Basic Construction Materials

45
Chapter 5
Construction materials
INTRODUCTION Hardwoods versus softwoods

A wide range of building materials is available for the Wood cut from deciduous trees (which drop their
construction of rural buildings and structures. The leaves sometime during the year) is considered to be
proper selection of materials to be used in a particular hardwood, while that cut from coniferous (needle-
building or structure can influence the original cost, bearing) trees is considered to be softwood. However,
maintenance, ease of cleaning, durability and, of course, this classification does not accurately reflect whether
appearance. the wood itself is soft or hard. In this book, hardwood
Several factors need to be considered when choosing will be used to classify wood with hard characteristics.
the materials for a construction job, including:
1. Type and function of the building or structure Wood characteristics
and the specific characteristics required of the Strength in wood is its ability to resist breaking when
materials used, i.e. great strength, water resistance, it is used in beams and columns. Not only is strength
wear resistance, attractive appearance, etc. related to the species, but also to moisture content
2. Economic aspects of the building/structure in (MC) and defects. Strength is also quite closely related
terms of original investment and annual cost of to density.
maintenance. Hardness is the resistance to denting and wear. While
3. Availability of materials in the area. hardwoods are more difficult to work, they are required
4. Availability of the skilled labour required to for tools, tool handles, flooring and other applications
install some types of material. subject to wear, or where a high polish is desired.
5. Quality and durability of different types of Woods that are stiff resist deflection or bending
material. when loaded. Stiff woods are not necessarily very
6. Transportation costs. strong. They may resist bending up to a point and then
7. Selection of materials with compatible properties, break suddenly.
dimensions and means of installation. Tough woods will deflect considerably before
8. Cultural acceptability or personal preference. breaking. Even after fracturing, the fibres tend to
hang together and resist separation. Tough woods are
WOOD resistant to shock loading.
Wood is a commonly used construction material in Warping is the twisting, bending or bowing
many parts of the world because of its reasonable cost, distortions shown by some woods. The method of
ease of working, attractive appearance and adequate sawing and curing affects the amount of warping, but
life if protected from moisture and insects. However, some species are much more prone to warping than
forests are a valuable natural resource that must be others.
conserved, particularly in areas with marginal rainfall. Nail-holding resistance for hardwoods is greater
As good a material as wood may be, there are regions than for softer woods. However, woods that are so hard
where other materials should be considered first, simply that they tend to split when nailed, lose much of their
on a conservation basis. holding ability. Preboring to 75 percent of the nail size
Wood for building is available from many different avoids splitting.
species with widely varying characteristics. Some The workability, such as sawing, shaping and
species are used in the form of small poles for light nailing, is better for soft, low-density woods than for
construction, while other species are allowed to mature hardwoods, but usually they cannot be given a high
so that timber (lumber in many countries) may be sawn polish.
from the large logs. The species that produce small, Natural-decay resistance is particularly important
inexpensive poles in rather short growing periods often in the warm, humid regions of east and southeast
grow in the fringes of agricultural land and can be used Africa. A wide range of resistance is shown by different
without danger to the ecology of the region. species. However, for all species, the heartwood (the
The various species of wood have a number of darker centre area of the tree) is more resistant than
physical characteristics that will be discussed in relation the sapwood (the lighter outer area of the tree). In
to their use in building construction. addition to selection for natural-decay resistance, wood
46 Rural structures in the tropics: design and development
preservatives should be considered where contact with insects, there are great variations among the species.
the ground is likely. The density of the timber is no guide to its resistance to
Paint-holding ability differs between woods and, as termite damage, as some of the lighter timbers are more
a general rule, this should be considered when selecting immune than heavier varieties.
materials. Weathering is the disintegration of wood caused
by alternate shrinkage and swelling as a result of rain,
Defects in wood rapid changes in temperature, humidity and the action
Defects to watch for when selecting timber are: of sunlight. Painting, when properly carried out, does
Brittle heart, found near the centre of many tropical much to prevent weathering. The paint must be of
trees, makes the wood break with a brittle fracture. exterior quality, however, and applied according to the
Wide growth rings indicate rapid growth resulting maker’s instructions.
in thin-walled fibres with consequent loss of density
and strength. POLES AND TIMBER
Fissures include checks, splits, shakes and resin
pockets. Knots are the part of a branch that has become Wooden poles
enclosed in a growing tree. Dead knots are often loose In farm buildings and rural structures, wood is often
and therefore reduce the effective area that can take used in the form in which it has grown, i.e. round poles.
tensile stress. Knots can also deflect the fibres, thereby In some areas where enough trees are grown on the
reducing strength in tension. farm or in local forests, wooden poles can be obtained
Decay, which results from moisture levels between at very low cost. These poles have many uses in small
21 percent and 25 percent in the presence of air, reduces building construction, such as columns for the load-
the strength of the wood and spoils its appearance. bearing structure, rafters, trusses and purlins. Sticks
Insect damage caused by borers or termites. and thin poles are often used as wall material or as a
The fungi that feed on wood can be divided into framework in mud walls.
three main categories: staining fungi, moulds and Where straight poles are selected for construction,
decay fungi. Most fungi thrive under moist conditions. it is as easy to work with round timber as with sawn
Staining fungi live mainly on the sapwood but they may timber. However, somewhat crooked poles can also be
penetrate deeply into the wood and spoil the timber’s used if they are turned and twisted and put into positions
attractive appearance. Moulds do not penetrate below in which the effects of the bends are unimportant.
the surface and do not seem to affect the strength of Round timber can generally be considered stronger
the wood, but they look unsightly. Decay fungi eat the than sawn timber of the same section area because the
cell walls of the wood. This causes the tree to lose its fibres in round timber are intact. The pole is normally
strength and often reduces it to a crumbling, rotting tapered and therefore the smallest section, the top end,
mass. These decay fungi never attack timber that is must be used in the calculation of compressive and
seasoned to a moisture content of less than 20 percent tensile strength.
and kept well ventilated and dry. A great number of species can be considered when
The main species of borer that attack tropical woods selecting poles for construction, but only a limited
are the pinhole borer and the Lyctus, or powderpost number are available on the commercial market. Some
beetle. The pinhole borer attacks newly felled logs and species are more suitable for silviculture (growing on
sometimes standing trees. The attack can occur within farms) and silvipasture (growing on pastures) than
hours of felling. The beetles do not normally continue others, but must always be selected to suit local climatic
to operate in seasoned timber. The powderpost beetle and soil conditions. Generally there are several species
attacks seasoned tropical hardwoods – particularly suitable for each location that are fast and straight-
those that contain starch on which the larvae feed. growing, and produce strong and durable timber. In
Timber is sometimes sprayed in the yard to protect it addition to building poles or timber, some species will
until it is transported. produce fodder for animals, fruit, fuelwood, etc.
Termites are normally of two kinds: the dry wood Many species of eucalyptus, from which gum poles are
types that are able to fly and the subterranean type. obtained, are very fast and straight-growing hardwoods.
Termites usually operate under cover and it is only However, they warp and split easily. Dimensions suitable
after the first signs of damage appear that the full extent for building construction are obtained by harvesting the
is realized. Flying termites usually enter the end-grain still immature trees. Gum poles provide a strong and
of untreated timber and build up a colony from inside, durable material if chemically treated.
finally devouring all the interior wood and leaving In high-altitude areas, several species of acacia
only a thin skin behind. Some subterranean termites, produce good building poles. Acacia melanoxylon
white ants, operate from a central colony and travel in (Australian blackwood) is very resistant to attack by
search of food. Their nests or hills sometimes achieve termites, but grows more slowly than eucalyptus. In
great size and house millions of ants. While no timber low- to medium-altitude areas with sandy soils and low
is completely immune to attack from ants or other rainfall, Casuarina produces straight and durable poles.
Chapter 5 – Construction materials 47
Unprocessed round wood material can be joined

by being nailed or tied with string or wire. A special
connector has been developed to join round wood
in trusses where several members may have to be
connected at each point.
Sawing timber
The rate at which a tree grows varies with the season.
The resulting growth rings of alternate high and low
density form the grain in the sawn timber (lumber).
The method of sawing has a considerable effect on the
appearance, resistance to warping, shrinking, paint-
holding ability and wear resistance of the final piece.
There are several methods of sawing a log into boards
and planks, giving different relationships between the
growth rings and the surface, i.e. more or less parallel
to the surface in plain sawn timber and at right angles
Figure 5.1 Pole connectors in radial sawn timber.
Radially sawn boards shrink less, are less liable to
cup and twist and are easier to season. Unfortunately,
Cedar posts for fencing are obtained by splitting cutting methods that produce a high proportion of
large logs. The posts are durable and resistant to rot and quarter-sawn timber are wasteful and therefore only
attack by termites. They are also suitable for wall posts used to produce material for high-class joinery work
in the construction of buildings. (see Figures 5.2 and 5.3).
In coastal areas, mangrove poles are widely used for
posts in walls and trusses in roofs.
Boxed heart
B
C
B
Through and through sawn Billet sawn Quarter cut

Common method
More
than 45°
Commercial quarter cut
True Quarter cut

quarter cut
Figure 5.2 Methods of sawing timber

Offcuts Air seasoning

A tree is tapered and cylindrical, whereas boards and Timber should be protected from rain and from the
planks are rectangular. This results in the outer pieces ground. It should therefore be stacked so that air
with tapered edges and less than full dimensions can circulate freely around all surfaces, reducing the
throughout the length. Such pieces, called offcuts, can risk of twisting and cupping, as well as minimizing
sometimes be obtained at low cost and used for rough attacks by fungi and insects. In favourable conditions,
building. thin softwoods can be air-seasoned in weeks but in
unfavourable conditions some hardwoods require a
Seasoning of timber year or more.
The strength, stiffness and dimensional stability of
wood are related to its moisture content. Hence, if
wood is dried (seasoned) before use, not only can Air currents
higher strength values be used in a design, but a more
durable structure will result. In developing countries,
most timber is not seasoned and it is sold in what is
called its ‘green’ state.
Timber must be stacked, supported and sometimes
restrained so as to minimize distortion during seasoning.
If drying is too rapid, the outer parts, in particular the
unprotected ends, shrink before the interior does, and
this leads to surface checking and splitting, as well as
the possible extension of ring and heart shakes. Some Figure 5.4 Air-drying of timber
timber species are more difficult to season satisfactorily
than others.
Artificial seasoning
Artificial seasoning can be either moderate or rapid,
depending on the temperature of the air injected into
LOW
the chamber where the timber is piled, and on the
rate at which the air is circulated and extracted from
BEST the chamber. This method is expensive and can only
be applied on small quantities of timber. Timber can
GOOD be artificially seasoned from the green condition, but
MEDIUM often hot-air seasoning is used only at a later stage,
after most of the moisture has been removed by air
seasoning.
Smoke seasoning is a moderate process and involves
Cupping of plain sawn placing the timber over a bonfire. It can take a month
boards caused by greater or two, depending on the size and type of wood
shortening of longer being seasoned. This method is considered to be
growth rings drying
both a seasoning and a treatment method for timber.
Presumably it protects the timber against pest attacks
and increases durability. However, it is not very reliable
and can lead to splitting of the timber because of the
Plain (slash) lack of control over the heat from the bonfire.
sawn
Care of seasoned timber
Radial sawn Timber should be protected from moisture on the
building site. Close piling and covering with tarpaulins
delays the absorption of atmospheric moisture,
particularly in the interior of the pile.
Ovalling
Grades and sizes for timber
Diamonding Grades
Grades are established by various government agencies.
Even within a single country, more than one grading
Figure 5.3 Effects of cupping and shrinkage of different system may be in use. While the grade may not be
methods of sawing important for small construction jobs, in large projects
where materials are bought by specification, it is resist. Wood, like other materials, has safe fibre stress
important to indicate the required grade. values given in N/mm2 that have been determined by
Grades that provide specific information in structural destructive testing to obtain first an ultimate stress, and
design are most useful. The grade standard established then, by the use of various correction and safety factors,
by the Kenya Bureau of Standards, shown in Table 5.1, the safe fibre stress to be used for designing a structure.
is a good example. Table 5.2 lists basic working-stress values for several
types of loadings in five strength groups. Table 5.3
divides some representative species into the strength
TABLE 5.1 groups used in Table 5.2.
Timber grades and application
Grade Applications
F Furniture, high-class joinery TABLE 5.3

Some representative timbers grouped according to
GJ General joinery
strength and density
S-75 Structural grade, having a value of 75% of basic stress
Group Latin name Common name
S-50 Structural grade, having a value of 50% of basic stress 1 Pinus radiata (12 years) Young pine
C A general construction grade for non-stressed Polyscias kikuyuensis Mutati
construction 2 Cordia abyssinica Muringa
L A low grade for low quality work Pinus patula (17 years)* Pine
Pinus radiata (17 years) Pine
Cupressus lusitanica** East African cypress
It is the S-75 and S-50 grades that are significant in 3 Podocarpus Podo/musengera
building construction, as will be seen in later sections. Juniperus procera African pencil cedar/mutarakwa
Octea usambarensis East African camphorwood/muzaiti
Sizes Acacia melanoxylon Australian blackwood
Timber in eastern and southeastern Africa is available Grevillia robusta Grevillea/silky oak
in a number of Système Internationale (SI) metric sizes, Vitex keniensis* Vitex/muhuru/meru oak
but not all are available in all localities. The dimension Pterocarpus angolensis Muninga
Khay anthot heca African mahogany
indicates actual size as sawn. Smoothing will reduce the
Eucalyptus regnans Australian mountain ash
timber to less than dimension size.
4 Cassipourea malosana Pillarwood/musaisi
Dombeya goezenii Mueko
Timber measurement for trade Eucalyptus saligna Saligna gum/Sydney blue gum
Even though timber is normally sold by length (running Premna maxima*
metre or foot), the price may be calculated per cubic Afzelia quanensis Afzelia
metre when sold in large quantities. Basic lengths are 5 Olea hochstetteri East African olive/musharagi
between 1.8 metres and 6.3 metres, although pieces * One group lower in compression perpendicular to grain
longer than about 5.1 metres are scarce and costly. ** One group lower in joint shear
Timber normally comes in running lengths, that is to
say, not sorted by length. There are dozens more tree species found in eastern
and southern Africa, many of which are used only
Strength of wood in very local areas. In order to obtain approximate
Building materials of any type that are under load are working-stress data for these indigenous species, their
said to be subjected to fibre stress. The safe fibre stress densities may be used to place them in the proper
for a material is the load that the material will safely group in Table 5.2. If the density is not known, a good
TABLE 5.2
Guide to basic working-stress values and modulus of elasticity for timber
Maximum Maximum compression Maximum shearing
Strength Strength Density Density bending strength Modulus strength strength
group rating green 12% MC and tension of elasticity Parallel Perpendicular
parallel to grain Beams Joints
to grain to grain
kg/m3 kg/m3 N/mm2 kN/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2
1 Weak < 520 < 400 10 4.0 2.5 0.6 1.0 0.4
2 Fairly strong 521–650 401–500 15 6.0 10.0 1.2 1.3 1.6
3 Strong 651–830 501–640 20 7.5 13.0 2.0 1.9 2.4
4 Very strong 831–1 040 641–800 30 9.0 20.0 3.2 2.4 3.5
Exceptionally
5 > 1 041 > 801 50 10.5 29.0 5.0 3.2 4.1
strong
approximation can be found quite easily. A bucket, a where Px is the mechanical property at a given
graduated cylinder (millilitres) and an accurate scale moisture content, for example, tensile strength at
for weighing a sample of the wood will be needed. The 8% MC; P12 is the property at 12% MC; Pg is the
procedure is as follows: property value in green condition; Mx is the MC at
1. Weigh the sample. which property is desired and Mp is the moisture content
2. Place the bucket on a level surface and fill to the at the intersection of a horizontal line representing the
rim with water. strength of greenwood and an inclined line representing
3. Carefully submerge the sample and then remove. the logarithm of the strength/MC relationship for dry
4. Refill the bucket from the graduated cylinder, wood. It is usually taken to be 25% MC.
noting the amount of water needed to refill the Owing to the effect of moisture, mechanical
bucket. properties are determined in green condition (above
5. Density = weight / volume = kg/m3 fibre saturation) or in air-dry conditions (12% MC).
6. Place the species in the appropriate group using This makes it possible to have comparable results.
the appropriate density column for a green or dry Correction factors are used to adjust moisture content
sample (see Table 5.2, column 3 or 4). to these two standard values.
Table 5.2 lists basic working-stress values. For design 3. Density

purposes, these should be adjusted for a number of Density is a measure of the wood substance contained
different variables, including: grade, moisture content, in a given volume. The substance of which wood
duration of load, exposure and use of the structure. is composed
MX 12has a specific gravity of about 1.5, yet
Factors that affect timber strength include: wood
P12 floats
MP 12 on water. This would indicate that wood
Px = P12 e
contains numerous cell cavities and pores. As the
Pg
1. Sloping grain strength of timber is a function of the wood material
As timber is a material with maximum mechanical present, density is a good indicator of strength, and the
properties in the direction of the grain, any load not relationship is given by Equation 5.3:
applied in this direction will be resisted by lower
strength and stiffness characteristics. The effect of
S gn
a sloping grain on the strength of beams must be = (5.3)
considered in the design. For example, lowering the S' g'
grain slope from 1 in 20 to 1 in 8 reduces the strength
of timber by over 50 percent. The reduction in strength where S and S’ are values of strength corresponding to
resulting from the sloping grain (deviation) may be densities g and g’ and n is an index with a value in the
calculated from the relationship. range 1.25 to 2.50.
4. Temperature
PQ
N= (5.1) The influence of temperature can be analyzed at two
PsinQ+ QcosQ
levels:
where N is the strength at angle from the fibre direction; (i) Reversible effects
P is the strength parallel to the grain ( = 0°) and Q is the In general, the mechanical properties of wood
strength perpendicular to the grain ( = 90°). decrease when heated and increase when cooled.
At constant MC and below 150 ºC, the relationship
2. Moisture between mechanical properties and temperature
When moisture decreases below the fibre saturation is approximately linear. At temperatures below
point, it begins to affect the mechanical properties of 100 ºC, the immediate effect is essentially
wood. A decrease in moisture content increases the reversible, i.e. the property will return to the value
strength of wood because the cell walls become more at the original temperature if the change is rapid.
compact. Cell walls are compacted because, with the
loss of moisture, the mass of wood substance contained (ii) Irreversible effects
in a certain volume increases. This occurs at high temperatures. This permanent
Given any mechanical property at standard values of effect results in degradation of the wood
moisture content, it is possible to predict the values of substance, which results in the loss of weight
that property at any moisture content using Equation 5.2: and strength. However, wood will not often
reach the daily extremes in temperature of the
air around it in ordinary construction. Long-
MX 12
term effects should therefore be based on the
P12 MP 12
Px = P12 e (5.2) accumulated temperature experience of critical
Pg structural parts.
S gn
10
.
m.c
n1 2%
grai
( N/mm2 )
r // een
5 shea in gr
/ gra
sh ear /
200 400 600 800 1 000
kg/m3 - 12% m.c.
50
45
40
35
%
Strength( N/mm2 )
12
th
ng
re
30
st
n
g
ee
in
gr
nd
th 2%
Be
n g i n1
25 tre gra
s //
g
di
n
sion
n es
Be pr
m
20 Co
n
ee
gr
15 in
ra
// g
n
sio
es
10 pr
m
Co
200 400 600 800 1 000
kg/m3 - 12% m.c
1 2 3 4 5
STRENGTH GROUPS
Figure 5.5 Basic working stresses for timber

