CHEMISTRY

CHAPTER 1

PERIODIC TABLE AND ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

POINTS TO REMEMBER

• There are 4 sub shells.(s,p,d,f)

• Period number is equal to the highest shell number in the sub shell electronic configuration.

• Group number

s-block → The no. of electrons in the outer most s sub shell.

p-block → by adding 10 to the total number of electrons in the s and p sub shells of
the outer most shell.
d-block → adding the total number of electrons in the outer most s sub shell and
preceding inner d sub shell.

• Most of the coloured salts are compounds of transition elements; the colour is due to the presence
of transition element ion.
• In the case of transition elements the difference in energy between the outermost s sub shell
and the penultimate d sub shell is very small. Hence under suitable condition the electrons in d sub
shell also take part in chemical reaction. This is the reason why transition element shows variable
oxidation state.
• f block contains lanthanoids and actinoids.
• Most of the actinoids are radioactive and are artificial elements.

PREPARED BY SHABEEB RAHMAN HSA KIEMHS KAVUNGAL

 CHAPTER 2

MOLE CONCEPT

POINTS TO REMEMBER

• GAM-Atomic mass expressed in Grams

• GMM-Molecular mass expressed in Grams
• The amount of any substance (molecule, atom...) containing 6.022x1023 particles is called one Mole.
• 1 GMM / GAM of any particle are equal to 1 Mole (6.022x1023 particles).
• The volume of 1 Mole of any gas at STP (273K,1atm pressure) is equal to 22.4 L
• Molarity is used to indicate the No. of moles of solute in one litre of solution.
• If 1L of solution contains 1 mole of solute, it is called 1molar solution (1M).

EQUATIONS

TO FIND MOLE

1. If No .of particles is given

No .of moles = No .of particles

Avogadro no.

2. If Mass is given

No .of moles = Mass in grams (Atom)

GAM

No .of moles = Mass in grams (Molecule)

GMM

3. If Volume is given

No .of moles of gas at STP = Volume in STP

22.4

• Molarity = No of moles of solute (M = n / V)

Volume of the solution

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 CHAPTER 3

RATE OF CHEMICAL REACTION AND CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM

POINTS TO REMEMBER

• Collision theory: Reactions take place when two molecules collide together effectively.

FACTORS EFFECTING RATE OF REACTIONS

Concentration
As the concentration of reactants increases, the no of effective collisions
increases, then the rate of reaction increases
Temperature
As the Temperature increases. Kinetic energy of the molecule increases, then the rate of
reaction increases
Nature of reactants
Surface area
As the Surface area increases then the rate of reaction increases.
Pressure
As pressure increases the molecule comes closer. The effective collisions increases,
then the rate of reaction increases.
Light
Catalyst
Positive catalyst: Catalyst that increase the rate of reaction.
Negative catalyst: Catalyst that decrease the rate of reaction.
• Forward reaction
Reactants turn into products is known as forward reaction.
• Backward reaction
Products turn into reactants is known as backward reaction.
• Reactions taking place in both directions are called Reversible reactions.
• Chemical Equilibrium is the point at which the rate of the forward reaction becomes equal to
the rate of the backward reaction in a chemical reaction.

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 • LE CHATELIERS PRINCIPLE
When the concentration, pressure or temperature of a system at equilibrium is changed, the
system will readjust itself so as to nullify the effect of that change and attain new state of
equilibrium
• Concentration and Chemical equilibrium
When concentration increases, the system will increase the reaction towards the side where
concentration is less.
• Temperature and Chemical equilibrium
On increasing temperature, the system tries to reduce it and as result, the rate of endothermic reaction
increases.
• Pressure and Chemical equilibrium
If there is no change in the number of reactant or product molecules as a result of forward and
backward reactions, in gaseous reactions, pressure will not have any effect on the equilibrium
state.
When a pressure of a system at equilibrium is increased the system will try to attain chemical
equilibrium by reducing pressure.
In gaseous reaction decrease in the molecules helps to decrease in the pressure.

• Catalyst and Chemical equilibrium

A catalyst cannot increase the rate of anyone of the reaction alone.
In reversible reaction the catalyst increases the rate of forward and backward reactions in the
same extent. As a result the system reaches equilibrium at faster rate.

