Describing 4.1.

4
Orbits

In This Section You’ll Learn to... Outline

☛ Define the classic orbital elements (COEs) used to describe the size, 4.1.4.1 Orbital Elements
shape, and orientation of an orbit and the location of a spacecraft in
Defining the Classic Orbital
that orbit
Elements (COEs)
☛ Determine the COEs given the position, R , and velocity, V , of a Alternate Orbital Elements
spacecraft at one point in its orbit
☛ Explain and use orbital ground tracks 4.1.4.2 Spacecraft Ground Tracks
I
n the last chapter we looked at the restricted two-body problem and
developed an equation of motion to describe in strictly mathematical
terms, how spacecraft move through space. But many times it’s not
enough to generate a list of numbers that give a spacecraft’s position and
velocity in inertial space. Often, we want to visualize its orbit with respect
to points on Earth. For example, we may want to know when a remote-
sensing spacecraft will be over a flood-damaged area (Figure 4.1.4-1).

Space Mission Architecture. This chapter

deals with the Trajectories and Orbits segment
of the Space Mission Architecture introduced
in Figure 4.1.1-20.
1-20.

Figure 4.1.4-1. Mississippi River Flooding. Here we show an Earth Observation System
view of the river flooding at St. Louis, Missouri, in 1993. (Courtesy of NASA/Goddard Space
Flight Center)

In this chapter, we’ll explore two important tools that help us “see”
spacecraft motion—the classic orbital elements (COEs) and ground
tracks. Once you get the hang of it, you’ll be able to use these COEs to
visualize how the orbit looks in space. Ground tracks will allow you to
determine when certain parts of the Earth pass into a spacecraft’s field of
view, and when an observer on Earth can see the spacecraft.

4.1.4-153
 4.1.1.1 Orbital Elements

In This Section You’ll Learn to...

☛ Define the classic orbital elements (COEs)
☛ Use the COEs to describe the size, shape, and orientation of an orbit
and the location of a spacecraft in that orbit
☛ Explain when particular COEs are undefined and which alternate
elements we must use in their place

If you’re flying an airplane and the ground controllers call you on the
radio to ask where you are and where you’re going, you must tell them
six things: your airplane’s
• Latitude
• Longitude
• Altitude
• Horizontal velocity
• Heading (i.e. north, south, etc.)
• Vertical velocity (ascending or descending)
Knowing these things, controllers can then predict your future position.
Space operators do something similar, except they don’t ask where the
spacecraft is; instead, they use radar at tracking sites to measure it’s
current position, R , and velocity, V . As we’ll see in Chapter 8, this
information helps them predict the spacecraft’s future position and
velocity. Notice that position, R , and velocity, V , are vectors with three
components each. Unfortunately, unlike latitude and longitude used for
aircraft, R and V aren’t very useful in visualizing a spacecraft’s orbit.
For example, suppose you’re given this current position and velocity
for a spacecraft

R = 10, 000 Iˆ + 8000 Jˆ – 7000 Kˆ km

V = 4.4 Iˆ + 3.1 Jˆ – 2.7 Kˆ km/s

What could you tell about the orbit’s size and shape or the spacecraft’s
position?
With the tools you’ve learned, about the only thing you could do is
plot R and V in a 3-dimensional coordinate system and try to visualize
the orbit that way. Fortunately, there’s an easier way. Hundreds of years
ago, Johannes Kepler developed a method for describing orbits that
allows us to visualize their size, shape, and orientation, as well as the
spacecraft’s position within them. Because we still need six quantities to
describe an orbit and a spacecraft’s place in it, Kepler defined six orbital
elements. We call these the classic orbital elements (COEs), and we’ll use

4.1.4-154
them to tell us the four things we want to know, as summarized in the
COEs checklist on the left. In the rest of this section, we’ll go through each
of the four things on the checklist and learn which COE describe the
given properly. As a preview, we’ll learn
• Orbital size, uses the semimajor axis, a
• Orbital shape, is defined by eccentricity, e
• Orientation of the orbital plane in space, uses
- inclination, i
- right ascension of the ascending node, Ω
• Orientation of the orbit within the plane is defined by argument of
perigee, ω and finally
• Spacecraft’s location in the orbit is represented by true anomaly, ν
Let’s go through these elements to see what each one contributes to our
understanding of orbits and check them off one at a time on our COE
checklist.