(iii) Time under load oil produced by the distillation of coal tar and, while it
Static strength tests are typically conducted at a has many of the properties required of a preservative,
rate of loading to attain maximum load in about it increases flammability, is subject to evaporation, and
5 minutes. Higher-strength values are obtained creosoted wood cannot be painted. It should not be
for wood loaded at more rapid rates, and lower used on interiors where the characteristic smell would
values are obtained at slower rates. For example, be objectionable. Unfortunately, creosote has been
the load required to produce failure in a wood found to be a carcinogen and must be used with caution.
member in 1 second is approximately 10 percent Coal tar is not as effective a preservative as the
higher than that obtained in a standard strength creosote produced from it. Tar is less poisonous, does
test. not penetrate the timber because of its viscosity, is
blacker than creosote and is unsuitable for interior
Grades wood work.
As an example, the Kenya Forest Department Unleachable metallic salts are based mostly on
recommends that the following grades should be used: copper salts. A combination of copper/chrome/
arsenate is used. The copper and arsenical salts are toxic
Grade 1 75% of basic working-stress value preservatives that are rendered non-leaching (cannot be
Grade 2 50% of basic working-stress value washed out) by the chrome salt, which acts as a fixing
Grade 3 35% of basic working-stress value agent. The timber is impregnated using a ‘vacuum-
Grade 4 15% of basic working-stress value pressure’ process. Preservation by metallic salt is being
used increasingly because the treated surfaces are
Moisture odourless and can be painted or glued.
Table values need to be reduced when timber is installed Water-soluble preservatives are not satisfactory for
green and will remain wet and uncured continuously. exterior use as they are liable to be washed out of the
Use Figure 5.5 to find a suitable stress value for green timber by rain.
wood corresponding to the dry value in Table 5.2. By contrast, they are very suitable for interior work
as they are comparatively odourless and colourless and
Exposure the timber can be painted.
Timbers exposed to severe weather and decay hazards Used engine oil can often be obtained free of charge,
should be designed using a 25 percent stress-value at least in small quantities. The oil contains many
decrease, particularly for columns and for bearing points. residual products from combustion and some of them
act as preservatives, but it is not nearly as effective as
TIMBER PRESERVATION commercial preservatives. It can be thinned with diesel
The main structural softwood timbers of eastern and fuel for better penetration. The combination of 40 litres
southeastern Africa are not naturally durable. If used of used engine oil and 1 litre of Dieldrin is a viable
in conditions subject to fungal, insect or termite attack, alternative in rural construction.
they will fail after some time. To avoid this, the timber
used in permanent structures should be treated with a Methods of wood preservation
preservative. There are two categories of timber preservation
Effective preservation depends on the preservative methods:
and how it is applied. An effective preservative should
be poisonous to fungi and insects, permanent, able Non-pressure methods
to penetrate sufficiently, cheap and readily available. These are applicable for both green and dried timber
It should not corrode metal fastenings, nor should (less than 30 percent MC) and include:
the timber be rendered more flammable by its use. It 1. Soaking (steeping), used for small quantities of
is sometimes desirable to have a preservative-treated timber.
surface that can be painted. 2. Hot and cold soaking: the tank with the
If a structure is correctly designed and built, and preservative and timber is heated to nearly
the moisture content of its timber does not exceed boiling point for 1-2 hours and allowed to cool.
20 percent, then a preservative treatment is generally During the heating period, the air in the cells
unnecessary for protection against fungal attack. expands and some is expelled. When cooling, a
However, where the above conditions are not present, partial vacuum develops in the cells and liquid is
there will be a risk of fungal decay, and proper absorbed.
preservation is recommended. 3. Steam and cold quenching.
4. Superficial methods such as painting and
Wood preservatives spraying.
Creosote is an effective general-purpose preservative
that is cheap and widely used for exterior work and, To make non-pressure methods more effective, storage
to a lesser degree, indoors. It is a black to brownish in a closed environment is recommended.
Pressure methods of wood, in order to fill the wood cells with air
The treatment in pressure processes is carried out in prior to preservative injection. Pressurization
steel cylinders, or ‘retorts’. Most units conform to size times vary with wood species. For some
limits of 2–3 metres in diameter and up to 46 metres species, only a few minutes of pressurization
or more in length, and are built to withstand working are required, while more resistant species may
pressures of up to 1 720 kPa. The wood is loaded on require pressure periods of 30-60 minutes. Air
special tram cars and moved into the retort, which is pressures used typically range from 172 kPa
then closed and filled with the preservative. to 690 kPa, depending on the net preservative
Pressure forces preservatives into the wood until retention desired and the resistance of the wood.
the desired amount has been absorbed. Three processes After the initial pressurization period,
– full-cell, modified full-cell and empty-cell – are preservative is pumped into the cylinder. As
commonly used. These processes are distinguished by the preservative enters the treatment cylinder,
the sequence in which vacuum and pressure are applied the air escapes into an equalizing, or Rueping,
to the retort. The terms ‘empty’ and ‘full’ refer to the tank at a rate that maintains the pressure within
level of preservative retained in the wood cells. the cylinder. When the treatment cylinder is
The full-cell process achieves a high level of filled with preservative, the pressure is raised
preservative retention in the wood cells, but less above the initial air pressure and maintained
penetration than the empty-cell process. On the other until the wood will take no more preservative,
hand, the empty-cell process achieves relatively deep or until enough has been absorbed to leave the
penetration with less preservative retention than the desired preservative retention level after the
full-cell process. final vacuum. After the pressure period, the
preservative is removed from the cylinder and
1. Full-cell process surplus preservative is removed from the wood
The Bethel full-cell process is generally used with with a final vacuum. This final vacuum may
water-based preservatives, especially for timber that is recover 20–60 percent of the gross amount of
difficult to treat and also requires high retention. The preservative injected. The retort then is unloaded,
full-cell process steps are listed below: and the treated wood stored.
r The wood is sealed in the treatment cylinder and
an initial vacuum is applied for approximately (ii) Lowry process
30 minutes to remove as much air as possible from The Lowry process is an empty-cell process
the wood and from the cylinder. without the initial air pressure. Preservative is
r The preservative, either heated or at ambient pumped into the treatment cylinder without
temperature depending on the system, enters the either an initial air pressurization or vacuum,
cylinder without breaking the vacuum. trapping the air that is already in the wood.
r After the cylinder is filled, the cylinder is pressurized After the cylinder is filled with the preservative,
until no more preservative will enter the wood, or pressure is applied and the remainder of the
until the desired preservative retention is obtained. process is identical to the Rueping process. The
r At the end of the pressure period, the pressure is advantage of the Lowry process is that full-cell
released and the preservative is removed from the equipment can be used without the accessories
cylinder. required for the Rueping process, such as an air
r A final vacuum may be applied to remove excess compressor, an extra tank for the preservative, or
preservative that would otherwise drip from the a pump to force the preservative into the cylinder
wood. against the air pressure. However, both processes
are used widely and successfully.
2. Empty-cell process
The empty-cell process results in deep penetration MANUFACTURED BUILDING BOARDS
of the preservative with a relatively low net preservative There are a number of building boards made from
retention level. If oil preservatives are used, the empty- wood veneers or the waste products of the timber
cell process will most probably be used, provided it will industry that are convenient and economical materials
yield the desired retention level. The Rueping process to use in building construction. In general, they offer
and the Lowry process are the two most commonly excellent bracing for the building frame, together with
used empty-cell processes. Both use compressed air to labour savings because they are available in large sizes
drive out a portion of the preservative absorbed during requiring a minimum of fitting.
the pressure period. Some manufactured boards are designed with
specific characteristics, such as fire resistance, ease
(i) Rueping process of cleaning, high insulation value or resistance to
In the Rueping process, compressed air is forced weathering.
into the treatment cylinder containing the charge
TABLE 5.4
Plywood Safe spans for plywood panels parallel to the grain of
Plywood is produced by gluing together three to seven the plys
veneers that have been peeled from logs. The grain
Load
of each successive veneer is angled at 90° from the
167 Pa 4 790 Pa
previous one, resulting in a board that has considerable
strength and rigidity in all directions. Waterproof glue Thickness (170 kg/m²) (490 kg/m²)
is most commonly used, giving a product that is highly 9 mm 400 mm -

resistant to moisture. Waterproof glue panels should 12 mm 600 mm -
always be chosen for farm buildings. As the wood itself 15 mm 770 mm 300 mm
is not waterproof, the panels are still subject to swelling
19 mm 925 mm 400 mm
and shrinkage from moisture changes.
Grades of plywood
Plywood is generally given four to five grades, based Other manufactured boards
on the appearance of the surface veneers. Each panel Blockboards and laminboards are made of strips of
has a double-letter grade to indicate the grade of wood between 8 mm and 25 mm wide, glued together
the face of the panel and the back of the panel. and covered with one or more veneers on each side. At
The top-grade surface is generally free enough from least one pair of corresponding veneers will have the
defects to be finished naturally, while the second-best grain at right angles to the grain of the core. If the finish
grade is good for painting. Lower grades are used for grain is to run parallel with the core, there must be at
structural applications where appearance is of little least two veneers per side.
importance. Theoretically, between 10 and 15 different The same 12 panel sizes listed for plywood are
grade combinations are possible. In practice, only a few also listed for blockboard. However, the thicknesses
tend to be available from timber merchants. are greater, ranging from 15 mm to 50 mm, in 5 mm
increments. The same appearance, grades and types
Sizes of plywood panel of glue listed for plywood also apply to blockboards.
As an example of a standard used in the region, the Blockboard panels are often used for doors.
Kenya Bureau of Standards provides a standard with Particleboards are formed by pressing chips or
12 panel sizes and 9 different thicknesses. Combining flakes of wood between pairs of heated platens so that
grades, panel sizes and thicknesses, there are numerous the particles lie in random fashion with their longer
permutations, but only a few will be manufactured. dimensions parallel to the surface of the board. The
The most common panel size is 2 400 by 1 200 mm, in chips are bonded with thermosetting synthetic resins.
thicknesses of 9 mm, 12 mm, 15 mm and 19 mm. Depending on the size of the particles, these boards
are variously known as particleboard, chipboard or
Plywood for structural members waferboard. Strength and rigidity generally increase
Plywood panels are made from many different with density, but that alone is not a measure of quality,
species of wood and have a wide range of strengths as moisture resistance varies considerably and most
and stiffnesses. Specific strength characteristics for particleboards should not be used in moist locations.
plywood can be provided by either the manufacturer Softboards are made from uncompressed woodchips
or a trade association that publishes grade standards or sugarcane fibres mixed with water and glue or
to which manufacturers adhere. In general, plywood resins, giving a density of less than 350 kg/m3. They are
panels should equal or exceed the strengths shown in inexpensive and can be used for wall or ceiling surfaces
Table 5.4. that are not subject to high-moisture conditions.
THREE PLY MULTI PLY
Figure 5.6 Plywood

Sawdust is a by-product from sawmills. It is a good

BLOCKBOARD natural insulating material, and also a good bedding
material for use in animal housing.
Wicker made from shrubs, bushes and trees is used
either directly, for fencing or wall cladding, or sealed by
smearing on mud, plaster, etc.
OTHER ORGANIC MATERIALS

Core strips
Bamboo
Bamboo is a perennial grass with over 550 species,
Figure 5.7a Blockboard found in tropical, subtropical and temperate zones. It
contains a large percentage of fibre, which has high-
tensile, bending and straining capacity.
However, bamboos have some shortcomings that
CHIPBOARD limit their application. The low durability of bamboo is
one of its most serious defects, along with its flammability
and tendency to split easily. This usually prevents the
use of nails. Cutting a notch or a mortise in a bamboo
drastically reduces its ultimate strength. The remedy is
the use of nodes as places of support and joints, and the
use of lashing materials (strings) in place of nails. Dry
Fine chips bamboo is extremely susceptible to fire, but it can be
Coarse chips
covered or treated with a fire-retardant material.
The strength properties of bamboo vary widely with
species, growing conditions, position within the culm,
Figure 5.7b Particleboard seasoning and moisture content. Generally bamboo is as
strong as timber in compression and very much stronger
in tension. However, bamboo is weak in shear, with only
Softboards have little resistance to rupture and must about 8 percent of compressive strength, whereas timber
be supported frequently (300–400 mm) when installed. normally has 20–30 percent. It is used mainly in building
The 2 400 mm by 1 200 mm size is most common in construction, for wall poles, frames, roof construction,
thicknesses of 6.4 mm to 25 mm. roofing and water pipes and, after splitting, to form
Mediumboards, with a density ranging from 350 kg/ flattened boards or woven wall, floor and ceiling panels.
m3 to 800 kg/m3, are used for panelling, in particular New stalks of bamboo are formed annually in clumps
those with a density at the higher end of the range. growing out of the spreading roots. The individual
The most common size is 2 400 mm by 1 200 mm, and bamboo shoots complete their growth within a period of
thicknesses range from 6.4 mm to 19.0 mm. 4–6 months in the first growing season. A strengthening
Hardboards are made of wood fibres compressed to process takes place during the subsequent 2–3 years, and
more than 800 kg/m3. They are usually smooth on one the culm reaches maturity after the fifth or sixth year,
surface and textured on the other. The most common or even later depending on the species. It must be cut
size is 2 400 mm by 1 200 mm size in thicknesses of before blooming because it looses its resistance and dies
3–12.7 mm. An oil-treated grade labelled ‘tempered’ has after blooming. Some bamboos grow to 35 metres in
good resistance to moisture. height, while others are no more than shrubs. Diameters
vary from 10 mm to 300 mm.
OTHER WOOD PRODUCTS Bamboo without proper seasoning and preservative
Woodwool slabs consist of long wood shavings, mixed treatment will rot and be attacked by insects, particularly
with cement, and formed into slabs 25–100 mm thick if used in moist locations, such as in earth foundations.
with a high proportion of thermal insulating voids.
Although combustible, they are not easily ignited and Bamboo joints
provide good sound absorption. As nailing causes splitting and notching, drastically
Shingles are cut from clear rot-free timber logs. reducing the strength of a bamboo culm, lashes are
They are made about 2 mm thick at the top end and generally used as binding elements for framing. They
10 mm thick at the bottom, and usually about 400 mm may be split from the bamboo itself, or made from
long. Some woods need treatment with preservatives vines, reeds or the bark of certain trees. Soft galvanized
before being used as roofing shingles, whereas others wire is also used for binding. Bamboo can be kept from
will last 10–15 years without treatment. splitting when bending by boiling or steaming it first,
then bending it while hot.
Binding
To fit
vertical
member
Wire or vine
binding
DOUBLE BUTT
BENT JOINT
Tongue bent tight across

member and tied
Figure 5.9b Split the culm the rest of the way by

driving a hardwood cross along the cuts
Connection of bamboo
to round pins
Figure 5.8 Lashing bamboo joints
Several methods can be used for splitting bamboo

culms. The edges of the strips can be razor sharp and
should be handled carefully (see Figure 5.9).
Figure 5.9c Use a knife to split the harder outer

strip from the soft, pithy inner strip, which is usually
discarded
Bamboo preservation
Immediately after cutting, the freshly cut lower end
of the culm should be dusted with insecticide. The
bamboo is then air seasoned for 4–8 weeks, depending
on the ambient humidity. Bamboo should be stacked
Figure 5.9a Make four cuts in the upper end of the well off the ground so that air can circulate freely. When
culm with a splitting knife the culms have dried as much as conditions permit,
they should be trimmed and all cut surfaces should be Sisal stems
dusted with insecticide immediately. The seasoning is Before dying, at 7–12 years of age, the sisal plant
finished in a well ventilated shelter where the culms are forms a pole shoot to carry the flowers. The pole may
protected from rain and dew. reach a height of 6 metres or more and has a fibrous
If the bamboo is to be stored for a long time, circumference, which makes it tough, but the inner
stacks and storage shelves should be treated with an parts are quite soft. Sisal poles have limited structural
insecticide every 6 months. Bamboo that has already strength and durability, but are sometimes used for wall
been attacked by insects, fungus or rot should never be cladding in semi-open structures, such as maize cribs.
used for construction. Culms that have fissures, cracks The poles can be split and are joined in the same way
or cuts in the surface should also be rejected. as bamboo.
Natural fibres Sisal fibre

