.002 0.15 0.17 0.01 0.33
99 Antidesma montanum Euphorbiaceae 1 1 0.002 0.15 0.17 0.01 0.33
TOTAL 674 593 14.211 100 100 100 300

D = density, F = frequency, BA = basal area, RD = relative density, RF = relative frequency, RBA = relative
basal area, IVI = importance value index

Appendix 3. Quantitative analysis of vegetation of medicinal plants (non trees) in TTFR

No. Species Family D F RD (%) RF (%) IVI

1 Lygodium circinnatum Schizaeaceae 183 159 3.02 2.92 5.94
2 Globba sp. Zingiberaceae 147 140 2.43 2.57 4.99
3 Labisia Pumila Myrsinaceae 147 136 2.43 2.50 4.92
4 Tectaria singaporeana Dryopteridaceae 142 126 2.34 2.31 4.66
5 Croton argyratus Euphorbiaceae 126 105 2.08 1.93 4.01
6 Fibraurea tinctoria Menispermaceae 116 106 1.91 1.94 3.86
7 Melastoma malabathricum Melastomataceae 122 100 2.01 1.83 3.85

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8 Pinanga disticha Palmae 117 100 1.93 1.83 3.77

9 Rourea rugosa Connaraceae 115 100 1.90 1.83 3.73
10 Ziziphus kunstleri Rhamnaceae 115 94 1.90 1.72 3.62
11 Shorea leprosula Dipterocarpaceae 110 92 1.82 1.69 3.50
12 Garcinia scortechinii Guttiferae 106 93 1.75 1.71 3.46
13 Trema orientalis Ulmaceae 95 84 1.57 1.54 3.11
14 Henckelia platypus Gesneriaceae 96 77 1.58 1.41 3.00
15 Tetracera scandens Dilleniaceae 97 75 1.60 1.38 2.98
16 Scaphium macropodum Sterculiaceae 87 81 1.44 1.49 2.92
17 Uncaria cordata Rubiaceae 88 74 1.45 1.36 2.81
18 Macaranga triloba Euphorbiaceae 83 77 1.37 1.41 2.78
19 Baccaurea parviflora Euphorbiaceae 80 74 1.32 1.36 2.68
20 Breynia discigera Euphorbiaceae 83 68 1.37 1.25 2.62
21 Lasianthus oblongus Rubiaceae 79 65 1.30 1.19 2.50
22 Mapania palustris Cyperaceae 74 68 1.22 1.25 2.47
23 Homalomena sp. Araceae 75 66 1.24 1.21 2.45