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 CHAPTER 4

REACTIVITY SERIES AND ELECTRO CHEMISTRY

POINTS TO REMEMBER

• The series obtained by arranging some of the metals in the decreasing order of their reactivity,
this is known as Reactivity series.
The hydrogen is also included in the series for the comparison of chemical reactivity.
• Displacement Reaction
Metal with low reactivity are displaced from their salt solutions by metals with of high
reactivity.
• Oxidation ( OIL from RIG)
The reduction process of losing electron is known as Oxidation
• Reduction
The process of gaining electrons is known as reduction.
Oxidation and reduction takes place simultaneously, this is known as Redox reaction.
• Galvanic cell
The device used for the conversion of chemical energy to electrical energy through redox
reaction is called Galvanic cell or Voltaic cell.

• The electrode at which oxidation occurs is the Anode.

• The electrode at which reduction occurs is Cathode.
• In a galvanic cell, electrons flow from the negative electrode (anode) to the positive electrode
(cathode).
• Electrolytic Cells
The process of chemical change taking place in an electrolyte by passing electricity is known
as Electrolysis.

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 • Electrolytes are substances which conduct electricity in molten states or in aqueous
solutions and undergo a chemical change. Acids, alkalis and salts are electrolytes in
their molten state or in aqueous solution.

• During electrolysis the anions (negatively charged ions) move towards the anode and cations
(positively charged ions) move towards the cathode.
• In galvanic cell, the anode is negative and cathode is positive, at the same time in electrolytic
cells, the anode is positive and cathode is negative.
• In both cases oxidation occurs at the anode and reduction occurs at the cathode.
Electrolysis of Water,Molten NaCl, NaCl Solution
Substance Anode Cathode

Water O2 H2

Molten NaCl Cl Na

NaCl solution Cl H2

Uses of Electrolysis

Production of metals and non metals

Production of chemicals
Purification of metals
Electroplating
• Electroplating
The coating of metallic object with other metals by the using electrolysis is known as electro plating.
Uses of Electroplating
Gold plated ornaments
Silver plated vessels
Chromium plated iron handles

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 CHAPTER 5

PRODUCTION OF METALS

POINTS TO REMEMBER

• A mineral, from which a metal is economically, easily, extracted, is called the Ore of the metal.

• Metallurgy

1. Concentration of ore
The process of removing impurities from the ore obtained from the earth’s crust.
Depending on the nature of the ore and impurities, there are different methods of
concentration. First the ore is powdered (Pulverisation).
Levigation or Hydraulic washing
When the impurities are lighter and the ore particles are heavier, the lighter
impurities are removed by washing in a current of water.
Eg: concentration of gold.
Froth flotation
This process is used when the impurities are heavier and the ore particles are lighter,
a mixture of powdered ore, water and pine oil is strongly agitated by compressed air.
As a result the ore particles stick to the froth of the oil formed during the mixing
process and floats on the surface of water. The heavier impurities are sink to the
bottom. The ore is separated from the ore.
Eg: concentration of copper pyrites.
Magnetic seperation
If either the ore or the impurity is magnetic in nature, this method is used. The
powdered ore is fed to the conveyor belt moving over a magnetic wheel to separate
the magnetic substance.
Eg: concentration of the ore of iron.
Leaching
On adding the ore to the suitable solution, a chemical reaction takes place and the
ore dissolves in the solution. The insoluble impurities are filtered off. The pure ore is
separated from the filtrate by chemical reaction.
Eg: concentration of Bauxite

2. Extraction of metal from concentrated ore

a. Conversion of concentrated ore in to its oxide
b. Reduction of the oxide

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 Conversion of concentrated ore in to its oxide

Calcination
The process of heating the concentrated ore at a temperature below its melting point to
remove the volatile impurities. Oxygen will not take Part in this reaction.
Eg: ZnCO3 is converted to ZnO by Calcination.

Roasting
The process of heating the concentrated ore at a temperature below its melting point in a
current of air. Impurities like sulphur, phosphorous and other organic matter are oxidised
and expelled.
Eg: Cu2S is converted to Cu2O by roasting.