Natural fibres have been used for building since ancient Sisal fibre is one of the strongest natural fibres. It has
times. Fibrous materials can be used by themselves as traditionally been used as reinforcement in gypsum
roofing material or for walls and mats. Natural fibres plaster sheets. Sisal fibres have the ability to withstand
can also be combined with hydraulic-setting binders to degradation from bacteriological attack better than
make various types of roofing board, wall board, block other organic fibres, but are attacked by the alkalinity
and shingle. Animal hair is often used for reinforcing of cement. However, research has been carried out to
plaster. make sisal fibre, like other natural fibre composites,
into a reliable cement reinforcement for long-term use
Thatch in exposed situations. Refer to the section on fibre-
Thatch, whether made of grass, reeds, palm or banana reinforced concrete.
leaves, is susceptible to decay caused by fungi and insects,
and to destruction by fire. Preservative treatment is Coir waste
desirable but expensive. A treatment combining copper Coir is a by-product of coconuts. The husk is used
sulphate, sodium chromate and acetic acid reduces for making coir mats, cushions and as fuel. It can be
attack by rot and may considerably increase the life mixed with cement, glue or resins, either to produce
span of a thatched roof (see Chapter 8). low-density boards with good insulating and sound-
absorption properties, or to be compressed to make
Grass building boards. It is also used as reinforcement in
The use of thatched roofs is common in many cement for making roofing sheets.
countries, and suitable grass can be found almost
everywhere. When well laid and maintained, it can last Elephant grass
for 10–20 years or longer. Elephant grass is a tall plant similar to bamboo, but
A good-quality thatching grass must be fibrous and with the difference that the stem is not hollow. The
tough, with a minimum length of 1 metre. It should fibres of the grass can be used to partly or wholly
also have thin stems without hollows, a low content of replace the asbestos in net and corrugated roofing
easily digestible nutrients and the ability to withstand sheets. However, the sheets are more brittle and have
repeated wetting without decaying. a slightly lower strength than asbestos-cement sheets.
An annual treatment with a mixture of the following
chemicals will improve the fire-resistance of a thatched Straw
roof, and also give some protection against decay: 14 kg Baled straw, if supported by a framework of wooden
ammonium sulphate, 7 kg ammonium carbonate, 3.5 kg poles, can be used to construct temporary walls. Straw
borax, 3.5 kg boric acid, 7 kg alum and 200 kg water. has also been used as raw material for manufactured
building boards. Straw and split bamboo can be cement-
Reeds plastered to permanent structures, such as vaults and
Reeds must be dry before use as a building material, and domes, at low cost.
can be impregnated or sprayed with copper-chrome
preservatives to prevent rotting. Ammonium phosphate NATURAL STONE PRODUCTS
and ammonium sulphate are used to protect the reeds Natural stones are strong in compression and are
against fire (see Chapter 8). generally extremely durable, although deterioration
Reeds can be woven into mats for use as wall may result from the action of soluble salts, wetting and
or ceiling panels, shade roofs, etc. The mats can be drying, or thermal movement. According to the manner
plastered easily. In tropical areas, thatch from untreated of their geological formation, all stones used in building
reeds may last only 1 year but, if well laid, treated and fall into one of three classes: igneous, sedimentary or
maintained, it can last 5–10 years. metamorphic.
Igneous rocks are mostly very hard and difficult to
cut to size and shape. However, they are very durable.
Sedimentary rocks, such as sandstone and limestone, subsoil, and should not be confused with the geological
are used extensively for building. They are not difficult or agricultural definition of soil, which includes the
to work, yet are quite durable. Coral stone is found weathered organic material in topsoil. Topsoil is
in coastal areas, where chips or small stones are used generally removed before any engineering works are
in mud walls. Coral stone is also cut into blocks and, carried out, or before soil is excavated for use as a
although not very strong, can be used in foundations building material. Mud is the mixture of one or more
and walls in multistorey houses. types of soil with water.
Metamorphic stones consist of older stones that have There are several ways in which soil may be classified:
been subjected to intense heat and pressure, causing by geological origin, by mineral content (chemical
structural change. Thus clay becomes slate, limestone composition), by particle size or by consistency (mainly
becomes marble and sandstone becomes quartzite. Slate related to its moisture content).
develops cleavage planes during formation. Roofing
slates are split along these planes. They make very Particle size
durable roof surfaces, but require strong frames because Soils are grouped and named according to their particle
of their weight. size, as shown in Table 5.5.
At the building site, the stones can be dressed to
obtain a smooth surface. Often only the side(s) that will Grading
be visible are dressed. The soil materials in Table 5.6 seldom occur separately,
Stones may also be used in the forms and sizes in and this necessitates a further classification according
which they naturally occur, and be embedded in mortar to the percentage of each contained in the soil. This is
for foundation and wall construction. Stones are also shown in the soil classification triangle, which shows,
crushed and sorted for size and use. Small crushed for example, that a sandy clay loam is defined as soil
stones are used in making concrete. Large sizes are used that contains 50–80 percent sand, 0–30 percent silt and
as hardcore for filling purposes. 20–30 percent clay.
Only a few mixes can be used successfully for
EARTH AS A BUILDING MATERIAL building construction in the state in which they are
Earth is one of the oldest materials used for building found. However, many mixes can be improved to make
construction in rural areas. The advantages of earth as a good building material by correcting the mix and/or
building material are: adding stabilizers.
1. It is resistant to fire. The clay fraction is of major importance in earth
2. It is cheaper than most alternative wall materials, construction because it binds the larger particles
and is readily available at most building sites. together. However, soils with more than 30 percent clay
3. It has a very high thermal capacity, which enables tend to have very high shrinkage/swelling ratios which,
it to keep the inside of a building cool when it is together with their tendency to absorb moisture, may
hot outside and vice versa. result in major cracks in the end product. High-clay
4. It absorbs noise well. soils require very high proportions of stabilizer or a
5. It is easy to work using simple tools and skills. combination of stabilizers.
Some soils produce unpredictable results, caused by
These qualities encourage and facilitate self-help and undesirable chemical reactions with the stabilizer. Black
community participation in house building. cotton soil, a very dark coloured clay, is an example of
Despite its good qualities, earth has the following such a soil. Generally speaking, soils that are good for
drawbacks as a building material: building construction purposes are characterized by
1. It has low resistance to water penetration, good grading, i.e. they contain a mix of different-sized
resulting in crumbling and structural failure. particles similar to the ratios in Table 5.6, where all
2. It has a very high shrinkage/swelling ratio, voids between larger particles are filled by smaller ones.
resulting in major structural cracks when exposed Depending on use, the maximum size of coarse particles
to changing weather conditions. should be 4–20 mm.
3. It has low resistance to abrasion, and requires Laterite soils, which are widely distributed
frequent repairs and maintenance when used in throughout the tropical and subtropical regions,
building construction. generally give very good results, especially if stabilized
with cement or lime. Laterite soils are best described
However, there are several ways to overcome most as highly weathered tropical soils containing varying
of these weaknesses that make earth a suitable building proportions of iron and aluminium oxides, which are
material for many purposes. present in the form of clay minerals, usually together
with large amounts of quartz. Their colours range from
Soil classification ochre, through red, brown and violet to black. The
Soil and earth are synonymous when used in relation darker the soil, the harder, heavier and more resistant it
to building construction. The term ‘soil’ refers to is to moisture. Some laterites harden on exposure to air.
TABLE 5.5
Classification of soil particles
Material Size of particles Means of field identification
Gravel 60–2 mm Coarse pieces of rock, which are round, flat or angular.
Sand 2–0.06 mm Sand breaks down completely when dry; the particles are visible to the naked eye and gritty
to the touch.
Silt 0.06–0.002 mm Particles are not visible to the naked eye, but slightly gritty to the touch. Moist lumps can be
moulded but not rolled into threads. Dry lumps are fairly easy to powder.
Clay Smaller than 0.002 mm Smooth and greasy to the touch. Holds together when dry and is sticky when moist.
Organic Up to several Spongy or stringy appearance. The organic matter is fibrous, rotten or partially rotten,
centimetres several centimetres deep, with an odour of wet, decaying wood.
Gravel, sand and silt are sometimes subdivided into coarse, medium and fine fractions.
10
0
0
SAND % CLAY %
90
10
20
80
70
Clay
30
60
Clay loam
40
50
50
40
60
Sandy clay Silty clay

70
30
Sandy clay loam Silty clay loam

80
20
10
90
Sand Silt
0
0
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Sandy loam Loam Silty loam
SILT %
Figure 5.10 Soil-classification triangle
TABLE 5.6
Soil gradings suitable for construction
Clay Silt Clay& Silt Sand Gravel Sand & Gravel Cobble Organic Matter Soluble salts
Use (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
Rammed-
5–20 10–30 15–35 35–80 0–30 50–80 0–10 0–03 0–1.0
earth walls
Pressed- soil
5–25 15–35 20–40 40–80 0–20 60–80 - 0–03 0–1.0
blocks
Mud bricks
10–30 10–40 20–50 50–80 - 50–80 - 0–0.3 0–1.0
(adobe)
Ideal, general-
15 20 35 60 5 65 - 0 0
purpose mix
If the soil at hand is not suitable, it may be improved by adding clay or sand. The best soils for construction are
sandy loam and sandy clay loam. Sandy clay gives fair results if stabilized.
Plasticity index As soils can vary widely within small areas, samples
Clays vary greatly in their physical and chemical of the soil to be tested must be taken from exactly the
characteristics. Although the extremely fine particles area where soil is going to be dug for the construction.
make it very difficult to investigate their properties, Soil samples should be collected from several places
some can be conveniently expressed in terms of distributed over the whole of the selected area. First
plasticity using standard tests. remove the topsoil (any dark soil with roots and plants
Depending on the amount of moisture it contains, in it), which is usually less than 60 cm. Then dig a pit
a soil may be liquid, plastic, semisolid or solid. As a to a depth of 1.5 metres, and collect soil for the sample
soil dries, the moisture content decreases, as does the at various depths between 0.8 metres and 1.5 metres.
volume of the sample. With very high moisture content, The total volume required for a simple field test is
the soil will flow under its own weight and is said to about a bucketful, whereas a complete laboratory test
be liquid. At the liquid limit, the moisture content requires about 50 kg. Mix the sample thoroughly, dry
has fallen to the extent that the soil ceases to flow and it in the sun, break up any lumps and pass it through a
becomes plastic; it is continuously deformed when a 5–10 mm screen.
force is applied, but retains its new shape when the In the laboratory, the classification by particle size
force is removed. involves sieving the coarse-grained material (sand and
A further reduction of the moisture content will gravel) and sedimentation for fine-grained material (silt
eventually cause the soil to crumble under load and not and clay). The plasticity index is determined using the
deform plastically. The moisture content at this point is Atterberg limit test.
known as the ‘plastic limit’. The numerical difference Soil tests will only give an indication of the suitability
between the moisture content at the liquid limit and at of the soil for construction purposes and the type
the plastic limit is called the ‘plasticity index’. Both the and amount of stabilizer to be used. However, other
liquid limit and the plasticity index are affected by the properties, such as workability and behaviour during
amount of clay and the type of clay minerals present. compaction, may eliminate an otherwise suitable soil.
A high liquid limit and plasticity index indicates a Soil tests should therefore be combined with tests on
soil that has great affinity for water and will therefore the finished products, at least where high strength and
be more susceptible to moisture movements, which can durability are required for the design and use.
lead to cracks. For small projects, a simple sedimentation test
combined with a bar shrinkage test normally gives
Example 5.1 enough information about the proportions of various
The following index properties were determined for particle sizes and the plastic properties of the soil.
two soils X and Y.
Simple sedimentation test
Property X Y This test gives an impression of the grading of the soil
Liquid limit 0.62 0.34 and allows the combined silt and clay content to be
Plastic limit 0.26 0.19 calculated. Take a large, clear glass bottle or jar with a
Determine the plasticity index of X and Y. flat bottom and fill it one-third full with soil from the
sample. Add water until the bottle is two-thirds full.
Solution Two teaspoons of salt may be added to dissolve the soil
The plasticity index is the range of moisture content more rapidly. Close the bottle, shake it vigorously, and
over which the soil remains plastic. The bigger this allow the contents to settle for 1 hour. Shake it again
range, the greater the proportion of clay particles. and let it settle for at least 8 hours.
The soil sample should now show a fairly distinct
For soil X, plasticity index = liquid limit - plastic limit line, below which the individual particles can be seen
= 0.62 - 0.26 = 0.36. with the naked eye. Measure the thickness of the
For soil Y, plasticity index = 0.34 - 0.19 = 0.15 combined silt and clay layer above the line, and
Soil X contains more clay particles. calculate it as a percentage of the total height of the soil
sample.
Soil-testing methods The test tends to give a lower figure than laboratory
As indicated above, some soils are more suitable for tests, as a result of some silt and clay being trapped in
building material than others. It is therefore essential the sand, and because some material remains suspended
to have a means of identifying different types of in the water above the sample.
soil. There are a number of methods, ranging from The main disadvantage with this test is that the silt
laboratory tests to simple field tests. Laboratory soil and clay fractions cannot be determined separately. As
tests are recommended for the production of buildings silt behaves differently from clay, this could result in
on a large scale (i.e. several houses). mistaken conclusions about the soil’s suitability for
stabilization and as a building material.
Shrinkage ratio =
(Length of wet bar) (Length of dried bar)

× 100 (5.4)
Length of wet bar
1/3 Water Water
a Silt - Clay
1/3 Soil h
sample
Sand-Gravel Soil stabilization
The main weakness of earth as a building material is
its low resistance to water. While overhanging eaves
Figure 5.11 Simple sedimentation and verandas help considerably, tropical rains of any
intensity can damage unprotected walls. Due to the
clay fraction, which is necessary for cohesion, walls
Bar shrinkage test built of unstabilized soil will swell on taking up water,
This test gives an indication of the plasticity index of and shrink on drying. This may lead to severe cracking
the soil, because the shrinkage ratio of the soil when and difficulty in making protective renderings adhere
dried in its plastic state is related to its plasticity index. to the wall.
A wooden or metal box without a top and with a However, the quality as a building material of nearly
square cross-section of 30–40 mm per side and a length any inorganic soil can be improved considerably by the
of 500–600 mm, is filled with soil from the sample (see addition of a suitable amount of the correct stabilizer.
Figure 5.12). Before filling, the soil should be mixed The aim of soil stabilization is to increase the soil’s
with water to slightly more than the liquid limit. The resistance to destructive weather conditions, in one or
consistency is right when a V-shaped groove cut in the more of the following ways:
soil will close after about five taps on the box. Grease 1. By cementing the soil particles together, leading
or oil the box, fill with the soil and compact it well, to increased strength and cohesion.
paying special attention to filling the corners. Smooth 2. By reducing the movements (shrinkage and
the surface by scraping off the excess soil. Place the box swelling) of the soil when its moisture content
in the shade for 7 days. The drying can be hastened by varies according to weather conditions.
placing the box at room temperature for 1 day, and then 3. By making the soil waterproof, or at least less
in an oven at 110 °C until the soil is dry. permeable to moisture.
If, after drying, the soil bar has more than three
large cracks in addition to the end gaps the soil is not A great number of substances may be used for soil
suitable. Measure the shrinkage ratio by pushing the stabilization. Owing to the many different kinds of soil
dried sample to one end of the box and calculate the and types of stabilizer, there is no single solution for all
length of the gap as a percentage of the length of the cases. It is up to the builder to make trial blocks with
box. The soil is not suitable for stabilization if the various amounts and types of stabilizer.
shrinkage ratio is more than 10 percent, i.e. a gap of Stabilizers in common use are:
60 mm in a 600 mm long box. The higher the shrinkage r sand or clay;
ratio, the more stabilizer has to be used. The shrinkage r portland cement;
ratio is calculated as follows: r lime;
r bitumen;
40
−5
0
WET SOIL BAR ar
o il b
40−50
ts ar
We o il b
ys
Dr
0
60
0−
50
Figure 5.12 Box for bar shrinkage test

r pozzolana (e.g. fly ash, rice husk ash, volcanic ash); Bitumen (or asphalt) emulsion and cutback are used
r natural fibres (e.g. grass, straw, sisal, sawdust); mainly to improve the impermeability of the soil and
r sodium silicate (water-glass); keep it from losing its strength when wet, but may
r commercial soil stabilizers (for roads); cause some decrease in dry strength. They are only
r resins; used with very sandy soils because it would be very
r whey; difficult to mix them with clayey soils. In its natural
r molasses; form, bitumen is too thick to be added to soil without
r gypsum; heating, so it has to be thinned with other liquids to
r cow dung. make it workable. The easiest way is to mix it with
water to make an emulsion. After the emulsion has
Many other substances may also be used for soil been added to the soil, the water will separate, leaving a
stabilization, although their use is not well documented bitumen film on the soil grains.
and test results are scarce. If the bitumen emulsion is fast-settling (i.e. the water
Sand or clay is added to improve the grading of a separates too quickly before it is mixed into the soil),
soil. Sand is added to soils that are too clayey, and clay the bitumen must instead be dissolved in kerosene or
is added to soils that are too sandy. The strength and naphtha. This mix is called ‘cutback’ and should be
cohesion of the sandy soil is increased, while moisture handled with care because it represents a fire hazard and
movement of a clay soil is reduced. Improved grading explosion risk. After a soil has been treated with cutback,
of the soil material does not stabilize the soil to a it must be spread out to allow the kerosene to evaporate.
high degree, but will increase the effect, and reduce The bitumen content used is 2–4 percent, as any
the required amount, of other stabilizers. The clay or more may seriously reduce the compressive strength
clayey soil must be pulverized before mixing with the of the soil.
sandy soil or sand. This may prove difficult in many A combination of lime and pozzolana makes a binder
cases. that can be almost as good as portland cement. It is used
Portland cement greatly improves the soil’s in the same way as a combination of lime and cement,
compressive strength and imperviousness, and may but 2-4 parts of pozzolana are mixed to 1 part of lime,
also reduce moisture movement, especially when and the curing time is longer than for ordinary cement.
used with sandy soils. As a rough guide, sandy soils Natural fibres, used in a mixing ratio of about
need 5–10 percent cement for stabilization, silty soils, 4 percent, greatly reduce moisture movement, but will
10–12.5 percent and clayey soils, 12.5–15 percent. make dry-soil blocks weaker and more permeable to
Compaction when ramming or pressing blocks will water.
greatly improve the result. Sodium silicate, or water-glass, is best used to coat
The cement must be thoroughly mixed with dry the outside of soil blocks as a waterproofing agent.
soil. This can be rather difficult, especially if the
soil is clayey. As soon as water is added, the cement Cob
starts reacting and the mix must therefore be used Cob is used extensively in tropical Africa, where
immediately (1–2 hours). If the soil-cement hardens suitable soils are obtainable over wide areas. The best
before moulding, it must be discarded. Soil-cement soil mix consists of gravel, sand, silt and clay in roughly
blocks should be cured for at least 7 days under moist equal proportions. Sometimes chopped grass or straw
or damp conditions. is added to reduce cracking. If the clay content is high,
Non-hydraulic lime, or slaked lime, gives best results sand may be added. Laterite makes an excellent material
when used with fine soils, i.e. silty and clayey soils. for cob walling.
Lime decreases moisture movement and permeability, When a suitable soil has been found, the topsoil is
by reaction with the clay, to form strong bonds removed and the subsoil dug up. Water is slowly added
between the soil particles. The amount of lime used to the loose soil, which is then kneaded by treading
varies between 4 percent and 14 percent. Lime breaks until the soil has a wet, plastic consistency. Natural
down lumps and makes it easier to mix clayey soils. fibres are added for stabilization if required.
Curing at high temperatures strengthens the cementing The wet cob is rolled into balls or lumps measuring
molecules, which should be an advantage in the tropics. about 20 cm in diameter, which are then bedded on the
The curing time is longer than for soil-cement. wall to form courses about 60 cm high. The outside of
A combination of lime and cement is used when a the wall may be scraped smooth. In arid and semi-arid
soil has too much clay for cement stabilization, or too climates, this type of wall may last for years if built on
little clay for an extensive reaction with the lime. Lime a proper foundation and protected from rain by a roof
will make the soil easier to work and the cement will overhang or veranda.
increase the strength. Equal parts of lime and cement
are used. Mixing the dry soil with lime first makes the Wattle and daub (mud and wattle)
soil more workable. Blocks are cured for at least 7 days This method of building small houses is very common
under moist conditions. in areas where bamboo or stalks (e.g. sisal) are available.
It consists of a framework of split bamboo, stalks or Rammed earth

wooden sticks, supported by wood or bamboo poles. This consists of ramming slightly damp soil between
The soil, prepared as cob, is daubed on either side of stout formwork using heavy rammers. It makes fairly
the laths, which act as reinforcement. Although most strong and durable walls and floors when it is made
soil is suitable for this construction, if it is too clayey thick enough with properly prepared, stabilized soil.
there may be excessive cracking. To minimize cracking, When used for walls, the soil may contain some
stones are mixed with the soil, or laid in the wooden cobble, but the maximum size should be less than one-
skeleton. When mudding the inside of a building, quarter of the thickness of the wall. When cement is
the soil is often taken from the floor. Although this used for stabilization, it must be mixed with the dry soil
increases the ceiling height, it greatly increases the by hand, or in a concrete mixer, until the dry mixture
likelihood of flooding during the rainy season. has a uniform greyish colour. The amount of cement
During drying, the weight of the soil is transferred required is approximately 5–7 percent for interior
to the wooden structure, with the total weight of the walls, 7–10 percent for foundations and exterior walls,
construction eventually resting on the poles. and 10–15 percent for floors. However, the amount of
Wattle and daub construction generally has a short stabilizer required will vary with the composition of the
lifespan because of soil erosion, and the uneven settling soil, the type of stabilizer and the use. For this reason,
of poles and damage by fungi and termites. However, trial blocks should be made and tested to determine the
the durability can be improved considerably (20– correct amount of stabilizer.
40 years) by using a proper foundation, raising the Water is sprinkled on the soil while it is being mixed.
building off the ground, applying a surface treatment If the soil is sticky because of high clay content, hand
and using termite-resistant or treated poles. mixing will be necessary. When the correct amount of
water has been added, the soil will form a firm lump
Clay/straw when squeezed in the hand, and just enough moisture
The technique of building walls of clay/straw has been should appear on the surface to give a shiny appearance.
highly developed in China, where grain storage bins of After the mixing has been completed, the soil should
up to 8 m in diameter, 8.5 m in height and a 250-tonne be placed in the formwork immediately. The formwork
holding capacity have been constructed with these can be either fixed or sliding, but must be stout. The
materials. soil is placed in layers of about 10 cm, and each layer
Any type of straw can be used, but it must be of is thoroughly compressed with a ram weighing 8–10 kg
good quality. The clay should be of strong plasticity, before the next layer is placed. If water shows on the
containing less than 5 percent sand. Some lime may be surface during ramming, the soil mix is too wet.
added for stabilization if the sand content is a bit too If cement or pozzolana has been used for stabilization,
high. the product should be cured for 1–2 weeks in a moist
First, the straw bundles are produced. The straw condition before it is allowed to dry out. This can be
is pruned level at the root ends and then divided into done either by keeping the product enclosed in the
two halves, which are turned in opposite directions formwork, or by covering it with damp bags or grass
and placed together so that they overlap by about that are watered daily.
two-thirds of the length of the straw. The straw bundle
is then spread out flat and soaked with clay mud. Adobe or sun-dried soil (mud) blocks
Thorough covering of each straw is essential for the The best soil for adobe can be moulded easily, when
final strength. The straw is then twisted together, and plastic, into an egg-size ball, and when it is allowed to
any excess mud removed. The final clay/straw bundle dry in the sun it becomes hard, shows little deformity
should be thick in the middle and tapered at both ends, and no more than very fine cracks. If wide cracks
be of 80–100 cm in length and roughly 5 cm in diameter develop, the soil does not contain enough silt or sand,
at the middle. The ideal proportion of straw and clay is and sand may be added as a stabilizer.
1:7 on a dry weight basis.
The clay/straw bundles are placed on the wall either Preparing the soil
straight and flat, or slightly twisted together. Walls for When a suitable soil has been found, all topsoil must be
grain bins should have a thickness in centimetres equal removed. The soil is then loosened to a depth of l5 cm.
to the internal diameter in metres + 12, i.e. a 6-metre If needed, water and sand are added and worked into
diameter bin should have a wall thickness of at least the loose soil by treading it barefoot while turning the
18 cm. It is important to compact the wall thoroughly mass with a spade.
during construction to ensure high density, strength Water is added slowly and the soil mixed
and durability. The wall must be built in separate layers, thoroughly until all lumps are broken up and it
usually about 20 cm, and be left to dry out to about becomes homogeneous and plastic. When it is the
50 percent moisture content before the next layer is right consistency for moulding, it is cast in a wooden
added. mould made with one to three compartments and with
dimensions as shown in Figure 5.13.
Before the mould is used for the first time it should Stabilized-soil blocks
be thoroughly soaked in oil. Because of the shrinkage, When a suitable soil has been found, the topsoil should
the finished blocks will be smaller than the moulds and, be removed and the subsoil dug out and spread out to
depending on bonding, will give a wall thickness of dry in the sun for a few days.
about 230 mm, 270 mm or 410 mm. Large particles and lumps must be removed before
the soil is used, by breaking the larger lumps and passing
all the soil through a 10 mm screen. If the proportion
75 of gravel in the soil is high, a finer screen, of 4.5–6 mm,
0 should be used. The wire screen, usually measuring
30
about 1 metre square, is rocked in a horizontal position
50
1 1 300 by one person holding handles at one end, with the
other end suspended in ropes from above. The amount
0
30 of loose, dry soil needed will normally be 1.4–1.7 times
its volume in the compacted blocks.
75
Mixing
45
The amount of stabilizer to be used will depend on
0
the type of soil, the type of stabilizer and the building
component being made. Tables 5.7 and 5.8 give a guide
to the necessary minimum mixing ratio of soil-cement
for blocks compacted in a mechanical press. For blocks
compacted in a hydraulic press, the cement requirement
75 can be reduced considerably, whereas slightly more
will be needed for hand-rammed blocks. The correct
0
25 proportion of stabilizer is determined by making
00 test blocks with varying proportions of stabilizer, as
1 0 250
described later.
0
25
TABLE 5.7
75
Cement/soil ratio related to shrinkage ratio in the bar
shrinkage test
30 Shrinkage Cement to soil ratio
0
0–2.5% 1:18
2.5–5% 1:16
Figure 5.13 Wooden moulds for making adobe blocks 5–75% 1:14
made of 100 × 25 mm sawn timber
7.5–10% 1:12
Moulding the blocks

