Nucleosynthesis: The Beginning of Elements , Physical Science

The Formation of the Light Elements in the Big Bang Theory

Big Bang Theory
The big bang theory is a cosmological model stating that the universe started its expansion about
13.8 billion years ago. Pieces of evidence supporting this theory are (1) occurrence of redshift, (2)
background radiation, and (3) abundance of light elements.

Redshift

In the 1910s, Vesto Slipher and Carl Wilhelm Wirtz measured the wavelengths of light from spiral
nebulae, which are interstellar clouds of dust and ionized gases. They discovered that the light from
the nebulae increased in wavelength. They explained their discovery as a Doppler shift.
The Doppler shift or Doppler effect explains that when an object gets closer to us, its light waves
are compressed into shorter wavelengths (blueshifted, because blue light has the shortest
wavelength in the visible region). On the other hand, when an object moves away from us, its light
waves are stretched into longer wavelengths (redshifted, because red light has the longest
wavelength in the visible region).

Slipher and Wirtz then explained that the redshift or increase in wavelength was due to the increase
in the distance between the Earth and the nebulae. They concluded that the redshift occurred due to
the expansion of space.

In 1929, Edwin Hubble used the redshift of light from galaxies to calculate the velocities and
distances of these galaxies from the Earth. He discovered that they were moving away from the
Earth and from each other. His calculations supported the theory that the universe is expanding.

Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation

In 1965, Robert Wilson and Arno Penzias discovered a low, steady “hum” from their Holmdel Horn
antenna (an antenna built to support NASA’s Project Echo). They concluded that the noise
is Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR), the remains of energy created after the big
bang expansion.

Abundance of Light Elements

The observed abundance of light elements supports the big bang theory. The theory predicts that
the universe is composed of 73% hydrogen and 25% helium by mass. The prediction correlated to
the measured abundances of primordial material in unprocessed gas in some parts of the universe
with no stars.

Formation of Light Elements

Big bang nucleosynthesis is the process of producing the light elements during the big bang
expansion. In the beginning, the universe was very hot that matter was fully ionized and dissociated.
Few seconds after the start of the big bang, the universe was filled with protons, neutrons, electrons,
neutrinos, and positrons. After the first three minutes, the universe cooled down to a point where
atomic nuclei can form. Protons and neutrons combined to form atomic nuclei such as deuterium.
However, the temperature of the universe was still much greater than the binding energy of
deuterium. Binding energy is the energy required to break down a nucleus into its components.
Therefore, deuterium easily decayed upon formation.

When the temperature cooled down below 1010 K, deuterium nuclei combined with other nuclei to
form heavier ones.

Helium-3 was formed from the fusion of two deuterium nuclei and a release of a neutron.

Tritium or hydrogen-3 was produced from the fusion of two deuterium nuclei and a release of a
proton.
Helium-4 was also synthesized from deuterium and helium-3.

Helium-4 was produced from the fusion of deuterium and tritium.

For the first three minutes, a substantial amount of neutrons was converted into helium-4 nuclei,
before their decay. Helium then combined to other nuclei to form heavier ones such as lithium-7 and
beryllium-7.

Lithium-7 was synthesized from helium-4 and tritium.

Beryllium-7 was produced from helium-3 and helium-4.

Among the light elements formed, deuterium, helium-3, helium-4, and lithium-7 were stable.
Beryllium-7 was unstable and decayed spontaneously to lithium-7.
What do you think?
How are elements heavier than beryllium formed?

Key Points
 Pieces of evidence that support the big bang theory are redshift, cosmic microwave
background radiation, and abundance of light elements.
 Big bang nucleosynthesis is the process of light element formation.
 The light elements that formed after the big bang were helium, deuterium, and trace amounts
of lithium and beryllium.
 Deuterium, helium-3, helium-4, and lithium-7 were stable. On the other hand, beryllium-7
was unstable and decayed spontaneously to lithium-7.
 Science
 The Formation of Heavier Elements during Star Formation and Evolution

 Objectives
 At the end of the lesson, you should be able to give evidence for and describe the formation
of heavier elements during star formation and evolution.
 In the previous lesson, you have learned how the light elements – hydrogen, helium, lithium,
and beryllium, were formed during the big bang nucleosynthesis.
 How were elements heavier than beryllium formed?

 Learn about it!

 Elements heavier than beryllium are formed through stellar nucleosynthesis. Stellar
nucleosynthesis is the process by which elements are formed within stars. The
abundances of these elements change as the stars evolve.
 Evolution of Stars
 The star formation theory proposes that stars form due to the collapse of the dense regions
of a molecular cloud. As the cloud collapses, the fragments contract to form a stellar core
called protostar. Due to strong gravitational force, the protostar contracts and its
temperature increases. When the core temperature reaches about 10 million K, nuclear
 reactions begin. The reactions release positrons and neutrinos which increase pressure and
stop the contraction. When the contraction stops, the gravitational equilibrium is reached,
and the protostar has become a main sequence star.
 In the core of a main sequence star, hydrogen is fused into helium via the proton-proton
chain. When most of the hydrogen in the core is fused into helium, fusion stops, and the
pressure in the core decreases. Gravity squeezes the star to a point that helium and
hydrogen burning occur. Helium is converted to carbon in the core while hydrogen is
converted to helium in the shell surrounding the core. The star has become a red giant.

 Learn about it!

 When the majority of the helium in the core has been converted to carbon, then the rate of
fusion decreases. Gravity again squeezes the star. In a low-mass star (with mass less than
twice the Sun’s mass), there is not enough mass for a carbon fusion to occur. The star’s fuel
is depleted, and over time, the outer material of the star is blown off into space. The only
thing that remains is the hot and inert carbon core. The star becomes a white dwarf.

 However, the fate of a massive star is different. A massive star has enough mass such that
temperature and pressure increase to a point where carbon fusion can occur. The star goes
through a series of stages where heavier elements are fused in the core and in the shells
around the core. The element oxygen is formed from carbon fusion; neon from oxygen
fusion; magnesium from neon fusion: silicon from magnesium fusion; and iron from silicon
fusion. The star becomes a multiple-shell red giant.
Learn about it!
The fusion of elements continues until iron is formed by silicon fusion. Elements lighter than iron can
be fused because when two of these elements combine, they produce a nucleus with a mass lower
than the sum of their masses. The missing mass is released as energy. Therefore, the fusion of
elements lighter than iron releases energy. However, this does not happen to iron nuclei. Rather
than releasing energy, the fusion of two iron nuclei requires an input of energy. Therefore, elements
lighter than and including iron can be produced in a massive star, but no elements heavier than iron
are produced.

When the core can no longer produce energy to resist gravity, the star is doomed. Gravity squeezes
the core until the star explodes and releases a large amount of energy. The star explosion is called
a supernova.

Pieces of Evidence
The discovery of the interstellar medium of gas and dust during the early part of the 20th century
provided a crucial piece of evidence to support the star formation theory. Other pieces of evidence
come from the study of different stages of formation happening in different areas in space and
piecing them together to form a clearer picture.