Defining the Classic Orbital Elements (COEs)

Let’s start with orbital size. In Chapter 4 we related the size of an orbit
to its specific mechanical energy using the relationship ✔

µ
ε = – ------ (4.1.4-1)
2a
where
ε = specific mechanical energy (km2/s2)
µ = gravitational parameter of the central body (km3/s2)
a = semimajor axis (km)
The semimajor axis, a, describes half the distance across the orbit’s major
(long) axis, as shown in Figure 4.1.4-2, and we use it as our first COE.

Figure 4.1.4-2. Semimajor Axis. The semimajor axis, a, is one half the distance across the
long axis of an ellipse. The distance between the foci (F and F') of the ellipse is 2c.

4.1.4-155
 With the orbit’s size accounted for, the next thing we want to know is
its shape. In Chapter 4, we described the “out of roundness” of a conic
section in terms of its eccentricity, e. Eccentricity specifies the shape of an
✔ orbit by looking at the ratio of the distance between the two foci and the
✔ length of the major axis.
2c
e = ------ (4.1.4-2)
2a
Table 4.1.4-1 summarizes the relationship between an orbit’s shape and its
eccentricity and Figure 4.1.4-3 illustrates this relationship.

Table 4.1.4-1. Relationship Between Conic Section and Eccentricity.

Conic Section Eccentricity

Circle e=0
Ellipse 0<e<1
Parabola e=1
Hyperbola e>1

Now we have two pieces of our orbital puzzle: its size, a, and its shape,
e. Next we tackle its orientation in space. Previously we learned that
because specific angular momentum is constant, an orbital plane is
stationary in inertial space. To describe its orientation, we refer to an
inertial coordinate system—the geocentric-equatorial coordinate system,
shown in Figure 4.1.4-4. (In the following discussion, we describe angles
between key vectors, so make sure you know how to perform dot
Figure 4.1.4-3. Eccentricity. Eccentricity products and how to change from degrees to radians.)
defines an orbit’s shape.
The first angle we use to describe the orientation of an orbit with
respect to our coordinate system is inclination, i. Inclination describes the
tilt of the orbital plane with respect to the fundamental plane (the
equatorial plane in this case). We could describe this tilt as the angle
between the two planes, but this is harder to do mathematically. Instead,
we define inclination as the angle between two vectors: one perpen-
dicular to the orbital plane, h (the specific angular momentum vector),
and one perpendicular to the fundamental plane, K̂ , as shown in Figure
4.1.4-5. Inclination has a range of values from 0° to 180°.
We use inclination to define several different kinds of orbits. For
example, an Earth orbit with an inclination of 0° or 180° is an equatorial
orbit, because it always stays over the equator. If the orbit has i = 90°, we
call it a polar orbit because it travels over the North and South Poles. We
Figure 4.1.4-4. The Geocentric-equatorial
Coordinate System. We use the geocentric-
also use the value of inclination to distinguish between two major classes
equatorial coordinate system to reference all of orbits. If 0° ≤ i < 90° , the spacecraft is moving with Earth’s rotation (in
orbital elements. The fundamental plane is an easterly direction), and the spacecraft is in a direct orbit or prograde
Earth’s equatorial plane, the principal direction
( Î ) points in the vernal equinox direction, , orbit. If 90° < i ≤ 180° , the spacecraft is moving opposite from Earth’s
the K̂ unit vector points to the North Pole, and rotation (in a westerly direction), so it’s in an indirect orbit or retrograde
Ĵ completes the right-hand rule. orbit. Table 4.1.4-2 summarizes these orbits.

4.1.4-156
 Thus, inclination is the third COE. It specifies the tilt of the orbital
plane with respect to the fundamental plane and helps us understand an
orbit’s orientation with respect to the equator.
The fourth COE is another angle, right ascension of the ascending node, Ω,
used to describe orbital orientation with respect to the principal direction,
Î . Before you give up on this complex-sounding term, let’s look at each of
its pieces. First of all, what is “right ascension?” It’s similar to longitude
except its reference point is the vernal equinox and it doesn’t rotate with
Earth. So, right ascension of the ascending node is an angle we measure
along the equator, starting at the Î direction.
Now let’s look at the other part of this new angle’s name, “ascending
node” (or a node of any kind)? As we just described, the orbital plane
normally tilts (is inclined) with respect to the fundamental plane (unless Figure 4.1.4-5. Inclination. Inclination, i, de-
i = 0° or 180°). From plane geometry, you may remember that the intersec- scribes the tilt of the orbital plane with respect
to the equator. The angle between the two
tion of two planes forms a line. In our case, the intersection of the orbital
planes is the same as the angle between K̂
plane and the fundamental plane is the line of nodes. The two points at (which is perpendicular to the equator) and h
which the orbit crosses the equatorial plane are the nodes. The node where (which is perpendicular to the orbital plane).
the spacecraft goes from below the equator (Southern Hemisphere) to
above the equator (Northern Hemisphere) is the ascending node. Similarly,
when the spacecraft crosses the equator heading south, it passes through
the descending node. See Table 4.1.4-2.