To prevent sticking, the mould must be soaked in water TABLE 5.8
before being placed on level ground, and filled with Cement/soil ratio related to the combined silt and clay
mud. The mud is kneaded until all corners of the mould content in the simple sedimentation test
are filled, and the excess is scraped off. The mould is Clay & silt Interior Exterior
content walls walls Foundations Floor slab
lifted and the blocks are left on the ground to dry. The
0–10% 1:16 1:16 1:16 1:8
mould is dipped in water each time before repeating
the process. 10–25% 1:22 1:16 1:16 1:11
After drying for 3–4 days, the blocks will have 25–40% 1:22 1:11 1:11 1:11
hardened sufficiently to be handled, and are turned
on edge to hasten drying. After a further 10 days, the
blocks can be stacked loosely in a pile. Adobe blocks The importance of thoroughly mixing the dry soil
should dry out as slowly as possible to avoid cracks, first with the stabilizer and then with the moisture, in
with a total curing time of at least 1 month. two distinct steps, cannot be emphasized too strongly.
The quality of the blocks depends largely on the The quantity of cement and dry soil is measured with
workmanship, especially the thoroughness with which a measuring box, bucket or tin (never with a shovel),
they are moulded. If the quality is good, only 1 in and put either on a clean, even and hard surface for hand
10 blocks should be lost from cracking, breakage or mixing, or into a drum-type mixer (concrete mixer).
deformities. They are mixed until the dry mixture has a uniform
TABLE 5.9
Batching for stabilized-soil blocks
Approximate Requirement Number of blocks per 50 kg cement
Proportions cement of loose soil Size of blocks
cement/soil content by per 50 kg
by volume weight cement 290×140×50 290×140×90 290×140×120 290×140×140 290×215×140
1:22 5% 1 080 litres 366 203 152 130 85

1:18 6% 880 litres 301 167 125 107 70
1:16 7% 780 litres 268 149 111 95 62
1:14 8% 690 litres 235 131 98 84 54
1:12 9% 590 litres 203 113 84 72 47
1:11 10% 540 litres 187 104 78 66 43
1:10 11% 490 litres 170 94 71 61 39
1:9 12% 440 litres 154 85 64 55 36
1:8.5 13% 420 litres 146 81 61 52 34
1:8 15% 390 litres 138 76 57 49 32
greyish colour. Water is added, preferably through a Hinges

sprinkler, while continuing the mixing. When the correct
amount of water has been added, the soil, when squeezed
into a ball, should retain its shape without soiling the
hand. The ball should be capable of being pulled apart
without disintegrating, but it should disintegrate when
dropped from shoulder height on to a hard surface.
Compaction by hand-ramming
Moulds with one or more compartments can be made
from either hardwood or steel. The mould should have
hinges at one or two corners to enable it to be opened
easily without spoiling the block. As mould has no
bottom, it is preferable to place it on a pallet, rather Lock
than directly on the ground, when moulding the block.
The mould is treated as often as required with oil to
make the block surface smooth and to prevent the block
from sticking to the mould. The soil mixture should be
placed in layers in the mould, and each layer thoroughly Figure 5.14 Mould for hand-rammed stabilized-soil
compacted with a flat-bottomed ram weighing 4–5 kg. blocks made of 20 mm planed timber
Each block may need as many as 80 good blows with the
ram. The top of the block is levelled off, the block and
mould are carried to the curing store where the mould is
removed, then the whole process is repeated.
Compaction with a mechanical press

There are many mechanical block-making machines on
the market, both motor-driven (enabling several blocks
to be made at a time), and hand-operated.
They all consist of a metal mould in which a moist
soil mix is compressed.
The moulding for a hand-operated press is carried
out as follows:
1. The inside of the compaction chamber is cleaned
and oiled, and a pallet is placed in the bottom, if
required.
2. A measured amount of soil mix is poured into the
compaction chamber and the soil is compacted
into the corners by hand. Figure 5.15 Mechanical press for block making
3. The lid is closed and the handle pulled down. The Comparison of masonry units
amount of soil mix is correct if the handle can be made of various materials
moved down to stop slightly above a horizontal There are many methods for making bricks and blocks,
level. several of which are suitable for local production
4. The block is ejected and carried on the pallet to because they are labour-intensive but do not require
the curing site, before returning the pallet to the especially skilled labour.
press for reuse. The decision concerning which method of
blockmaking or brickmaking to use depends on several
Curing of blocks factors, such as:
Soil-cement blocks should be placed on the ground, r the raw materials available;
in the shade, as close together as possible, and be kept r the characteristics of the soil;
damp (e.g. with wet grass). After 1–2 days, the blocks r raw material and production costs;
can be carefully stacked and again kept damp for r the requisite standards of stability, compression
1–2 weeks. After this period, the blocks are allowed to strength, water resistance, etc. (3 N/mm2 is often
air dry for 2–3 weeks in a stacked pile before use. regarded as the minimum compressive strength
for use in one-storey buildings);
Testing of blocks r the existing facilities for the maintenance of
In the laboratory, dry strength and wet strength are production tools and machines;
determined by crushing two well-cured blocks in r the required productivity.
a hydraulic press: the first in a dry state, and the
second after having been soaked in water for 24 hours. BURNT-CLAY BRICKS
Durability is tested by spraying the blocks with Burnt-clay bricks have good resistance to moisture,
water according to a standard procedure, and making insects and erosion, and create a good room environment.
observations for any erosion or pitting. They are moderate in cost and have medium to high
In order to find out how much stabilizer is required, compressive strength.
the following simple weather-resistance test carried out Bricks can be made using sophisticated factory
in the field may give a satisfactory answer. methods, simple labour-intensive methods, or a range of
At least three different soil mixes with different intermediate mechanized technologies. Labour-intensive
stabilizer-soil ratios are prepared, and at least three production methods are the most suitable for rural areas
blocks are made from each of the different mixes. where the demand for bricks is limited. Handmade
Mixing, compaction and curing must be done in the bricks will be of comparatively lower quality, especially
same way as for the block production process. At the in terms of compressive strength, and will tend to have
end of the curing period, three blocks are selected from irregular dimensions. However, they are economical and
each set, immersed in a tank, pond or stream all night, require little capital investment or transportation costs.
and dried in the sun all day. This wetting and drying Bricks made in this manner have been used in buildings
process is repeated for 7 days. that have lasted for centuries. Their longevity depends
The correct amount of stabilizer to use is the on the quality of the ingredients, the skill of the artisans
smallest amount with which all three blocks in a set and the climate in which they are used.
pass the test. While a few small holes are acceptable
on the compaction surface, if many holes appear on Brickmaking
all surfaces the blocks are too weak. If the blocks have Five main ingredients are required for brickmaking:
passed the test and the dry block produces a metallic suitable clay and sand, water, fuel and manpower. The
ring when tapped with a hammer, they will have clay must be easily available, plastic when mixed with
satisfactory durability and hardness. small amounts of water, develop strength upon drying
If the blocks fail the test, the reason may be any of and develop hard and durable strength when burned.
the following: Suitable soils contain 25–50 percent clay and silt and
r unsuitable soil; 50–75 percent coarser material, as determined by the
r insufficient amount of stabilizer; simple sedimentation test. The soil must be well graded.
r incorrect type of stabilizer; Another test consists of hand-rolling moistened soil
r inadequately dried or lumpy soil; into a long cylinder 10 mm in diameter on a flat surface,
r lumpy cement; and then picking it up by one end and letting it hang
r insufficient mixing of the stabilizer; unsupported.
r too much or too little water added; A soil is adequate for brickmaking if the piece of
r not enough compaction; cylinder that breaks off is between 50 mm and 150 mm
r incorrect curing. long. In the bar shrinkage test, using a mould 300 mm
long and 50 mm wide and deep, a suitable soil should
show no cracking, or only a little on the surface, and
should shrink less than 7 percent, i.e. less than 20 mm.
TABLE 5.10
Characteristics of masonry units
Resistance to moisture
Skill required to make

Compressive strength
Resistance to erosion
Labour requirements
Energy requirements
Speed of production
Uniformity of shape
Ease of transport
Room comfort
Cost
Remarks
Sun-dried bricks Most easily produced locally; much improved

1 1 1 1 1-3 4 3 1 3 3 1
(adobe bricks) with stabilizers; least stable and durable.
Manually rammed
2 1-2 1-2 1-2 2-3 5 1 2 5 2 2 A little more effort; better quality and stability.
stabilized-soil blocks
Mechanically pressed
2 2 2 2 4 5 2 2 4 3 2 Stronger; more durable.
Hydraulically pressed
3 3 3 3 4 5 3 3 3 3 2 Even stronger and more durable.
Locally made Labour-intensive production.
3-4 2-3 3 3-4 1-3 4 2 4 4 3-4 4
burnt-clay bricks Bricks are generally of low quality.
Factory-produced Commercial production is common.
5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 1-3 5 3
burnt-clay bricks The plant requires large investment.
Concrete blocks Long life; strong but heavy. Local production is
5 5 4 5 5 3 3-4 4 2-3 4 5
(sand and cement) generally more labour-intensive than commercial.
When locally available, a strong, durable and
Building stones 4 5 5 5 1-4 3 1 5 5 4 2
attractive material
Scale 1-5 1 = lowest 5 = highest
The clay is obtained by chipping it out of a clay The bricks should be left to dry for about 3 days
bank and, where necessary, mixing it with sand to form in the place where they were made. They will then be
a mixture that will not crack during drying. Water is strong enough to be stacked, as shown in Figure 5.17, for
gradually added to make the clay plastic.
When making bricks, the mould must be cleaned
periodically with water. Before each brick is formed,
the mould is sprinkled with sand. A lump, or ‘clot,’
TIE BRICK
of clay that is only slightly larger than required for a
brick is rolled into a wedge shape and then dipped in
sand, before being thrown, point down, into the mould.
When thrown correctly, the mould will be completely
filled, and the excess clay is then shaved off the top with
a bowcutter. The sand in the mould and on the clot
helps to release the newly formed brick.
A COMPLETED DRY STACK
Figure 5.16 Mould for brick-forming Figure 5.17 Stacking pattern for brick-drying
at least 1 week of further drying. Clay tends to become criteria being strength, irregular dimensions, cracks
lighter in colour when dry and, when sufficiently dried, and, sometimes, discoloration and stain.
the brick should show no colour variation throughout
the section area when it is broken in half. During drying, BINDERS
the bricks should be protected from rain. When binders are mixed with sand, gravel and water,
they make a strong and long-lasting mortar or concrete.
Binders can be broadly classified as non-hydraulic
FLUE OPENING or hydraulic. The hydraulic binders harden through a
chemical reaction with water, making them impervious
to water and therefore able to harden under water.
BRICK WALL Portland cement, blast furnace cement (super sulphated),
pozzolanas and high-alumina cement belong to the
category of hydraulic binders. High-calcium limes (fat
or pure limes) are non-hydraulic because they harden
by reaction with the carbon dioxide in the air. However,
2∙0 m
if lime is produced from limestone containing clay,

compounds similar to those in portland cement will be
m
∙0 formed, i.e. hydraulic lime.
ly3
ate FIRE BOX GRID
2∙5 xim
m p ro
ap Lime
Non-hydraulic lime refers to high-calcium limes that are
produced by burning fairly pure limestone (essentially
Figure 5.18 Kiln for brick-firing calcium carbonate), in order to drive off the carbon
dioxide, leaving calcium oxide or quicklime. The
burning process requires a temperature of 900–1 100 °C.
Kiln construction and brick-firing Quicklime must be handled with great care because it
It is during firing that the bricks gain their strength. reacts with moisture on the skin and the heat produced
In high temperatures, the alkalis in the clay, together may cause burns. When water is added to quicklime,
with small amounts of oxides of iron and other metals, considerable heat is generated, expansion takes place,
chemically bond with the alumina and silica in the clay breaking down the quicklime pieces into a fine powder,
to form a dense and durable mass. and the resulting product is calcium hydroxide, also
A kiln is a furnace or oven in which bricks are fired or called hydrated lime, or slaked lime.
heat-treated to develop hardness. Where brickmaking is After drying, the powder is passed through a 3-mm
carried out on a large scale, the firing operation is sieve, before being poured into bags for storage (in dry
performed in a continuous-process kiln, referred to as a conditions) and distribution.
‘tunnel’ kiln. For brickmaking on a small scale, firing is
a periodic operation where the bricks are placed in the
kiln, the fire started and heat developed, and then, after Process Substance Chemical formula
several days of firing, the fuel is cut off from the fire and Burning Limestone – quicklime CaC03 - CaO + C02
the entire kiln and its load are allowed to cool naturally.
Slaking Quicklime – slaked lime CaO + H20 -
The kiln is filled with well-dried bricks, stacked in Ca(OH)2
the same manner as during the drying process. The top Hardening Slaked lime – limestone Ca(OH)2 + CO2 -
of the stack in the kiln is then sealed with mud. Some CaC03 + H20
openings are left for combustion gases to escape. Pieces
of sheet metal are used to slide over the openings to
control the rate at which the fire burns. Slaked lime is used mainly in building because it is
Although a range of fuels can be used in a kiln, fat, i.e. it makes workable mortar and rendering and
wood or charcoal are the most common. When the plaster mixes. Initially, a lime mortar becomes stiff by
kiln is at the prime heat for firing, a cherry-red hue evaporation loss of water to absorptive materials such
develops (corresponding to a temperature range of as bricks, but subsequent hardening depends on the
875–900 °C). This condition is maintained for about chemical reaction with carbon dioxide from the air
6 hours. Sufficient fuel must be available when the (carbonation) reforming the original calcium carbonate
burning starts because the entire load of bricks could (limestone).
be lost if the fires are allowed to die down during the Non-hydraulic lime is also produced from limestone
operation. Firing with wood requires 4–5 days. with a high content of magnesium carbonate. It is less
During firing, the bricks will shrink by as much easily slaked, but some of the remaining unslaked
as 10 percent. As they are taken out of the kiln, magnesium oxide may carbonate and produce greater
they should be sorted into different grades, the main strength than high-calcium lime.
Hydraulic lime is produced by mixing and grinding Chemistry of cement