Energy in the form of Infrared Radiation (IR) is detected from different stages of star formation. For
instance, astronomers measure the IR released by a protostar and compare it to the IR from a
nearby area with zero extinction. Extinction in astronomy means the absorption and scattering of
electromagnetic radiation by gases and dust particles between an emitting astronomical object and
an observer. The IR measurements are then used to approximate the energy, temperature, and
pressure in the protostar.

Try it!
Research about the nuclear binding energy and then, explain why the nuclear fusion reactions in
massive stars stop in iron through the concept of binding energy.

What do you think?

How are elements heavier than iron formed?

Key Points
 Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which elements are formed within stars.
 The star formation theory proposes that stars form due to the collapse of the dense regions
of a molecular cloud.
 A protostar is a stellar core formed when the fragments of a collapsed molecular cloud
contract.
 A main sequence star is formed when gravitational equilibrium is reached during the
hydrogen fusion in a protostar.
 A red giant is a star that has used up its hydrogen supply in the core and switched into the
thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen in the shell surrounding the core.
 A massive star becomes a multiple-shell red giant when the elements oxygen, neon,
magnesium, silicon, and iron are formed in its core together with carbon, helium, and
hydrogen.
 A supernova is a star that blows apart and releases a large amount of energy.
 Evidence of star formation comes from studying IR emissions from the different stages of
star evolution.

The Nuclear Fusion Reactions in Stars

Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain how elements are formed in stars through
nuclear fusion.

What are the nuclear fusion reactions that happen in the stellar cores?

Learn about it!

Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which elements are formed in the cores and shells of the
stars through nuclear fusion reactions. Nuclear fusion is a type of reaction that fuses lighter
elements to form heavier ones. It requires very high temperatures and pressures. It is the reaction
that fuels the stars since stars have very high temperatures and pressures in their cores.

Hydrogen is the lightest element and the most abundant in space. Thus, the formation of heavier
elements starts with hydrogen. Hydrogen burningis the stellar process that produces energy in the
stars. There are two dominant hydrogen burning processes, the proton-proton chain and carbon-
nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle.
Learn about it!
Proton-Proton Chain
The proton-proton chain is a series of thermonuclear reactions in the stars. It is the main source of
energy radiated by the sun and other stars. It happens due to the large kinetic energies of the
protons. If the kinetic energies of the protons are high enough to overcome their electrostatic
repulsion, then proton-proton chain proceeds.

The sequence proceeds as follows:

1. The chain starts when two protons fuse. When the fused proton breaks, one proton is
transmuted into a neutron.
2. The proton and neutron then pairs, forming an isotope of hydrogen called deuterium.
3. Another proton collides with a deuterium forming a helium-3 nucleus and a gamma ray.
4. Finally, two helium-3 nuclei collide, and a helium-4 is created with the release of two protons.

Learn about it!

Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen (CNO) Cycle
For more massive and hotter stars, the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle is the more favorable route in
converting hydrogen to helium.
The cycle proceeds as follows:

1. Carbon-12 captures a proton and gives off a gamma ray, producing an unstable nitrogen-13.
2. Nitrogen-13 undergoes beta decay to form carbon-13.
3. Carbon-13 captures a proton and releases a gamma ray to become nitrogen-14.
4. Nitrogen-14 then captures another proton and releases a gamma ray to produce oxygen-15.
5. Oxygen-15 undergoes beta decay and becomes nitrogen-15.
6. Finally, nitrogen-15 captures a proton and gives off helium (alpha particle) ending the cycle
and returning to carbon-12.

Unlike the proton-proton chain, the CNO cycle is a catalytic process. Carbon-12 acts a catalyst for
the cycle. It is used in the initial reaction and is regenerated in the final one.
Try it!
Look at the periodic table of elements. Which elements are formed during the big bang
nucleosynthesis? Which elements are formed during stellar nucleosynthesis?

What do you think?

Are there elements found in the outer space that are not present in the earth?

Key Points
 Nuclear fusion is a type of reaction that fuses lighter elements to form heavier ones.
 Hydrogen burning is the stellar process that produces energy in the stars. There are two
dominant hydrogen burning processes, the proton-proton chain and carbon-nitrogen-oxygen
(CNO) cycle.
 Proton-proton chain is a sequence of thermonuclear reactions in the stars. It is the main
source of energy radiated by the sun and other stars.
 Carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle is a catalytic cycle of gamma emission and beta decay that
converts hydrogen into helium.

How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed

How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed

 Lesson6 chapters
 Questions

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe how elements heavier than iron is formed.

Nucleosynthesis is the process by which new nuclei are formed from pre-existing or seed nuclei. In
the previous lessons, you have learned about the types of nucleosynthesis. The big bang
nucleosynthesis produced hydrogen and helium, whereas the stellar nucleosynthesis produced
elements up to iron in the core of the stars.

If the stellar nucleosynthesis produced only elements up to iron, then what type of
nucleosynthesis produced the elements heavier than iron?

Learn about it!

The stellar nucleosynthesis produced nuclei that are heavier than helium-4 by nuclear fusion. It
started by fusing two helium-4 nuclei to form beryllium-8 accompanied by a release of energy in the
form of gamma radiation (γ). This process continues until nickel-56. However, nickel-56 is unstable
and undergoes positron (+10β) emission. Recall that positron emission results in a nucleus with
lower atomic number.

ZAx→Z−1Ay++10β

A is mass number, Z is atomic number, x is the seed nucleus, and y is the new nucleus formed.

Nickel-56 radioactively decomposes to a more stable iron-56 through subsequent emission of two
positrons.

2856Ni→2756Co++10β→2656Fe++10β

Learn about it!

The fusion reactions cannot produce nuclei higher than iron-56 because fusion reaction becomes
unfavorable. This is because the nuclear binding energy per nucleon, the energy that holds the
nucleus intact, decreases after iron-56. Therefore, different pathways are needed for the synthesis of
heavier nuclei.

Synthesis of heavier nuclei happens via neutron or proton capture processes.

Neutron Capture
In neutron capture, a neutron is added to a seed nucleus. The addition of neutron produces a
heavier isotope of the element.

ZAx+01n→ZA+1y

For example, iron-56 captures three neutrons to produce iron-59.

2656Fe+301n→2659Fe

The generated isotope, when unstable, undergoes beta (−10β) decay. This decay results in an
increase in the number of protons of the nucleus by 1. Hence, a heavier nucleus is formed.

ZAx→Z+1Ay+−10β

Beta decay results in the formation of a new element. For example, the unstable iron-59 undergoes
beta decay to produce cobalt-59.

2659Fe→2759Co+−10β

Learn about it!

Neutron capture can either be slow or rapid.
Slow neutron capture or s-process happens when there is a small number of neutrons. It is
termed slow because the rate of neutron capture is slow compared to the rate of −10β decay.
Therefore, if a −10β decay occurs, it almost always occurs before another neutron can be captured.

Rapid neutron capture or r-process, on the other hand, happens when there is a large number of
neutrons. It is termed rapid because the rate of neutron capture is fast that an unstable nucleus may
still be combined with another neutron just before it undergoes −10β decay. The r-process is
associated with a supernova. The temperature after a supernova is tremendously high that the
neutrons are moving very fast. Because of their speed, they can immediately combine with the
already heavy isotopes. This kind of nucleosynthesis is also called supernova nucleosynthesis.

