Interactive Physics Curriculum Workbook: Instructor Edition

Interactive Physics
Curriculum Workbook
Instructor Edition
Paul Mitiguy, Ph.D.

Michael Woo
Contributing Author Benjamin Reineman
Artwork by Ellen Chong & Victor Orozco
ISBN 1-58524-999-8 (SI Units) May 2010
Copyright
c 2006-2010 Design Simulation Technologies, Inc.
Portions Copyright
c 2005 MSC.Software Corporation
Contents
General instructions for using Interactive Physics curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

1 Speed, distance, and time 1
1.1 Distance, speed, and time (A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Distance, speed, and time (B) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Speed, distance, and time (A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Speed, distance, and time (B) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 Time, distance, and speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6 Constant speed and varying speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2 Acceleration and change in speed 16
2.1 Change in speed, acceleration, and time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 Acceleration, change in speed, and time (A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3 Acceleration, change in speed, and time (B) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 Constant and changing acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5 Free fall - how fast? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.6 Upward projectile motion - how fast? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3 Acceleration, speed, and distance 29
3.1 Free fall - how far? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.2 Upward projectile motion - how far? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.3 Upward projectile motion - maximum height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.4 Upward projectile motion - initial speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.5 Time, acceleration, and distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.6 Speed, acceleration, and distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.7 Distance, speed, acceleration, and highway safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.8 Speed, distance, acceleration, and highway safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4 Weight, mass, and gravity 44
4.1 Weight and mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2 Weight, mass, and other planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.3 Mass and weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5 Air resistance 51
5.1 Air resistance and falling objects - concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
5.2 Air resistance & terminal velocity - concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5.3 Air resistance & gravity forces - concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.4 Air resistance and projectile motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
i
6 Newton’s Law for motion along a line 57
6.1 Force, mass, and acceleration - Newton’s apple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
6.2 Force, mass, and acceleration - rocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6.3 Acceleration, force, and mass (A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.4 Acceleration, force, and mass (B) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
6.5 Acceleration, force, mass, and friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
6.6 Force, mass, acceleration, and air resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6.7 Force, mass, acceleration, and horizontal springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.8 Force, mass, acceleration, and vertical springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
7 Potential and kinetic energy 73
7.1 Gravitational potential energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7.2 Potential energy in a spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.3 Kinetic energy and mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
7.4 Kinetic energy and speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8 Conservation of energy 81
8.1 Potential and kinetic energy in a pendulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
8.2 Conservation of energy in a roller coaster (Windows only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
8.3 Conservation of energy for a snowboarder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
8.4 Conservation of energy in a spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
8.5 Conservation of energy for a bungee jumper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
8.6 Energy loss due to friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
9 Temperature and heat 92
9.1 Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
9.2 Heat capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
9.3 Phase change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
9.4 Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
10 Heat transfer 98
10.1 Heat transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
10.2 Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
10.3 Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
10.4 Radiation (Windows only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
11 Wave and sound 104
11.1 Wave motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
11.2 Wave speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
11.3 Speed of sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
11.4 Mach number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
11.5 Doppler effect (Windows only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
12 Intermolecular attractions 113
12.1 Hydrogen bonding between water molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
12.2 Interaction of water molecules and a sodium ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
12.3 Interaction of water molecules and a chloride ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
12.4 Interaction of water with non-polar and polar molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
12.5 Investigating the strength of hydrogen bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
13 Discovery Learning 124
ii
Why Interactive Physics?
Physics is a challenging and rewarding subject to teach and learn. The laws of physics shed
light on mysteries in the universe. Interactive Physics was specifically created to promote
inquiry learning and discovery learning for younger scientists while introducing tools
used by university researchers and by professionals in industries such as automotive, aerospace,
machines, cameras, printers, and medical devices.
A successful physical science classroom motivates students to explore their physical world
and ask “why” and “what if ” questions while introducing calculator and graphing skills. An
ideal high school physics program continues the conceptual exploration of physics and connects
mathematics with the laws of physics. College physics and engineering serve a dual purpose. In
addition to coupling advanced conceptual learning with higher mathematics, good university
programs prepare students for research and professional careers with school-to-work skills.
Level Value Interaction
Middle School Introductory principles Interact with physics experiments
High School Conceptual learning & basic math Explore “what if” scenarios
University Advanced concepts & mathematics Build physics experiments
Research Validate motion theories Simulate reality
Professional Virtual prototyping Design real equipment
Why Simulation?
Simulation provides insights through interaction. Textbooks are useful for providing struc-
tured curriculum, line drawings, and pictures. Classroom demonstrations together with com-
puter and laboratory experiments provide an interactive, effective way to teach physical con-
cepts and motivate students. Instructors appreciate Interactive Physics because it provides
cost-efficient experiments that are safe, dependable, and time-effective. Students who
learn with Interactive Physics appreciate the visually appealing, fast-paced, interactive exper-
iments that provide a comprehensive understanding of real physical systems and allows them
to move past a concept to test new theories.
Why Interactive Physics Curriculum?

The Interactive Physics staff was recruited from the scientific and academic community. We
understand the demands on an instructor’s time and budget and the need for experiments and
curriculum that motivate, challenge, and test students. We understand the need to meet and
exceed national and state content standards and objectives. We also understand that instructors
need technical support from a reputable company with a firm commitment to education. If you
have ideas on improving our software, experiments, or curriculum, please let us know. We have
been listening to your suggestions and we will continue to support your excellence in education
with excellence in software and physics experiments.
iii
Paul Mitiguy, Ph.D.
From Milton, Massachusetts, Paul completed his bachelor’s degree in 1986
at Tufts University and later received his M.S. and Ph.D. in Mechanical
Engineering at Stanford University. As a consulting associate professor
at Stanford, Paul uses physics to teach dynamics and dynamic systems,
researches and publishes in physics simulation, and reviews journal articles.
Since 1990, Paul has been developing motion simulation software, including the physics program
Autolev. After working at M.I.T. Lincoln Laboratory and NASA Ames, Paul developed educa-
tional and professional motion software at Knowledge Revolution and MSC.Software, including
Interactive Physics, Working Model 2D/3D/4D, and MSC.visualNastran 4D.
Michael Woo, M.S.