together limestone and clay material, and then burning The main components of standard portland cement are:
it in a kiln. r lime (calcium oxide: 66%) in the form of limestone;
It is stronger but less fat, or plastic, than non- r silica (silicum dioxide: 22%), a component in
hydraulic lime. During burning, the calcium oxide from most quartz, which forms the particles of clays;
the limestone reacts with siliceous matter from the clay r aluminium oxide (4%), found in large quantities in
to form dicalcium silicate. This compound may react many clays. The proportion of aluminium oxide in
with water, forming ‘mineral glue’ – tricalcium disilicate the clay can be adjusted by the addition of bauxite,
hydrate. The reaction is slow and may take weeks or which is mainly water-soluble aluminium oxide;
months, but after some time a very good degree of r iron oxide (3%), found in iron ore and in clay;
strength is achieved. r magnesium oxide (2%);
The reaction that forms dicalcium silicate requires r sulphur dioxide (2%);
a very high temperature to be complete. In practical r miscellaneous components (1%).
production, a lower temperature of 1 200 °C is used,
leaving some of the ingredients in their original state. The manufacturing process aims to produce a
At this temperature, the limestone will lose the carbon material with a high content of tricalcium silicate, usually
dioxide and thus form quicklime. If the correct amount 55–62 percent of the crystals in the clinker. Other crystals
of water is added, the quicklime will slake, forming a formed are: about 15 percent dicalcium silicate (the
fine powder. Note, however, that excess water will lead same component as the hydraulic binder in hydraulic
to premature hardening caused by hydraulic reaction. lime), 8–10 percent tricalcium aluminate and 9 percent
tetracalcium aluminate ferrite. As cement sinters during
Cement burning, it is very important for no calcium oxide
Portland cement hardens faster and develops (quicklime) to remain in the finished product.
considerably higher strength than hydraulic lime. This The quicklime will remain embedded in the clinker,
is because cement contains tricalcium silicate. However, even after very fine grinding, and will not be available
the manufacturing process is much more complicated for slaking until the hardening process of the cement
than for lime. The ingredients are mixed in definite is quite far advanced. When the quicklime particles
and controlled proportions, before being ground to are finally slaked, they expand and break the structure
a very fine powder. The fine grinding is necessary already developed. The proportion of limestone in the
because the formation of tricalcium silicate can only initial mix must therefore be no more than 0.1 percent.
take place in a solid state, and therefore only the When cement is mixed with water, it initiates the
surface of the particles in the mix is accessible for the chemical reactions that are so important for hardening.
chemical reaction, which requires a temperature of The most important of these is the formation of
1 250–1 900 °C to be completed. tricalcium disilicate hydrate, ‘mineral glue’, from
During burning, the small particles of limestone hydrated calcium oxide and silica.
and clay are sintered together to form clinker. After
cooling, the clinker is ground to cement powder, with 2(3CaO SiO2) + 6H2O = 3CaO 2SiO2 3H2O + 3Ca(OH)2
a small amount of gypsum being added during the
grinding. The finer the cement particles, the larger the and
surface area available for hydration by water, and the
more rapidly setting and hardening occurs. Cement 2(2CaO SiO2) + 3H2O = 3CaO 2SiO2 3H2O + Ca(OH)2
is normally sold in 50 kg bags, but occasionally is
available in bulk at a lower price. The reaction between dicalcium silicate and water
Ordinary portland cement is the least expensive, is slow and does not contribute to the strength of
and by far the most widely used, type of cement. It is the concrete until a considerable time has elapsed.
suitable for all normal purposes. Aluminate would interfere with these processes, hence
Rapid-hardening portland cement is more finely the addition of gypsum at the end of the manufacturing
ground, which accelerates the chemical reaction with process. The gypsum forms an insoluble compound
water and develops strength more rapidly. It has the with the aluminate.
same strength after 7 days as ordinary portland cement During the hydration process, the cement chemically
does after 28 days. Early hardening may be useful binds water corresponding to about one-quarter of its
where early stripping of formwork and early loading of weight. Additional water evaporates, leaving voids,
the structure is required. which reduce the density, and therefore the strength
Low-heat portland cement develops strength very and durability, of the end products.
slowly. It is used in very thick concrete work where the
heat generated by the chemical reactions in ordinary Pozzolana
portland cement would be excessive and lead to serious A pozzolana is a siliceous material which, in finely
cracking. divided form, can react with lime in the presence of
moisture at normal temperatures and pressures to are sometimes included in the concrete mix to achieve
form compounds possessing cementing properties. certain properties. Reinforcement steel is used for
Unfortunately, the cementing properties of pozzolana added strength, particularly for tensile stresses.
mixtures are highly variable and unpredictable. Concrete is normally mixed at the building site
A wide variety of materials, both natural and and poured into formwork of the desired shape, in
artificial, may be pozzolanic. Silica constitutes more the position that the unit will occupy in the finished
than half the weight of the pozzolana. Volcanic ash structure. Units can also be precast, either at the
was the first pozzolana that the Romans used to make building site or at a factory.
concrete for a host of large and durable buildings.
Deposits of volcanic ash are likely to be found wherever Properties of concrete
there are active, or recently active, volcanoes. Concrete is associated with high strength, hardness,
Other natural sources of pozzolana are rock or durability, imperviousness and mouldability. It
earth in which the silica constituent contains the is a poor thermal insulator, but has high thermal
mineral opal, and the lateritic soils commonly found capacity. Concrete is not flammable and has good fire
in Africa. Artificial pozzolana includes fly ash from resistance, but there is a serious loss of strength at high
the combustion of coal in thermoelectric power plants, temperatures. Concrete made with ordinary portland
burnt clays and shales, blast furnace slag formed in the cement has low resistance to acids and sulphates but
process of iron manufacture, rice husk ash and the ash good resistance to alkalis.
from other agricultural wastes. Concrete is a relatively expensive building material
The energy requirement for the manufacture of for farm structures. The cost can be lowered if some
portland cement is very high. By comparison, lime of the portland cement is replaced with pozzolana.
and hydraulic lime can be produced with less than half However, when pozzolanas are used, the chemical
the energy requirement, and natural pozzolana may reaction is slower and strength development is delayed.
be used directly without any processing. Artificial The compressive strength depends on the proportions
pozzolana requires some heating, but less than half that of the ingredients, i.e. the cement/water ratio and the
required for lime production. cement aggregate ratio. As the aggregate forms the bulk
Pozzolana and lime can be produced with much less of hardened concrete, its strength will also have some
sophisticated technology than portland cement. This influence. Direct tensile strength is generally low, only
1
means that pozzolana can be produced at relatively /8 to 1/14 of the compressive strength, and is normally
low cost and requires much less foreign exchange than neglected in design calculations, especially in the design
cement. However, it takes 2–3 times the volume of of reinforced concrete.
pozzolana to make a concrete with the same strength Compressive strength is measured by crushing
as with portland cement, and this adds to the cost of cubes measuring 15 cm on all sides. The cubes are cured
transport and handling. for 28 days under standard temperature and humidity
The main use of pozzolanas is for lime-pozzolana conditions, before being crushed in a hydraulic press.
mortars, for blended pozzolanic cements and as an Characteristic strength values at 28 days are those
admixture in concrete. Replacing up to 30 percent below which not more than 5 percent of the test
of the portland cement with pozzolana will produce results fall. The grades used are C7, C10, Cl5, C20,
65–95 percent of the strength of portland cement concrete C25, C30, C40, C50 and C60, each corresponding to a
at 28 days. The strength nominally improves with age characteristic crushing strength of 7.0 N/mm2, 10.0 N/
because pozzolana reacts more slowly than cement, and mm2, 15.0 N/mm2, etc.
at 1 year about the same strength is obtained.
CONCRETE TABLE 5.11

Concrete is a building material made by mixing cement Typical strength development of concrete
paste (portland cement and water) with aggregate (sand Average crushing strength
and stone). The cement paste is the ‘glue’ that binds Ordinary Portland cement
the particles in the aggregate together. The strength of Storage in air 18 °C
the cement paste depends on the relative proportions Age RH 65% Storage in water
at test (N/mm2) (N/mm2)
of water and cement, with a more diluted paste being
weaker. In addition, the relative proportions of cement 1 day 5.5 -
paste and aggregate affect the strength, with a higher 3 days 15.0 15.2
proportion of paste making stronger concrete. 7 days 22.0 22.7
The concrete hardens through the chemical reaction
between water and cement, without the need for air. 28 days 31.0 34.5
Once the initial set has taken place, concrete cures well
3 months 37.2 44.1
under water. Strength is gained gradually, depending
on the speed of the chemical reaction. Admixtures (1 cement/6 aggregate, by weight, 0.6 water/cement ratio).
TABLE 5.12
In some literature, the required grade of concrete is
Suggested use for various concrete grades
defined by the proportions of cement, sand and stone and nominal mixes
(so called nominal mixes), rather than the compressive
Nominal
strength. Therefore some common nominal mixes have Grade mix Use
been included in Table 5.12. Note, however, that the C7 1:3:8 Strip footings; trench fill foundations;
amount of water added to such a mix will have a great C10 1:4:6 stanchion bases; non-reinforced
influence on the compressive strength of the cured 1:3:6 foundations; oversite concrete and
1:4:5 bindings under slabs; floors with very
concrete. 1:3:5 light traffic; mass concrete, etc.
The leaner of the nominal mixes listed opposite the C15 1:3:5 Foundation walls; basement walls;
C7 and C10 grades are workable only with very well C20 1:3:4 structural concrete; walls; reinforced
graded aggregates ranging up to quite large sizes. 1:2:4 floor slabs; floors for dairy and beef
1:3:3 cattle, pigs and poultry; floors in grain
and potato stores, hay barns, and
Ingredients machinery stores; septic tanks and
water storage tanks; slabs for farmyard
manure; roads, driveways, paving and
Cement walks; stairways.
Ordinary Portland cement is used for most farm C25 1:2:4 All concrete in milking parlours, dairies,
structures. It is sold in paper bags containing 50 kg, C30 1:2:3 silage silos, and feed and drinking
C35 1:1.5:3 troughs; floors subject to severe wear
or approximately 37 litres. Cement must be stored in 1:1:2 and weather conditions, or weak acid
a dry place, protected from ground moisture, and the and alkali solutions; roads and paving
storage period should not exceed a month or two. Even in frequent use by heavy machinery
and lorries; small bridges; retaining
damp air can spoil cement. It should be the consistency walls and dams; suspended floors,
of powder when used. If lumps have developed, the beams and lintels; floors used by heavy,
small-wheeled equipment, such as
quality has decreased, although it can still be used if the lift trucks; fencing posts and precast
lumps can be crushed between the fingers. concrete components.
C40 Concrete in very severe exposure;
Aggregate C50 prefabricated structural elements;
C60 prestressed concrete.
Aggregate or ballast is either gravel or crushed stone.
Aggregates that pass through a 5 mm sieve are called
fine aggregate or sand. and those retained are called
coarse aggregate or stone. The aggregate should be of voids to be filled with the more costly cement
hard, clean and free from salt and vegetable matter. paste. The particles also flow together readily, i.e. the
Too much silt and organic matter makes the aggregate aggregate is workable, enabling less water to be used.
unsuitable for concrete. The grading is expressed as a percentage by weight
To test for silt, place 80 mm of sand in a 200 mm-high of aggregate passing through various sieves. A well-
transparent bottle. Add water up to a height of 160 mm. graded aggregate will have a fairly even distribution
Shake the bottle vigorously and allow the contents to of sizes.
settle until the following day. If the silt layer, which will The moisture content in sand is important because
settle on top of the sand, is less than 6 mm, the sand can the sand mixing ratio often refers to kilograms of dry
be used without further treatment. If the silt content is sand, and the maximum amount of water includes the
higher, the sand must be washed. moisture in the aggregate. The moisture content is
To test for organic matter, place 80 mm of sand in determined by taking a representative sample of 1 kg.
a 200 mm-high transparent bottle. Add a 3 percent The sample is accurately weighed and spread thinly
solution of sodium hydroxide up to 120 mm. Note on a plate, soaked with spirit (alcohol) and burned
that sodium hydroxide, which can be bought from a while stirring. When the sample has cooled, it is
chemist, is dangerous to the skin. Cork the bottle and weighed again. The weight loss amounts to the weight
shake it vigorously for 30 seconds, then leave it standing of the water that has evaporated, and is expressed as a
until the following day. If the liquid on top of the sand percentage by dividing the weight lost by the weight
turns dark brown or coffee-coloured, the sand should of the dried sample. The normal moisture content of
not be used. A ‘straw’ colour is satisfactory for most naturally moist sand is 2.5–5.5 percent. The amount of
jobs, but not for those requiring the greatest strength water added to the concrete mixture should be reduced
or water resistance. Note, however, that some ferrous by the same percentage.
compounds may react with the sodium hydroxide to Density is the weight per volume of the solid mass,
cause the brown colour. excluding voids, and is determined by placing 1 kilo
Grading of the aggregate refers to proportioning of of dry aggregate in 1 litre of water. The density is the
the different sizes of the aggregate material and greatly weight of the dry aggregate (1 kg) divided by the volume
influences the quality, permeability and workability of of water forced out of place. Normal values for density
the concrete. With a well-graded aggregate, the various of aggregate (sand and stone) are 2 600–2 700 kg/m3
particle sizes intermesh, leaving a minimum volume and, for cement, 3 100 kg/m3.
Bulk density is the weight per volume of the influenced by the grading, shape and texture of the
aggregate, including voids, and is determined by aggregate.
weighing 1 litre of the aggregate. Normal values for Workability describes the ease with which the
coarse aggregate are 1 500–1 650 kg/m3. Although concrete mix can be compacted. Workability can be
completely dry and very wet sand have the same increased by adding water to a given mixing ratio since
volume, the bulking characteristic of damp sand gives this will increase the water–cement ratio and thereby
it greater volume. The bulk density of typical naturally reduce the strength. Instead it should be obtained
moist sand is 15–25 percent lower than coarse aggregate by use of a well-graded aggregate (adjustment of the
of the same material, i.e. 1 300–1 500 kg/m3. relative proportions of sand and stone), use of smooth
The size and texture of aggregate affects the concrete. and rounded rather than irregular shaped aggregate or
The larger particles of coarse aggregate should not by decreasing the aggregate–cement ratio.
exceed one-quarter of the minimum thickness of the Batching measuring is done by weight or by volume.
concrete member being cast. In reinforced concrete, Batching by weight is more exact but is only used at
the coarse aggregate must be able to pass between the large construction sites. Batching by volume is used
reinforcement bars, 20 mm being generally regarded as when constructing farm buildings. Accurate batching is
the maximum size. more important for higher grades of concrete. Batching
While aggregate with a larger surface area and rough by weight is recommended for concrete of grade C30
texture, i.e. crushed stone, allows greater adhesive and higher. Checking the bulk density of the aggregate
forces to develop, it will give less workable concrete. will result in greater accuracy when grade C20 or
Stockpiles of aggregate should be situated close to the higher is batched by volume. A 50 kg bag of cement can
mixing place. Sand and stone should be kept separate. If be split into halves by cutting across the middle of the
a hard surface is not available, the bottom of the pile top side of a bag lying flat on the floor. The bag is then
should not be used in order to avoid defilement with grabbed at the middle and lifted so that the bag splits
soil. In hot, sunny climates, a shade should be provided, into two halves.
or the aggregate should be sprinkled with water to cool A bucket or box can be used as a measuring unit.
it. Hot aggregate materials make poor concrete. The materials should be placed loosely in the measuring
unit and not compacted. It is convenient to construct
Water a cubic box with 335 mm sides, as it will contain
Water should be reasonably free of impurities such 37 litres, which is the volume of 1 bag of cement. If
as suspended solids, organic matter and salts. This the box is made without a bottom and placed on the
requirement is usually satisfied by using water which is mixing platform while being filled, it is easy to empty
fit for drinking. Sea water can be used if fresh water is not by simply lifting it. The ingredients should never be
available, but not for reinforced concrete, as the strength measured with a shovel or spade.
of the concrete will be reduced by up to 15 percent.
Batching 40
Compressive strength N/mm2
The concrete mix should contain enough sand to fill

all the voids between the coarse aggregate, enough 30
cement paste to cover all particles with a complete film, Increasing workability
and enough water to complete the chemical reaction. 20
Requirements for batching ordinary concrete mixes of
various grades and workability are given in Appendix 10
V: 1-2.
The water–cement ratio is an expression for the 0 0∙4 0∙5 0∙6 0∙7 0∙8 0∙9 1∙0 1∙1
relative proportions of water, including the moisture
Water / cement ratio
in the damp aggregate, and cement in the cement paste.
The strongest concrete is obtained with the lowest
water-cement ratio which gives a workable mix that can Figure 5.19 Relation between compressive strength
be thoroughly compacted. Note that every 1 percent and water/cement ratio
of water in excess of what is needed will reduce the
strength by up to 5 percent. Water–cement ratio should
however, not be below 0.4:1 since this is the minimum Calculating of the amount of ingredients is done
required to hydrate the cement. from the number of cubic metres of concrete required.
The aggregate–cement ratio will influence on the The sum of the ingredient volumes will be greater
concrete price since the amount of cement used per than the volume of concrete, because the sand will fill
cubic meter will be changed. It is not possible to give the voids between the coarse aggregate. The volume of
a specific relationship between water-cement ratio, the materials will normally be 30–50 percent greater
aggregate-cement ratio and workability, since it is than in the concrete mix – 5 percent to 10 percent is
TABLE 5.13
Requirements per cubic metre for batching nominal concrete mixes
Naturally moist aggregate1
Aggregate: Sand to total
Cement Sand Stones cement aggregate
Proportions (number of
by volume 50 kg bags) (m³) (tonnes) (m³) (tonnes) (ratio) (%)
1:4:8 3.1 0.46 0.67 0.92 1.48 13.4 31

1:4:6 3.7 0.54 0.79 0.81 1.30 11.0 37
1 5:5 3.7 0.69 1.00 0.69 1.10 10.9 47
1:3:6 4.0 0.44 0.64 0.89 1.42 10.0 31
1:4:5 4.0 0.60 0.87 0.75 1.20 9.9 41
1:3:5 4.4 0.49 0.71 0.82 1.31 8.9 35
1:4:4 4.5 0.66 0.96 0.66 1.06 8.7 47
1:3:4 5.0 0.56 0.81 0.74 1.19 7.7 40
1:4:3 5.1 0.75 1.09 0.57 0.91 7.6 54
1:2:4 5.7 0.42 0.62 0.85 1.36 6.7 31
1:3:3 5.8 0.65 0.94 0.65 1.03 6.5 47
1:2:3 6.7 0.50 0.72 0.74 1.19 5.5 37
1:1:5:3 7.3 0.41 0.59 0.82 1.30 5.0 31
1:2:2 8.1 0.60 0.87 0.60 0.96 4.4 47
1:1:5:2 9.0 0.50 0.72 0.67 1.06 3.9 40
1:1:2 10.1 0.37 0.54 0.75 1.19 3.3 31
1
These quantities are calculated on the assumption that sand has a bulk density of 1 450 kg/m³ and stone has a density of 1 600 kg/m³.
The density of the aggregate material is 2 650 kg/m³.
allowed for waste and spillage. Adding cement does not Stone = (2.84 × 6) / 9 = 1.89 m3
noticeably increase the volume. The above assumptions
are used in Example 5.2 to estimate roughly the Number of bags of cement required =
amount of ingredients needed. Example 5.3 gives a 320 / 37 = 8.6 bags, i.e. 9 bags have to be bought.
more accurate method of calculating the amount of
concrete obtained from the ingredients. Weight of sand required =
0.95 m3 × 1.45 tonnes / m3 = 1.4 tonnes
Example 5.2
Calculate the amount of materials needed to construct Weight of stone required =
a rectangular concrete floor measuring 7.5 m by 4.0 m 1.89 m3 × 1.60 tonnes / m3 = 3.024 tonnes
and 7 cm thick. Use a nominal mix of 1:3:6. Fifty
kilograms of cement is equal to 37 litres. Maximum size of stones = 70 mm × 1 / 4 = 17.5 mm
Total volume of concrete required = Example 5.3

7.5 m × 4.0 m × 0.07 m = 2.1 m3 Assume a 1:3:5 cement-sand-stone concrete mix by
volume, using naturally moist aggregates and adding
Total volume of ingredients, assuming 30 percent 62 litres of water. What will be the basic strength and
decrease in volume when mixed and 5 percent waste = volume of the mix if 2 bags of cement are used?
2.1 m3 + 2.1 (30% + 5%) m3 = 2.84 m3
Additional assumptions:
The volume of the ingredients is proportional to the Moisture content of sand: 4%
number of parts in the nominal mix. In this case, there Moisture content of stones: 1.5%
is a total of 10 parts (1+3+6) in the mix, but the cement Bulk density of the sand: 1 400 kg/m3
does not affect the volume, so only the 9 parts of sand Bulk density of the stones: 1 600 kg/m3
and stone are used. Solid density of aggregate materials: 2 650 kg/m3
Solid density of cement: 3 100 kg/m3
Cement = (2.84 × 1) / 9 = 0.32 m3 or 320 Density of water: 1 000 kg/m3
Sand = (2.84 × 3) / 9 = 0.95 m3

1. Calculate the volume of the aggregate in the mix. Total = 0.448 m3
Two bags of cement have a volume of The total volume of 1:3:5 mix obtained from 2 bags
2 × 37 litres = 74 litres of cement is 0.45 m3.
The volume of sand is 3 × 74 litres = 222 litres Note that the 0.45 m3 of concrete is only two-thirds
of the sum of the volumes of the components - 0.074
The volume of stones is 5 × 74 litres = 370 litres + 0.222 + 0.370.
2. Calculate the weight of the aggregates. Mixing

Mechanical mixing is the best way of mixing concrete.
Sand 222 / 1 000 m3 × 1 400 kg/m3 = 311 kg Batch mixers with a tilting drum for use on building sites
are available in sizes of 85–400 litres. Power for drum
Stones 370 / 1 000 m3 × 1 600 kg/m3 = 592 kg rotation is supplied by a petrol engine or an electric
motor, whereas the drum is tilted manually. The pear-
3. Calculate the amount of water contained in the shaped drum has internal blades for efficient mixing.
aggregate. Mixing should be continued for at least 2.5 minutes
after all the ingredients have been added. For small-
Water in the sand is 311 kg × 4 / 100= 12 kg scale work in rural areas it may be difficult and rather
expensive to use a mechanical mixer.
Water in the stones is 592 kg × 1.5 / 100= 9 kg
4. Adjust amounts in the batch for water content in TABLE 5.14

aggregate. Mixing-water requirements1 for dense concrete for
different consistencies and maximum sizes of aggregate
Cement 100 kg (unaltered) Maximum Water requirement (litres / m³) for concrete
size of 1
aggregate2 /2–1/3 1
/3–1/6 1
/6–1/2
Sand 311 kg – 12 kg = 299 kg High Medium Plastic
workability workability consistency
Stones 592 kg – 9 kg = 583 kg 10 mm 245 230 210