Learn about it!

Proton Capture
Proton capture (p-process) is the addition of a proton in the nucleus. It happens after a supernova,
when there is a tremendous amount of energy available. It is because the addition of a proton to the
nucleus is not favorable because of Coulombic repulsion, which is the repulsive force between
particles with the same charge.

Proton capture produces a heavier nucleus that is different from the seed nucleus.

ZAx+11p→Z+1A+1y+γ

For example, molybdenum-94 undergoes proton capture to produce technetium-95.

4294Mo+11p→4395Tc+γ

Try it!
Nuclei, stable or radioactive, may be a product of s-, r-, or p-process. The nuclei produced by the s-
process are called s-nuclei, whereas those from r- and p-processes are called r- and p-nuclei,
respectively. Go over the web and look for the following nuclei and classify them as s-, r-, or p-
nucleus.

1. xenon-136
2. tellurium-122
3. barium-132
4. antimony-121
5. cesium-133

Tips
Big bang, stellar, and supernova nucleosynthesis are natural nuclear transformation processes.
These nuclear reactions are natural, that is, they happen in nature. These processes produced the
elements we have in the periodic table. However, note that not all of the elements are naturally
occurring. Some of them are artificially made such as Flerovium (Fl) and Livermorium (Lv).
What do you think?
What process is used for the production of the synthetic elements?

Key Points
 Fusion reactions cannot account for the synthesis of nuclei heavier than 2656Fe.
 Neutron and proton capture processes are responsible for the synthesis of nuclei heavier
than 2656Fe.
 Seed nucleus is the starting material for the formation of heavier isotopes or new nuclei.
 Neutron capture process can be either slow (s-process) or rapid (r-process).
 Neutron capture process is often accompanied by subsequent −10β decay.
 The r-process and proton capture are processes that happen in a supernova because a
tremendous amount of energy is needed for them to occur.

The Ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the Atom

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the ideas of the Ancient Greeks on atoms.

Can matter be infinitely divided into smaller particles?

Learn about it!

The Indivisible Atom
Democritus of Abdera (460 - 370 B.C.) and his teacher Leucippus of Miletus (c.500 B.C.) were
Greek scholars who believed that matter could be divided into tiny particles until such point where it
can no longer be divided anymore. They became the first proponents of the atomic theory. Their
early ideas on atoms are summarized below.

1. All matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms, which come from the Greek
word atomos meaning uncuttable. The atoms are indestructible, impenetrable, and
unchangeable.
2. The atoms make up the universe as they are continuously moving in a “void” that surrounds
them, repelling each other when they collide, or combining into clusters.
3. Atoms are completely solid which means that there is no void or empty space inside that will
make them prone to disintegration or destruction.
4. Atoms are homogeneous in nature. They have no internal structures.
5. Atoms come in different shapes and sizes.

These proposed ideas about atoms were supported by some Greek philosophers but were strongly
opposed by others especially Aristotle.
Learn about it!
Aristotle's Opposing View on Atoms
Aristotle, a Greek philosopher, had a different view on atoms. He disregarded the existence of atoms
proposed by Leucippus and Democritus. He did not believe that matter is a collection of atoms.
Instead, he believed that everything in the universe is made up of the four elements, air, fire, water,
and earth. He stated that believing in atoms would mean putting restriction on the gods, who have
the power to divide elements smaller than the atom.

Aristotle's beliefs greatly flourished especially in the Middle Ages in Europe, where Roman Catholics
were strongly influenced by his ideas. They believed that ideas about the atoms equated to
Godlessness. Thus, the whole concept of the atom was dismissed for centuries. However, the
Greeks' concept of atoms and even Aristotle's arguments were rediscovered in France at the start of
the Renaissance period. The theory of Aristotle was proven incorrect, and Democritus' and
Leucippus' theory on the existence of atoms was proven right.

Explore!
Choose one digital photo and zoom in. Can you see a group of tiny squares? They are called pixels.
How can you relate them to atoms?

Try it!
Get a piece of paper. Divide it into half as many times as you can. What do you notice? How would
you relate this activity to the concept of the atoms?

What do you think?

Is the early idea of the existence of the atom true?

Key Points
 Democritus and Leucippus, ancient Greek philosophers, first proposed the idea of the atom.
 Their theory states that all matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.
 They believed that the atoms are very small, have different shapes and sizes, are
continuously moving, and can combine with other atoms.
 Aristotle did not believe that matter is strictly a collection of atoms, and that matter can be
made of air, fire, water, or earth.
 Democritus’ idea on the existence of atoms was accepted, and Aristotle’s argument was
proven incorrect.

The Discovery of the Structure of the Atom and its Subatomic Particles
Objective
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to identify the main ideas in the discovery of the
structure of the atom and its subatomic particles.

In the previous lessons, you have learned that matter is composed of atoms.

What is the structure of the atom?

Learn about it!

Greek philosophers Democritus and Leucippus developed the idea that all matter is composed of
tiny, indivisible particles called atoms. However, their atomic theory was based only on
assumptions. It was not until the early 1800s that experiments were performed to develop models for
the structure of the atom.

In 1803, John Dalton, a British scientist, did experiments on mixtures of gases. He studied how the
properties of individual gases affect the properties of the mixtures of these gases. He developed the
hypothesis that the sizes of the particles making up different gases must be different. After several
experiments, he concluded that all matter is composed of spherical atoms, which cannot be broken
down into smaller pieces. He added that all atoms of one element are identical to each other but
different from the atoms of another element.

Learn about it!

Discovery of the Subatomic Particles
The Electrons in the Plum Pudding Model

In 1897, Joseph John Thomson, a British physicist, proposed an atomic model known as the plum
pudding model. His model consisted of negatively charged particles (plum) spread evenly throughout
the positively charged material (pudding). The small, negatively charged particles are
called electrons.

The Protons in the Planetary Model

In the early 1900s, Ernest Rutherford, a New Zealand-born physicist, established the planetary
model which described the atom as small, dense, and has a positively charged core called
the nucleus. Inside the nucleus are positively charged particles called the protons. The nucleus is
surrounded by negatively charged particles or electrons. The electrostatic attraction between
electrons and nucleus mimics the gravitational force of attraction between planets and the sun.

The Neutrons

In 1923, James Chadwick proved the existence of the neutron, which is also situated in the
nucleus together with the proton. It has the same mass as the proton but unlike the latter, it has no
electric charge.

Learn about it!

Recent Atomic Models
Bohr’s Atomic Model

Rutherford’s model showed that the electrons and nucleus have opposite charges which according
to the laws of physics, will attract each other. Thus, Rutherford's model would have electrons
collapsing into the nucleus, making the atom unstable. Niels Bohr solved this problem by proposing
that the electrons orbit around the nucleus in set energy levels. An electron absorbs energy if it
moves from lower to higher energy level, and it emits energy if it returns to the lower energy level.