In 1999 and 2000, Michael received his Bachelor and Master of Science
degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Stanford University. Michael was
president of Tau Beta Pi (the engineering honor society) and was both an
engineering classroom teaching assistant and science and math tutor at
Stanford University.
After graduate school, Michael designed database software at Tenfold Corporation. In 2001, he
re-joined the Interactive Physics team to develop interactive educational software & curriculum.
Paul and Michael have integrated software and curriculum into a wide number of physics and
engineering textbooks, including:
Textbook Author Publisher
Conceptual Physics Hewitt Addison-Wesley
College Physics Wilson Prentice Hall
Physics for Scientists and Engineers Fishbane, Gasiorowicz, . . . Prentice Hall
College Physics Serway & Faughn Saunders
Physics for Scientists and Engineers Serway Saunders
Principles of Physics Serway Saunders
Vector Mechanics 6th edition Beer and Johnston McGraw-Hill
Foundations of Engineering Holtzapple and Reece McGraw-Hill
Design of Machinery 3/e Norton McGraw-Hill
Mechanics of Machines Cleghorn Oxford
Engineering Mechanics, Statics, & Dynamics Bedford and Fowler Prentice-Hall
Engineering Mechanics, Statics Hibbeler Prentice-Hall
Engineering Mechanics, Dynamics Hibbeler Prentice-Hall
Experiments on energy, temperature, and heat were created by Benjamin Reineman, a Mechan-
ical Engineer in energy research in the Thermosciences Division at Stanford University.
The graphics in some experiments were created by Ellen Chong and Victor Orozco. Ellen is an
artist, educator, and a member of the Interactive Physics team. Victor is an artist, educator,
and mechanical engineer from Stanford University..
iv
General Instructions for Using Interactive Physics (IP) Curriculum
Requirements
You must have installed a recent full or homework edition of Interactive Physics with
curriculum.1 If you do not own Interactive Physics, visit http://www.interactivephysics.com.
Running an IP Curriculum experiment (simulation)
1. On a Windows PC, simply click on StartCurriculum.html and follow the on-screen
directions. Alternately, to open an experiment, browse to the IPCurriculum folder, then
browse to the appropriate topic folder, and double-click on a file.2
2. Click to run the experiment and click to reset the experiment to the beginning.
3. Experiments contain sliders, check-boxes, or buttons. To select
a value with a slider, click and drag the slider up and down (or left
and right). The value is displayed in the box adjoining the slider.
4. After moving the slider, click to re-run the experiment with the new value.
5. Observe the experiment and answer the related question(s).
6. Repeat steps 2-6 and answer all the questions pertaining to that experiment.
7. If necessary, click the or button to rewind or advance one or more frames.
Closing an experiment or Exiting Interactive Physics

1. To close an experiment, choose the File menu and click Close (or click the lower ).
2. To exit Interactive Physics, choose the File menu and click Exit (or click the upper ).
1
Windows computers will automatically install the curriculum with the Interactive Physics program.
To install curriculum on a Macintosh, insert the Interactive Physics CD into your CD drive, browse to your
CD drive, and copy (drag) the IPCurriculum folder to your computer’s desktop or to a convenient location (e.g.,
to the folder where Interactive Physics was installed).
2
If you have difficulty opening an Interactive Physics file on Windows, click to the Windows Start Menu, click
on Programs, then InteractivePhysics, and then InteractivePhysics again. This opens a blank Interactive
Physics document. With Interactive Physics open, click on the File menu and then click Open . . . , then browse
to the IPCurriculum folder that was copied to your computer, and double-click on the appropriate folder and
experiment to open it.
v
Chapter 1
Speed, distance, and time
Speed is a measure of the distance an object travels in a certain amount of time. Average
speed is calculated by dividing the distance an object travels by the time it takes to travel that
distance. The equation below relates average speed to distance traveled and elapsed time1 .
AverageSpeed = DistanceTraveled
ElapsedTime
Courtesy of MSC.Software
1
Each symbol in the equation is explicitly spelled out. Many textbooks use shorter symbols, e.g., using t in
place of ElapsedTime and v in place of AverageSpeed.
1
1.1 Distance, speed, and time (A)
The distance that a car travels depends on the car’s average speed and travel time (elapsed
time). In mathematical terms,
DistanceTraveled = AverageSpeed ∗ ElapsedTime
1. Suppose the car has an average speed of 100 km/h (the abbreviation km/h stands for kilometers
per hour) and the car travels for 2 hours. How many kilometers has the car traveled?
Result:
100 km
hour
∗ 2 hours = 200 km
To answer this question with Interactive Physics, click the button. Look at the meter that measures
the distance traveled by the car and verify that the value reported by Interactive Physics matches the value
you calculated with the formula above. When you are finished, click the button.
2. Suppose the car has an average speed of 100 km/h and the car travels for 3 hours.
How many kilometers has the car traveled?
Result:
100 km
hour
∗ 3 hours = 300 km
To answer this question with Interactive Physics, click the button (if necessary) and click and drag
the slider that controls the car’s travel time so that its value is 3 hours. Then, click the button.
After the simulation stops, verify that the value reported by Interactive Physics matches the value you
calculated with the formula above. Click the button when you are finished.
c 2006-2010 DST. Portions Copyright

Copyright c 2005 MSC.Software 2 Chapter 1: Speed, distance, and time
3. Suppose the car has an average speed of 100 km/h and the car travels for 1 hour.
Result:
100 km
hour
∗ 1 hour = 100 km
Click the button, change the slider to 1 hour, and click the button. Verify that your calcu-
lations match those reported by Interactive Physics. When you are finished, click the button.
4. Suppose the car has an average speed of 100 km/h and the car travels for 2.5 hours.
Result:
100 km
hour
∗ 2.5 hours = 250 km

1.2 Distance, speed, and time (B)
The distance that a car travels depends on the car’s average speed and travel time (elapsed
time). In mathematical terms,
DistanceTraveled = AverageSpeed ∗ ElapsedTime
1. Suppose the car has an average speed of 100 km/h (the abbreviation km/h stands for kilometers
per hour) and the car travels for 3 hours. How many kilometers has the car traveled?
Result:
100 km
hour
∗ 3 hours = 300 km
To answer this question with Interactive Physics, click the button. Look at the meter that measures
the distance traveled by the car and verify that the value reported by Interactive Physics matches the value
you calculated with the formula above. When you are finished, click the button.
2. Suppose the car is going more slowly, at an average speed of 50 km/h.

How many kilometers does the car travel in 3 hours?
Result:
50 km
hour
∗ 3 hours = 150 km
the slider that controls the car’s average speed so that its value is 50 km/h. Then, click the button.
After the simulation stops, verify that the value reported by Interactive Physics matches the value you
calculated with the formula above. Click the button when you are finished.

3. Suppose the car’s average speed is 75 km. How many kilometers does the car travel in
3 hours?
Result:
75 km
hour
∗ 3 hours = 225 km
Click the button, change the slider to 75 km/h, and click the button. Verify that your cal-
culations match those reported by Interactive Physics. When you are finished, click the button.
4. Suppose the car’s average speed is 25 km/h. How many kilometers does the car travel in
3 hours?
Result:
25 km
hour
∗ 3 hours = 75 km
5. A car whose average speed is 75 km/h travels a shorter/ longer (circle one) distance
in 3 hours than a car whose average speed is 25 km/h.
6. Bonus Question - answer without Interactive Physics.

