Satellite

Communication
s
(EEC 451)

By
Dr.Sunita Panda
 ORBITAL MECHANICS

Orbital mechanics, also called flight

mechanics, is the study of the motions of
artificial satellites and space vehicles
moving under the influence of forces such
as gravity, atmospheric drag, thrust, etc.
Equations of motion
 In a stable orbit, two
main forces acting
on a satellite.
A centrifugal force
due to the kinetic
energy of the
satellite which
attempts to fling the
satellite into a
higher orbit.

A centripetal force due to the gravitational

attraction of the planet about which
the satellite is orbiting, which attempts to
pull the satellite down towards the planet
The centripetal force acting on the satellite, FIN ,is given by

FIN = m X (µ/r2)

FIN = m X(G ME / r2)

Where the constant µ is called Kepler’s constant. It is the

product of the universal gravitational constant G and the
mass of the earth ME .

The centrifugal force, FOUT = m X (v2/r)

If the forces on the satellite are balanced, FIN = FOUT

m X (µ/r2) = m X (v2/r)
Hence the velocity v of a satellite in a circular orbit
is given by

V = (µ/r)1/2
If the orbit is circular, the distance traveled by a satellite in one orbit
around a planet is 2Πr, where r is the radius of the orbit from the satellite
to the center of the planet.
Since distance divided by velocity equals time to travel that distance,
The period of the satellite’s orbit T will be

T = 2Πr/v = 2Πr/ [(µ/r)1/2 ] = 2Πr3/2/( µ1/2)

 Orbital Plane
• A Satellite rotates in an orbit that forms a
plane passig through earth’s center of gravity
or geocenter.
• This plane is called as orbital plane.
 Equatorial Plane
• It is a plane passing through Earth’s equatorial
line.
 Kepler's three laws of planetary motion

Fig: The foci F1 and

F2, the semimajor
axis a, and the
semiminor axis b
of an ellipse.

1. Kepler’s First Law

Kepler’s first law states that the path followed by a satellite around the
primary will be an ellipse.
The center of mass of the two-body system, termed the barycenter, is always
centered on one of the foci. In our specific case, because of the enormous difference
between the masses of the earth and the satellite, the center of mass coincides with
• The semimajor axis of the ellipse is denoted by a, and the semi minor
axis, by b. The eccentricity e is given by

• The eccentricity and the semimajor axis are two of the orbital
parameters
specified for satellites (spacecraft) orbiting the earth. For an
elliptical
orbit, 0 < e <1. When e =0, the orbit becomes circular.
 Kepler’s Second Law:

Kepler’s second law states that,

for equal time intervals, a
satellite will sweep out equal
Fig:Kepler’s second law
areas in its orbital plane, focused
at the barycenter.

Assuming the satellite travels distances S1 and S2 meters in 1 s, then the areas A1
and A2 will be equal. The average velocity in each case is S1 and S2 m/s, and
because of the equal area law, it follows that the velocity at S2 is less than that at
S1.
Kepler’s Third Law:
Kepler’s third law states that the square of the periodic time of orbit is proportional
to the cube of the mean distance between the two bodies. The mean distance is equal
to the semimajor axis a. For the artificial satellites orbiting the earth, Kepler’s third
law can be written in the form

where n is the mean motion of the satellite in radians per second and µ is the earth’s
geocentric gravitational constant.
µ = 3.986005 X 1014 m3/s2

T = 2Πr/v = 2Πr/ [(µ/r)1/2 ] = 2Πr3/2/( µ1/2)

T2 = 4Π2r3/( µ) = T2 µ = 4Π2r3
Calculate the radius of a circular orbit for which the period is 1 day.
Calculate the radius of a circular orbit for which the period is 1 day.
 Definitions of Terms for Earth-Orbiting
Satellites

• Subsatellite path. This is the path traced out on

the earth’s surface directly below the satellite.
• Line of apsides. The line joining the perigee and
apogee through the center of the earth.
• The point in the orbit where the satellite is closest
to the earth is called the perigee.
• The point where the satellite is farthest from the
earth is called the apogee.
• The apogee height, Perigee height, eccentricity
and semi major axis are inter related as :
• Apogee height = a(1+e)
• Perigee height = a(1-e)
• Line of apsides : The line joining the perigee and
apogee through the center of the earth.
• Ascending node : The point where the orbit crosses
the equatorial plane going from south to north.
• Descending node : The point where the orbit crosses
the equatorial plane going from north to south.
• Line of nodes: The line joining the ascending and
descending nodes through the center of the earth.
Inclination: The angle between the orbital plane and
the earth’s equatorial plane.
• The two points at which the orbit
penetrates the equatorial plane are called
nodes.
• The Satellite moves upward through the
equatorial plane at the ascending node.
• The Satellite moves downward through the
equatorial plane at the descending node.
• Prograde orbit: An orbit in which the satellite
moves in the same direction as the earth’s
rotation.
• The prograde orbit is also known as a direct orbit.
• Retrograde orbit: An orbit in which the satellite
moves in a direction counter to the earth’s
rotation,
Tracking and Orbit Determination
 Orbital elements
• Orbital elements are the parameters, which are
helpful for describing the orbital motion of
satellites. Following are the orbital elements.
• Semi major axis
• Eccentricity
• Mean anomaly
• Argument of perigee
• Inclination
• Right ascension of ascending node
Describing the Orbit of a Satellite