Quantum Mechanical Model

The quantum mechanical model of the atom states that a nucleus is surrounded by a cloud of
electrons called orbitals. It explains that it is impossible to determine the exact location of the
electron at a given time, but one can find its probable location. It incorporates the concept of Bohr’s
model where the electrons move in one orbital to another by absorbing or emitting energy.

Explore!
Look around your house. Try to think of Bohr’s discovery of energy levels. What things can you find
in your house that use the same concept proposed by Bohr?

Try it!
Create a timeline on the discovery of subatomic particles and development of the atomic theory.
Who are the scientists who had important contributions in atomic theory?

What do you think?

Based on Bohr's atomic model, what causes an electron to move from one orbital to another?

Key Points
 John Dalton described the atom as spherical.
 Joseph John Thomson discovered the electron.
 Ernest Rutherford proposed that the electrons orbit around the nucleus. He, together with
his students, discovered the proton.
 Niels Bohr proposed that electrons orbit around the nucleus in set energy levels.
 James Chadwick discovered the neutron.
 Niels Bohr proposed that the electrons orbit around the nucleus in set energy levels.
 In the quantum mechanical model, the nucleus is surrounded by a cloud of electrons
called orbitals.

Understanding the Structure of Atom:The Contributions of J.J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, Henry
Moseley, and Niels Bohr

Objective
In this lesson, you will be able to cite the contributions of Joseph John Thomson, Ernest Rutherford,
Henry Moseley, and Niels Bohr to the understanding of the structure of the atom.

What are the contributions of Joseph John (J.J.) Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, Henry
Moseley, and Niels Bohr to the understanding of the structure of the atom?

Learn about it!

J.J. Thomson’s Discovery of the Electron
In 1897, J.J. Thomson discovered the electrons by conducting a series of experiments using a high-
vacuum cathode-ray tube that was composed of negatively charged particles 1000 times lighter than
the hydrogen atom. He also proposed a sea of positive charge for the overall neutrality of the atom.
He then proposed an atomic model known as the plum pudding model depicting a sphere of positive
charge (pudding) with negatively charged particles (plums) embedded all throughout.

Ernest Rutherford’s Discovery of the Nucleus

In the early 1900s, Rutherford discovered the nucleus containing positively charged particles
called protons. He advised his students, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden, to bombard a thin sheet
of gold foil with alpha particles. He assumed that the alpha particles would just pass straight through
the foil, meaning an atom has a void space. However, after the experiment, some particles passed
right through it, and some were deflected. He arrived at these two conclusions: (1) The atom
contained an empty space, as some particles went through the foil; and (2) The atom had a very
dense center of positive charge. From these, Rutherford proposed the planetary model. He believed
that the electrons moved around a nucleus.

Learn about it!

Henry Moseley’s Atomic Number

In 1913, Henry Moseley, a British chemist, developed the use of X-ray in studying the structure of
the atom. During this time, a coherent structure of the atom was being developed, starting from J.J.
Thomson’s discovery of the electron to Rutherford’s publication of his planetary model. He published
results of his measurements of wavelengths of the X-ray emissions of some elements that coincided
with the order of their atomic numbers. Moseley’s experimental data backed up Rutherford’s
structure of the atom with a very dense center of positive charge. The data also justified that the
atomic number of an element is the number of positive charges in its nucleus.

Niels Bohr’s Atomic Model

If you would recall in magnetism, unlike charges attract. In Rutherford’s model, since the electron
and the nucleus have opposite charges, the electrons would collapse into the nucleus, making the
atom unstable. Niels Bohr modified this model by proposing that the electrons move in fixed energy
levels or orbits by absorbing or emitting energy.

Try it!
Look at the periodic table. List down three elements with the lowest atomic number and three with
the highest atomic number. What does the low and high atomic numbers signify?

What do you think?

What is the importance of knowing the atomic number of elements?

Key Points
  J.J. Thomson discovered the electron and proposed the plum pudding model.
 Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus and proposed the planetary model.
 Henry Moseley used the X-rays in studying the structure of the atom. The results of his
experiments supported Rutherford's model.
 Niels Bohr proposed that the electrons move in fixed energy levels or orbits.

The Nuclear Model of the Atom

Objective
In this lesson, you should be able to describe the nuclear model of the atom and the location of its
major components (protons, neutrons, and electrons).

If you have lived during the time when the atom was discovered, how would you describe its
structure?

Learn about it!

As subatomic particles were discovered, models for their arrangement in the atom were developed.
There was J. J. Thomson’s plum-pudding model, which he proposed after his discovery of the
electrons. Then there was Ernest Rutherford’s planetary model, proposed after the discovery of the
protons in the nucleus.

The Nuclear Model

The nuclear model states that the nucleus is small, dense, and located at the center of the atom. It
contains protons and neutrons. Overall, it is positively charged. It contains nearly all the mass of the
atom. The electrons orbit around it.

The nuclear model has been deduced from the experiment done by Rutherford.
Geiger-Marsden Experiment
Under Rutherford's supervision, Hans Geiger, his assistant, and Ernest Marsden, an undergraduate
student, shot a narrow beam of alpha particles at a very thin sheet of gold foil and measured the
scattering pattern on a fluorescent screen. It was observed that some particles deflected, and others
penetrated through the sheet of gold foil.
There was a force behind the deflections – the repulsion of the positively charged alpha particles by
a positively charged material. If this charge existed in a sphere with the same size of the atom, the
force should have been weak. This led to the assumption that the charge was concentrated in a
small space or sphere.

Rutherford proposed that the positive charge, and the mass of the atom were concentrated in a
small part of the total volume of the atom called the nucleus.

Learn about it!

Issues Involved in the Nuclear Model
The main problem in Rutherford's model was how the electrons remained in their orbit without falling
into the nucleus. Another problem is the electron's continuous centripetal acceleration and the
energy lost through electromagnetic radiation. This energy would make it approach the nucleus
while increasing the electrostatic force. The increase in force would increase the acceleration and
the emission of energy. Thus, the nucleus and the electrons would collide with each other. This
means that the atom would be unstable.

Explore!
Imagine you're holding two magnets with the same magnetic poles (north to north poles or south to
south poles). When you try to put the magnets together, there is a force acting upon them which
makes it difficult to do so. The repulsion between the magnets represents the forces between the
alpha particles and the positively charged material in the atom of the gold foil as presented in the
Geiger-Marsden experiment of Rutherford and his colleagues. What is the importance of this
scenario in studying the structure of the atom?

Try it!
Research on the succeeding studies about the nucleus and its characteristics.
What do you think?
Rutherford postulated a neutral particle inside the nucleus. How did he come into this conclusion?

Key Points
 The nuclear model states that the nucleus is small, dense, and located at the center of the
atom.
 The nucleus is positively charged. It contains nearly all the mass of the atom. The electrons
orbit around it.
 The nuclear model has been deduced from the experiment done by Rutherford.

The Ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the Elements

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the
elements.

What were the early ideas of the Greeks on the elements?

Learn about it!

Many Greek philosophers tried to answer the question "What are the primordial substances from
which everything is made up of?" Some of them believed that there was only one element that made
up all materials. Anaximenes thought that it was air; Heraclitus supposed it was
fire; Thalesbelieved that it was water; and Xenophanus assumed it was earth.