Suppose the car has an average speed of 100 km/h and the car travels for 9 hours.
How many kilometers does the car travel?
Result:
100 km
hour
∗ 9 hours = 900 km

1.3 Speed, distance, and time (A)
When driving in traffic, the most important measurement of how fast you get to your destination
is average speed. For example, there may be stretches of highway where a car can go 100 km/h
and other parts of the highway where traffic slows the car to 30 km/h. If highway traffic is
congested, it may be better to take a side-street where the car’s average speed is 60 km/h. The
equation that helps answer the questions below is
ElapsedTime
1. What is the average speed of a car that travels 100 km in 2 hours?

Result:
100 km km
= 50 hour
2 hours
To answer this question with Interactive Physics, click the button. Look at the meter that mea-
sures the speed of the car and verify that the value reported by Interactive Physics matches the value you
calculated with the formula above. When you are finished, click the button.

Result:
200 km = 100 km
2 hours hour
To answer this question with Interactive Physics, click the button and then click and drag the slider
so its value is 200 km. Next, click the button. After the simulation stops, verify that your calcu-
lations match those of Interactive Physics. When you are finished, click the button.
3. The car that travels 100 km in 2 hours has a smaller /larger (circle one) average
speed than a car that travels 200 km in 2 hours.

Result:
300 km = 150 km
2 hours hour
To answer this question with Interactive Physics, click the button and then set the distance traveled
slider to 300 km. Next, click the button and verify that the average speed displayed by Interactive
Physics matches your calculations. When you are finished, click the button.
5. Bonus Question - answer without Interactive Physics

A police officer figures out that a car travels 600 km in 4 hours.
Does the officer know that the driver was speeding and should get
a speeding ticket? Yes /No (circle one).
6. The distance between two toll-booths on a highway is 200 km. It was 2:00 p.m. when the
driver took the ticket at the first toll-booth. It was 4:00 p.m. when the driver reached the
second toll-booth. What was the average speed of the car between the two toll-booths?
Result:
200 km = 100 km
2 hours hour
7. A truck driver is driving on the highway and looks at her odometer when she enters a
toll-booth. (The odometer measures how far the car has been driven since it was new.)
The odometer displays 7,800 km. Two hours later, she reaches a second toll-booth and
the odometer displays 7,950 km. What was the average speed of the car between the two
toll-booths?
Result:
150 km = 75 km
2 hours hour

8. A bus driver enters a toll-booth and looks at her odometer and her watch. The odometer
displays 12,300 km and the watch displays 1:15 p.m. At 3:15 p.m., she reaches a second
toll-booth and the odometer displays 12,400 km. What was the average speed of the car
between the two toll-booths?
Result:
100 km = 50 km
2 hours hour

Suppose you are a toll-booth operator and a driver hands you a ticket from a toll booth
located 240 km away. The time stamped on the ticket from the other toll-booth is 1:45
p.m. You look at your watch and see that the current time is 3:45 p.m. What was the
average speed of the car between the two toll-booths?
Result:
240 km = 120 km
2 hours hour
Suppose you are a toll-booth operator and a driver hands you a ticket
from a toll booth located 320 km away. The time stamped on the ticket
from the other toll-booth is 9:45 a.m. The current time on your watch
is 11:45 a.m. Was the driver speeding? Yes /No (circle one). What
was the driver’s average speed?
Result:
320 km = 160 km
2 hours hour

1.4 Speed, distance, and time (B)
A police officer in an aircraft can determine a car’s average speed by measuring the time it
takes for the car to travel a certain distance and then calculating the car’s average speed by
ElapsedTime

Result:
300 km = 100 km
3 hours hour
Click the button and verify that the value you calculated with the formula above matches the one
in the Interactive Physics speed meter. When you are finished, click the button.

Result:
300 km = 50 km
6 hours hour
Click and then click and drag the slider to 6 hours. Next, click and verify that the speed
displayed by Interactive Physics matches your calculations. When you have finished, click .
3. A car that travels 300 km in 3 hours has a smaller/ larger (circle one) average speed
than a car that travels 300 km in 4 hours.
Result:
300 km = 150 km
2 hours hour

5. The distance between two toll-booths on a highway is 300 km. It was 2:00 p.m. when the
driver took the ticket at the first toll-booth. It was 6:00 p.m. when the driver reached the
second toll-booth. What was the average speed of the car between the two toll-booths?
Result:
300 km = 75 km
4 hours hour
6. A driver enters a toll-booth and looks at her odometer and her watch. The odometer
displays 3,600 km and the watch displays 10:30 a.m. At 1:30 p.m. she reaches a second
toll-booth and the odometer displays 3,900 km. What was the average speed of the car
between the two toll-booths?
Result:
300 km = 100 km
3 hours hour
7. Suppose you are a toll-booth operator and a driver hands you a ticket from a toll booth
p.m. You look at your watch and see that the current time is 2:45 p.m. Was the driver
exceeding 100 km/h? Yes /No (circle one). What was the driver’s average speed?
Result:
300 km = 150 km
2 hours hour

Suppose you are a toll-booth operator and a driver hands you a ticket from a toll booth
a.m. You look at your watch and see that the current time is 9:15 a.m. What was the
average speed of the car between the two toll-booths?
Result:
25 km = 50 km
0.5 hours hour
A police officer in an aircraft observes a car that travels 30 km in 15 minutes.

Should the officer issue the driver a speeding ticket? Yes /No. What was
km
the driver’s average speed? 120 hour

1.5 Time, distance, and speed
It is time to take a trip to your favorite vacation spot located 300 km away. Before leaving,
you want to to answer some basic questions such as “How long will it to drive there?”. The
equation that helps answer the questions below is
ElapsedTime = DistanceTraveled
AverageSpeed
1. How long does it take a car whose average speed is 25 km/h to travel 300 km?
Result:
300 km = 12 hours
25 km/h
2. How long does it take a car whose average speed is 100 km/h to travel 300 km?
Result:
300 km = 3 hours
100 km/h

Speed Time to travel 300 km
(km/h) (hours)
25 12
50 6
3. Complete the table on the right which 75 4
shows the amount of time it takes a car to
travel 300 km for various speeds. 100 3
125 2.4
150 2
4. Notice that the numbers on the first line of the previous table are 25 and 12, and that
there is an X on the graph below at the location (25,12), i.e., 25 in the horizontal direction
and 12 in the vertical direction.
Similarly, there is a second X on the graph below whose location corresponds to the
numbers on the second line of the previous table, i.e., 50 in the horizontal direction and
6 in the vertical direction.
Continue until there are six Xs on the graph (one for each line of the table). Then draw
a line connecting the first X to the second X and so on, until each X is connected to the
next X.
12
11
10
Time to travel 300 km (hours)
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
25 50 75 100 125 150
Speed (km/h)
5. Bonus Question - answer with the previous graph.