24 Urophyllum glabrum Rubiaceae 72 67 1.19 1.23 2.42
25 Dissochaeta celebica Melastomataceae 77 62 1.27 1.14 2.41
26 Rhodamnia cineria Myrtaceae 72 65 1.19 1.19 2.38
27 Smilax megacarpa Smilacaceae 75 59 1.24 1.08 2.32
28 Macaranga gigantea Euphorbiaceae 65 62 1.07 1.14 2.21
29 Mesua ferrae Guttiferae 64 60 1.06 1.10 2.16
30 Spatholobus ferrugineus Leguminosae 61 55 1.01 1.01 2.02
31 Macaranga hypoleuca Euphorbiaceae 67 49 1.11 0.90 2.00
32 Peperomia sp. Piperaceae 64 50 1.06 0.92 1.97
33 Polyalthia hypoleuca Annonaceae 55 54 0.91 0.99 1.90
34 Combretum sundaicum Combretaceae 56 53 0.92 0.97 1.90
35 Cinnamomum porrectum Lauraceae 56 50 0.92 0.92 1.84
36 Eurycoma longifolia Simaroubaceae 52 50 0.86 0.92 1.78
37 Scaphium linearicarpum Sterculiaceae 49 47 0.81 0.86 1.67
38 Diospyros buxifolia Ebenaceae 49 41 0.81 0.75 1.56
39 Embelia ribes Myrsinaceae 46 38 0.76 0.70 1.46
40 Goniothalamus macrophyllus Annonaceae 43 40 0.71 0.73 1.44
41 Taenitis blechnoides Adiantaceae 42 40 0.69 0.73 1.43
42 Dalbergia pinnata Leguminosae 42 40 0.69 0.73 1.43
43 Arenga pinnata Palmae 42 40 0.69 0.73 1.43
44 Lepisanthes tetraphylla Sapindaceae 45 37 0.74 0.68 1.42
45 Gnetum tenuifolium Gnetaceae 40 39 0.66 0.72 1.38
46 Ventilago sp. Rhamnaceae 41 38 0.68 0.70 1.37
47 Cyrtandromoea grandis Scrophulariaceae 40 38 0.66 0.70 1.36
48 Pternandra echinata Melastomataceae 41 36 0.68 0.66 1.34
49 Piper sarmentosum Piperaceae 38 36 0.63 0.66 1.29
50 Ochanostachys amentacea Olacaceae 37 36 0.61 0.66 1.27
51 Alpinia malaccensis Zingiberaceae 40 33 0.66 0.61 1.27
52 Agrostistachys longifolia var leptostachys Euphorbiaceae 37 32 0.61 0.59 1.20
53 Memecylon minutiflorum Melastomataceae 34 31 0.56 0.57 1.13
54 Flacourtia rukam Flacourtiaceae 32 31 0.53 0.57 1.10