Reduction of the oxide

The process of extraction of metal from the oxide .suitable reducing agents are use for this
purpose. CO is used as the reducing agent to extract iron from haematite, and C is used to
extract zinc from zinc oxide.
Electricity is used to extract highly reactive metals like sodium, potassium etc
from their ores.

3. Refining of Metals

The metal obtained by reduction may contain other metals, metal oxides and small
quantities of non metal as impurities.

Refining is the process of removal of these impurities to get the pure metal.

There are different methods are used to for the refining of metals based on the nature
of metal and impurities.

Liquation
Low melting metals like tin and lead may contain other high melting metals or metal oxides
as impurities. On heating such on the inclined surface of the furnace, the pure metal melts
and flows down leaving the impurities behind.

Distillation
This method is used for the refining of metals with low boiling points such as zinc, cadmium
and mercury. When the impure metal is heated in a retort, the pure metal alone
vapourises.the vapours are condensed to get the pure metal.

Electrolytic refining
It is the process of refining of a metal by the electrolysis of a solution of the salt of the
metal, using a small piece of pure metal as –ve electrode and impure metal as +ve electrode.
By electrolysis the pure metal from the +ve electrode dissolves in the electrolyte and get
deposited on the –ve electrode. Copper and silver are refined using this method.

PREPARED BY SHABEEB RAHMAN HSA KIEMHS KAVUNGAL

 INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF IRON

Blast furnace is the huge steel furnace with a blast of hot air in the bottom.
A mixture of roasted Haematite, coke, lime stone (CaCO3) are falls into the Blast furnace.
Here the CaCO3 decomposes at high temperature.
CaCO3→ CaO + CO2
The formed CaO is combined is here combines with silicon dioxide (SiO2) the main impurity of ore.
CaO+ SiO2→CaSiO3
Flux +Gangue → Slag
The impurities in the metal are known as Gangue.
The material used to remove gangue and to convert it as separable molten material is known as Flux.
The gangue and flux combines to form Slag. ( Flux +Gangue →Slag)
Here CaO is the flux, SiO2 is the Gangue and CaSiO3 is the slag.

If gangue is acidic then the flux is basic and vice versa.

Here the Gangue (SiO2) is Acidic so the Flux is Basic (CaO)
The coke combines with oxygen in the hot air.
C+O2→CO2+ Heat
The CO in the middle of the furnace reacts with iron oxide to produce iron.
Fe2CO3 +3CO→2Fe+3CO2
The iron obtained from the blast furnace contains impurities like 4% carbon silicon manganese, phosphorous
this iron is called Pig iron.
Pig iron+ Scrap iron +Coke→ Cast iron.
By purifying the cast iron, comparatively pure raw iron is obtained this is known as Wrought iron.

EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM

• Ore of aluminium is Bauxite.

• The main impurity in aluminium is SiO2

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 HALL HEROULT PROCESS

• Aluminium is extracted using electricity, because Aluminium is highly reactive

• The alumina (Al2O3) obtained by concentration of bauxite is mixed with cryolite (Na3AlF6)
and subjected to electrolysis.
• Cryolite is added to alumina to reduce melting point and increase its electrical conductivity.
• When electricity is passed through this mixture, its get heated, cryolite melts and alumina
dissolves in it.

CATHODE

Al 3++3e → Al (Pure aluminium is produced at cathode)

ANODE
2O 2- → O2+4e

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• The carbon blocks in this cell are replaced from time to time because the O2 liberated in the anode is
oxidising the Carbon rod and produce carbon dioxide.

REFINING OF COPPER

• Copper is refined by electrolytic method.

• For refining, a thin Plate of copper is used as negative electrode and the impure metal as positive electrode,
the electrolyte used is aqueous copper sulphate solution mixed with H2SO4.
• The impurities get deposited below the anode .this is known as anode mud.

CATHODE (-ve electrode)

Cu2++2e → Cu

ANODE (+ve electrode)

Cu → Cu2++2e

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 CHAPTER 6
NOMENCLATURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
POINTS TO REMEMBER

• Hydrocarbons are divided in to Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes.