Table 4.1.4-2.Types of Orbits and Their Inclination.

Inclination Orbital Type Diagram

0° or 180° Equatorial

90° Polar
i = 90°

0° ≤ i < 90° Direct or Prograde

(moves in the direction of
Earth’s rotation) ascending
node

90° < i ≤ 180° Indirect or Retrograde

(moves against the
direction of Earth’s ascending
rotation) node

4.1.4-157
 Now let’s put “right ascension” and “ascending node” together. The
right ascension of the ascending node describes the orbital plane’s
orientation with respect to the principal direction. That is, how is the
orbital plane rotated in space? We use the vernal equinox direction or Î
(an inertial reference) as the starting point and measure eastward along
the equator to the ascending node. Thus, the right ascension of the
ascending node, Ω, is the angle from the principal direction, Î , to the
ascending node. It acts like a celestial map reference to give us the swivel
of the orbit, helping us to better understand its orientation in space.
Figure 4.1.4-6 illustrates the right ascension of the ascending node. Its
range of values is 0° ≤ Ω < 360° . That’s now 4 out of 6 on our COE
checklist.

Figure 4.1.4-6. Right Ascension of the Ascending Node, Ω. This angle describes the
swivel of the orbital plane with respect to the principal direction. It is the angle along the
equator between the principal direction, Î , and the point where the orbital plane crosses the
equator from south to north (ascending node), measured eastward.

Let’s recap where we are. We now know the orbit’s size, a, its shape, e,
its tilt, i, and its swivel, Ω . But we don’t know how the orbit is oriented
within the plane. For example, for an elliptical orbit, we may want to
know whether perigee (point closest to Earth) is in the Northern or
✔ Southern Hemisphere. This is important if we want to take high-
✔ resolution pictures of a particular point. So, for this fifth orbital element,
we measure the angle along the orbital path between the ascending node
✔ and perigee and call it argument of perigee, ω. To remove any ambiguities,
we always measure this angle in the direction of spacecraft motion.
Where does this unusual sounding term “argument of perigee” come
from? To begin with, perigee is an easily identifiable point on the orbit to
reference. But why “argument”? Because we’re “making clear” (from
Latin) where perigee is. So our fifth COE, argument of perigee, ω, is the
angle measured in the direction of the spacecraft’s motion from the
ascending node to perigee. It gives us the orientation of the orbit within
the orbital plane, as shown in Figure 4.1.4-7. The range on argument of
perigee is 0° ≤ ω < 360° . That’s 5 down and 1 to go on our COE checklist.

4.1.4-158
Figure 4.1.4-7. Argument of Perigee, ω. This angle describes the orientation of an orbit
within its orbital plane. It is the angle between the ascending node and perigee, measured in
the direction of the spacecraft’s motion.

After specifying the size and shape of the orbit, along with its
orientation (tilt and swivel), we still need to find a spacecraft’s location
within the orbit. As we’ve already seen in Chapter 4, we can find this
using the true anomaly. True anomaly, ν, is the angle along the orbital path
from perigee to the spacecraft’s position vector, R . Similar to the
argument of perigee, we measure true anomaly in the direction of the
spacecraft’s motion. Figure 4.1.4-8 shows true anomaly. Its range of
Figure 4.1.4-8. True Anomaly. True
values is 0° ≤ ν < 360°. anomaly, ν, specifies the location of a
True anomaly, ν, tells us the location of the spacecraft in its orbit. Of all spacecraft within the orbit. It is the angle
the COEs, only true anomaly changes with time (while our two-body between perigee and the spacecraft’s position
vector measured in the direction of the
assumptions hold) as the spacecraft moves in its orbit. spacecraft’s motion. Of all the COEs, only true
Now that you’ve seen all six of the COEs, we can show four of them anomaly changes with time (as long as our
together in Figure 4.1.4-9 (we can show size and shape only indirectly in
the way we draw the orbit). Table 4.1.4-3 summarizes all six. That
completes our COE checklist. We’ve shown all you need to know about
describing an orbit and locating a spacecraft within it.
✔
✔
✔

4.1.4-159
 Figure 4.1.4-9. Classic Orbital Elements (COEs). Here we show four of the six COEs. We
use the COEs to visualize an orbit and locate a spacecraft in it. The other two COEs,
semimajor axis, a, and eccentricity, e, specify the size and shape of an orbit.