Estimate the time to travel 300 km at 30 km/h: 10 hours.
Estimate the time to travel 300 km at 200 km/h: 1.5 hours.

6. You are driving in a car with cruise control set at 100 km/h. You pass a distance marker
on the side of the road that reads 110 km. After driving for awhile, you see another
distance marker that reads 410 km. How much time has elapsed since passing the first
distance marker?
Result:
300 km = 3 hours
100 km/h

You are driving on the speedway at an average speed of 150 km/h. Each
lap is 5 km. How long does it take to go 60 laps?
Result:
5 km
∗ 60 laps = 300 km ⇒ 300 km = 2 hours
lap 150 km/h

An accurate clock is one of the most important human inventions in the
last thousand years. Clocks that accurately recorded the hour, minute,
and second did not exist until 1700 A.D.
Suppose you left your home at 1:15 p.m. but forgot to take your watch. Upon leaving
your home, you pass a distance marker on the side of the road that reads 130 km. After
driving for awhile at 80 km/h, you see another distance marker on the side of the road
that reads 450 km. What time must it be?
Result:
320 km = 4 hours ⇒ 5:15 p.m.

80 km/h

Suppose a fast car has an average speed of 100 km/h and travels for 3 hours. How much
time does it take a slow car traveling at 80 km/h to go the same distance as the fast car?
Result:
300 km = 3 hours and 45 minutes

80 km/h

1.6 Constant speed and varying speed
A car’s speed is constant if it does not change. Alternately, a car’s speed varies if it changes.
ElapsedTime
1. Click and watch the number inside the box on the right-hand side of the gray car.
Since the number does not change, the gray car has a constant /variable speed.
2. The green car has a constant/ variable (circle one) speed.
3. The red car has a constant/ variable speed.
4. The blue car has a constant /variable speed.
5. The gray car’s speed is constant, so it has a minimum speed of 30 km h

and a maximum
km
speed of 30 h . Since it travels a distance of 60 km in two hours, what is its average speed?
Result:
60 km = 30 km
2 hours hour

6. Determine the minimum, maximum, and average speed of the green car.
To answer this question with Interactive Physics, click the button and then click on the arrow
that is on the furthest right and bottom part of the screen. Each click will step
the simulation forward. Observe the speed reported by the green car and record the smallest and largest
values as you step the simulation until the end. When you are finished, click the button.
Result:
km km
Minimum speed = 0 h
Maximum speed = 100 h
Average speed = 100 km = 50 km

2 hours hour
7. Complete the following table.

Minimum Maximum Average
Speed Speed Speed
Gray car
km km km
30 h
30 h
30 h
Green car
km km km
0 h
100 h
50 h
Red car
km km km
0 h
200 h
50 h
Blue car
km km km
50 h
50 h
50 h
8. When a car’s speed is constant, its average speed is different than its maximum or mini-
mum speed. True/ False (circle one)
9. When a car’s speed varies, its average speed is different than its maximum or minimum
speed. True /False (circle one)

Chapter 2
Acceleration and change in speed
Acceleration is a measure of the change in speed in a certain amount of time.

Average acceleration is calculated by dividing the change in speed by the elapsed time as1 .
ChangeInSpeed = CurrentSpeed − InitialSpeed
ChangeInSpeed
AverageAcceleration =
ElapsedTime
Courtesy Department of Defense
1
Each symbol in the equations are explicitly spelled out. Many textbooks use shorter symbols, e.g., using t
in place of ElapsedTime and a in place of AverageAcceleration.
16
2.1 Change in speed, acceleration, and time
The change in the speed of a boat depends on the boat’s average acceleration and the
amount of time the boat is accelerating (elapsed time). In mathematical terms,
ChangeInSpeed = AverageAcceleration ∗ ElapsedTime
1. Suppose the boat has an average acceleration of 15 km/h/sec (the abbreviation km/h/sec
stands for kilometers per hour per second) and the boat accelerates for 5 seconds. What is the
change in the boat’s speed?
Result:
15 km/h
sec
∗ 5 sec = 75 km/h
2. Suppose the boat has an average acceleration of 10 km/h/sec and the boat accelerates for
5 seconds. What is the change in the boat’s speed?
Result:
10 km/h
sec
∗ 5 sec = 50 km/h
3. Complete the table for a boat that accelerates for 5 seconds.

Average acceleration Change in speed
km/h/sec km/h
15 75
10 50
5 25
0 0

Copyright c 2005 MSC.Software 17 Chapter 2: Acceleration and change in speed
Bonus Questions - answer without Interactive Physics.
When a boat’s speed changes, its current speed (its speed after accelerating)
depends on the boat’s average acceleration, the amount of time the boat is
accelerating (elapsed time), and its initial speed. In mathematical terms,
CurrentSpeed = ChangeInSpeed + InitialSpeed
A. Suppose the boat has an initial speed of 20 km/h and an average acceleration of 10 km/h/sec.
What is the boat’s speed at 5 seconds?
Result:
ChangeInSpeed = 10 km/h
sec
∗ 5 sec = 50 km/h
CurrentSpeed = 50 km/h + 20 km/h = 70 km/h
B. Suppose the boat’s initial speed is 20 km/h and it has an average acceleration of 10 km/h/sec.
What is the boat’s speed at 5 seconds?
Result:
10 km/h
sec
∗ 5 sec + 20 km/h = 70 km/h
C. Suppose the boat’s initial speed is 60 km/h and it slows down with an average accelera-
tion of -10 km/h/sec. What is the boat’s speed at 2 seconds?
Result:
-10 km/h
sec
∗ 2 sec + 60 km/h = 40 km/h

2.2 Acceleration, change in speed, and time (A)
To safely merge with highway traffic, it is important to change speed to match the speed of
the other cars on the highway before entering the highway. The equation that helps answer the
questions below is
ChangeInSpeed
ElapsedTime
1. What is a car’s average acceleration when it increases its speed by 100 km/h in 5 seconds?
Result:
100 km/h km/h

= 20
5 second sec
Result:
100 km/h km/h

= 25
4 seconds sec
Result:
100 km/h km/h

= 50
2 seconds sec
4. What is a car’s average acceleration when its speed changes from 0 km/h to 100 km/h in
5 seconds?
Result:
100 km/h km/h

= 20
5 seconds sec

5. Bonus Question - without Interactive Physics.
What is a car’s average acceleration when its speed changes
from 20 km/h to 60 km/h in 2 seconds?
Result:
40 km/h km/h
= 20
2 seconds sec
6. Bonus Question - without Interactive Physics. What is a car’s average acceleration

when its speed changes from 30 km/h to 60 km/h in 6 seconds?
Result:
30 km/h km/h
= 5
6 seconds sec
7. Bonus Question - without Interactive Physics. What is a car’s average acceleration

when its speed changes from 60 km/h to 20 km/h in 4 seconds?
Result:
-40 km/h km/h