Empedocles proposed that all four – air, fire, water, and earth, are the primordial substances. He
called them roots.
Plato, the founder of the Academy in Athens (the first institution of higher learning in the Western
world), first used the term element. The word element came from the Greek word “στοιχεῖον”
(stoicheion) which means smallest division.

Plato treated the four elements geometrically and named them Platonic solids. Air was an
octahedron; fire was a tetrahedron; water was an icosahedron; and earth was a cube. He also added
a fifth one, a dodecahedron, which was the shape of the Universe.

Learn about it!

Aristotle, a student of Plato, described each element with two qualities. He stated that air was wet
and hot; fire was hot and dry; water was wet and cold; and earth was dry and cold. He then added a
fifth element, aether. He thought aether was the finest of all substances, the “quintessence,”
associated with the heavenly realm. It was neither hot nor cold and was neither wet nor dry.

Try it!
Ancient Chinese, Japanese, and Indians also had their own lists of elements. Research about their
classical elements and their characteristics.

What do you think?

What do you think were the bases of the Greek philosophers’ notions of elements?

Key Points
 Some Greek philosophers believed that there was only one element that made up all
materials. Anaximenes thought that it was air; Heraclitus supposed it was
fire; Thales believed that it was water; and Xenophanus assumed it was earth.
 Empedocles proposed that all four – air, fire, water, and earth, were the primordial
substances.
 Plato first used the term element. He treated the four elements geometrically and named
them Platonic solids.
 Aristotle described each element using the qualities hot, cold, wet, or dry. He also added a
fifth element, aether.
Try it!
Ancient Chinese, Japanese, and Indians also had their own lists of elements. Research about their
classical elements and their characteristics.

What do you think?

What do you think were the bases of the Greek philosophers’ notions of elements?

Key Points
 Some Greek philosophers believed that there was only one element that made up all
materials. Anaximenes thought that it was air; Heraclitus supposed it was
fire; Thales believed that it was water; and Xenophanus assumed it was earth.
 Empedocles proposed that all four – air, fire, water, and earth, were the primordial
substances.
 Plato first used the term element. He treated the four elements geometrically and named
them Platonic solids.
 Aristotle described each element using the qualities hot, cold, wet, or dry. He also added a
fifth element, aether.
Try it!
Ancient Chinese, Japanese, and Indians also had their own lists of elements. Research about their
classical elements and their characteristics.

What do you think?

What do you think were the bases of the Greek philosophers’ notions of elements?
Key Points
 Some Greek philosophers believed that there was only one element that made up all
materials. Anaximenes thought that it was air; Heraclitus supposed it was
fire; Thales believed that it was water; and Xenophanus assumed it was earth.
 Empedocles proposed that all four – air, fire, water, and earth, were the primordial
substances.
 Plato first used the term element. He treated the four elements geometrically and named
them Platonic solids.
 Aristotle described each element using the qualities hot, cold, wet, or dry. He also added a
fifth element, aether.

The Atomic Number and the Synthesis of New Elements

 Lesson6 chapters
 Questions

Objective
In this lesson, you should be able to explain how the concept of atomic number led to the synthesis
of new elements in the laboratory.

How does the concept of the atomic number lead to the synthesis of elements?

Learn about it!

Moseley’s X-ray Spectroscopy
Henry Gwyn-Jeffreys Moseley was an English physicist who demonstrated that the atomic
number, the number of protons in an atom, determines most of the properties of an element. He
began his study of radioactivity in Ernest Rutherford’s laboratory but later decided to explore more
on X-rays.

In 1913, Moseley published a paper on the arrangement of the elements in the Periodic table based
on their atomic numbers. He used X-ray spectroscopy to determine the atomic number of an
element. He bombarded a beam of electrons to different elements and measured their X-ray spectral
lines. His results clearly showed that frequency of the X-rays given off by an element was
mathematically related to the position of that element in the Periodic table. The frequency is
proportional to the charge of the nucleus, or the atomic number.

When the elements were arranged according to their atomic numbers, there were four gaps in the
table. These gaps corresponded to the atomic numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87. These elements were
later synthesized in the laboratory through nuclear transmutations.

Learn about it!

Discovery of Nuclear Transmutation
In 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully carried out a nuclear transmutation reaction — a reaction
involving the transformation of one element or isotope into another element. He bombarded alpha
particles from radium directed to the nitrogen nuclei. He showed that the nitrogen nuclei reacted to
the alpha particles to form an oxygen nuclei. The reaction is written as

714N+24He→817O+11H

However, both alpha particles and atomic nuclei are positively charged, so they tend to repel each
other. Therefore, instead of using fast-moving alpha particles in synthesizing new elements, atomic
nuclei are often bombarded with neutrons (neutral particles) in particle accelerators.

The Discovery of the Missing Elements

Recall that in 1925, there were four vacancies in the periodic table corresponding to the atomic
numbers 43, 61, 85, and 87. Two of these elements were synthesized in the laboratory using particle
accelerators.

A particle accelerator is a device that is used to speed up the protons to overcome the repulsion
between the protons and the target atomic nuclei by using magnetic and electrical fields. It is used to
synthesize new elements.

In 1937, American physicist Ernest Lawrence synthesized element with atomic number 43 using a
linear particle accelerator. He bombarded molybdenum (Z=42) with fast-moving neutrons. The newly
synthesized element was named Technetium (Tc) after the Greek word "technêtos" meaning
“artificial.” Tc was the first man-made element.

In 1940, Dale Corson, K. Mackenzie, and Emilio Segre discovered element with atomic number
85. They bombarded atoms of bismuth (Z=83) with fast-moving alpha particles in a cyclotron.
A cyclotron is a particle accelerator that uses alternating electric field to accelerate particles that
move in a spiral path in the presence of a magnetic field. Element-85 was named astatine from the
Greek word “astatos” meaning unstable.

The two other elements with atomic numbers 61 and 87 were discovered through studies in
radioactivity. Element-61 (Promethium) was discovered as a decay product of the fission of uranium
while element-87 (Francium) was discovered as a breakdown product of uranium.

Synthesis of New Elements

In the 1930s, the heaviest element known was uranium, with an atomic number 92. Early in
1940, Edwin McMillan proved that an element having an atomic number 93 could be created. He
used a particle accelerator to bombard uranium with neutrons and created an element with an
atomic number 93 which he named neptunium.

At the end of 1940, element-94 was synthesized by Seaborg, McMillan, Kennedy, and Wahl. They
bombarded uranium with deuterons (particles composed of a proton and a neutron) in a cyclotron.
Element-94 was named plutonium.

Elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (atomic number of uranium) are called transuranium
elements. Hence, neptunium and plutonium are both transuranium elements. They are unstable and
decay radioactively into other elements. All of these elements were discovered in the laboratory as
artificially generated synthetic elements. They are prepared using nuclear reactors or particle
accelerators. In the next lesson, you will learn the nuclear reactions involved in the synthesis of
these transuranium elements.