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55 Uvaria grandiflora Annonaceae 33 30 0.54 0.55 1.10

56 Sapium baccatum Euphorbiaceae 31 31 0.51 0.57 1.08
57 Porterandia anisophyllea Rubiaceae 31 30 0.51 0.55 1.06
58 Mussaenda sp. Rubiaceae 32 29 0.53 0.53 1.06
59 Blechnum orientale Blechnaceae 31 29 0.51 0.53 1.04
60 Hydnocarpus castanea Flacourtiaceae 31 29 0.51 0.53 1.04
61 Zingiber officinale Zingiberaceae 31 29 0.51 0.53 1.04
62 Cyathea mollucana Cyatheaceae 31 28 0.51 0.51 1.03
63 Goniothalamus malayanus Annonaceae 29 29 0.48 0.53 1.01
64 Donax grandis Marantaceae 30 28 0.50 0.51 1.01
65 Leptonychia caudata Sterculiaceae 31 27 0.51 0.50 1.01
66 Zingiber griffithii Zingiberaceae 31 27 0.51 0.50 1.01
67 Macaranga conifera Euphorbiaceae 32 26 0.53 0.48 1.01
68 Rourea acutipetala ssp. acutipetala Connaraceae 30 27 0.50 0.50 0.99
69 Xanthophyllum amoenum Polygalaceae 30 27 0.50 0.50 0.99
70 Barringtonia scortechinii Lecythidaceae 28 28 0.46 0.51 0.98
71 Antidesma montanum Euphorbiaceae 31 25 0.51 0.46 0.97
72 Lycopodiella cernua Lycopodiaceae 28 27 0.46 0.50 0.96
73 Dissochaeta intermedia Melastomataceae 28 27 0.46 0.50 0.96
74 Baccaurea brevipes Euphorbiaceae 27 26 0.45 0.48 0.92
75 Molineria latifolia Hypoxidaceae 28 25 0.46 0.46 0.92
76 Clerodendron laevifolium Verbenaceae 26 26 0.43 0.48 0.91
77 Rourea mimosoides Connaraceae 27 25 0.45 0.46 0.90
78 Ardisia crenata Myrsinaceae 26 25 0.43 0.46 0.89
79 Donax parviflorus Marantaceae 27 24 0.45 0.44 0.89
80 Xylopia ferruginea Annonaceae 25 25 0.41 0.46 0.87
81 Nephrolepis auriculata Oleandraceae 26 24 0.43 0.44 0.87
82 Selaginella wildenowii Selaginellaceae 27 23 0.45 0.42 0.87
83 Cinnamomum sintoc Lauraceae 25 24 0.41 0.44 0.85
84 Maclurodendron porteri Rutaceae 25 24 0.41 0.44 0.85
85 Campylospermum serratum Ochnaceae 24 24 0.40 0.44 0.84
86 Amischotolype griffithii Commelinaceae 26 22 0.43 0.40 0.83
87 Friesodielsia affinis Annonaceae 25 22 0.41 0.40 0.82
88 Prunus arborea var arborea Rosaceae 23 23 0.38 0.42 0.80
89 Smilex sp. Smilacaceae 23 22 0.38 0.40 0.78
90 Fissistigma lanuginosum Annonaceae 22 22 0.36 0.40 0.77
91 Elaeocarpus floribundus Elaeocarpaceae 23 20 0.38 0.37 0.75
92 Polyalthia sumatrana Annonaceae 21 21 0.35 0.39 0.73
93 Spatholobus bornensis Leguminosae 21 21 0.35 0.39 0.73
94 Zingiber spectabile Zingiberaceae 21 21 0.35 0.39 0.73
95 Tetracera indica Dilleniaceae 20 20 0.33 0.37 0.70
96 Polyalthia glauca Annonaceae 20 19 0.33 0.35 0.68
97 Costus speciocus Costaceae 20 18 0.33 0.33 0.66
98 Garcinia nigrolineata Guttiferae 19 17 0.31 0.31 0.63
99 Epipremnum giganteum Araceae 20 16 0.33 0.29 0.62
100 Sindora coriacea Leguminosae 18 17 0.30 0.31 0.61
101 Mitrella kentii Annonaceae 19 16 0.31 0.29 0.61