= -10
4 seconds sec

2.3 Acceleration, change in speed, and time (B)
An measurement of a good sports car is its ability to accelerate. For example, a minivan can
accelerate from 0 to 60 mph in 10 seconds whereas a high-priced sports car can accelerate from
0 to 60 mph in 5 seconds. The equation that helps answer the questions below is
ChangeInSpeed
ElapsedTime
1. Suppose the car accelerates from 0 to 50 km/h in 5 seconds. What is the average accel-
eration of the car?
Result:
50 km/h km/h
= 10
5 seconds sec
2. What is the average acceleration of a car that accelerates from 0 to 75 km/h in 5 seconds?
Result:
75 km/h km/h
= 15
5 seconds sec
3. What is the average acceleration of a car that accelerates from 0 to 100 km/h in 5 seconds?
Result:
100 km/h km/h

= 20
5 seconds sec

4. The car that accelerates at 10 km/h/sec is probably a minivan /sports car (circle one)
whereas the car that accelerates at 20 km/h/sec is probably a minivan/ sports car .
Explain: A sports car usually has a larger engine than a minivan and can accelerate more quickly.

A driver enters a highway on-ramp at 20 km/h. To safely merge with traffic, the driver
knows that she must increase her speed to 100 km/h in 4 seconds. What is the average
acceleration of the car?
Result:
80 km/h km/h
= 20
4 seconds sec

To accelerate a car, the driver should press on the gas /brake pedal (circle one).

A driver leaves a highway exit-ramp with an initial speed of 100 km/h. To safely merge
with city traffic, the driver knows that she must reduce her speed to 30 km/h in 7 seconds.
What is the average acceleration of the car?
Result:
-70 km/h km/h

= -10
7 seconds sec

To decelerate (deceleration is a negative acceleration) the car, the driver should press on
the gas/ brake pedal (circle one).

2.4 Constant and changing acceleration
A boat’s acceleration is constant if it does not change. Alternately, a boat’s acceleration
varies if it changes. The equation that helps answer the questions below is
ChangeInSpeed
ElapsedTime
1. Click the button and watch the number inside the box on the right-hand side of the
gray boat. Since the number does not change, the gray boat has a constant /variable
(circle one) acceleration.
2. The green boat has a constant /variable (circle one) acceleration.
3. The red boat has a constant /variable acceleration.
4. The blue boat has a constant/ variable acceleration.
5. Because the gray boat’s acceleration is constant, it is easy to see that it has a mini-
mum acceleration of 20 km/h/sec and a maximum acceleration of 20 km/h/sec. Since it
changes its speed by 100 km/h in five seconds, what is average acceleration?
Result:
100 km/h km/h

= 20
5 seconds sec
6. Determine the average acceleration of the green boat.

Result:
0 km/h
= 0 km/h
5 seconds sec

7. Determine the minimum, maximum, and average acceleration of the red boat.
Result:
Minimum acceleration = -20 km/h
sec
Maximum acceleration = -20 km/h
sec
-100 km/h km/h

Average acceleration = = -20
5 seconds sec
8. Determine the minimum, maximum, and average acceleration of the blue boat.
To answer this question with Interactive Physics, click the button and then click on the arrow
that is on the furthest right and bottom part of the screen. Each click will step the simulation forward.
Observe the acceleration reported by the blue boat and record the smallest and largest values as you step
the simulation until the end. When you are finished, click the button.
Result:
km/h km/h
Minimum acceleration = -62.7 sec
Maximum acceleration = +62.7
sec
0 km/h km/h
Average acceleration = = 0
5 seconds sec
9. When a boat’s acceleration is constant, its average acceleration is different than its
maximum or minimum acceleration. True/ False (circle one)
10. When a boat’s acceleration varies, its average acceleration is different than its maximum
or minimum acceleration. True /False (circle one)
Courtesy of United States Navy

2.5 Free fall - how fast?
When an object falls (without air resistance), it has a constant acceleration and its speed
changes. The object’s speed depends on gravity, the amount of time the object is accelerating
(elapsed time), and the object’s initial speed. In mathematical terms,

1. Suppose the average acceleration due to gravity is 20 m/sec2 (the abbreviation m/sec2 stands
for meters per second squared). Assuming the sky diver jumps from a plane with an initial
speed of 0, how fast is the sky diver falling at 5 seconds?
Result:
20 m
sec2
∗ 5 sec = 100 m
sec
2. Suppose the average acceleration due to gravity is 15 m/sec2 . Assuming the sky diver
jumps from a plane with an initial speed of 0, how fast is the sky diver falling at 5 seconds?
Result:
15 m
sec2
∗ 5 sec = 75 m
sec
3. For each value of gravity in the following table, determine how fast a sky diver falls at
5 seconds (assuming an initial speed of 0). After completing the table, mark the location
on the graph of each pair of numbers with an X and then complete the graph by con-
necting the Xs.

100
Free fall speed after 5 seconds

Gravity Speed 75
(m/sec2 ) (m/sec)
0 0
5 25 50
10 50
15 75 25
20 100
0
0 5 10 15 20
2
Gravity (m/sec )
Suppose the sky diver is falling at 20 m/sec and the average acceleration due to gravity
is 10 m/sec2 . How fast is the sky diver falling 5 seconds later?
Result:
20 m
sec
+ 10 m
sec2
∗ 5 sec = 70 m
sec

Suppose the sky diver is falling at 20 m/sec and the average acceleration due to gravity
is 9.8 m/sec2 . How fast is the sky diver falling 10 seconds later?
Result:
20 m
sec
+ 9.8 m
sec2
∗ 10 sec = 118 m
sec
Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech

2.6 Upward projectile motion - how fast?
When a baseball is thrown straight upward with a certain initial speed, it slows down, stops,
then reverses direction and starts falling down. The baseball’s speed depends on its initial
speed, gravity, and the time in flight. In mathematical terms,

1. Suppose the average acceleration due to gravity is -10 m/sec2 and the baseball’s initial
speed is 30 m/sec. What is the baseball’s speed at 5 seconds?
Result:
ChangeInSpeed = -10 secm2 ∗ 5 sec = m
-50 sec
m m m
CurrentSpeed = 30 sec
+ -50 sec
= -20 sec
2. Suppose the average acceleration due to gravity is -10 m/sec2 and the baseball’s initial
speed is 20 m/sec. What is the baseball’s speed at 5 seconds?
Result:
ChangeInSpeed = -10 m
sec2
∗ 5 sec = -50 m
sec
m -50 m -30 m
CurrentSpeed = 20 sec
+ sec
= sec
3. For each value of the baseball’s initial speed in the following table, determine the baseball
speed at 5 seconds (assume the average acceleration due to gravity is -10 m/sec2 ). After
completing the table, mark the location on the graph of each pair of numbers with an X
and then complete the graph by connecting the Xs.