14 mm 230 215 200
Total amount of dry aggregate = 20 mm 215 200 185
299 kg + 583 kg = 882 kg
25 mm 200 190 175
40 mm 185 175 160
Water = 62 kg + 12 kg + 9 kg = 83 kg
1
Includes moisture in aggregate. The quantities of mixing water
are the maximum for use with reasonably well-graded, well-
5. Calculate the water–cement ratio and the
shaped, angular, coarse aggregate.
cement–aggregate ratio 2
For slump see Table 5.15.
Water–cement ratio =
(83 kg water) / 100 kg cement = 0.83
Aggregate–cement ratio =
(882 kg aggregate) / 100 kg cement = 8.8
The water–cement ratio indicates that the mix has

a basic strength corresponding to a C10 mix. See
Appendix V: 12.
6. Calculate the ‘solid volume’ of the ingredients in

the mix, excluding the air voids in the aggregate
and cement.
Cement 100 kg / 3 100 kg/m3 = 0.032 m3
Aggregate 882 kg / 2 650 kg/m3 = 0.333 m3
Water 83 kg / 1 000 kg / m3 = 0.083 m3 Figure 5.20 Batch mixer

A simple hand-powered concrete mixer can be All tools and the platform should be cleaned with
manufactured from an empty oil drum set in a frame water when there is a break in the mixing, and at the
of galvanized pipe. Figure 5.21 shows a hand crank, end of the day.
but the drive can be converted easily to machine power.
Slump test
The slump test gives an approximate indication of the
workability of the wet concrete mix. Fill a conically
shaped bucket with the wet concrete mix and compact
it thoroughly. Turn the bucket upside down on the
mixing platform. Lift the bucket, place it next to the
concrete heap and measure the slump, as shown in
Figure 5.22.
Placing and compaction

Concrete should be placed with a minimum of
delay after the mixing is completed, and certainly
within 30 minutes. Special care should be taken when
Figure 5.21 Home-built concrete mixer transporting wet mixes, because the vibrations of a
moving wheelbarrow may cause the mix to segregate.
The mix should not be allowed to flow, nor should it
Hand mixing is normally used for small jobs. be dropped into position from a height of more than
Mixing should be done on a close-boarded platform 1 metre. The concrete should be placed with a shovel
or a concrete floor near to where the concrete is to be in layers no deeper than 15 cm, and compacted before
placed, and never on bare ground because of the danger the next layer is placed.
of earth contamination. When slabs are cast, the surface is levelled with
The following method is recommended for hand a screed board, which is also used to compact the
mixing: concrete mix as soon as it has been placed, to remove
1. The measured quantities of sand and cement are any trapped air. The less workable the mix, the more
mixed by turning them over with a shovel at least porous it is, and the more compaction is necessary.
3 times. The concrete loses up to 5 percent of its strength for
2. About three-quarters of the water is added to the every 1 percent of entrapped air. However, excessive
mixture a little at a time. compaction of wet mixes brings fine particles to the
3. Mixing continues until the mixture becomes top, resulting in a weak, dusty surface.
homogeneous and workable. Manual compaction is commonly used for the
4. The measured quantity of stones, after being construction of farm buildings. It can be used for mixes
wetted with part of the remaining water, is with high and medium workability, and for plastic
spread over the mixture and mixing continues, mixes. Wet mixes used for walls are compacted by
with all ingredients being turned over at least punting with a batten, stick or piece of reinforcement
3 times during the process, using as little water as bar. Knocking on the formwork also helps. Less
possible to obtain a workable mix. workable mixes, such as those used for floors and
paving, are best compacted with a tamper.
100
Slump No slump
Collapse slump
300
200
Bucket Too wet suitable Too dry
Figure 5.22 Concrete slump test

TABLE 5.15
Concrete slump for various uses
Consistency Slump Use Method of compaction
1 1
High workability /2– /3 Constructions with narrow passages and/or complex Manual
shapes. Heavily reinforced concrete.
1
Medium workability /3–1/6 All normal uses. Non-reinforced and normally Manual
reinforced concrete.
1
Plastic /6–1/12 Open structures with fairly open reinforcement, which Manual or mechanical
are heavily worked manually for compaction, such as
floors and paving. Mass concrete.
Stiff 0–1/2 Non-reinforced or sparsely reinforced open structures, Mechanical
such as floors and paving, which are mechanically
vibrated. Factory prefabrication of concrete goods.
Concrete blocks.
Damp 0 Factory prefabrication of concrete goods. Mechanical or pressure
should be straight, either vertical or horizontal. When

resuming work, the old surface should be roughened
and cleaned before being treated with a thick mixture
of water and cement.
Formwork
Formwork provides the shape and surface texture of
concrete members and supports the concrete during
setting and hardening.
Figure 5.23 Manual compaction of foundation and The simplest type of form is sufficient for pavement
floor slab edges, floor slabs, pathways, etc.
Only mechanical vibrators are capable of compacting Expansion joint

stiffer mixes thoroughly. For walls and foundations, a Screed board
poker vibrator (a vibrating pole) is immersed in the
Stop board
poured concrete mix at points up to 50 cm apart. Floors
and paving are vibrated with a beam vibrator. Stake
Side boards
thickness: 38−50 mm.
width according to
thickness of slab
Figure 5.25 Simple type of formwork for a concrete slab
In large concrete slabs, such as floors, cracks tend to

occur early in the setting period. In a normal slab where
watertightness is not essential, this can be controlled
by laying the concrete in squares, with joints between
them, allowing the concrete to move slightly without
Figure 5.24 Mechanical vibrators causing cracks in the slab. The distance between the
joints should not exceed 3 metres. The simplest type
is a called a dry joint. The concrete is poured directly
Construction joints against the already hardened concrete of another square.
The casting should be planned in such a way that the A more sophisticated method is a filled joint. A
work on a member can be completed before the end of minimum gap of 3 mm is left between the squares, and
the day. If cast concrete is left for more than 2 hours, filled with bitumen or any comparable material.
it will set so much that there is no direct continuation Forms for walls must be strongly supported because
between the old and new concrete. Joints are potentially when concrete is wet it exerts great pressure on the
weak and should be positioned where they will affect side boards. The greater the height, the greater the
the strength of the member as little as possible. Joints pressure. A concrete wall will not normally be thinner
than 10 cm, or 15 cm in the case of reinforced concrete. Although the formwork can be taken away after
If it is higher than 1 metre, it should not be less than 3 days, leaving it for 7 days makes it easier to keep the
20 cm thick, to make it possible to compact the concrete concrete wet.
properly with a tamper. The joints of the formwork In order to save on material for the formwork and
must be tight enough to prevent loss of water and its supporting structure, tall silos and columns are
cement. cast using a slip form. The form is not built to the full
If the surface of the finished wall is to be visible, height of the silo, and may in fact be only a few metres
and no further treatment is anticipated, tongued and high. As casting of the concrete proceeds, the form
grooved boards, planed on the inside, can be used to is lifted. The work needs to proceed at a speed that
provide a smooth and attractive surface. Alternatively, allows the concrete to set before it leaves the bottom of
12-mm plywood sheets can be used. The dimensions and the form. This technique requires complicated design
spacing of studs and ties are shown in Figure 5.26. The calculations, skilled labour and supervision.
proper spacing and installation of the ties is important to
prevent distortion or complete failure of the forms. Curing concrete
Not only must forms be well braced, they must also Concrete will set in 3 days, but the chemical reaction
be anchored securely to prevent them from floating up, between water and cement continues for much longer. If
allowing the concrete to run out from underneath. the water disappears through evaporation, the chemical
The forms should be brushed with oil and watered reaction will stop. It is therefore very important to keep
thoroughly before filling with concrete. This is done the concrete wet (damp) for at least 7 days.
to prevent water in the concrete from being absorbed Premature drying out may also result in cracking
by the wooden boards, and to stop the concrete from caused by shrinkage. During curing, the strength and
sticking to the forms. Although soluble oil is best, used impermeability increases and the surface hardens against
engine oil mixed with equal parts of diesel fuel is the abrasion. Watering of the concrete should start as soon as
easiest and cheapest material in practice. the surface is hard enough to avoid damage, but not later
If handled carefully, wooden forms can be used than 10–12 hours after casting. Covering the concrete with
several times before they are abandoned. If there is a sacks, grass, hessian, a layer of sand or polythene helps to
recurrent need for the same shape, it is advantageous to retain the moisture and protects the surface from dry
make the forms of steel sheets. winds. This is particularly important in tropical climates.
Wooden spacers
length=wall thickness
to be removed when filling
8 G wire ties vertical concrete
Studs, 50x100 mm spacing 500 mm
max. spacing 600 mm
Support
max. spacing 2 m
Boards min. thickness

25 mm nailed to studs
Figure 5.26 Dimensions and spacing of studs and ties in formwork for walls
Temperature is also an important factor in curing. Reinforced concrete

For temperatures above 0 °C and below 40 °C, strength Concrete is strong in compression but relatively weak
development is a function of temperature and time. At in tension. The underside of a loaded beam, such as a
temperatures above 40 °C, the stiffening and hardening lintel over a door, is in tension.
may be faster than desired and result in lower strength.
Figure 5.27 shows the approximate curing time
needed to achieve characteristic compressive strength
at various curing temperatures for concrete mixes using
ordinary portland cement.
80
70
60
50
Days
40
30 COMPRESSION
TENSION
20
10
0 5 10 15 20 30 40 50 T °C Figure 5.28 Stresses in a concrete lintel
Figure 5.27 Curing times for concrete

Concrete subject to tension loading must be
reinforced with steel bars or mesh. The amount and
Finishes on concrete type of reinforcement should be carefully calculated or,
The surface of newly laid concrete should not be alternatively, a standard design obtained from a reliable
worked until some setting has taken place. The type of source should be followed without deviating from the
finish should be compatible with the intended use. In design.
the case of a floor, a non-skid surface for humans and Important factors affecting reinforced concrete:
animals is desirable. 1. The steel bars should be cleaned of rust and dirt
Tamped finish: The tamper leaves a coarse, rippled before they are placed.
surface when it has been used to compact the concrete. 2. In order to obtain good adhesion between the
Tamper-drawn finish: A less pronounced ripple can concrete and the steel bars, the bars should be
be produced by moving a slightly tilted tamper on its overlapped where they join by at least 40 times
tail end over the surface. the diameter. When plain bars are used, the ends
Broomed finish: A broom of medium stiffness is of the bars must be hooked.
drawn over the freshly tamped surface to give a fairly 3. The reinforcement bars should be tied together
rough texture. well and supported so that they will not move
Wood-float finish: For a smooth, sandy texture the when concrete is placed and compacted.
concrete can be wood-floated after tamping. The float is 4. The steel bars must be in the tensile zone and be
used with a semicircular sweeping motion, the leading covered with concrete to a thickness of 3 times
edge being slightly raised; this levels out the ripples and the diameter, or by at least 25 mm, to protect
produces a surface with a fine, gritty texture, a finish them from water and air, which causes rusting.
often used for floors in animal houses. 5. The concrete must be well compacted around
Steel trowel finish: Steel trowelling after wood the bars.
floating gives a smoother surface with very good 6. Concrete should be at least C20 or 1:2:4 nominal
wearing qualities. However, it can be slippery in wet mix, and have a maximum aggregate size of 20 mm.
conditions.
Surfaces with the aggregate exposed can be used Concrete floors are sometimes reinforced with
for decorative purposes, but can also give a rough, welded steel mesh or chicken wire, placed 25 mm
durable surface on horizontal slabs. This surface can beneath the upper surface of the concrete, to limit the
be obtained by removing cement and sand by spraying size of any cracking. However, such load-distributing
water on the new concrete, or by positioning aggregate reinforcement is necessary only when loadings are
by hand in the unset concrete. heavy, the underlying soil is not dependable, or when
cracking must be minimized, as in water tanks.
Rods tied
with wire
Rods should be
lapped 40 times
diameter
Temporary
blocks
Figure 5.30 Wooden mould for solid concrete blocks

Distance to surface
should be at least
3 times diameter
The mould illustrated in Figure 5.31 has a steel plate

Figure 5.29 Placing reinforcement bars cut to the shape of the block, which is used as a lid and
held down as the hollow-making pieces are withdrawn.
Bolts are then loosened and the sides of the mould are
CONCRETE BLOCKS, SAND AND CEMENT BLOCKS removed with a swift motion. All parts of the mould
It is faster to build with concrete blocks than with should be slightly tapered so that they can be removed
bricks, and using concrete blocks reduces the mortar easily from the block.
requirement by half or more. If face-shell bedding is As from the day after the blocks have been made,
used, in which the mortar is placed only along the edges water is sprinkled on the blocks for 2 weeks during
of the blocks, the consumption of mortar is reduced curing. After 48 hours, the blocks can be removed for
by a further 50 percent. However, the total amount of stacking, but wetting must continue. After curing, the
cement required for the blocks and mortar is far greater blocks are dried. If damp blocks are placed in a wall,
than that required for the mortar in a brick wall. they will shrink and cause cracks. To ensure maximum
Concrete blocks are often made of 1:3:6 concrete drying, the blocks are stacked interspaced, exposed to
with a maximum aggregate size of 10 mm, or a cement- the prevailing wind and, in the case of hollow blocks,
sand mixture with a ratio of 1:7, 1:8 or 1:9. If properly with the cavities laid horizontal to form a continuous
cured, these mixtures produce concrete blocks with passage for the circulating air.
compression strength well above what is required in a
one-storey building. The blocks may be solid, cellular Decorative and ventilating blocks
or hollow. Cellular blocks have cavities with one end Decorative concrete or sand-cement blocks serve
closed, while in hollow blocks the cavities pass through. several purposes:
Lightweight aggregate, such as cracked pumice stone, is r to provide light and security without installing
sometimes used. windows or shutters;
Blocks are made to a number of coordinating sizes, r to provide permanent ventilation;
the actual sizes being about 10 mm less in order to r to give an attractive appearance.
allow for the thickness of the mortar.
In addition, some are designed to keep out rain,
Block manufacturing while others include mosquito proofing.
Blocks can be made using a simple block-making While blocks with a simple shape can be made in a
machine driven by an engine, or operated by hand. wooden mould by inserting pieces of wood to obtain
They can also be made using simple wooden moulds on the desired shape, more complicated designs usually
a platform or floor. The mould can be lined with steel require a professionally made steel mould.
plates, to prevent damage during tamping and to reduce
wear on the mould. Steel moulds are often used in
large-scale production. The wooden mould is initially MORTAR
oiled overnight and need not be oiled each time it is Mortar is a plastic mixture of water and binding
filled. It is sufficient to wipe it clean with a cloth. The materials, used to join concrete blocks, bricks or other
concrete, with a stiff or plastic consistency, is placed in masonry units.
the mould in layers, and each layer is compacted with It is desirable for mortar to hold moisture, be plastic
a 3-kg rammer. enough to stick to the trowel and the blocks or bricks,
The mould in Figure 5.30 has a lid made so that it and to develop adequate strength without cracking.
can pass through the rest of the mould. The slightly Mortar need not be stronger than the units it joins.
tapered sides can be removed by lifting the handles, In fact, cracks are more likely to appear in the blocks or
while holding down the lid with one foot. bricks if the mortar is excessively strong.
Mould made of 25 mm timber
0
46
140
0
39
80
90
190
190
Concrete block
55 75
14
0
Figure 5.31 Mould for hollow or cellular concrete blocks
There are several types of mortar, each suitable for Cement mortar is stronger and more waterproof
particular applications and varying in cost. Most of than lime mortar, but it is difficult to work with because
these mortars include sand as an ingredient. In all cases, it is not ‘fat’ or plastic and falls away from the blocks
the sand should be clean, free of organic material, well or bricks during placement. In addition, cement mortar
graded (a variety of sizes) and not exceed 3 mm of silt is more costly than other types. Consequently, it is
in the sedimentation test. In most cases, particle size used in only a few applications, such as a damp-proof
should not exceed 3 mm, as this would make the mortar course or in some limited areas where heavy loads are
‘harsh’ and difficult to work with. expected. A 1:3 mix using fine sand is usually required
Lime mortar is typically mixed using 1 part lime to to obtain adequate plasticity.
3 parts sand. Two types of lime are available. Hydraulic Compo mortar is made with cement, lime and sand.
lime hardens quickly and should be used within an In some localities, a 50:50 cement-lime mix is sold as
hour. It is suitable for both above- and below-ground mortar cement. The addition of the lime reduces the cost
applications. Non-hydraulic lime requires air to harden, and improves workability. A 1:2:9, cement-lime-sand
and can only be used above ground. If it is smoothed mix is suitable for general purposes, while a 1:1:6 is better
off while standing, a pile of this type of lime mortar can for exposed surfaces, and a 1:3:12 can be used for interior
be stored for several days. walls, or stone walls, where the extra plasticity is helpful.
Figure 5.32 Ventilating and decorative concrete blocks

Mortar can also be made using pozzolana, bitumen, Cement plaster can be used on most types of wall,
cutback or soil. A 1:2:9 lime-pozzolana-sand mortar is but it does not adhere well to soil-block walls, as
roughly equivalent to a 1:6 cement-sand mortar. Adobe shrinking and swelling tend to crack the plaster. The
and stabilized soil blocks are often laid in a mortar of mixing ratio is 1 part cement and 5 parts sand and, if the
the same composition as the blocks. plaster is too harsh, 0.5–1 part of lime can be added. The
Tables 5.16 and 5.17 provide information on the wall is first moistened and then the plaster is applied
materials required for a cubic metre of various mortars, in two coats of about 5 mm each, allowing at least
and the amount of mortar per square metre, for several 24 hours between layers. Cement plaster should not be
building units. applied on a wall while it is exposed to the sun.
Starting with cement mortar, strength decreases Dagga plaster is a mixture of clay soil (such as red
with each type, although the ability to accommodate or brown laterite), stabilizer and water. The plaster
movement increases. is improved by adding lime or cement as a stabilizer
and bitumen for waterproofing. A good mixture is
1 part lime or cement, 3 parts clay, 6 parts sand,
TABLE 5.16 0.2 parts bitumen and water. Dagga plaster is applied
Materials required per cubic metre of mortar on previously moistened earth or adobe brick walls in a
Cement Lime Sand layer 10–25 mm thick.
Type bags (kg) (m³)
Cement mortar 1:5 6.0 - 1.1 FERROCEMENT