• Alkanes are Single bonded saturated hydrocarbons.
• Alkenes are Double bonded unsaturated hydrocarbons.
• Alkynes are Triple bonded unsaturated hydrocarbons.

Naming

HYDROCARBONS
Word root + ane/ene/yne
CH3 ─CH3
Eth+ane=Ethane
While unsaturated hydrocarbons are considered the position of double/triple bond also considered
Word root -Position of Double/Triple bond- ene/yne
CH3 ─ CH ═ CH ─ CH2 ─CH2 ─CH3
Hex-2-ene
BRANCHED HYDROCARBONS
Select the longest chain and the branch attached to the carbon must have low number.
Position of Branch –Name of Radical + Word Root –Suffix
CH3 ─ CH ─CH2 ─ CH2 ─CH2 ─CH3
ǀ
CH3
2-Methyl Hexane
If one or more branches are present,names of the branches should be written in
alphabetical order.
If a carbon has two identical branches, the no of their position should be repeated.

CH2 ─ CH ─ CH ─CH2 ─ CH ─CH2 ─CH3 3, 6-Di Methyl Octane

ǀ ǀ ǀ
CH3 CH3 CH3

• The presence of certain atoms or groups imparts certain characteristic properties to compounds.
They are called Functional groups.

Functional group Name of the Name of the Suffix Example

functional compounds
compounds formed
-OH Hydroxyl Alcohol OL Methanol
-COOH Carboxylic acid Acid OIC ACID Ethanoic acid
-CO Ketons Keto ONE Propanone
-CHO Aldehyde Aldehydes AL Butanal
R-O Alkoxy Ethers OXY Methoxy propane
-NH2 Amines Amino AMINE Ethanamine
-X(Cl,Br,I) Halo - CHLORO,BROMO,IODO Chloro methane

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ISOMERISM

Compounds having same molecular formula and different chemical and physical properties are called
Isomers. The phenomenon is called Isomerism.

There are three types of Isomers

• Chain isomer
Compounds with the same molecular formula but posses a difference in the chain structures are
called chain isomers.

Eg: CH3−CH2− CH2−CH3 C4H10

CH3−CH− CH3 C4H10

ǀ
CH3

• Functional isomer
Compounds having same molecular formula, but having a difference in their functional groups are
called functional isomers.

Eg: CH3−CH2− OH C2H6O

CH3− O− CH3 C2H6O

• Position isomer
If the position of the functional group is different in two compounds having the same molecular
formula and the same functional group then, they are Position isomers.

Eg: CH3−CH2− CH2−OH C3H8O

CH3−CH− CH3 C3H8O

ǀ
OH

Isomerism in Alicyclic Compounds

Cyclo Hexane and Hexene are isomers.

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 Cyclo Pentane and Pentene are isomers

Cyclo Butane and Butene are Isomers

Cyclo Propane and Propene are isomers

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 CHAPTER 7
CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

POINTS TO REMEMBER

• Substitution Reaction
Reactions in which an atom or group in a compound is replaced by another atom or a group
are called Substitution Reaction.

• Addition Reaction
Reactions in which unsaturated organic compounds with double bond or triple bond react
with other molecules to form saturated compounds are called Addition Reactions.

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 • Polymerisation
It is the process in which large number of simple molecules combines under suitable
conditions to form complex molecules. These molecules are called Polymers.
The simple molecules which combine in this manner are called Monomers.

• Combustion of Hydrocarbons
When hydrocarbons burn they combine with the oxygen in the air to form CO2 and
H2O along with heat and light. This process is called Combustion.

CH4 + 2O2 → CO2+ 2H2O + Heat

• Thermal Cracking
Some hydrocarbons with high molecular masses, when heated in the absence of air
undergo decomposition to form hydrocarbons with lower molecular masses. This
process is called Thermal Cracking.

CH3 ─ CH2 ─ CH2─ CH2 ─CH2 ─ CH2 ─CH2 ─CH3 → CH3 ─ CH2 ─ CH2─ CH2 ─ CH3 + CH3 ─ CH ═ CH2

OCTANE → PENTANE + PROPENE

SOME IMPORTANT ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

1. Alcohol
a) Methanol
• It is also known as Wood Spirit.
• It is poisonous
• It is used in the manufacture of Varnish and Formalin
CO + 2H2 → CH3− OH (In the Presence of a Catalyst, 573K, 200atm)
b) Ethanol
• It is also known as Grape Spirit.
• Ethanol is used as an organic solvent and in the manufacture of various
organic compounds and paints,beverages,fuel.