-10
Baseball speed after 5 seconds (m/sec)

Initial speed Speed at 5 sec -20
(m/sec) (m/sec)
0 -50
-30
10 -40
20 -30
-40
30 -20
-50
0 10 20 30 40
Initial baseball speed (m/sec)

Estimate the baseball’s speed at 5 seconds if its initial speed is 15 m/sec?
Result:
-35 m
sec

Estimate the baseball’s speed at 5 seconds if its initial speed is 35 m/sec?
Result:
-15 m
sec
6. A ball is thrown upward with an initial speed of 30 m/sec. Determine the ball’s speed at
each value of time in the following table (assume the average acceleration due to gravity
is -10 m/sec2 ). After completing the table, complete the graph.
30
Elapsed time Baseball speed 20

(sec) (m/sec)
Baseball speed (m/sec)
0 30 10
1 20
0
2 10
3 0 -10
4 -10
-20
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (sec)
A baseball is thrown upward at 30 m/sec.

m
Estimate the baseball’s speed at 2.5 seconds: 5 sec .
m
Estimate the ball’s speed at 4.5 seconds: -15 sec .

Chapter 3
Acceleration, speed, and distance
Chapter 1 showed that speed is related to distance and time. Chapter 2 showed that acceler-
ation is related to speed and time. By combining these relationships, it is possible to relate
acceleration to speed and distance as shown in the following equations.
DistanceTraveled = InitialSpeed ∗ ElapsedTime + 1

2
∗ AccelerationConstant ∗ ElapsedTime2
CurrentSpeed 2 = SpeedInitial2 + 2 ∗ AccelerationConstant ∗ DistanceTraveled
29
3.1 Free fall - how far?
When an object falls (without air resistance), it has a constant acceleration, its speed changes,
and the distance it falls depends on the amount of time it is falling. In mathematical terms,

2
∗ AccelerationConstant ∗ ElapsedTime2
1. Suppose the acceleration (due to gravity) is 20 m/sec2 and the initial speed of the sky
diver is 0 m/sec. How far does the sky diver fall in 5 seconds?
Result:
0 m
sec
∗ 5 sec + 1
2
∗ 20 m
sec2
∗ 52 sec2 = 250 meters
Gravity Distance
(m/sec2 ) (meters)
2. Suppose a sky-diver jumps from a plane with an 5 62.5
initial speed of 0 and falls for 5 seconds. Deter- 10 125
mine how far the sky-diver falls for each value 15 187.5
of gravity in the table.

Suppose the sky diver’s initial speed is 20 m/sec and the acceleration (due to gravity) is
10 m/sec2 . How far does the sky diver fall in 5 seconds?
Result:
20 m
sec
∗ 5 sec + 1
2
∗ 10 m
sec2

Copyright c 2005 MSC.Software 30 Chapter 3: Acceleration, speed, and distance
3.2 Upward projectile motion - how far?
When a baseball is thrown straight upward with a certain initial speed, it slows down, stops,
and then starts falling down. The distance the baseball travels depends on its initial speed,
gravity, and the time in flight. When the acceleration is constant,

2
∗AccelerationConstant ∗ ElapsedTime2
1. Suppose the acceleration (due to gravity) is -10 m/sec2 and the initial upward speed of
the baseball is 30 m/sec. How far does the ball travel in 5 seconds?
Result:
30 m
sec
∗ 5 sec + 1
2
∗ -10 m
sec2
Note: To answer this question mathematically, substitute 30 for InitialSpeed, substitute 5 for Elapsed-
Time, and substitute -10 for AccelerationConstant in the formula for DistanceTraveled above.
Result:
20 m
sec
∗ 5 sec + 1
2
∗ -10 m
sec2
∗ 52 sec2 = -25 meters
Note: The distance traveled by the ball is a negative number. This number represents the distance below
(rather than above) the initial position of the ball.

Result:
10 m
sec
∗ 5 sec + 1
2
∗ -10 m
sec2
∗ 52 sec2 = -75 meters
4. If the ball is upward launched with an initial speed of 30 m/sec, it reaches its maximum
height when its speed is zero. True /False (circle one)
5. If the ball is upward launched with an initial speed of 20 m/sec or 10 m/sec, it reaches
its maximum height when its speed is zero. True /False (circle one)

Suppose the baseball’s initial upward speed is 50 m/sec and the acceleration (due to grav-
ity) is -10 m/sec2 . How far does the ball travel in 5 seconds?
Result:
50 m
sec
∗ 5 sec + 1
2
∗ -10 m
sec2
7. Bonus Question - answer with and/or without Interactive Physics.

Suppose that acceleration (due to gravity) is -10 m/sec2 and the initial upward speed of
the baseball is 30 m/sec. Determine how far the ball travels for each value of time in the
table and then complete the graph.
50
Time Distance 40
(sec) (meters)
30
Distance upward (meters)
0 0
1 25 20
2 40 10
3 45 0
4 40 -10
5 25 -20
6 0 -30
7 -35 -40
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (seconds)
Estimate how far the ball travels in 5.5 seconds: 13.75 meters
Estimate how far the ball travels in 8 seconds: -80 meters

3.3 Upward projectile motion - maximum height
When a basketball player jumps straight up, the player reaches a maximum height before falling
downward. The player’s maximum jumping height depends on his/her initial vertical speed and
gravity. When the acceleration is constant,
-(InitialSpeed2 )
MaximumHeight =
2 ∗ AccelerationConstant
1. The acceleration due to gravity near sea level on Earth is -9.8 m/sec2 . When a basket-
ball player jumps upward with an initial speed of 4 m/sec, what is the maximum height
between the player’s feet and the floor?
Result:
-(42 ) m2 /sec2
= 0.82 meters
2 ∗ -9.8 m/sec2
2. What is the maximum height a basketball player can jump when the player leaps upward
m
with an initial speed of 5 sec ? Assume the acceleration due to gravity is -9.8 secm2 .
Result:
-(52 ) m2 /sec2
= 1.28 meters
2 ∗ -9.8 m/sec2
3. The basketball player’s upward speed is zero when the player reaches maximum height.
True /False (circle one)

4. Suppose that acceleration (due to gravity) is -9.8 m/sec2 . Determine the maximum height
a basketball player jumps for each of the initial speeds in the table below, and then com-
plete the graph.
1.4
Initial speed Maximum height 1.2

(m/sec) (meters)
Maximum height (meters)