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102 Calophyllum wallichianum Guttiferae 18 16 0.30 0.29 0.59

103 Cratoxylum formosum Guttiferae 18 16 0.30 0.29 0.59
104 Galearia fulva Pandaceae 16 16 0.26 0.29 0.56
105 Gironniera hirta Ulmaceae 16 15 0.26 0.28 0.54
106 Cinnamomum javanicum Lauraceae 15 15 0.25 0.28 0.52
107 Diospyros sumatrana Ebenaceae 15 14 0.25 0.26 0.50
108 Agelaea macrophylla Connaraceae 14 14 0.23 0.26 0.49
109 Maesa ramentacea Myrsinaceae 14 14 0.23 0.26 0.49
110 Coscinium fenestratum Menispermaceae 15 13 0.25 0.24 0.49
111 Thottea corymbosa Aristolochiaceae 14 13 0.23 0.24 0.47
112 Medusanthera gracilis Icacinaceae 14 13 0.23 0.24 0.47
113 Epiprinus malayanus Euphorbiaceae 13 13 0.21 0.24 0.45
114 Mallotus macrostachys Euphorbiaceae 13 13 0.21 0.24 0.45
115 Hanguana malayana Hanguanaceae 13 13 0.21 0.24 0.45
116 Litsea elliptica Lauraceae 13 13 0.21 0.24 0.45
117 Ixonanthes icosandra Ixonanthaceae 13 12 0.21 0.22 0.43
118 Diospyros argenteum Ebenaceae 12 12 0.20 0.22 0.42
119 Gnetum gnemon Gnetaceae 12 12 0.20 0.22 0.42
120 Ximenia americana Olacaceae 12 11 0.20 0.20 0.40
121 Selaginella plana Selaginellaceae 12 11 0.20 0.20 0.40
122 Microcos latifolia Tiliaceae 12 11 0.20 0.20 0.40
123 Crytandra capulata var capulata Gesneriaceae 11 11 0.18 0.20 0.38
124 Bauhinia bidentata Leguminosae 11 11 0.18 0.20 0.38
125 Memecylon dichotomum var dichotomum Melastomataceae 11 11 0.18 0.20 0.38
126 Hullettia dumosa Moraceae 11 11 0.18 0.20 0.38
127 Leea indica Leeaceae 12 10 0.20 0.18 0.38
128 Pimelodendron griffithianum Euphorbiaceae 11 10 0.18 0.18 0.37
129 Luvunga scandens Rutaceae 11 10 0.18 0.18 0.37
130 Artabotrys grandifolius Annonaceae 10 10 0.17 0.18 0.35
131 Sticherus truncatus Gleicheniaceae 10 10 0.17 0.18 0.35
132 Pentaspadon motleyi Anacardiaceae 9 9 0.15 0.17 0.31
133 Ctenolophon parvifolius Ctenolophonaceae 9 9 0.15 0.17 0.31
134 Sandoricum koetjape Meliaceae 9 9 0.15 0.17 0.31
135 Coptosapelta griffithii Rubiaceae 9 9 0.15 0.17 0.31
136 Poikilospermum sp. Cecropiaceae 10 8 0.17 0.15 0.31
137 Chrysophyllum roxburghii Sapotaceae 10 8 0.17 0.15 0.31
138 Diospyros lanceifolia Ebenaceae 9 8 0.15 0.15 0.30
139 Salacia grandiflora Celastraceae 8 8 0.13 0.15 0.28
140 Tacca integrifolia Taccaceae 8 8 0.13 0.15 0.28
141 Callicarpa candicans Verbenaceae 8 8 0.13 0.15 0.28
142 Dysoxylum cauliflorum Meliaceae 8 7 0.13 0.13 0.26
143 Santiria griffithii Burseraceae 7 7 0.12 0.13 0.24
144 Litsea grandis Lauraceae 7 7 0.12 0.13 0.24
145 Psydrax nitidum Rubiaceae 7 7 0.12 0.13 0.24
146 Cayratia molissima Vitaceae 7 7 0.12 0.13 0.24
147 Lepidagathis sp. Acanthaceae 7 6 0.12 0.11 0.23
148 Acrotrema costatum Dilleniaceae 7 6 0.12 0.11 0.23

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149 Molineria capitulata Hypoxidaceae 7 6 0.12 0.11 0.23