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 INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF ETHANOL

Molasses is the concentrated solution of sugar also called mother liquor is diluted. The diluted
molasses by adding yeast. Here reactions occur in the presence of the Enzymes present in the
Yeast.

C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6

Sucrose Glucose Fructose

C6H12O6 2C2H5-OH + 2CO2

Ethanol
• The Ethanol thus obtained will be about 8-10% strong. It is known as Wash.
• This subjected to fractional distillation to get 95.6% strong ethanol solution is known as Rectified
Spirit.
• Poisonous substances are added to ethanol meant for industrial purposes to avoid its misuse as
beverage. This product is known as Denatured Spirit.
• 99.5% ethanol is known as Absolute Alcohol.
• A mixture of absolute alcohol and petrol is known as Power Alcohol is used as fuel in
automobiles.
2. Carboxylic acids
• Carboxylic acids containing twelve or more carbon atoms are called Fatty Acids.
• 5-8% strong acetic acid is known as Vinegar.

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 INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION OF ETHANOIC ACID

CH3− OH + CO CH3− COOH

• It is also prepared by the fermentation of ethanol in the presence of air using the bacteria aceto
bactor.

Uses of Ethanoic Acid

• In the manufacture of rayon
• In the rubber and silk industry
• Vinegar production

3. Ester
• Esters are obtained by the reaction between alcohols and carboxylic acids.
• Esters having the pleasant smell of fruits and flowers.
• Oils and fats are esters formed by the reaction between glycerol with fatty acids such as Palmitic
acid and Stearic acid.

4. Aromatic Compounds

• All aromatic compounds have ring structure; there are double bonds between alternate carbon
atoms.

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 CHAPTER 8

CHEMISTRY FOR HUMAN PROGRESS

PETROLEUM
• Petrol, diesel, kerosene, naphtha etc are manufactured by the Fractional distillation of petroleum.
• The main content of LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) is Butane.

PETROCHEMICALS
The chemicals prepared from the hydrocarbons that are separated from petroleum are generally known
as Petrochemicals.
• Coal
Coal is formed as the result of the carbonisation on the remains of plants.
The process by which the remains of plants transform into coal in the absence of air under high
temperature and pressure is known as Carbonisation.

Different types of Coal

MEDICINES

Purposes of Medicine
• Diagnosis
• Prevention of diseases
• Anaesthesia
• Treatment
• Antiseptics

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CEMENT

• Cement is a complex mixture of silicates and aluminates of calcium.

• Cement clinker is obtained when powdered lime stone and clay are heated in Rotary Klin. It is mixed
with gypsum and then powdered and stirred to get cement.

• Setting of Cement is the process of cement combines with water and sets into a hardened mass is
known as setting of cement. Since it is an exothermic reaction, a large quantity of heat energy liberated,
so the labours must wear gloves to handle cement.

COLOURS

• Dyes and pigments are chemical substances which help to impart colour to other objects.
• Colours obtained from plants such as Alizarin Red and Indigo Blue are natural dyes.
• Organic compounds Benzene, Aniline, Phenol etc are used in the manufacture of synthetic dyes.

GLASS

• Glass is a mixture of Silicates

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 DIFFERENT TYPES OF GLASSES

MATERIALS USED FOR COLOURING

GREEN CHEMISTRY

• A branch of chemistry has emerged which addresses the pollution caused in such situations and controls the
production of poisonous chemicals and products there by reducing the adverse effects on nature and
environment. This is Green Chemistry.

Green chemistry is based on certain principle which limits the number of reactant atoms and molecules
in chemical processes to the required definite proportion, thereby reducing the amount of hazardous by
products to the minimum.

IMPORTANT GOALS OF GREEN CHEMISTRY

To convert hazardous chemicals in to useful and harmless substances.

To produce eco-friendly products.
To reduce pollution.
To minimise the use of poisonous products.
Avoid the wastage of energy.

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