1
0 0
1 0.05 0.8
2 0.20 0.6
3 0.46 0.4
4 0.82 0.2
5 1.28 0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Initial speed (seconds)

m
Estimate the maximum height with an initial speed of 3.5 sec : 0.62 meters
m
Estimate the maximum height with an initial speed of 6 sec : 1.8 meters

3.4 Upward projectile motion - initial speed
To reach a certain maximum height, a basketball player needs to leap with a sufficiently high
initial speed. In mathematical terms (when acceleration is constant, i.e., no air resistance),
√
InitialSpeed = -2 ∗ AccelerationConstant ∗ MaximumHeight
1. The acceleration due to gravity near sea level on Earth is -9.8 m/sec2 . What must be a
basketball player’s initial vertical speed to jump a maximum height of 1.5 meters?
Result:

-2 ∗ -9.8 m/sec2 ∗ 1.5 m = 5.42 m
sec
Maximum height Initial speed

(meters) (m/sec)
2. Suppose that acceleration (due to gravity) is 0.5 3.13
-9.8 m/sec2 . Determine the basketball player’s 1.0 4.43
initial vertical speed to reach each of the maxi- 1.5 5.42
mum heights in the table to the right.
3. When a basketball player needs to jump very high, he/she should jump with a low vertical
speed. True/ False (circle one)

3.5 Time, acceleration, and distance
When a rocket sled travels along a straight track, it is helpful to know how much time it takes
to go from start to finish. When the rocket sled accelerates at a constant rate from an initial
speed of 0, the answer to the question can be calculated with the formula

ElapsedTime = 2 ∗ DistanceTraveled
AccelerationConstant
1. Assuming the rocket sled starts from rest (0 m/sec), how much time does the rocket sled
take to travel 200 meters when it accelerates at a constant rate of 5 m/sec2 ?
Result:

2 ∗ 200 m = 8.94 sec
5 m/sec2
2. How much time does it take for the rocket sled to travel 200 meters when it accelerates
from rest at a constant rate of 10 m/sec2 ?
Result:

2 ∗ 200 m = 6.32 sec
10 m/sec2

3. Determine how much time it takes for the rocket sled to accelerate from rest and travel
200 meters for each acceleration listed in the following table, and then complete the graph.
9
8.5
Acceleration Time 8
Time to reach 200 meters

(m/sec2 ) (seconds) 7.5
5 8.94 7
10 6.32 6.5
15 5.16 6
5.5
20 4.47
5
25 4.0 4.5
4
5 10 15 20 25
Acceleration (m/sec2)
4. The higher the acceleration, the shorter /longer (circle one) it takes for the rocket
sled to travel 200 meters.

Estimate the travel time for an acceleration of 7 secm2 : 7.6 sec
Estimate the travel time for an acceleration of 30 secm2 : 3.6 sec

3.6 Speed, acceleration, and distance
When a rocket sled travels along a straight track, it is helpful to know how fast it is going
when it hits the finish line. When the rocket accelerates at a constant rate, the answer to the
question can be calculated with the formula

CurrentSpeed = SpeedInitial2 + 2 ∗ AccelerationConstant ∗ DistanceTraveled
1. What is the speed of a rocket sled that accelerates from rest (0 m/sec) at a constant rate
of 5 m/sec2 for a distance of 200 meters?
Result:

m2
02 sec2
+ 2∗5 m
sec2
∗ 200 m = 44.72 m
sec
2. What is the speed of a rocket sled that accelerates from rest at a constant rate of 10 m/sec2
for a distance of 200 meters?
Result:

m2
02 sec2
+ 2 ∗ 10 m
sec2
∗ 200 m = 63.25 m
sec
3. What is the speed of a rocket sled that accelerates from rest at a constant rate of 15 m/sec2
for a distance of 200 meters?
Result:

m2
02 sec2
+ 2 ∗ 15 m
sec2
∗ 200 m = 77.46 m
sec

4. The higher the acceleration the slower/ faster (circle one) a rocket sled is moving
when it accelerates from rest for 200 meters.

What is the speed of a rocket sled that accelerates from an initial speed
m2 m2
of 10 sec2 at a constant rate of 20 sec2 for a distance of 200 meters?
Result:

m2
102 sec2
+ 2 ∗ 20 m
sec2
∗ 200 m = 90 m
sec

What is the speed of a rocket sled that accelerates from an initial speed
m2 m2
of 10 sec2 at a constant rate of 25 sec2 for a distance of 200 meters?
Result:

m2
102 sec2
+ 2 ∗ 25 m
sec2
∗ 200 m = 100.50 m
sec

3.7 Distance, speed, acceleration, and highway safety
The distance it takes for a car to stop depends on its initial speed and its ability to decelerate
(deceleration means slowing down). A car’s ability to decelerate depends on many factors,
including road conditions (dry, wet, icy, oily, hill/flat, etc.), the car’s tires, its braking system,
suspension system, and mass. When a car decelerates at a constant rate, the distance it takes
to stop can be calculated with the formula
SpeedInitial2
DistanceTraveled = -
2 ∗ AccelerationConstant
For the questions that follow, use AccelerationConstant= -5 m/sec2 (this valued is based on an
Insurance Institute for Highway Safety study of passenger cars).
m m miles
1. How far does it take to stop a car traveling at 10 sec
? (10 sec
is approximately 22 hour
.)
Result:
102 m2 /sec2
-2 ∗ -5 m/sec2 = 10 meters
m m miles
2. How far does it take to stop a car traveling at 20 sec
? (20 sec
≈ 45 hour
)
Result:
202 m2 /sec2
-2 ∗ -5 m/sec2 = 40 meters

3. Using your previous answers and additional calculations, fill in the following table.
Initial speed Stopping distance
(m/sec) (mph) (meters)
0 0 0
10 22 10
20 45 40
30 67 90
40 90 160 Courtesy of MSC.Software
4. Using the previous table, plot the car’s stopping distance versus its initial speed.
160
140
Stopping distance (meters)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Initial car speed (m/sec)

m
Estimate the stopping distance of a car speeding at 35 sec (78 mph): 122.5 meters
m
Estimate the stopping distance of a car speeding at 50 sec (111 mph): 250 meters

A milkman notices an accident 100 meters ahead and steps on the brake (100 meters is about
m
the size of a football field, including end-zones ). If the milk-truck is speeding at 40 sec (90 miles
hour
),
will the milkman be able to stop before the accident? Yes/ No (circle one)
m miles
7. Referring to the last problem, if the milk-truck is traveling at 35 sec (78 hour
), will the
milkman be able to stop before the accident? Yes/ No (circle one)
8. Using the graph, estimate the maximum speed the milk-truck can have if it is to stop
before the accident 100 meters ahead: 32 m/sec

3.8 Speed, distance, acceleration, and highway safety
Sometimes it is not possible to fully stop before hitting a tree, pedestrian, or another car. The
injuries sustained to the people involved in an car accident are highly dependent on the car’s
impact speed, which depends on its initial speed, its ability to decelerate, and the stopping
distance. When a car decelerates at a constant rate, the impact speed can be calculated by