150 Bouea macrophylla Anacardiaceae 6 6 0.10 0.11 0.21
151 Desmos chinensis Annonaceae 6 6 0.10 0.11 0.21
152 Erycibe albida Convolvulaceae 6 6 0.10 0.11 0.21
153 Intsia palembanica Leguminosae 6 6 0.10 0.11 0.21
154 Clidemia hirta Melastomataceae 6 6 0.10 0.11 0.21
155 Lansium domesticum Meliaceae 6 6 0.10 0.11 0.21
156 Ardisia villosa Myrsinaceae 6 6 0.10 0.11 0.21
157 Pittosporum ferrugineum Pittosporaceae 6 6 0.10 0.11 0.21
158 Peliosanthes teta Convallariaceae 6 5 0.10 0.09 0.19
159 Pyrenaria acuminata Theaceae 6 5 0.10 0.09 0.19
160 Syngramma alismifolia Adiantaceae 5 5 0.08 0.09 0.17
161 Pyramidanthe prismatica Annonaceae 5 5 0.08 0.09 0.17
162 Thottea tomentosa Aristolochiaceae 5 5 0.08 0.09 0.17
163 Phyllanthus emblica Euphorbiaceae 5 5 0.08 0.09 0.17
164 Carallia brachiata Rhizophoraceae 5 5 0.08 0.09 0.17
165 Coptosapelta parviflora Rubiaceae 5 5 0.08 0.09 0.17
166 Selaginella wallichii Selaginellaceae 5 5 0.08 0.09 0.17
167 Parkia speciosa Leguminosae 5 4 0.08 0.07 0.16
168 Hoya sp. Asclepiadaceae 4 4 0.07 0.07 0.14
169 Asplenium nidus Aspleniaceae 4 4 0.07 0.07 0.14
170 Amischotolype molissima Commelinaceae 4 4 0.07 0.07 0.14
171 Cyrtandra capulata var capulata Gesneriaceae 4 4 0.07 0.07 0.14
172 Toona sp. Meliaceae 4 4 0.07 0.07 0.14
173 Chassalia chartacea Rubiaceae 4 4 0.07 0.07 0.14
174 Pometia pinnata Sapindaceae 4 4 0.07 0.07 0.14
175 Clerodendron deflexum Verbenaceae 4 4 0.07 0.07 0.14
176 Ancistrocladus tectorius Ancistrocladaceae 3 3 0.05 0.06 0.10
177 Popowia tomentosa Annonaceae 3 3 0.05 0.06 0.10
178 Colocasia esculenta Araceae 3 3 0.05 0.06 0.10
179 Forrestia griffithii Commelinaceae 3 3 0.05 0.06 0.10
180 Cratoxylum cochinchinense Guttiferae 3 3 0.05 0.06 0.10
181 Litsea lancifolia var lancifolia Lauraceae 3 3 0.05 0.06 0.10
182 Oncosperma horridum Palmae 3 3 0.05 0.06 0.10
183 Salacca glabrescens Palmae 3 3 0.05 0.06 0.10
184 Payena lucida Sapotaceae 3 3 0.05 0.06 0.10
185 Selaginella intermedia Selaginellaceae 3 3 0.05 0.06 0.10
186 Styrax benzoin Styracaceae 3 3 0.05 0.06 0.10
187 Symplocos rubiginosa Symplocaceae 3 3 0.05 0.06 0.10
188 Diospyros latisepala Ebenaceae 3 2 0.05 0.04 0.09
189 Garcinia atroviridis Guttiferae 3 2 0.05 0.04 0.09
190 Paramignya lobata Rutaceae 3 2 0.05 0.04 0.09
191 Mezettia leptopoda Annonaceae 2 2 0.03 0.04 0.07
192 Alstonia augustiloba Apocynaceae 2 2 0.03 0.04 0.07
193 Aralidium pinnatifitidum Aralidiaceae 2 2 0.03 0.04 0.07
194 Connarus ferrugineus Connaraceae 2 2 0.03 0.04 0.07
195 Dipteris conjugata Dipteridaceae 2 2 0.03 0.04 0.07

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196 Garcinia griffithii Guttiferae 2 2 0.03 0.04 0.07