Semi major Axis

Eccentricity
• Semi major axis
• The length of Semi-major axis (a) defines the
size of satellite’s orbit. It is half of the major
axis. This runs from the center through a focus
to the edge of the ellipse. So, it is the radius of
an orbit at the orbit's two most distant points.
 Eccentricity
• The value of Eccentricity (e) fixes the
shape of satellite’s orbit.

• Eccentricity "e" of this system can be written as

Where, a & b are the lengths of semi

major axis and semi minor axis of
the ellipse respectively.
Eccentricity

For an elliptical path, the value

of eccentricity (e) is always lie in
between 0 and 1.
since a is greater than b.
Suppose, if the value of
eccentricity (e) is zero, then the
path will be a circular shape.
This ellipse has two focal points (foci). Centre of
mass of the earth will always present at one of the
two foci of the ellipse.
 Locating the Satellite in Orbit
Mean Anomaly

Anomaly term is used for angle.

Mean anomaly is the angle which describes position of
the satellite in its orbit with reference to perigee.

Mean anomaly gives the average value of the angular

position of the satellite with reference to perigee.
If the orbit is circular, then Mean anomaly gives
the angular position of the satellite in the orbit.
But if the orbit is elliptical, then calculation
of exact position is very difficult. At that time,
Mean anomaly is used as an intermediate step.
The angle between
orbital plane and earth's inclination
equatorial plane is
known as inclination(i).
It is measured at the
ascending node with
direction being east to
north. So inclination
defines the orientation of
the orbit by considering
the equator of earth
reference
Argument is
the angle
measured
along the
orbit from
the
ascending
node to the
perigee.
To locate the orbital coordinate system with respect to the equatorial coordinate system,
the argument of perigee west is required
 Right ascension of ascending node

• Right
Ascension of
ascending
node is the
angle
between line
of Aries and
ascending
node towards
east direction
in equatorial
plane
Quiz

https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1l1MNWSHKklhuVJ288Xa_jf4
3y7q5V1INwHEqL5j4_Cg/edit
Orbital Determination

• Orbit determination requires that sufficient

measurements be made to determine uniquely
the six orbital elements needed to calculate the
future orbit of the satellite. And hence calculate
the required changes that need to be made to the
orbit to keep it within the nominal orbital location.
 Look Angles
• The Coordinates to which an earth station
antenna must be pointed to communicate with a
satellite are called look angles.
• To maximize transmission and reception, the
direction of earth station antenna must be
pointed directly towards satellite.
• These angles are calculated on the basis of
knowledge of latitude and relative longitude.
 Look Angles
• Azimuth : Is
measured
eastward
(Clockwise)fro
m geographic
North to the
projection of
Satellite path
on a horizontal
plane on the
Earth Station.
• Angle of Elevation is the angle which appears between
the line from earth station antenna to satellite and the
line from the earth station antenna to the earth’s horizon.
 Tracking
Tracking subsystem is useful to know the
position of the satellite and its current
orbit.
change in the orbital position of satellite can
be identified by using the data obtained
from velocity and acceleration sensors
that are present on satellite.
The earth station controlling the satellite can
observe the doppler shift of the telemetry
carrier to determine the rate at which
range is changing.
Active determination of range can be
achieved by transmitting a pulse or
sequence of pulses to the satellite and
observing the time delay before the pulse
Ifisareceived
sufficientagain.
number of earth stations with
an adequate separation are observing the
satellite, its position can be established by
triangulation from the earth station by
simultaneous range measurements.