Try it!
Research on the latest instruments used in preparing new elements in the laboratory. What were the
instruments used in preparing the newest four elements, nihonium, moscovium, tennessine, and
oganesson?

What do you think?

Why do scientists study and synthesize new transuranium elements in the laboratory? What are the
uses of these elements?

Key Points
 The atomic number is the number of protons (positively charged particles) in an atom.
 Henry Gwyn-Jeffreys Moseley was an English physicist who demonstrated that the atomic
number, the number of protons in an atom, determines most of the properties of an element.
 In 1919, Ernest Rutherford successfully carried out a nuclear transmutation reaction — a
process of transforming one element or isotope into another element.
 In 1925, there were four vacancies in the periodic table corresponding to the atomic numbers
43, 61, 85, and 87. Elements with atomic numbers 43 and 85 were synthesized using particle
accelerators.
 A particle accelerator is a device that is used to speed up the protons to overcome the
repulsion between the protons and the target atomic nuclei by using magnetic and electrical
fields. It is used to synthesize new elements.
 Elements with atomic numbers greater than 92 (atomic number of uranium) are
called transuranium elements. They were discovered in the laboratory using nuclear
reactors or particle accelerators.

Science
The Nuclear Reactions Involved in the Synthesis of New Elements

 Lesson6 chapters
 Questions

Objective
In this lesson, you should be able to write the nuclear reactions involved in the synthesis of new
elements.

Nuclear reaction is the process where two nuclei collide to produce new nuclei. There are two types
of nuclear reaction: nuclear transmutation and nuclear decay reaction.
What happens during nuclear transmutation?

Learn about it!

Nuclear Transmutation
A nuclear transmutation is a reaction involving the transformation of one element into another
element. It happens when a nucleus reacts with a subatomic particle to produce a more massive
nucleus. It occurs only on special conditions such as the collision of the target nuclei with a beam of
particles with high energies.

In 1919, the first successful transmutation was done by Rutherford. He bombarded nitrogen nuclei
with alpha particles to form oxygen nuclei. In the next decades, other nuclear reactions were
discovered by bombarding other elements with alpha particles. However, since these particles have
a strong repulsive force with the target nuclei (both are positively charged), the progress in
discovering elements was slow. Scientists then tried other particles with higher energies. In 1932,
major advancements in nuclear reactions took place. Particle accelerators, which use a projectile of
high-energy particles, were invented.

Transuranium Elements

Transuranium elements are elements whose atomic numbers are greater than 92. They are all
unstable and undergo radioactive decay. Many of the transuranium elements were prepared using
particle accelerators, and much of this work was facilitated by a group of scientists led by the
American chemist, Glenn Theodore Seaborg, and later, nuclear scientist Albert Ghiorso in the
University of California.

The most effective way of preparing transuranium elements specifically in the lower members of the
series (elements 93 to 95), was through nitrogen bombardment. As for the heavier transuranium
elements (96 to 101), they were generally prepared with high-energy positive ions which include the
use of deuterons, carbon nuclei, and ions.

Examples
Neptunium (Z = 93)

The first transuranium element was identified by Edwin McMillan and Philip Abelson in 1940. It was
named neptunium, bearing an atomic number of 93. They acquired the radioactive isotope of
neptunium through the bombardment of uranium oxide with slow neutrons. This reaction can be
represented as

92238U+01n→93239Np+−10β

Plutonium (Z = 94)

After the discovery of 239Np, the decay of this element led to the discovery of another element,
bearing an atomic number of 94. Seaborg, together with McMillan, Wahl, and Kennedy bombarded
uranium with deuterons to form 238Np, with a half-life of two days, which then decayed into 238Pu, with
a half life of 92 days. The reactions can be represented as
92238U+12D→93238Np+210n

93238Np→94238Pu+−10β

Learn about it!

Nuclear Decay Reaction
Nuclear decay reaction, also known as radioactive decay, is a reaction in which the nucleus emits
radiation and transforms into a new nucleus. The parent nuclei are unstable, and the resulting
daughter nuclei are more stable, having lower mass and energy. Transuranium elements are
unstable that they undergo radioactive decay resulting in more stable elements.

The nuclear decay reactions involved in the synthesis of transuranium elements are alpha decay,
beta decay, and spontaneous fission.

Alpha Decay

The alpha decay is a reaction that emits helium-4 nucleus or alpha particle, 24α. This decay
produces a daughter nucleus with an atomic number reduced by two, and a mass number reduced
by four compared with the parent nucleus. Most nuclei with mass numbers greater than 200 undergo
this type of decay. The general reaction can be represented as

ZAX→Z−2A−4Y+24α

where A is the mass number, Z is the atomic number, X represents the parent nucleus, and Y
represents the daughter nucleus.

For example, neptunium-237, the most abundant isotope of neptunium, undergoes alpha decay to
form protactinium-233. The nuclear reaction is represented as

93237Ne→91233Pa+24α

Beta Decay

In beta decay, a neutron is converted into a proton and emits an electron in the form of a beta
particle. The atomic number goes up by one while its mass number remains the same. The general
reaction can be represented as

ZAX→Z+1AY+−10β

For example, curium-249 undergoes decay by beta particle emission to form berkelium-249. The
balanced equation for this reaction is represented as

96249Cm→97249Bk+−10β

Spontaneous Fission
In spontaneous fission, the nucleus breaks into pieces into different atomic numbers and mass
numbers. This occurs in very massive nuclei. For instance, californium-254 undergoes spontaneous
fission, making various sets of fission products. One possible set can be represented as

98254Cf→46118Pd+52132Te+04n

Tip
In nuclear reactions, the parent nucleus is on the left side of the equation. The daughter nucleus and
the emitted particle are on the right side. The number of nuclei is always conserved.

Try it!
Problem 1: Plutonium-242 undergoes alpha decay. The reaction is represented as

a242Pu→92bU+24α

What are the values of a and b in the balanced equation?

Problem 2: Fermium-256 undergoes _. The reaction is represented as

100256Fm→54140Xe+46112Pd+401n

Try it! Solution

Solution to Problem 1: When plutonium-242 undergoes alpha decay, the reaction produces a
daughter nucleus with an atomic number less than two and a mass number reduced by four
compared to the parent nucleus, 94234Pu. Hence, 94234Pu decays to 92238U. The balanced
equation is represented as

92242Pu→91238U+24α

The value of a is 92 while the value of b is 238.

Solution to Problem 2: Fermium-256 has a massive nuclei. Nuclei with mass number greater than
200 tend to undergo alpha emission, but even heavier nuclei undergoes spontaneous
fission. 100256Fm can undergo both of these reactions. Based on the given
equation, 100256Fm had fission products, xenon, palladium, and neutrons.
Therefore, 100256Fm had undergone spontaneous fission.

Try it!
Write the balanced equation that describe the given reactions.

1. the alpha decay of 98252Cf

2. the spontaneous fission of 95243Am
What do you think?
Can less massive elements, such as lead, be transformed into gold through particle accelerators?