197 Fagraea fragrans Loganiaceae 2 2 0.03 0.04 0.07
198 Fagraea racemosa Loganiaceae 2 2 0.03 0.04 0.07
199 Pternandra coerulescens Melastomataceae 2 2 0.03 0.04 0.07
200 Artocarpus elasticus Moraceae 2 2 0.03 0.04 0.07
201 Pinanga pumila Palmae 2 2 0.03 0.04 0.07
202 Podocarpus polystachyus Podocarpaceae 2 2 0.03 0.04 0.07
203 Pteris ensiformis Pteridaceae 2 2 0.03 0.04 0.07
204 Carallia suffruticosa Rhizophoraceae 2 2 0.03 0.04 0.07
205 Schima wallichii Theaceae 2 2 0.03 0.04 0.07
206 Globba patens Zingiberaceae 2 2 0.03 0.04 0.07
207 Xylopia malayana var obscura Annonaceae 1 1 0.02 0.02 0.03
208 Cnestis palala Connaraceae 1 1 0.02 0.02 0.03
209 Merremia peltata Convolvulaceae 1 1 0.02 0.02 0.03
210 Pleocnemia irregularis Dryopteridaceae 1 1 0.02 0.02 0.03
211 Bridelia tomentosa Euphorbiaceae 1 1 0.02 0.02 0.03
212 Croton laevifolium Euphorbiaceae 1 1 0.02 0.02 0.03
213 Sauropus androgynus Euphorbiaceae 1 1 0.02 0.02 0.03
214 Didissandra wrayi Gesneriaceae 1 1 0.02 0.02 0.03
215 Ixonanthes reticulata Ixonanthaceae 1 1 0.02 0.02 0.03
216 Saraca cauliflora Leguminosae 1 1 0.02 0.02 0.03
217 Sindora wallichii Leguminosae 1 1 0.02 0.02 0.03
218 Fagraea acuminatissima Loganiaceae 1 1 0.02 0.02 0.03
219 Tinomiscium petiolare Menispermaceae 1 1 0.02 0.02 0.03
220 Ficus hispida Moraceae 1 1 0.02 0.02 0.03
221 Syzygium polyanthum Myrtaceae 1 1 0.02 0.02 0.03
222 Euthemis leucocarpa Ochnaceae 1 1 0.02 0.02 0.03
223 Plocoglottis javanica Orchidaceae 1 1 0.02 0.02 0.03
224 Gynotroches axillaris Rhizophoraceae 1 1 0.02 0.02 0.03
225 Fagerlindia fasciculata Rubiaceae 1 1 0.02 0.02 0.03
226 Symplocos crassipes var penangiana Symplocaceae 1 1 0.02 0.02 0.03
227 Microcos fibrocarpa Tiliaceae 1 1 0.02 0.02 0.03
228 Rinorea anguifera Violaceae 1 1 0.02 0.02 0.03
6059 5450 100 100 200
D = density, F = frequency, RD = relative density, RF = relative frequency, IVI = importance value index

Appendix 4. Quantitative analysis for Family Value Index (tree)

Family D F BA RD(%) RF(%) RBA(%) FVI

1 Lauraceae 71 60 2.319 10.53 10.12 16.32 36.97
2 Euphorbiaceae 104 85 0.979 15.43 14.33 6.89 36.66
3 Guttiferae 53 50 0.999 7.86 8.43 7.03 23.32
4 Dipterocarpaceae 22 19 1.862 3.26 3.20 13.10 19.57
5 Annonaceae 48 45 0.459 7.12 7.59 3.23 17.94
6 Melastomataceae 48 37 0.595 7.12 6.24 4.19 17.55
7 Olacaceae 15 14 1.356 2.23 2.36 9.54 14.13
8 Flacourtiaceae 24 23 0.630 3.56 3.88 4.43 11.87

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9 Sterculiaceae 24 23 0.506 3.56 3.88 3.56 11.00