Table 4.1.4-3.Summary of Classic Orbital Elements.

Element Name Description Range of Values Undefined

a Semimajor axis Size Depends on the Never

conic section
e Eccentricity Shape e = 0: circle Never
0 < e < 1: ellipse
i Inclination Tilt, angle from K̂ unit vector to 0 ≤ i ≤ 180° Never
specific angular momentum
vector h
Ω Right ascension of Swivel, angle from vernal equinox 0 ≤ Ω < 360° When i = 0 or 180°
the ascending to ascending node (equatorial orbit)
node
ω Argument of Angle from ascending node to 0 ≤ ω < 360° When i = 0 or 180° (equatorial
perigee perigee orbit) or e = 0 (circular orbit)
ν True anomaly Angle from perigee to the 0 ≤ ν < 360° When e = 0 (circular orbit)
spacecraft’s position

4.1.4-160
 By now you may wonder what all these COEs are good for! Let’s look
at an example to see how they can help us visualize an orbit. Suppose a
communication satellite has the following COEs

• Semimajor axis, a = 50,000 km

• Eccentricity, e = 0.4
• Inclination, i = 45°
• Right ascension of the ascending node, Ω = 50°
Figure 4.1.4-10. Orbital Size and Shape.
• Argument of perigee, ω = 110° Here we show the approximate size and shape
of an orbit with a semimajor axis of 50,000 km
• True anomaly, ν = 170° and an eccentricity of 0.4.

To begin with, as in Figure 4.1.4-10, we can sketch the size and shape of
the orbit given the semimajor axis and the eccentricity. The eccentricity of
0.4 indicates an elliptical orbit (it’s between 0 and 1). The semimajor axis
of 50,000 km tells us how large to draw the orbit.
Now that we see the orbit in two dimensions, we can use the other
COEs to visualize how it’s oriented in three dimensions. Because the
inclination angle is 45°, we know the orbital plane tilts 45° from the
equator. We can also describe inclination as the angle between the specific
angular momentum vector, h , and K in the geocentric-equatorial
coordinate system. So we can sketch the crossing of the two planes in
three dimensions as you see in Figure 4.1.4-11.
Next, to find the swivel of the orbital plane with respect to the principal
direction, we use the right ascension of the ascending node, Ω. After
locating the principal direction in the equatorial plane, Î , we swivel the
orbital plane by positioning the ascending node 50° east of the Î vector.
What we know so far gives us the picture of the orbit in Figure 4.1.4-12. Figure 4.1.4-11. Inclination. This orbit has
an inclination of 45°.

Figure 4.1.4-12. Our Orbit So Far. Here we show an orbit with an inclination, i, of 45° and
a right ascension of the ascending node, Ω, of 50°.

4.1.4-161
 So, we’ve completely specified the orbit’s size and shape, as well as the
orientation of the orbital plane in space. But we still don’t know how the
orbit is oriented within the plane. Argument of perigee, ω, comes next. To
locate perigee within the orbital plane, we rotate perigee 110° from the
ascending node, in the direction of spacecraft motion. Figure 4.1.4-13
shows how to orient the orbit in the orbital plane.

Figure 4.1.4-13. Argument of Perigee for the Example. We rotate perigee 110o from the
ascending node to determine the argument of perigee, ω, is 110°.

Finally, we locate our communication satellite within the orbit. Using

the value of true anomaly, ν, we measure 170° in the direction of space-
craft motion from perigee to the spacecraft’s position. And there it is in
Figure 4.1.4-14!

Figure 4.1.4-14. Finding the Satellite. Here we show the position of a satellite with the
following COEs: a = 50,000 km; i = 45°; Ω = 50°; ω = 110°; ν = 170°.