Compo mortar 1:1:6 5.0 100.0 1.1 Ferrocement is a highly versatile form of reinforced
Compo mortar 1:2:9 3.3 13.5 1.1 concrete made with closely spaced light reinforcing
Compo mortar 1:8 3.7 - 1.1 rods or wire mesh, and a cement and sand mortar. It can
be worked with relatively unskilled labour.
Compo mortar 1:3:12 2.5 150.0 1.1
The function of the wire mesh and reinforcing rods
Lime mortar 1:3 - 200.0 1.1
is first to act as a lath, providing the form to support the
mortar in its plastic state, while, in the hardened state,
it absorbs the tensile stresses in the structure, which the
TABLE 5.17 mortar alone is not able to withstand.
Mortar required for various types of wall The reinforcing can be assembled in any desired
Type of wall Amount required per m² wall shape, and the mortar applied in layers to both sides.
11.5 cm brick wall 0.25 m³ Simple shapes, such as water tanks, can be assembled
22.2 cm brick wall 0.51 m³ using wooden sticks as support for the reinforcing
10 cm sand-cement block wall 0.008 m³
while the first coat of mortar is applied.
The mortar should have a mixing ratio of 1:2 to
1:4 cement/sand by volume, using the richer mix for
the thinnest structures. The water/cement ratio should
be below 0.5/1.0. Lime can be added in the proportion
1 part lime to 5 parts cement in order to improve
Finishing mortar workability.
This is sometimes used on floors and other surfaces to The mechanical behaviour of ferrocement depends
give a smooth finish, or as an extremely hard coating to on the type, quantity, orientation and strength of the
increase resistance to wear. While such a top coating is mesh and reinforcing rods. The most common types of
prone to cracking, it seldom increases strength, and is mesh used are illustrated in Figure 5.33.
difficult to apply without causing loose or weak parts. Standard galvanized mesh (galvanized after weaving)
Concrete floors can normally be cast to the finished is adequate. Although non-galvanized wire has adequate
level directly, and be given a sufficiently smooth and strength, the problem of rusting limits its use.
hard surface without a top coating. A construction similar to ferrocement has recently
For coating, a mix of 1 part cement and 2–4 parts been developed for small water tanks, sheds, huts, etc.
sand is used. The coating is placed in a 1–2 cm thick It consists of welded 150 mm-square reinforcement
layer with a steel trowel. Before application, the surface mesh (6 mm rods), covered with hessian and plastered
of the underlying concrete slab should be cleaned and in the same way as ferrocement.
moistened.
FIBRE-REINFORCED CONCRETE
Plastering and rendering Fibre-reinforced concrete members can be made thinner
The term ‘plastering’ is usually applied to interior than those with conventional reinforcement because
walls and ceilings to give jointless, hygienic and usually there is no need for a corrosion-protection covering
smooth surfaces, often over uneven backgrounds. over the steel bars. The fibres improve flexible strength
Exterior plastering is usually called ‘exterior rendering’. and resistance to cracking.
Commonly used fibres include asbestos, steel Asbestos cement (AC)

(0.25 mm diameter), sisal and elephant grass. Asbestos, which is a silicate of magnesium, is found
as a rock that can be split into extremely thin fibres
ranging from 2 mm to 900 mm long. These have good
resistance to alkalis, neutral salts and organic solvents,
and the varieties used for building products have good
resistance to acids. Asbestos is non-combustible and
able to withstand high temperatures without alteration.
Inhalation of asbestos dust causes asbestosis (a
disease of the lungs) and asbestos is now used only
where no alternative fibre is available. Workers must
wear masks and take great care not to inhale any
asbestos dust!
As the fibres are strong in tension and flexible, they
are used as reinforcement with Portland cement, lime
a. Hexagonal wire mesh (chicken wire mesh)
and bitumen binders, in asbestos-cement and asbestos-
silica-lime products, vinyl floor tiles and in bitumen
felts. Asbestos-cement is used in farm structures for
corrugated roofing sheets, ridges and sanitary pipes.
Sisal-fibre-reinforced cement (SFRC)

Sisal and other vegetable fibres have only recently come
into use for cement reinforcement.
Sisal fibre can be used as short, discontinuous fibres
(15–75 mm in length), or as continuous long fibres
exceeding 75 mm in length. Sometimes both short and
long fibres are used together. The manner in which
the fibres are incorporated into the matrix affects the
b. Welded wire mesh - strongest properties of the composite, both in the fresh state and
in the hardened state.
Sisal fibres may deteriorate if not treated. Although
the alkalinity of the concrete helps to protect the fibres
from outside attack, it may itself attack the fibres
chemically by decomposing the lignin.
Sisal fibre reinforcing is used with various cement-
sand mixing ratios, depending on the use:
Wall plastering 1:3

Guttering 1:2
Roofing tiles 1:1
Corrugated roofing sheets 1:0.5
c. Woven mesh - strong
The sand should be passed through a sieve with

1.5 mm to 2 mm holes (e.g. mosquito netting). The
mixing water must be pure and the mix kept as dry as
possible, while still being workable.
Between 16 grams and 17 grams of short (25 mm),
dry sisal fibres are added to the mix for each kilogram
of cement. The short fibres are mixed into the dry
cement and sand before adding water. As sisal fibres
have a high water-absorption capacity, some extra water
may have to be added to the mix to compensate for this.
When mixing, there is a tendency for the fibres to
ball and separate out from the rest of the mix. This
tendency will increase with longer fibres but, if fibres
d. Expanded wire mesh
shorter than 25 mm are used, the reinforcing effect will
be reduced. In most cases, the mix is then trowelled
Figure 5.33 Reinforcement meshes for ferrocement onto a mesh of full-length sisal fibres.
Making corrugated reinforced roofing sheets with mortar and another mat made from the
Home-made reinforced corrugated roofing is usually remaining two bundles. Finally, all the sisal is
cast to standard width, but to only 1 metre in length covered with the remaining mortar, and the
because of its additional weight. Commercial asbestos- surface is screeded even with the edge strips on
cement roofing is heavier than corrugated steel, and the the plywood.
home-made sheets are still heavier. Special attention 4. Cover with the top sheet of polythene, ensuring
must therefore be given to rafter or truss sizes to ensure that the mortar is of even thickness all over and
a safe structure. that no air bubbles remain under the polythene.
Although the casting procedure for sisal-fibre- 5. While holding the batten strip at the fold in the
reinforced cement is tricky, once the proper equipment polythene, carefully remove the plywood sheet
has been assembled and several sheets have been made, to allow the new sisal-cement sheet to fall onto
the process becomes much easier. the asbestos-cement sheet. At the same time,
A concrete block cast over a 1-metre length of press the new sheet into the corrugations using a
asbestos-cement roofing is needed as a face for casting PVC drain pipe 90 mm in diameter. Compact the
the roof sheets. The block is cast within a 100 mm-high new sheet by placing another asbestos sheet on
form, which will give a block of sufficient strength top, and treading on it. Holes for mounting are
after a few days curing. Two or more 1-metre lengths punched with a 5 mm dowel 25 mm from the end
of asbestos-cement roofing will be needed, as well in the gulleys (crests when mounted on the roof)
as a piece of 18 mm plywood, measuring 1.2 metres of the fresh sheet.
by 1.2 metres, and a sheet of heavy-duty polythene, 6. Remove from the moulding block the asbestos
measuring 2.25 metres long and 1 metre wide. The sheet bearing the sisal-cement sheet, and leave
polythene is folded in the middle and a thin batten, it until the cement in the new sheet has set
measuring 9 mm by 15 mm, is stapled at the fold. Strips (preferably 2 days). Then carefully remove the
of 9 mm plywood or wood are nailed along two edges new sheet, peel off the polythene and cure
of the plywood sheet, leaving exactly 1 metre between the new sheet for at least 1 week, preferably
them, as shown in Figure 5.34. immersed in a water tank.
Below are the steps to follow in the casting procedure: 7. If more polythene and asbestos-cement sheets
1. Fit an asbestos cement sheet onto the moulding are available, casting can proceed immediately.
block and cover with the piece of plywood,
with the edge strips at the ends of the sheet. The
polythene is placed over the plywood and the top Walls using the sisal-cement plastering
sheet is folded back off the plywood. technique
2. Prepare a mix of 9 kg cement, 4.5 kg sand, Soil blocks can be used for inexpensive walls with good
150 grams of short sisal fibres (25 mm) and thermal insulation. However, they are easily damaged
4.5 litres of water. Also prepare four 60-gram by impact and eroded by rain. One way of solving these
bundles of sisal fibres that are as long as possible. problems is to plaster the face of the wall. Ordinarily,
3. Use one-third of the mortar mix to trowel a mortar plaster tends to crack and peel off, as it does
thin, even layer over the polythene. Take two of not expand at the same rate as the soil. This can be
the four sisal bundles and distribute the fibres overcome by letting long sisal fibres pass through the
evenly, with the second bundle at right angles to wall, to be incorporated into the mortar on each face.
the first, forming a mat of fibres. This is covered The double skin so formed provides sufficient strength
Top layer of polythene

PVC - Pipe
Lower layer of polythene
Flat wooden
Wire Wooden sticks moulding board
Concrete moulding block
Figure 5.34 Plywood casting board and polythene ‘envelope’

and waterproofing to the wall to enable soil blocks to and promoting good drainage, by avoiding contact
be laid without mortar between the blocks to join them. between dissimilar metals, and by using corrosion-
inhibiting coatings.
Sisal fibres Corrosion-inhibiting coatings

(200 m2 wall)
Copper, aluminium, stainless steel and cast iron tend
to form oxide coatings that provide a considerable
amount of self-protection from corrosion. However,
most other steels require protective coatings if they
are exposed to moisture and air. Methods used include
zinc coating (galvanizing), vitreous enamel glazing
and painting. Painting is the only practical method for
field application, although grease and oil will provide
Plaster 1:3 containing temporary protection.
16-17 g short sisal fibres
per kg cement Before painting, the metal surface must be clean, dry
and free from oil. Both bituminous and oil-based paints
Soil block with metallic oxide pigments offer good protection, if
they are carefully applied in continuous layers. Two to
Figure 5.35 Sisal-cement plastering technique three coats provides the best protection.
BUILDING HARDWARE
METALS Nails
Several ferrous metals (those containing iron) are useful A nail relies on the grip around its shank and the shear
in the construction of farm buildings and other rural strength of its cross-section to give strength to a joint.
structures. Cast iron is used for making sanitary waste It is important to select the right type and size of nail
pipes and fittings. for any particular situation. Nails are specified by their
Steel consists of iron, plus a small percentage of type, length and gauge (the higher the gauge number,
carbon in chemical combination. High-carbon or ‘hard’ the smaller the shank diameter). See Table 5.18. Most
steel is used for tools with cutting edges. Medium- nails are made from mild steel wire. In a corrosive
carbon steel is used for structural members such as environment, galvanized, copper-plated, copper or
I-beams, reinforcing bars and implement frames. Low- aluminium nails are used. A large number of nail
carbon or ‘mild’ steel is used for pipes, nails, screws, types and sizes are available on the market. Below is a
wire, screening, fencing and corrugated roof sheets. description of the nails most commonly used in farm
Non-ferrous metals, such as aluminium and copper, buildings.
are corrosion-resistant and are often chosen for this Round plain-headed nails or round wire nails are
quality. Copper is used for electric wire, tubing for used for general carpentry work. As they have a
water supply and for flashing. Aluminium is most tendency to split thin members, the following rule is
commonly used for corrugated roofing sheets, gutters often used: the diameter of the nail should not exceed
1
and the accompanying nails. Using nails of the same /7 of the thickness of the timber.
material avoids the problem of corrosion caused by
electrolytic action. Brass is a corrosion-resistant alloy of
copper and zinc used extensively for building hardware. TABLE 5.18
Dimensions and approximate number per kilogram
Corrosion of commonly used sizes of round wire nails
Air and moisture accelerate corrosion in ferrous Length
Diameter Approximate
materials unless they are protected. Acids tend to (inches) (mm) (mm) number/kg
corrode copper, while alkalis, such as that found in 6 150 6.0 29
animal waste, portland cement and lime, as well as in 5 125 5.6 42
some soils, cause rapid corrosion of aluminium and
4 100 4.5 77
zinc. Electrolytic action, caused by slight voltages
3 75 3.75 154
set up when dissimilar metals are in contact with
each other in the presence of water, also encourages 2.5 65 3.35 230
corrosion in some metals. Aluminium is particularly 2 50 2.65 440
prone to electrolytic corrosion. 1.5 40 2.0 970
Corrosion can be reduced by the careful selection of 1 25 1.8 1 720
metal products for the application, by reducing the time
that the metal will be wet by preventing condensation
Lost-head nails have a smaller head, which can be set inserted by rotation, and not by being driven with a
below the surface of the wood. Their holding power is hammer. It is usually necessary to drill a pilot hole
lower because the head can be pulled through the wood for the shank of the screw. Screws made of mild steel
more easily. are normally preferred because they are stronger. A
Panel pins are fine wire nails with small heads, used wide range of finishes, such as galvanized, painted and
for fixing plywood and hardboard panels. plated, are available.
Clout or slate nails have large heads and are used for Screws are classified according to the shape of their
fixing tiles, slates and soft boards. Felt nails have even head, as countersunk, raised, round or recessed (not
larger heads. slotted across the full width). Coach screws have a
Concrete nails are made from harder steel, which square head and are turned with a spanner. They are
allows them to be driven into concrete or masonry work. used for heavy construction work and should have a
Staples are U-shaped nails with two points, and are metal washer under the head to prevent damage to the
used mainly to fasten wires. wood surface. Screws are sold in boxes containing a
Roofing nails have a square, twisted shank and a gross (144 screws), and are specified by their material,
washer attached to the head. Roofing felt or rubber finish, type, length and gauge. Unlike the wire gauge
may be used under the washer to prevent leakage. The used for nails, the larger the screw-gauge number, the
nail and the washer should be galvanized to prevent greater the diameter of the shank.
corrosion. They are used for fixing corrugated-sheet Bolts provide even stronger joints than either nails
materials and must be long enough to penetrate at least or screws. As the joint is secured by tightening the nut
20 mm into the wood. Alternatively, wire nails with onto the bolt, in most cases the load becomes entirely
used bottle caps for washers can be used. a shear force. Bolts are used for heavy loads, such as at
the joints in a gantry hoist frame, at the corners of a ring
beam installed for earthquake protection, or to secure
the hinges of heavy doors. Most bolts used with wood
Grid rings have a rounded head, with a square shank just under
Shank the head. Only one spanner is required for these ‘coach’
15−75 mm
15−75 mm
15−200 mm
bolts. Square-head bolts, requiring two spanners, are

also available. Washers help to prevent the nuts from
sinking into the wood.
Point
ROUND PLAIN HEAD NAIL OVAL WIRE NAIL PANEL PIN
Slot
Head
D
Shank
15−30 mm
15−200 mm
RECESSED HEAD
OR PHILLIPS SCREW
Thread ROUND HEAD RAISED
COUNTERSUNK
50−200 mm
2/3 L
HEAD
Core
CLOUT NAIL FELT NAIL
Point
COUNTERSUNK WOODEN PLUG
HEAD SCREW
45−100 mm
The plug in the drilled hole will

expand as the screw is driven
25−40 mm
PLASTIC PLUG
STAPLE DUPLEX HEADNAIL Squared Hexagonal Cup Square

for concrete formwork head head head neck
ROOFING NAIL
with felt washer
(Different types
for iron sheet and
Asbestos sheets)
WASHER WASHER
Figure 5.36 Types of nails Hexagonal Square

nut nut
LUG or MACHINE BOLT COACH BOLT
COACH SCREW
Screws and bolts
Wood screws have a thread, which gives them greater
PLAIN WASHER SPRING WASHER
holding power and resistance to withdrawal than nails,
and they can be removed easily without damaging the
wood. For a screw to function properly, it must be Figure 5.37 Types of wood screws and bolts
TABLE 5.19
Conversion of screw gauge to millimetres
Screw gauge 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20 24 28 32
Nominal 1.52 1.78 2.08 2.39 2.74 3.10 3.45 3.81 4.17 4.52 4.88 5.59 6.30 7.01 7.72 8.43 9.86 11.28 12.70
diameter of
unthreaded
shank (mm)
Hinges
Staple fixed Strinking plate Backplate
Hinges are classified by their function, length of nap to frame fixed to frame Lever
and the material from which they are made, and come Latch bolt Latch bolt handle
in many different types and sizes. Hinges for farm Axle

buildings are manufactured mainly from mild steel and Case Case
are provided with a corrosion-inhibiting coating. The Forend

Lock bolt Lock bolt
most common types are described below.
The steel butt hinge is commonly used for windows, RIM LOCK MORTICE LOCK BACKPLATE
shutters and small doors, as it is cheap and durable.

If the pin can be removed from the outside, it is not Locking cylinder
burglarproof. The flaps are usually set in recesses in the Spindel
door or window and the frame.

The H-hinge is similar to the butt hinge but is Bolt Staple
usually surface mounted. Staple
Turning
knob
The T-hinge is used mostly for hanging match- RIM LATCH BARREL BOLT FOR PADLOCK
boarded doors. For security reasons, the strap of the
T-hinge should be fixed to the door with at least one
Staple Hasp
coach bolt, which cannot be unscrewed easily from the
Door Frame
outside.
The band-and-hook hinge is a stronger type of
T-hinge and is used for heavy doors and gates. This
type is suitable for fabrication at the site or by the local HASP & STAPLE DOUBLE STAPLE
blacksmith.
Figure 5.39 Types of locks and latches
Tee
TEE HINGE Hinge
75−140
Knuckle GLASS
Glass suitable for general window glazing is made
25−100
150−600 mainly from soda, lime and silica. The ingredients are
Hook
heated in a furnace to about 1 500 °C, and fuse together
Band in the molten state. Sheets are then formed by a process
140−250
Flap Pin
of drawing, floating or rolling. The ordinary glazing
150−600
quality is manufactured by drawing in thicknesses
ranging from 2 mm to 6 mm. It is transparent, with
PLATE WITH HOOK BAND & HOOK
90 percent light transmission. As the two surfaces are
never perfectly flat or parallel, there is always some
Figure 5.38 Types of hinges visual distortion. Plate glass is manufactured with
ground and polished surfaces, and should be free of
imperfections.
Locks and latches Glass in buildings is required to resist loads,
Any device used to keep a door in the closed position including wind loads, impacts from people and animals,
can be classified as a lock or latch. A lock is activated and sometimes thermal and other stresses. Generally
by means of a key, whereas a latch is operated by a lever the thickness increases with the area of the glass pane.
or bar. Locks can be obtained with a latch bolt so that Glass is elastic right up to its breaking point but, as it
the door can be kept in a closed position without using is also completely brittle, there is no permanent set or
the key. Locks in doors are usually fixed at a height of warning of impending failure. The support provided
1 050 mm. Some examples of common locks and latches for glass will affect its strength performance. Glass
used in farm buildings are illustrated in Figure 5.39. should be cut to give a minimum clearance of 2 mm all
around the frame to allow for thermal movements.
PLASTICS In most cases, epoxy resins are provided in two parts:

Plastics are among the newest building materials, a resin and a curing agent. They are extremely tough
ranging from materials strong enough to replace metal, and stable, and adhere well to most materials. Silicone
to foam-like products. Plastics are considered to be resins are water-repellent and used for waterproofing
mainly organic materials derived from petroleum and, in masonry. Note that fluid plastics can be very toxic.
to a small extent, coal, which at some stage in their
processing are plastic when heated. Plastics used for seepage protection in dams
The range of properties is so great that generalizations Seepage from dams is a common problem. Occasionally,
are difficult to make. However, plastics are usually light site conditions and the lack of local clay may require
in weight and have a good strength-to-weight ratio, but the use of synthetic liners, also called geomembranes,
rigidity is lower than that of virtually all other building to line the dam and overcome the problem of seepage.
materials, and creep is high. If the correct product is selected and good installation
Plastics have low thermal conductivity and thermal procedures are used, only normal maintenance will be
capacity, but thermal movement is high. They resist a needed during the service life of the dam.
wide range of chemicals and do not corrode, but they Three types of lining material are available: low-
tend to become brittle with age. density plastic sheeting; woven polyethylene fabric;
Most plastics are combustible and may release and high density polyethylene (HDPE) sheeting. All
poisonous gases in a fire. Some are highly flammable, of these products are susceptible to degradation by
while others are difficult to burn. introduced chemicals. The most suitable product for
Plastics lend themselves to a wide range of a specific job depends on a number of factors. These
manufacturing techniques, and products are available include: site conditions, cost, resistance to sunlight,
in many forms, both solid and cellular, from soft and strength, resistance to puncturing and the method of
flexible to rigid, and from transparent to opaque. joining.
Various textures and colours are available (many of
which fade if used outdoors). Plastics are classified as: Low-density plastic sheeting
r Thermoplastics, which always soften when heated Commonly referred to as ‘builder’s plastic’, these sheets
and harden again on cooling, provided they are are normally black or orange in colour. Low-density
not overheated. plastic sheeting is manufactured in various thicknesses,
r Thermosetting plastics, which undergo an with the recommended thickness being 0.2–0.3 mm.
irreversible chemical change in which the This sheeting punctures easily, as it is relatively thin.
molecular chains crosslink so that subsequently It is suitable for use on low slopes (less than 2:1, i.e.
they cannot be appreciably softened by heat. 2 metres horizontal to 1 metre vertical) and on sites free
Excessive heating causes charring. of sticks, small stones and abrasive materials. Extreme
care needs to be taken during installation. Low-density
Thermoplastics plastic breaks down quickly in sunlight if it is not
Polythene is tough, waterproof and oilproof, and can covered with soil.
be manufactured in many colours. In buildings, it is
used for cold water pipes, plumbing and sanitary ware, Woven polyethylene fabric
and polythene film (translucent or black). Film should This has a polyethylene coating on both sides, and is
not be subjected unnecessarily to prolonged heat over blue or green in colour. Woven polyethylene fabrics are
50 °C, or to direct sunlight. The translucent film will generally the most suitable as dam liners in temperate
last for only 1–2 years if exposed to sunlight, but the countries, and are sold according to weight, not
carbon pigmentation of black film increases resistance thickness. Fabric weight of about 250 grams per square
to sunlight. metre is normally selected for farm dams. Heavier
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) will not burn and can be grades are required where puncturing is a concern.
made in rigid or flexible form. It is used for rainwater Although polyethylene fabrics are not UV resistant,
goods, drains, pipes, ducts, electric cable insulation, etc. their life expectancy can be increased to 15–20 years
Acrylics, a group of plastics containing polymethyl with soil cover.
methacrylate, which transmit more light than glass and It is normal practice to cover these fabrics with
are easy to mould or curve into almost any shape. at least a 300 mm layer of soil. Owing to the need to
provide this cover, sites with steep batters (greater than
Thermosetting plastics 2:1) are not suitable. For woven polyethylene fabrics
The main uses for thermosetting plastics in buildings used as dam liners, the batter slopes of the embankment
are as impregnants for paper fabrics, binders for particle and excavations should not exceed 2:1, although a
boards, adhesives, paints and clear finishes. Phenol gentler slope is preferable to ensure that any soil cover
formaldehyde (bakelite) is used for electrical insulating stays on the liner.
accessories, and urea formaldehyde is used for particle
board manufacture.
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) sheeting geocomposites. Several combinations are possible

High-density polyethylene sheeting, which is black in and this area has attracted interest of many research
colour, does not require soil cover, but it is the most establishments. The main uses of geocomposites
expensive of lining materials. Installation is generally embrace the entire range of uses of the geosynthetics
undertaken using fusion-weld joining equipment. discussed above, e.g. reinforcement, drainage,
Thicknesses range from 0.4 mm to 2.5 mm. It is suitable liquid barrier, etc.
for sites where puncturing of cheaper products cannot
be avoided, or where steep slopes (steeper than 2:1) (b) Degradable erosion mats:
preclude the use of other products. These are made of flexible erosion control blankets
HDPE is the most widely used geomembrane, and that are used to keep soil and seeds stable until
offers the most cost-effective liner for large, exposed, vegetation completely covers the dam catchment.
lining projects. This product has been used in landfills, As they are made of organic materials, they
wastewater treatment lagoons, animal waste lagoons, eventually breakdown and become part of the soil.
mining applications and water storage. It has the
following advantages: RUBBER
r soil covering is not required; Rubbers are similar to thermosetting plastics. In the
r it has high overall chemical resistance and is manufacturing process, a number of substances are
resistant to ozone and UV; mixed with latex, a natural polymer. Carbon black is
r it is cost effective for large projects; added to increase strength in tension and to improve
r it is suitable for potable water. wearing properties.
After forming, the product is vulcanized by heating
under pressure, usually with sulphur present. This
Plastic components used with dam liners process increases the rubber’s strength and elasticity.
In the process of lining dams, there may be needed one Ebonite is a fully vulcanized, hard rubber.
or more additional components that will ensure the Modified and synthetic rubbers (elastomers) are
longevity of the earth dam. These components include: increasingly being used for building products. Unlike
natural rubbers, they often have good resistance to
(a) Geosynthetics: oil and solvents. One such rubber, butyl, is extremely
These are synthetic materials made from tough, has good weather resistance, excellent resistance
polymers (geomembranes are also classified under to acids and very low permeability to air. Synthetic
geosynthetics). When these materials are used rubber fillers and nail washers are used with metal
together with dam liners (geomembranes), the roofing.
service life of the earth dam is extended. The
geosynthetics commonly used together with dam BITUMINOUS PRODUCTS
liners include: These include bitumen (asphalt in the United States),
coal tar and pitch. They are usually dark brown or
1. Geonets: These are open grid-like materials black and, in general, they are durable materials that
formed by a continuous extrusion of parallel are resistant to many chemicals. They resist the passage
sets of polymeric ribs intersecting at a constant of water and water vapour, especially if they have been
acute angle. They are used in the design of applied hot.
drainage systems, particularly on slopes and Bitumen occurs naturally as rock asphalt or lake
are a viable alternative to the common sand asphalt, or can be distilled from petroleum. It is used
and gravel systems. for road paving, paint, damp-proof membranes, joint
2. Geocells: These are constructed from filler, stabilizer in soil blocks, etc.
polymeric strips, which are joined together
to form a 3-dimensional network. They are PAINTS
used to stabilize the side slopes of dams and Paint preserves, protects and decorates surfaces, and
other earth structures. This usually involves enables them to be cleaned easily. All paints contain a
filling the cells with soil. binder that hardens. Other ingredients found in various
3. Geogrids: These are stiff or flexible polymer paints include: pigments, strainers, extenders, driers,
grid-like sheets with large uniformly hardeners, thinners, solvents and gelling agents. Some
distributed apertures. These apertures allow water-thinned paints contain emulsifiers.
direct contact between soil particles on either Owing to the cost involved, few buildings in rural
side of the sheet. Their main use is to reinforce areas are painted. When paint can be afforded, priority
unstable soils. should be given to painting surfaces likely to rust, rot
or decay because of exposure to rain or dampness, and
Combination of two or more of the geosynthetics, to rooms such as a kitchen or a dairy, where hygiene
e.g. geogrid and geomembrane, are referred to as demands easily cleaned surfaces. White and other light
colours reflect more light than dark colours, and can Assuming 38.1 microns dry is desired, then:
be used in a sitting room or a workshop to make the
room lighter. 420 m2 / litre / 38.1 = 11.0 m2 / litre
Painting A coating with 42 percent volume solids, applied

Adequate preparation of the surface to be painted is at 11.0 m2 / litre, will produce a dry film that is
essential. The surface should be smooth (not shiny, 38.1 microns thick.
because this would not give good adhesion), clean,
dry and stable. Old, loose paint should be brushed off Example 5.4
before a new coat is applied. Most commercial paints The living room walls require painting, excluding the
are supplied with directions for use, which should be ceiling. The walls are 3 metres high, with a total of
read carefully before the work is started. The paint film 18 metres of wall length. The total door and window
is usually built up in two or more coats; area is 3 m2. If a spreading rate of 11 square metres per
Priming paints are used for the first coat, to seal and litre is used, and only two coats of paint are required,
protect the surface and to give a smooth surface for work out how much paint is needed.
subsequent coats. They are produced for application to To work out how much paint is needed:
wood, metal and plaster. r Take the surface area = (3×18) -3 = 51 m2
Undercoating paints are sometimes used to obscure r The spreading rate is 11 m2 / litre
the primer, as a further protective coating and to r The number of coats needed = 2
provide the correct surface for the finishing paint. r The required litres of paint = (51m2 / 11m2 / litres)
Finishing paints are produced in a wide range of × 2 coats = 9 litres in total (i.e. a 10-litre pail)
colours and finishes (e.g. matt, semi-matt or gloss).
Some commonly used types of paint for farm structures Oil- and resin-based paints
are detailed below, but many others are manufactured Oil paints are based on naturally drying oils (e.g.
with special properties, making them water- and linseed oil). They are being gradually replaced by alkyd
chemical-resistant, heat-resistant, fire-retardant, anti- and emulsion paints.
condensation, fungicidal or insecticidal, for example. Alkyd paints are oil-based paints, modified by the
addition of synthetic resins to improve durability,
Estimation of quantities of paint required flexibility, drying and gloss. They are quite expensive.
The volume of paint required for a particular paint job Synthetic resin paints contain substantial proportions
can be determined from knowledge of the following: of thermosetting resins, such as acrylics, polyurethane
1. Surface area of the surface(s) to be painted. or epoxides, and are often packed in two parts. They
2. Spreading rate of the paint being used. have excellent strength, adhesion and durability, but are
3. The number of coats needed. very expensive.
Bituminous paints are used to protect steelwork and
Spreading rates iron sheeting from rust, and to protect wood from decay.
The spreading rate of paint is the area that a specific They are black or dark in colour, and tend to crack in
volume of paint will cover at a specified film thickness. hot sunlight. They can be overpainted with ordinary
Two standard measurements are used to describe the film paint only after a suitable sealer has been applied.
thickness of a coating: mils and microns. A micron is a Varnishes are either oil/resin or spirit-based and
metric system measurement equal to 0.001 millimetres. used mainly to protect wood with a transparent finish,
The spreading rate in microns may be calculated as but protection is inferior to opaque finishes. Spirit-
follows: based varnish is used only for interior surfaces.
Any liquid will cover 1 000 square metres per litre
at 1 micron wet. Therefore, a 100 percent volume/solids Water-based paints
material will cover 1 000 m2 per litre dry when applied Non-washable distemper consists of chalk powder,
at 1 micron wet and, because it is 100 percent solids, mixed with animal glue dissolved in hot water. It is
it will yield a 1 micron-thick dry film. However, if a cheap, but easily rubbed or washed off, and therefore
coating is less than 100 percent solids, then the dry film suitable only for whitening ceilings.
thickness will be thinner because the volatile portion of Washable distemper (water paint) consists of drying
the volume will evaporate and leave the film, thereby oil or casein, emulsified in water with the addition
reducing the dried film volume or thickness. of pigments and extenders. Hardening is slow but,
Assuming a material has 42 percent volume of solids, after a month, it can withstand moderate scrubbing. It
the area that it will cover when a dry film thickness of weathers fairly well outdoors and is reasonably cheap.
38.1 microns is required may be calculated as follows: Whitewash (limewash) consists of lime mixed with
water. It can be used on all types of wall, including earth
1 000 m2 / litre × 0.42 = 420 m2 / litre at 1 micron walls, and is cheap, but its lack of water resistance and
thickness. poor weathering properties make it inferior to emulsion
paint for outdoor surfaces. However, the addition of REVIEW QUESTIONS

tallow or cement gives some degree of durability for 1. (a) Explain how the following factors affect
external use. Whitewash can be made in the following construction material choice:
way: (i) resource utilization in the choice of
r Mix 8 litres (9 kg) of quicklime with about construction materials;
18 litres of boiling water, adding the water slowly (ii) social costs and shadow prices.
and stirring constantly until a thin paste results. (b) Define the following for cement:
r Add 2 litres of salt and stir thoroughly. (i) hydration;
r Add water to bring the whitewash to a suitable (ii) setting.
consistency. (c) Briefly describe the Pozzolana as a building
r If external quality is required, add a handful of material.
cement per 10 litres of whitewash just before use.
2. (a) Outline three disadvantages of soil as a
In emulsion paints, the pigments and binder (vinyl, construction material.
acrylic, urethane or styrene polymers) are dispersed as (b) During the bar shrinkage test the following
small globules in water. They harden quickly, are quite results were obtained:
tough and weather-resistant, and the cost is moderate. r Length of wet bar = 600 mm
Although they adhere well to most supports, because r Length of dry bar = 420 mm
they are permeable an oil-based primer may be required Find the shrinkage ratio and state the conclusion
to seal porous exterior surfaces. that may be drawn from this result.
Cement-based paints are often used for exteriors, (c) Briefly describe how burnt (soil) bricks are
and are quite inexpensive. They contain white portland made.
cement, pigments (if other colours are desired) and
water-repellents, and are sold in powder form. Water is 3. (a) Name five methods for seasoning wood.
added just before use to obtain a suitable consistency. (b) Briefly outline the Bethel full-cell process of
Paint that has thickened must not be thinned further. It timber preservation.
adheres well to brickwork, concrete and renderings, but
not to timber, metal or other types of paint. Surfaces 4. Briefly describe: geonets, geocells and degradable
should be dampened before painting. erosion mats.
Cement slurries make economical surface coatings
on masonry and concrete, but earth walls that shrink 5. The tensile strength of blue gum timber is
and swell will cause the coating to peel off. Slurries are 50 MPa at a moisture content of 12 percent. If
mixtures of cement and/or lime, clean fine sand and the strength determined in its green state was
enough water to make a thick liquid. A good slurry 42 MPa, and its fibre saturation point occurs at
can be made using 1 part cement, 1 part lime and up to a moisture content of 25 °C, find the strength of
4 parts sand. It is applied on the dampened surface with a this timber at a moisture content of 8 percent.
large brush or a used bag, hence the name ‘bag washing’. If the density of the wood was 1.4 g/cm3 at
moisture content of 12 percent, find the density
at a moisture content of 8 percent.
6. (a) Briefly describe glass as a building material.

(b) Briefly describe three main types of paint.
(i) Assuming paint has 42 percent volume of
solids, find the area that 1 litre will cover when a
dry film thickness of 38.1 microns is required.
(ii) The walls of a room are 3 metres high, with
a total of 30 metres of wall length. The total
door and window area is 3 square metres. If
the spreading rate is 11 square metres per
litre, and only two coats of paint are required,
work out how much paint is needed.
FURTHER READING Shetty, M.S. 2001. Concrete technology:theory and

Barnes, M.M. 1971. Farm construction: buildings. practice. 4th edition, New Delhi, S. Chand & Co.
Slough, Cement and Concrete Association. Ltd.
Bathurst, R.J. 2007. Geosynthetics Classification. Smith, M.J. 1992. Soil mechanics. 4th edition. Essex,
IGS Leaflets on Geosynthetics Applications. IGS United Kingdom, ELBS Longman.
Education Committee (available at http://www. Spence, R.J.S. & Cook, D.J. 1983. Building materials
geosyntheticssociety.org). in developing countries. Chichester, John Wiley &
Colorado Lining International Inc. 2002. Geosynthetic Sons Ltd.
materials (available at http://www.coloradolining. Storrs, A.E.G. 1979. Know your trees. Ndola, The
com/services/Materials.html). Forest Department.
Eldridge, H.J. 1974. Properties of building materials. Storrs, A.E.G. 1982. More about trees. Ndola, The
Lancaster, Medical and Technical Publishing Co. Forestry Department.
Ltd. Stulz, R. 1981. Appropriate building materials. SKAT
Erwine, B. 2009. Which glass should I use? Sorting it all No. 12. St. Gallen, Swiss Center for Appropriate
out (available at http://www.lightingdesignlab.com). Technology.
Everett, A. 1981. Materials. Mitchell’s Building Series. Swift, D.G. & Smith, R.B.L. 1979. The construction
London, Batsford Academic and Educational Ltd. of corrugated roofing sheets using sisal-cement.
Forest Products Laboratory. 1999. Wood handbook-- Nairobi, Kenyatta University College.
Wood as an engineering material. Madison, WI: U.S. Tsoumis, G. 1991. Science and technology of wood:
Department of Agriculture, Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL- structure, properties, utilization. Chapman & Hall,
GTR-113., Forest Service New York.
Fullerton, R.L. 1977-1979. Building construction in United Nations. 1972. The use of bamboo and reeds in
warm climates. Part 1-3. Oxford, Oxford University building construction. New York.
Press. Volunteers in Technical Assistance (VITA). 1977.
Hodgkinson, A. 1982. AJ handbook of building Making building blocks with the CINVA. Mt.
structure. London, The Architectural Press Ltd. Rainier, Ram Block Press.
International Labour Office. 1984. Small-scale
brickmaking. Geneva.
Lindley, J.A. & Whitaker, J.H. 1996. Agricultural
buildings and structures. Revised edition. American
Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE).
Lippsmeier, G. 1969. Tropenbau – building in the
Tropics. Munich, Callwey Verlag.
Lundborg, N. 1976. To choose timber for building.
Dar-es-Salaam, National Housing and Building
Research Unit.
Lunt, M.G. 1980. Stabilized soil blocks for building.
Overseas Building Notes No. 184. Watford, Building
Research Establishment, Overseas Division.
McKay, W.B. 1975. Carpentry. London, Longman
Group Ltd.
National Academy of Science. 1973. Ferro-cement:
applications in developing countries. Washington,
D.C.
National Vocational Training Institute, Accra. Rural
building: 1. Reference book, 2. Basic knowledge,
3. Construction. 4. Drawing book. Maastricht,
Stichting Kongretatie F.l.C.
Palmeira, E.M., Tatsuoka, F., Bathurst, R.J.,
Stevenson, P.E. & Zornberg, J.G. 2008. Advances
in Geosynthetics Materials and Applications for Soil
Reinforcement and Environmental Protection Works.
Electronic Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol.
13, Special Issue State of the Art in Geotechnical
Engineering, December, pp. 1-38.
Paterson, D.N. 1971. The strength of Kenya timbers:
their derivation and application. Nairobi, Kenya
Forest Department.

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45

INTRODUCTION Hardwoods versus softwoods

Unprocessed round wood material can be joined

Through and through sawn Billet sawn Quarter cut

Commercial quarter cut

True Quarter cut

Figure 5.2 Methods of sawing timber

Offcuts Air seasoning

F Furniture, high-class joinery TABLE 5.3

Table 5.2 lists basic working-stress values. For design 3. Density

200 400 600 800 1 000

kg/m3 - 12% m.c.

200 400 600 800 1 000

kg/m3 - 12% m.c

Figure 5.5 Basic working stresses for timber

is most commonly used, giving a product that is highly 9 mm 400 mm -

THREE PLY MULTI PLY

Figure 5.6 Plywood

Sawdust is a by-product from sawmills. It is a good

OTHER ORGANIC MATERIALS

Tongue bent tight across

Figure 5.9b Split the culm the rest of the way by

Figure 5.8 Lashing bamboo joints

Several methods can be used for splitting bamboo

Figure 5.9c Use a knife to split the harder outer

Natural fibres Sisal fibre

Sandy clay Silty clay

Sandy clay loam Silty clay loam

Sandy loam Loam Silty loam

Figure 5.10 Soil-classification triangle

(Length of wet bar) (Length of dried bar)

Figure 5.12 Box for bar shrinkage test

It consists of a framework of split bamboo, stalks or Rammed earth

Moulding the blocks

1:22 5% 1 080 litres 366 203 152 130 85

greyish colour. Water is added, preferably through a Hinges

Compaction with a mechanical press

Skill required to make

Sun-dried bricks Most easily produced locally; much improved

Scale 1-5 1 = lowest 5 = highest

A COMPLETED DRY STACK

if lime is produced from limestone containing clay,

Hydraulic lime is produced by mixing and grinding Chemistry of cement

CONCRETE TABLE 5.11

The concrete mix should contain enough sand to fill

1:4:8 3.1 0.46 0.67 0.92 1.48 13.4 31

Total volume of concrete required = Example 5.3

Sand = (2.84 × 3) / 9 = 0.95 m3

1. Calculate the volume of the aggregate in the mix. Total = 0.448 m3

2. Calculate the weight of the aggregates. Mixing

4. Adjust amounts in the batch for water content in TABLE 5.14

Stones 592 kg – 9 kg = 583 kg 10 mm 245 230 210

The water–cement ratio indicates that the mix has

6. Calculate the ‘solid volume’ of the ingredients in

Cement 100 kg / 3 100 kg/m3 = 0.032 m3

Aggregate 882 kg / 2 650 kg/m3 = 0.333 m3

Water 83 kg / 1 000 kg / m3 = 0.083 m3 Figure 5.20 Batch mixer

Placing and compaction

Bucket Too wet suitable Too dry