Key Points
 Nuclear reaction is the process where two nuclei collide to produce new ones.
 There are two types of nuclear reaction: nuclear transmutation and nuclear decay reaction.
 Nuclear transmutation is a reaction involving the transformation of one element or isotope
into another element. This process occurs only in special conditions such as the collision of
target nuclei with a beam of particles with high energies.
 Transuranium elements are elements whose atomic numbers are greater than 92. They
are all unstable and undergo radioactive decay.
 High-energy positive ions which include the use of deuterons, carbon nuclei, and ions are
used for synthesizing massive nuclei.
 Nuclear decay reaction is a reaction in which the nucleus of an element emits radiation and
transforms into another nucleus.
 The nuclear decay reactions involved in the synthesis of transuranium elements are alpha
decay, beta decay, and spontaneous fission.
 Alpha decay produces daughter nucleus with an atomic number reduced by two and a mass
number reduced by four compared with the parent nucleus.
 In beta decay, the atomic number of the nucleus increases by one while its mass number
remains the same.
 In spontaneous fission, several fission products are produced from the parent nucleus. The
sum of their mass numbers is equal to the mass number of the parent nucleus. Similarly, the
sum of their atomic numbers is equal to the atomic number of the parent nucleus.

Understanding the Concept of the Chemical Elements: The Contributions of John Dalton

Objectives
In this lesson, you will be able to cite the contributions of John Dalton toward the understanding of
the concept of the chemical elements and explain how Dalton’s theory contributed to the discovery
of other elements.

Who is John Dalton? What are his contributions to the concept of chemical elements?

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

John Dalton was an English chemist known for his pioneering work in the development of the
atomic theory. In his theory, he proposed that elements differ due to the mass of their atoms.

The postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory are:

1. All matter is composed of very small, indivisible particles called atoms.

2. All atoms of a given element are identical in properties and masses but differ from another
element’s.
 3. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed.
4. Atoms of the same or different elements may combine with each other in a fixed, whole
number ratio.
5. Atoms may combine, separate, or rearrange in chemical reactions.

The atomic theory had been revised over the years with the discovery of isotopes, subatomic
particles, and nuclear reactions. However, Dalton’s atomic theory has been widely recognized
because it became the foundation of the modern concept of the atom.

Dalton's Table of Elements

Dalton published his atomic theory in New System of Chemical Philosophy. Back then, he needed
to propose a new set of standard symbols for chemical elements because the Greeks' and
alchemists' symbols for elements were not supported by his theory. He first published his table of
elements according to increasing relative atomic weights. The elements were hydrogen, carbon,
oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus. He assumed that the atomic weight of hydrogen was one,
and calculated the rest of the elements' atomic weights based on hydrogen. After more experiments,
he listed 20 elements with different symbols and atomic weights.
Law of Multiple Proportions
In 1806, French chemist Joseph Proust published his law of definite proportions. This law states
that a chemical compound is formed by elements in fixed mass ratios. For example, carbon
monoxide (CO) is comprised of one carbon and one oxygen. By mass, carbon monoxide can be
described by the fixed ratio of 12:16 (mass of carbon:mass of oxygen), and simplified as 3:4.

Expanding on the work of Proust, Dalton developed the law of multiple proportions. This law was
based on Dalton's observations of the reactions of atmospheric gases. It states that when two or
more elements can form multiple combinations, the ratio of the elements in those compounds can be
expressed in small, whole numbers. For example, carbon and oxygen can combine to form carbon
monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2). In CO, the ratio of carbon to oxygen is 1:1. It is a fixed
ratio of whole numbers. In CO2, the fixed ratio is 1:2.

Dalton used this law to explain possible combinations of atoms. He published seventeen compounds
in the New System of Chemical Philosophy. He listed the compounds as binary, ternary, quaternary,
quinquenary, sextenary, and septenary.
A binary compound is formed by two elements. For example, two atoms of azote (nitrogen) may
combine to form a binary compound.

A ternary compound is formed by three atoms. For example, when one atom of nitrogen combines
with two atoms of oxygen, then the resulting compound, nitrogen dioxide, is ternary.

Similarly, quarternary compounds are made of four atoms; quinquenary are made of
five; sextenary are made of six; and septenary are made of seven.

Dalton’s system of naming elements and compounds were then replaced with the chemical symbols
and formulae by Jons Berzelius. Berzelius’ symbols are the ones we use today.

Try it!
Using Dalton’s symbols of elements, draw the symbol for each compound.

1. Methane, CH4
2. Sulfur dioxide, SO2
3. Water, H2O

Which notation is easier to memorize, Dalton’s or Berzelius’?

What do you think?

Why are the chemical symbols and formulae we use today different with those proposed by Dalton?

Key Points
 John Dalton developed the atomic theory, which has been widely recognized because it
became the foundation of the modern concept of the atom.
 Dalton published his atomic theory together with his symbols of chemical elements in
the New System of Chemical Philosophy.
 Dalton developed the law of multiple proportions, which states that atoms of elements
combine in small whole numbers, not in fraction numbers, to form a number of possible
compounds.

The Polarity of a Molecule Based on Its Structure

 Lesson5 chapters
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to determine if a molecule is polar or nonpolar given its
structure.

In your previous Chemistry lessons, you have learned that a molecule has a certain shape or
geometry.

Did you know that such molecule may exhibit polarity based on its 3-dimensional shape?

Learn about it!

There are millions of different molecules, and there are many ways to sort them. One way to classify
them is based on polarity. Polarity means having dipoles, a positive and a negative end. Based on
polarity, molecules can be polar or nonpolar.

Polar molecules have dipoles. Their dipole moments do not add up to zero (or do not cancel out).
Water and carbon monoxide are examples of polar molecules.

Nonpolar molecules do not have positive or negative ends. Their dipole moments add up to zero
(they cancel out). Carbon tetrachloride and methane are examples of nonpolar molecules.

Generally, you can tell if a molecule is polar or nonpolar based on:

 its structure or shape

 the polarity of the individual bonds present in the molecule

Steps in Determining the Polarity of a Molecule

1. Draw the correct Lewis structure and molecular geometry of the molecule.
2. Identify the polarity of each bond present in the molecule. A bond is polar when the atoms in
the bond have different electronegativities. Recall that electronegativity is the measure of
the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons. (You may use the periodic
table to determine the electronegativity values of the atoms.)
3. Draw the dipole moment vectors for polar bonds. The dipole moment vector points to the
more electronegative atom.
 4. Determine the sum of the dipole moment vectors. If the dipole moments cancel out each
other, the molecule is nonpolar; otherwise, it is polar.

Examples
Example 1

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the gas that you exhale.

1. Correct Lewis structure and geometry:

2. Oxygen is more electronegative than carbon. Therefore, the C—O bonds are polar.
3. Since CO2 has a linear symmetrical structure, the dipole moments of the C—O bonds cancel
out.

CO2 is a nonpolar molecule.

Example 2

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a colorless toxic gas formed by burning sulfur in air.
1. Correct Lewis structure and geometry:

2. Oxygen is more electronegative than sulfur. Therefore, the S—O bonds are polar.
3. Since the molecule is bent-shaped, the dipole moments do not cancel out.

SO2 is a polar molecule.