4.1.4-162
 As we already know, various missions require different orbits, as
described by their COEs. Table 4.1.4-4 shows various types of missions
and their typical orbits. A geostationary orbit is a circular orbit with a
period of about 24 hours and inclination of 0°. Geostationary orbits are
particularly useful for communication satellites because a spacecraft in
this orbit appears motionless to an Earth-based observer, such as a fixed
ground station for a cable TV company. Geosynchronous orbits are inclined
orbits with a period of about 24 hours. A semi-synchronous orbit has a
period of 12 hours. Sun-synchronous orbits are retrograde, low-Earth orbits
(LEO) typically inclined 95° to 105° and often used for remote-sensing
missions because they pass over nearly every point on Earth’s surface. A
Molniya orbit is a semi-synchronous, eccentric orbit used for some specific
communication missions.

Table 4.1.4-4.Orbital Elements for Various Missions.

Semimajor Axis
Mission Orbital Type (Altitude) Period Inclination Other

• Communication Geostationary 42,158 km ~24 hr ~0° e≅0

• Early warning (35,780 km)
• Nuclear detection
• Remote sensing Sun-synchronous ~6500 – 7300 km ~90 min ~95° e≅0
(~150 – 900 km)
• Navigation Semi-synchronous 26,610 km 12 hr 55° e≅0
– GPS (20,232 km)
• Space Shuttle Low-Earth orbit ~6700 km (~300 km) ~90 min 28.5°, 39°, e≅0
51°, or 57°
• Communication/ Molniya 26,571 km (Rp = 7971 km; 12 hr 63.4° ω = 270°
intelligence Ra = 45,170 km) e = 0.7

Alternate Orbital Elements

Now that we’ve shown how to find all the classic orbital elements
(COEs), we’re ready to share some bad news—they’re not always
defined! For example, a circular orbit has no perigee. In this case, we have
no argument of perigee, ω, or true anomaly, ν, because both use perigee as
a reference. To correct this deficiency, we bring in an alternate orbital
element to replace these two missing angles. In general, whenever we
face a peculiar orbit with one or more of the COEs undefined, we work
backward from the spacecraft’s position vector (the one thing that’s
always defined) to the next quantity that is defined. For our circular-orbit
example, instead of using true anomaly to define position, we use the first
alternate element—the argument of latitude, u. We measure argument of
latitude, u, along the orbital path from the ascending node to the
spacecraft’s position in the direction of the spacecraft’s motion.

4.1.4-163
 Another special situation that requires an alternate element is an
equatorial orbit (i = 0° or 180°). In this case, the line of intersection
between the equator and the orbital plane is missing (the line of nodes),
so the ascending node doesn’t exist. This time the right ascension of the
ascending node, Ω, and the argument of perigee, ω, are undefined. We
replace them with another alternate element, the longitude of perigee, Π—
the angle measured from the principal direction, Î , to perigee in the
direction of the spacecraft’s motion.
Finally, a circular equatorial orbit has neither perigee nor ascending node,
so the right ascension of the ascending node, Ω, the argument of perigee,
Figure 4.1.4-15. Alternate Orbital ω, and true anomaly, ν, are all undefined! Instead, we use a final alternate
Elements. We use the alternate orbital element to replace all of them—the true longitude, l. We measure this
elements when one or more of the classic angle from the principal direction, Î , to the spacecraft’s position vector,
orbital elements are undefined. u is the
argument of latitude. Π is the longitude of R , in the direction of the spacecraft’s motion. Figure 4.1.4-15 and Table
4.1.4-5 summarize these alternate orbital elements.
Table 4.1.4-5.Alternate Orbital Elements.

Element Name Description Range of Values When to Use

u Argument of Angle from ascending node 0° ≤ u < 360° Use when there is no perigee (e = 0)
latitude to the spacecraft’s position
Π Longitude of Angle from the principal 0° ≤ Π < 360° Use when equatorial (i = 0 or 180°)
perigee direction to perigee because there is no ascending node

l True longitude Angle from the principal 0° ≤ l < 360° Use when there is no perigee and
direction to the spacecraft’s ascending node (e = 0 and i = 0 or
position 180°)