10 Elaeocarpaceae 26 25 0.389 3.86 4.22 2.74 10.81
11 Polygalaceae 21 20 0.398 3.12 3.37 2.80 9.29
12 Rubiaceae 25 22 0.185 3.71 3.71 1.30 8.72
13 Ebenaceae 25 21 0.206 3.71 3.54 1.45 8.70
14 Myrtaceae 22 17 0.298 3.26 2.87 2.10 8.23
15 Leguminosae 10 10 0.570 1.48 1.69 4.01 7.18
16 Moraceae 5 5 0.642 0.74 0.84 4.52 6.11
17 Rutaceae 10 10 0.253 1.48 1.69 1.78 4.95
18 Icacinaceae 11 8 0.233 1.63 1.35 1.64 4.62
19 Connaraceae 10 9 0.184 1.48 1.52 1.30 4.30
20 Ulmaceae 15 9 0.040 2.23 1.52 0.28 4.02
21 Anacardiaceae 8 8 0.201 1.19 1.35 1.41 3.95
22 Meliaceae 7 7 0.131 1.04 1.18 0.92 3.14
23 Myrsinaceae 8 8 0.052 1.19 1.35 0.37 2.90
24 Pittosporaceae 7 5 0.095 1.04 0.84 0.67 2.55
25 Simaroubaceae 7 6 0.026 1.04 1.01 0.18 2.23
26 Sapindaceae 7 6 0.024 1.04 1.01 0.17 2.22
27 Loganiaceae 5 4 0.099 0.74 0.67 0.70 2.11
28 Ixonanthaceae 4 4 0.110 0.59 0.67 0.77 2.04
29 Rhizophoraceae 5 5 0.046 0.74 0.84 0.32 1.91
30 Lecythidaceae 6 5 0.022 0.89 0.84 0.15 1.89
31 Ctenolophonaceae 1 4 0.088 0.15 0.67 0.62 1.44
32 Theaceae 3 3 0.030 0.45 0.51 0.21 1.16
33 Rosaceae 3 3 0.020 0.45 0.51 0.14 1.09
34 Tiliaceae 3 3 0.015 0.45 0.51 0.11 1.06
35 Sapotaceae 2 2 0.033 0.30 0.34 0.23 0.87
36 Burseraceae 2 2 0.009 0.30 0.34 0.06 0.69
37 Convallariaceae 1 1 0.045 0.15 0.17 0.32 0.63
38 Verbenaceae 2 1 0.010 0.30 0.17 0.07 0.54
39 Symplocaceae 1 1 0.028 0.15 0.17 0.20 0.51
40 Ochnaceae 1 1 0.012 0.15 0.17 0.08 0.40
41 Styracaceae 1 1 0.010 0.15 0.17 0.07 0.39
42 Menispermaceae 1 1 0.003 0.15 0.17 0.02 0.34
TOTAL 674 593 14.211 100 100 100 300
D = density, F = frequency, RD = relative density, RF = relative frequency, FVI = family value index

Appendix 5. Quantitative analysis for Family Value Index (non tree)

Family D F RD(%) RF(%) FVI

1 Euphorbiaceae 707 619 11.67 11.36 23.03
2 Annonaceae 319 305 5.26 5.60 10.86
3 Rubiaceae 328 291 5.41 5.34 10.75
4 Melastomataceae 321 275 5.30 5.05 10.34
5 Zingiberaceae 272 252 4.49 4.62 9.11
6 Myrsinaceae 239 219 3.94 4.02 7.96
7 Guttiferae 233 209 3.85 3.83 7.68
8 Connaraceae 189 169 3.12 3.10 6.22

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9 Schizaeaceae 183 159 3.02 2.92 5.94