4. Tip
5. Note that the shape or structure does not directly determine whether the molecule is polar or
nonpolar. However, you need to know the shape of the molecule to know if the dipole
moments cancel out.

6. Explore!
7. Consider the examples below to help you understand the concept of polarity.
8. Below are the images of a magnet bar, a block of wood, and a battery.
 9.
10. Which of the three show(s) polarity?

11. Try it!

12. Ammonia (NH3) is a colorless gas. A solution of ammonia in water is used as a cleaning
agent. Determine if ammonia is polar or nonpolar.

What do you think?

Are all linear molecules polar? Why or why not?

Key Points
 Polarity means having dipoles, a positive and a negative end. Based on polarity, molecules
can be polar or nonpolar.
 Polar molecules have dipoles. Their dipole moments do not add up to zero (or do not
cancel out).
 Nonpolar molecules do not have positive or negative ends. Their dipole moments add up to
zero (they cancel out).
 In general, you can tell if a molecule is polar or nonpolar based on the shape of the molecule
and the polarity of the individual bonds present in the molecule.

The Properties of a Molecule Based on Its Polarity

 Lesson6 chapters
 Questions
Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to relate the polarity of a molecule to its properties.

Why is sucrose (table sugar) soluble in water? In the previous lesson, you have learned that both
sucrose and water are polar molecules.

In this lesson, you will continue to learn about polar and nonpolar molecules. But this time, you will
relate the polarity of the molecules to their observable properties.

Learn about it!

The properties of the molecules are related to their polarity. To understand the relationship, you
must be able to describe the force of attraction between the molecules.

Polar molecules have partially positive and negative ends. When two polar molecules are near
each other, the negative end of one molecule is attracted to the positive end of the other. The
separation of charges result in a strong force of attraction between the molecules.

On the other hand, nonpolar molecules do not have positive or negative ends. Between two
neighboring nonpolar molecules, the attraction is very minimal.

How do you relate the strength of attraction between the molecules to their observable
properties?

Solubility

Do you remember the rule of thumb “like dissolves like” in your previous Chemistry lessons? This
rule is applied on the concept of solubility of molecules. Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents. For
example, sucrose is soluble in water because both of them are polar molecules. On the other hand,
nonpolar solutes dissolve in nonpolar solvents. For example, hexane (C6H14) and benzene (C6H6)
are nonpolar molecules because they only contain nonpolar C-H bonds. The combination of these
molecules form a solution.

Melting point

Melting point is the temperature at which a solid turns into liquid. Heat is needed to break the forces
of attraction between the molecules. Because the polar molecules have relatively stronger forces of
attraction compared to nonpolar ones, greater amount of heat must be applied to break these forces.
Therefore, in general, polar molecules have higher melting points than nonpolar molecules.
For example, hydrogen fluoride (HF) is polar while fluorine (F2) is nonpolar. HF has higher melting
point than F2.

Boiling point

Boiling point is the temperature at which a liquid turns into gas. Similar to melting point, greater
amount of heat is needed to break the forces of attraction of polar molecules compared to nonpolar
ones. Generally, polar molecules have higher boiling points than nonpolar molecules. For
example, methanol (CH3OH) is a polar molecule while methane (CH4) is nonpolar. The boiling
of CH3OH is higher than that of CH4.

Example
Study the illustrations below to compare a polar and a nonpolar molecule.

Water molecules are polar. The partially negative end of one molecule is attracted to the partially
positive end of another molecule.

Carbon dioxide molecules are nonpolar. There is a minimal force of attraction between the
molecules.
Based on the interaction of molecules, water is expected to have higher melting and boiling points
than carbon dioxide.

Below are the actual melting and boiling points of the compounds.

Try it!
Predict which has higher boiling point, water or corn oil.

Place a cup of water in a beaker or a pan. Then heat it using a hot plate or stove. Place a
thermometer in the liquid and record the temperature at which it starts to boil. Repeat the
experiment, but this time, use corn oil instead of water.

Is your prediction correct? Explain the results of your experiment.

Tips
Molecular weight is also a factor in assessing the melting and boiling points of molecules. For
example, carbon monoxide (CO) is a polar molecule. However, it has a lower boiling point
(−191.5∘C) compared to hexane (BPofC6H14=68∘C) because its molecular weight is much lower.
You will learn more about this in the next lessons.

What do you think?

Why is ethanol (C2H6O) soluble in water? What products in the market use the solution of ethanol
and water?

Key Points
 Polar molecules have stronger attractive forces compared to nonpolar molecules.
 In general, polar molecules have higher boiling and melting points compared to
nonpolar ones.
 “Like dissolves like.” Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents while nonpolar solutes
dissolve in nonpolar solvents.

Types of Intermolecular Forces of Attraction

 Lesson6 chapters
 Questions

Objective
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to describe the general types of intermolecular forces of
attraction.

What are the types of intermolecular forces that can be present between molecules?

Learn about it!

Intermolecular forces are the attractive forces present between molecules. Generally, they are
called van der Waals forces, named after the Dutch scientist Johannes van der Waals.

The different types of intermolecular forces of attraction (IMFA) are:

 London dispersion forces (LDF)

 Dipole-dipole forces
 Hydrogen bonding
Learn about it!
London dispersion forces

 present in all molecules

 caused by fluctuations in the electron distribution within atoms or molecules
 weak type of IMFA

Example
In a nonpolar molecule, such as O2, there are no positive or negative ends. However, the electrons
of this molecule are constantly moving. There are times when electrons move to one end, making
such end partially negative while the other end becomes partially positive. Hence, the molecule can
have an instantaneous dipole.

The temporary dipole of a molecule induces instantaneous dipoles on neighboring molecules.

Tip
In assessing the relative strengths of London dispersion forces between two different substances,
compare their molecular weight and size. Larger and more massive molecules are more polarizable
(i.e. they have a greater tendency to have distorted electron clouds) and have stronger IMFA.

Dipole-dipole forces

 attractive forces between polar molecules

 result of the electrical interactions among dipoles on neighboring molecules
 moderately strong type of IMFA
Example
HCl is a polar molecule. It has partially positive and partially negative ends.

The partially positive end of the molecule is attracted to the partially negative side of another
molecule.
Tip
In assessing the relative strengths of dipole-dipole forces between two different substances,
compare their polarities. A more polar substance will have stronger dipole–dipole forces compared
to a less polar one.

Hydrogen bonding

 a special kind of dipole-dipole force

 an attractive force between a hydrogen atom of one molecule and a highly electronegative
atom (O, N, or F) of another molecule
 strongest type of IMFA

Example
Consider the water molecule, H2O.
The hydrogen of one molecule is attracted to the oxygen atom of another molecule.
Try it!
Identify the types of intermolecular forces present between molecules of the following substances:

1. CCl4
2. HF
3. HI

hink?
During respiration, we inhale oxygen gas (O2) and exhale carbon dioxide (CO2). Why do you think
these compounds exist as gases at room temperature?

Key Points
 Intermolecular forces are the attractive forces between molecules.
 The three types of IMFA are London dispersion forces, dipole-dipole forces, and hydrogen
bonding.