Section Review
Key Concepts
➤ To specify a spacecraft’s orbit in space, you need to know four things about it
• Orbit’s Size
• Orbit’s Shape
• Orbit’s Orientation
• Spacecraft’s Location
➤ The six classic orbital elements (COEs) specify these four pieces of information
• Semimajor axis, a—one-half the distance across the long axis of an ellipse. It specifies the orbit’s size
and relates to an orbit’s energy.
• Eccentricity, e—specifies the shape of an orbit by telling what type of conic section it is
• Inclination, i—specifies the orientation or tilt of an orbital plane with respect to a fundamental plane,
such as the equator
• Right ascension of the ascending node, Ω—specifies the orientation or swivel of an orbital plane with
respect to the principal direction, Î
• Argument of perigee, ω—specifies the orientation of an orbit within the plane
• True anomaly, ν—specifies a spacecraft’s location within its orbital plane
➤ Whenever one or more COEs are undefined, you must use the alternate orbital elements

4.1.4-164
 4.1.4.2 Spacecraft Ground Tracks

In This Section You’ll Learn to...

☛ Explain why spacecraft ground tracks look the way they do
☛ Use ground tracks to describe why certain types of missions use
specific types of orbits
☛ Use ground tracks to determine the inclination and period for direct
orbits

The six classic orbital elements (COEs) allow us to visualize an orbit

from space. Now let’s beam back to Earth to see orbits from our
perspective on the ground.
Many spacecraft users need to know what part of Earth their spacecraft
is passing over at any given time. For instance, remote-sensing satellites
must be over precise locations to get the coverage they need. As we’ll see, Figure 4.1.4-16. Car and Airplane Ground
we can learn a lot about a spacecraft’s orbit and mission by examining the Tracks. Ground tracks for a trip by car and air
from San Francisco to Omaha.
track it makes along Earth.
To understand ground tracks, imagine you’re driving from San
Francisco to Omaha. To get there, you go east out of San Francisco on
Interstate 80 for a couple thousand miles. If you have a road map of the
western United States, you can trace your route on the map by drawing a
meandering line along I-80, as shown in Figure 4.1.4-16. This is your
ground track from San Francisco to Omaha.
Now imagine you’re taking the same trip in an airplane.You can trace
your air route on the same map, but because you don’t need roads, this
ground track is nearly a straight line.
A spacecraft’s ground track is similar to these examples. It’s a trace of the
spacecraft’s path over Earth’s surface. But it’s more complicated because
Figure 4.1.4-17. Earth and Spacecraft
the spacecraft goes all the way around (more than 40,000 km or 25,000 mi.) Motion. The Earth spins on its axis at nearly
during each orbit and Earth spins on its axis at more than 1600 km/hr (1000 1600 km/hr (1000 m.p.h.) at the equator, while a
m.p.h.) at the equator at the same time, as we show in Figure 4.1.4-17. spacecraft orbits above it.
So what does a ground track look like? To make things easy, let’s start
by pretending Earth doesn’t rotate. (Try not to get dizzy—we’ll turn the
rotation back on soon.) Picture an orbit above this non-rotating Earth. The
ground track follows a great circle route around Earth. A great circle is any
circle that “slices through” the center of a sphere. For example, lines of
longitude, as shown in Figure 4.1.4-18, are great circles, because they slice
through Earth’s center, but lines of latitude are not great circles (except for
0° latitude at the equator), because they don’t. An orbital trace must be a
great circle because the spacecraft is in orbit around Earth’s center; thus,
the orbital plane also passes through Earth’s center. Figure 4.1.4-18. Great Circles. A great circle
When we stretch Earth onto a flat-map projection (called a Mercator is any circle around a sphere which bisects it
(cuts it exactly in half). Lines of longitude are
projection), the ground track looks a little different. To visualize how this great circles whereas lines of latitude (except
flattening affects the ground-track shape, imagine Earth as a soda can. A for the equator) are not.

4.1.4-165
 trace of the orbit on the soda can is shown in Figure 4.1.4-19. It looks like
a circle slicing through the center of the can. But what if we were to flatten
the can and look at the orbital trace, as shown in Figure 4.1.4-19? It looks
like a sine wave!
Now imagine yourself on the ground watching the spacecraft pass
overhead. Because we stopped Earth from rotating, the ground track will
always stay the same, and the spacecraft will continue to pass overhead
orbit after orbit, as shown in Figure 4.1.4-20. Even if we change the size
and shape of the orbit, the ground track will look the same.

Figure 4.1.4-20. An Orbit’s Ground Track for a Non-Rotating Earth. For a non-rotating
Earth, the ground track of an orbit will continuously repeat.