Ranging tones are also used for range

measurement.
Thank you
orbital correction/control
Orbit control
system is useful in
order to bring the
satellite into its
correct orbit,
whenever the
satellite gets
deviated from its
orbit.
 orbital correction/control
Orbit control subsystem is useful in order to bring the
satellite into its correct orbit, whenever the satellite gets
deviated from its orbit.
The TTCM subsystem present at earth station monitors the
position of satellite. If there is any change in satellite orbit,
then it sends a signal regarding the correction to Orbit
control subsystem. Then, it will resolve that issue by
bringing the satellite into the correct orbit.
In this way, the AOC subsystem takes care of the satellite
position in the right orbit and at right altitude during entire
life span of the satellite in space.
• Satellite may deviates from its orbit due to the
gravitational forces from sun, moon and other planets.
These forces change cyclically over a 24-hour period,
since the satellite moves around the earth.
• Altitude and Orbit Control (AOC) subsystem consists of
rocket motors, which are capable of placing the
satellite into the right orbit, whenever it is deviated
from the respective orbit. AOC subsystem is helpful in
order to make the antennas, which are of narrow beam
type points towards earth.
• AOC subsystem can be classified into
following two parts.
• Altitude Control Subsystem
• Orbit Control Subsystem
• Orbit Control Subsystem
• Orbit control subsystem is useful in order to
bring the satellite into its correct orbit, whenever
the satellite gets deviated from its orbit.
• The TTCM subsystem present at earth station
monitors the position of satellite. If there is any
change in satellite orbit, then it sends a signal
regarding the correction to Orbit control
subsystem. Then, it will resolve that issue by
bringing the satellite into the correct orbit.
• In this way, the AOC subsystem takes care of
the satellite position in the right orbit and at
right altitude during entire life span of the
satellite in space.
A geostationary satellite is subjected to
several forces that tend to accelerate it
away from its required orbit.
Gravitation forces of the moon and the
sun, which cause inclination of the
orbital plane and the non spherical
shape of the earth around the equator
which causes drift of the sub satellite
point
For the orbit to be truly geostationary, it must
lie in the equatorial plane, be circular and
have the correct altitude.
• The various forces acting on the satellite
will steadily pull it out of the correct orbit.
It is the function of the orbit control system
to return it to the correct orbit.

• Low earth orbit(LEO) and Medium earth

orbit(MEO) satellites also need AOC
systems to maintain the correct orbit.
Correcting the inclination of a satellite
orbit requires more fuel to be expended
than for any other orbital correction.
 Satellite Launch Systems
• The process of placing the satellite in a
proper orbit is known as launching
process. During this process, from earth
stations we can control the operation of
satellite.
• A Satellite is installed into orbit with the
help of launching vehicles.
• A satellite can not be placed into a stable
orbit unless two parameters are uniquely
coupled together.
• The velocity vector
• The orbital height

• A geostationary satellite for example must

be at the height of 35786.03 km above
the surface of Earth and a velocity of
3074.7m/s tangential to the earth in the
plane of Earth,which is the Earth's
Equatorial plane.
• Placing the Satellite into Geostationary Orbit

• Geostationary transfer orbit and AKM

• Geostationary Transfer orbit with slow orbit
raising
• Direct insertion to GEO
• First Technique:
• Initially the satellite is placed in a lower circular
earth orbit at an altitude of around 300 km.
• Then a velocity increment is provided which
changes the initial satellite orbit into an
elliptical transfer orbit.
• Provision of velocity increment is done using
auxiliary propulsion system.
• Second velocity increment is provided which
places the satellite into desired orbit.
• Space transport system follows this technique.
• No initially orbit exists.
• Only one velocity increment is required.
• Necessary velocity increment is provided at the
perigee of elliptical transfer orbit.
• Expandable Launch vehicle use this technique.
• Third Technique:
• Satellites are directly placed into geostationary
orbit.
• Special expandable launch vehicles use this
technique.
• A Satellite in a circular, equatorial Orbit at
an altitude of 900 Km requires an orbital
velocity of about 7.4 Km/s tangential to
the surface of the Earth.

• At the Equator, the rotational velocity of a

sea level site in the plane of equator is
0.465Km/s. A rocket launched from the
equator needs to impart an additional
velocity of 7.4- 0.465 = 6.93km/s
• Satellite launch vehicles launch the
satellites into a particular orbit based on the
requirement. Satellite launch vehicles are
nothing but multi stage rockets. Following
are the two types of satellite launch
vehicles.
• Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELV)
• Reusable Launch Vehicles (RLV)
• Expendable Launch Vehicles
• Expendable launch vehicles (ELV) get
destroyed after leaving the satellites in
space.
• The ELV contains three stages. First and
second stages of ELV raise the satellite to
an about 50 miles and 100 miles. Third
stage of ELV places the satellite in transfer
orbit. The task of ELV will be completed
and its spare parts will be fallen to earth,
when the satellite reached to transfer orbit.
• Reusable Launch Vehicles
• Reusable launch vehicles (RLV) can be
used multiple times for launching
satellites. Generally, this type of launch
vehicles will return back to earth after
leaving the satellite in space.
• Mainly, there are four stages in launching a satellite.

• First Stage − The first stage of launch vehicle contains rockets

and fuel for lifting the satellite along with launch vehicle from
ground.

• Second Stage − The second stage of launch vehicle contains

smaller rockets. These are ignited after completion of first stage.
They have their own fuel tanks in order to send the satellite
into space.

• Third Stage − The third (upper) stage of the launch vehicle is

connected to the satellite fairing. This fairing is a metal shield,
which contains the satellite and it protects the satellite.

• Fourth Stage − Satellite gets separated from the upper

stage of launch vehicle, when it has been reached to out of
Earth's atmosphere. Then, the satellite will go to a “transfer
orbit”. This orbit sends the satellite higher into space.
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Thank You
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