10 Leguminosae 166 156 2.74 2.86 5.60
11 Sterculiaceae 167 155 2.76 2.84 5.60
12 Palmae 167 148 2.76 2.72 5.47
13 Rhamnaceae 156 132 2.57 2.42 5.00
14 Dryopteridaceae 143 127 2.36 2.33 4.69
15 Menispermaceae 132 120 2.18 2.20 4.38
16 Lauraceae 119 112 1.96 2.06 4.02
17 Dilleniaceae 124 101 2.05 1.85 3.90
18 Ulmaceae 111 99 1.83 1.82 3.65
19 Gesneriaceae 112 93 1.85 1.71 3.55
20 Dipterocarpaceae 110 92 1.82 1.69 3.50
21 Piperaceae 102 86 1.68 1.58 3.26
22 Araceae 98 85 1.62 1.56 3.18
23 Smilacaceae 98 81 1.62 1.49 3.10
24 Ebenaceae 88 77 1.45 1.41 2.87
25 Cyperaceae 74 68 1.22 1.25 2.47
26 Myrtaceae 73 66 1.20 1.21 2.42
27 Flacourtiaceae 63 60 1.04 1.10 2.14
28 Combretaceae 56 53 0.92 0.97 1.90
29 Marantaceae 57 52 0.94 0.95 1.89
30 Gnetaceae 52 51 0.86 0.94 1.79
31 Simaroubaceae 52 50 0.86 0.92 1.78
32 Olacaceae 49 47 0.81 0.86 1.67
33 Adiantaceae 47 45 0.78 0.83 1.60
34 Sapindaceae 49 41 0.81 0.75 1.56
35 Selaginellaceae 47 42 0.78 0.77 1.55
36 Scrophulariaceae 40 38 0.66 0.70 1.36
37 Verbenaceae 38 38 0.63 0.70 1.32
38 Rutaceae 39 36 0.64 0.66 1.30
39 Hypoxidaceae 35 31 0.58 0.57 1.15
40 Commelinaceae 33 29 0.54 0.53 1.08
41 Blechnaceae 31 29 0.51 0.53 1.04
42 Cyatheaceae 31 28 0.51 0.51 1.03
43 Polygalaceae 30 27 0.50 0.50 0.99
44 Lecythidaceae 28 28 0.46 0.51 0.98
45 Lycopodiaceae 28 27 0.46 0.50 0.96
46 Meliaceae 27 26 0.45 0.48 0.92
47 Ochnaceae 25 25 0.41 0.46 0.87
48 Oleandraceae 26 24 0.43 0.44 0.87
49 Rosaceae 23 23 0.38 0.42 0.80
50 Elaeocarpaceae 23 20 0.38 0.37 0.75
51 Costaceae 20 18 0.33 0.33 0.66
52 Aristolochiaceae 19 18 0.31 0.33 0.64
53 Pandaceae 16 16 0.26 0.29 0.56
54 Anacardiaceae 15 15 0.25 0.28 0.52
55 Moraceae 14 14 0.23 0.26 0.49

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56 Icacinaceae 14 13 0.23 0.24 0.47

57 Ixonanthaceae 14 13 0.23 0.24 0.47
58 Hanguanaceae 13 13 0.21 0.24 0.45
59 Tiliaceae 13 12 0.21 0.22 0.43
60 Sapotaceae 13 11 0.21 0.20 0.42
61 Leeaceae 12 10 0.20 0.18 0.38
62 Gleicheniaceae 10 10 0.17 0.18 0.35
63 Ctenolophonaceae 9 9 0.15 0.17 0.31
64 Cecropiaceae 10 8 0.17 0.15 0.31
65 Celastraceae 8 8 0.13 0.15 0.28
66 Rhizophoraceae 8 8 0.13 0.15 0.28
67 Taccaceae 8 8 0.13 0.15 0.28
68 Theaceae 8 7 0.13 0.13 0.26
69 Burseraceae 7 7 0.12 0.13 0.24
70 Convolvulaceae 7 7 0.12 0.13 0.24
71 Vitaceae 7 7 0.12 0.13 0.24
72 Acanthaceae 7 6 0.12 0.11 0.23
73 Pittosporaceae 6 6 0.10 0.11 0.21
74 Convallariaceae 6 5 0.10 0.09 0.19
75 Loganiaceae 5 5 0.08 0.09 0.17
76 Asclepiadaceae 4 4 0.07 0.07 0.14
77 Aspleniaceae 4 4 0.07 0.07 0.14
78 Symplocaceae 4 4 0.07 0.07 0.14
79 Ancistrocladaceae 3 3 0.05 0.06 0.10
80 Styracaceae 3 3 0.05 0.06 0.10
81 Apocynaceae 2 2 0.03 0.04 0.07
82 Aralidiaceae 2 2 0.03 0.04 0.07
83 Dipteridaceae 2 2 0.03 0.04 0.07
84 Podocarpaceae 2 2 0.03 0.04 0.07
85 Pteridaceae 2 2 0.03 0.04 0.07
86 Orchidaceae 1 1 0.02 0.02 0.03
87 Violaceae 1 1 0.02 0.02 0.03
TOTAL 6059 5450 100 100 200
D = density, F = frequency, RD = relative density, RF = relative frequency, FVI = family value index

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