But suppose we start Earth rotating again. What happens? The space-
craft passes overhead on one orbit but appears to pass to the west of you
on the next orbit. How can this be? Because the orbital plane is immovable
in inertial space, the spacecraft stays in the same orbit. But you’re fixed to
Earth and as it rotates to the east, you move away from the orbit, making it
look as if the spacecraft moved, as seen in Figure 4.1.4-21. Each ground
Figure 4.1.4-19. Orbiting around a Soda track traces a path on Earth farther to the west than the previous one.
Can. Imagine an orbit around a soda can. It
draws a circle around the can. When we flatten
the can, the line looks like a sine wave.

Figure 4.1.4-21. A Normal Spacecraft Ground Track. As Earth rotates, successive

ground tracks appear to shift to the west from an Earth-based observer’s viewpoint.

Can we learn something about the orbit from all of this? Sure! Because
Earth rotates at a fixed rate of about 15° per hr (360° in 24 hrs = 15°/hr) or
0.25° per minute, we can use this rotation as a “clock” to tell us the orbit’s
period. By measuring how much the orbit’s ground track moves to the
west from one orbit to the next, and we can establish a new parameter,
node displacement, ∆N. We measure ∆Ν along the equator from one
ascending node to the next and define it to be positive in the direction of
the spacecraft’s motion. Thus, the nodal displacement to the west during
one orbit is the difference between 360° and ∆Ν.

4.1.4-166
 We can put this ground track shift to work in finding the orbital period
because the nodal displacement is simply Earth’s rotation rate times the
period of the orbit. For example, suppose the period of an orbit were two
hours. Earth would rotate 30° (2 hr × 15°/hr) during one orbital
revolution, producing a nodal displacement of 330° (360° – 30°). In terms
of ∆N, we find the period from

360 ° – ∆ N
Period (hours) = -------------------------- (for direct orbits) (4.1.4-3)
15 ° ⁄ hr
[Note: As is, this equation applies only to direct orbits with a period less
than 24 hours. For other orbits, the same concept applies but the equation
changes. We’ll only consider direct orbit ground tracks with periods less
than 24 hours, so this equation will suffice.] If we can determine the
period, we can also determine the orbit’s semimajor axis using the
equation below.
3
a
P = 2π ----
µ
- (4.1.4-4)

where
P = period (s)
π = 3.14159. . .(unitless)
a = semimajor axis (km)
µ = gravitational parameter (km3/s2) = 3.986 × 105 km3/s2 for
Earth
So, by finding ∆N from the ground track, we can find the period and then
the semimajor axis. For example, in the ground track in Figure 4.1.4-22, ∆N
is 315°. We find the orbital period using Equation (4.1.4-3) and the
semimajor axis using Equation (4.1.4-4). But we must be careful to watch
the units when using these equations.

Figure 4.1.4-22. Ascending Node Shift Due to the Rotating Earth. We measure ∆N
along the equator from one ascending node to the next. It is positive in the direction of
spacecraft motion. Thus, 360° – ∆N represents the amount Earth rotates during one orbit.

4.1.4-167
 As the orbit’s size increases, the semimajor axis gets bigger, so ∆N gets
smaller. This happens because the spacecraft takes longer to make one
revolution as Earth rotates beneath it (the bigger the semimajor axis, a, the
longer the period). As the orbit gets bigger, the ∆N gets smaller, so the
ground track appears to compress or “scrunch” together. Recall, we define
a geosynchronous orbit as one with a period of approximately 24 hours.
For such an orbit, the ∆N is 0°. This means the spacecraft’s period matches
Earth’s rotational period. Thus, the orbit appears to retrace itself and form a
figure 8, as shown in Figure 4.1.4-23, orbit D. If the orbit lies in the
equatorial plane (has an inclination of 0°), the ground track will be just a
dot on the equator, similar to orbit E, in Figure 4.1.4-23. A spacecraft with
a period of 24 hours and an inclination of 0° is in a geostationary orbit.
This name means the spacecraft appears stationary to Earth-based
observers, making these orbits very useful for communication satellites.
Once we point the receiving antenna at the satellite, we don’t have to
move the antenna as Earth rotates.

Figure 4.1.4-23. Orbital Ground Tracks. Orbit A has a period of 2.67 hours. Orbit B has a
period of 8 hours. Orbit C has a period of 18 hours. Orbit D has a period of 24 hours. Orbit E
has a period of 24 hours.

Besides using the ground track to determine an orbit’s semimajor axis,

we can also find its inclination. Imagine a spacecraft in a 50° inclined
orbit. From our definition of inclination, we know in this case the angle
between the equatorial plane and the orbital plane is 50°. What’s the
highest latitude the spacecraft will pass over directly? 50°! The highest
latitude any spacecraft passes over equals its inclination. Let’s see why.
Remember that latitude is the Earth-centered angle measured from the
equator north or south to the point in question. But the orbital plane also
Figure 4.1.4-24. Inclination Equals
passes through Earth’s center, and the angle it forms with the equatorial
Highest Latitude, L. Because inclination plane is its inclination, as we show in Figure 4.1.4-24. Thus, for direct
relates the angle between the orbital plane (prograde) orbits, when a spacecraft reaches its northernmost point, the
and the equatorial plane, the highest latitude
reached by a spacecraft equals its inclination
point on Earth directly below it lies on the latitude line equal to the orbit’s
(for direct orbits). inclination.

4.1.4-168
 In this way, we can use the ground track to tell us the orbit’s inclination.
• For a direct orbit (0 < i < 90°), we find the northernmost or
southernmost point on the ground track and read its latitude. This
“maximum latitude” equals the orbit’s inclination.
• For a retrograde orbit (90 < i < 180°), we subtract the maximum
latitude from 180° to get the inclination
The Earth coverage a spacecraft’s mission requires affects how we
select the orbit’s inclination. For example, if a remote-sensing spacecraft
needs to view the entire surface during the mission, it needs a near polar
inclination of about 90°. In Figure 4.1.4-25 we see several spacecraft
ground tracks with the same period but with varying inclinations.

Figure 4.1.4-25. Changing Inclination. All four ground tracks represent orbits with a period
of 4 hours. We can find the inclination of these orbits by looking at the highest latitude
reached. Orbit A has an inclination of 10°. Orbit B has an inclination of 30°. Orbit C has an
inclination of 50°. Orbit D has an inclination of 85°. (Note that Orbit D appears distorted,
because ground distances elongate near the poles on a Mercator projection map.)

So far we’ve looked only at circular orbits. Now let’s look at how
eccentricity and the location of perigee affect the shape of the ground
track. If an orbit is circular, its ground track is symmetrical. If an orbit is
elliptical, its ground track is lopsided. That is, it will not look the same
above and below the equator. Remember, a spacecraft moves fastest at
perigee, so it travels farthest along its path near perigee, making the
ground track look spread out. But, near apogee it’s going slower, so the
ground track is more scrunched. We show this effect in the two ground
tracks in Figure 4.1.4-26. Orbit A has perigee in the Northern Hemisphere;
Orbit B has perigee in the Southern Hemisphere.

4.1.4-169
 Figure 4.1.4-26. Changing Perigee Location. Both ground tracks represent orbits with
periods of 11.3 hours and inclinations of 50°. Both orbits are highly eccentric. Orbit A has
perigee over the Northern Hemisphere. Orbit B has perigee over the Southern Hemisphere.
If the mission objective is to get high-resolution photographs of locations in the United States,
then orbit A has perigee properly positioned.

Section Review
Key Concepts

➤ A ground track is the path a spacecraft traces on Earth’s surface as it orbits. Because a spacecraft orbits
around Earth’s center, the orbital plane slices through the center, so the ground track is a great circle.
➤ When the spherically-shaped Earth is spread out on a two-dimensional, Mercator-projection map, the
orbital ground track resembles a sine wave for orbits with periods less than 24 hours
➤ Because orbital planes are fixed in inertial space and Earth rotates beneath them, ground tracks appear
to shift westward during successive orbits
➤ From a ground track, you can find several orbital parameters
• Orbital period—by measuring the westward shift of the ground track
• Inclination of a spacecraft’s orbit—by looking at the highest latitude reached on the ground track (for
direct orbits)
• Approximate eccentricity of the orbit—nearly circular orbits appear symmetrical, whereas eccentric
orbits appear lopsided
• Location of perigee—by looking at the point where the ground track is spread out the most

4.1.4-170
References
Bate, Roger R., Donald D. Mueller, and Jerry E. White.
Fundamentals of Astrodynamics. New York, NY:
Dover Publications, 1971.

Wertz, James R. and Wiley J. Larson. Space Mission

Analysis and Design. Third edition. Dordrecht,
Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1999.

4.1.4-171