CurrentSpeed = SpeedInitial2 + 2 ∗ AccelerationConstant ∗ DistanceTraveled
For the first three questions, use AccelerationConstant= -5 m/sec2 (this valued is based on an
Insurance Institute for Highway Safety study of passenger cars).
1. Suppose a sports car traveling at 20 m/sec (approximately 45 miles/hour) brakes to avoid hit-
ting another car 40 meters away. How fast is the car moving when it hits the other car?
Result:

m2
202 sec2
+ 2 ∗ -5 m
sec
∗ 40 m = 0 m
sec
2. Suppose a sports car traveling at 30 m/sec (approximately 67 miles/hour) brakes to avoid hit-
ting another car 40 meters away. How fast is the car moving when it hits the other car?
Result:

m2
302 sec2
+ 2 ∗ -5 m
sec
∗ 40 m = 22.4 m
sec

3. Referring to the previous problem, suppose the sports car is traveling at 40 m/sec (144 km/hour).
How fast is the car moving when it hits the other car?
Result:

m2
402 sec2
+ 2 ∗ -5 m
sec
∗ 40 m = 34.6 m
sec
Initial speed Impact speed

On hills or wet roads, the ability to
(m/sec) (km/h) (m/sec) (km/h)
decelerate drops substantially. Using
0 0 0 0
- 2
AccelerationConstant= 2 m/sec , calcu-
10 36 0 0
late the speed that a car will strike another
20 72 15.5 56
car located 40 meters away for each of the
30 108 27.2 98
initial speeds in the table on the right.
40 144 37.9 136
5. Using the previous table, plot the car’s impact speed versus its initial speed.
40
35
30
Impact speed (m/sec)
25
20
15
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Initial speed (m/sec)

Using your graph, estimate the initial speed that corresponds
m m
to an impact speed of 20 sec (72 km/h): 23.66 sec
m km
Note: Life-threatening injuries occur when a car’s impact speed is greater than 15 sec
(50 h
).

Chapter 4
Weight, mass, and gravity
In everyday language, the words weight and mass are frequently used interchangeably. In
physics, weight and mass are different. The mass of an object such as a book, spaceship,
or person does not depend on the object’s location. Alternately, weight depends on an
object’s location. For example, your weight on Earth is different from your weight on the
Moon or on Mars, but your mass is the same.
The equation that relates weight to mass is Weight = Mass ∗ Gravity where Gravity1
is related to the force caused by a very large object such as a planet2 on a much smaller object
such as a human, animal, or aircraft carrier.
1
Experiments were done in September 2002 by the National Radio Astronomy Observatory to determine the
speed of gravity. The results agree within 20% of an assumption made by Albert Einstein that gravity moves
at the speed of light (approximately 300,000 km per second ). Edward Formalout, one of the researchers said
that “Gravity is not well understood” and more accurate measurements need to be made.
2
Recent discoveries of planet-like objects in the outer fringes of the solar system have generated controversy
about the definition of a planet. Many astronomers regard the solar system as having nine planets, but Pluto,
discovered in 1930, may be one of the larger objects in the Kuiper Belt. The Kuiper Belt, first detected in
1992, may have as many as 70,000 objects measuring more than 100 kilometers in diameter. By comparison,
the Earth’s diameter is approximately 12,800 km, the moon’s diameter is 3,500 km, Pluto’s is 2,300 km, and
the recently discovered Quaoar’s is 1,200 km.
44
4.1 Weight and mass
Mass and weight are different. Mass is the measure of how much matter an object has. Weight
depends on mass and gravity. The units of mass and weight are also different. In SI units,
mass is measured in kilograms (kilograms is abbreviated kg) and weight is measured in newtons.3
In mathematical terms,
Weight = Mass ∗ Gravity
1. Gravity near sea level on Earth is 9.8 secm2 .

How much does 4 kg of fruit weigh on Earth?
Result:
4 kg ∗ 9.8 secm2 = 39.2 newtons
2. How much does 5 kg of fruit weigh on Earth?

Result:
5 kg ∗ 9.8 m
sec2
= 49 newtons

Result:
3 kg ∗ 9.8 m
sec2
= 29.4 newtons
3
In all countries other than the United States, Liberia, and Myanmar, SI units (International System of
Units) are used to measure mass, weight, length, area, temperature, etc.
Copyright c 2005 MSC.Software 45 Chapter 4: Weight, mass, and gravity
Result:
2 kg ∗ 9.8 m
sec2
= 19.6 newtons

Result:
1 kg ∗ 9.8 m
sec2
= 9.8 newtons

Gravity on the Moon is 1.67 secm2 .
How much does 4 kg of fruit weigh on the Moon?
Result:
4 kg ∗ 1.67 m
sec2
= 6.7 newtons Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech

Result:
5 kg ∗ 1.67 m
sec2
= 8.4 newtons

Determine the ratio of the weight of 5 kg of fruit on Earth
to the weight of 5 kg of fruit on the Moon.
Result:
5 kg ∗ 9.8 secm2
= 5.87
5 kg ∗ 1.67 secm2

Objects on the Earth weigh 5.87 times heavier than objects on the Moon.

4.2 Weight, mass, and other planets
As far as scientists can tell, the mass of an object does not depend on where the object is in the
universe. On the other hand, the weight of an object depends on gravity, and gravity depends
on the proximity to a large object such as a planet or moon. In mathematical terms weight is
related to mass and gravity by
Weight = Mass ∗ Gravity
1. Gravity near sea level on Earth is 9.8 m/sec2 .

How much does 2 kg of fruit weigh on Earth?
Result:
2 kg ∗ 9.8 m
sec2
= 19.6 newtons Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech
2. Gravity on the surface of the Moon is 1.67 m/sec2 .

Result:
2 kg ∗ 1.67 m
sec2
= 3.34 newtons
3. Gravity on the surface of Jupiter is 24.81 m/sec2 ?

How much does 2 kg of fruit weigh on Jupiter?
Result:
2 kg ∗ 24.81 m
sec2
= 49.62 newtons

4. How much does 2 kg of fruit weigh on each of the following celestial bodies.
Planet Gravity Weight of 2 kg of fruit

(m/sec2 ) (newtons)
Jupiter 24.81 49.62
Neptune 10.75 21.5
Saturn 10.46 20.92
Earth 9.8 19.6
Venus 8.88 17.76
Uranus 8.86 17.72
Mars 3.72 7.44
Mercury 3.71 7.42
Moon 1.67 3.34
Pluto 0.68 1.36
5. Use the previous table to create a bar chart of the fruit’s weight versus planet.
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
Jupiter Neptune Saturn Earth Venus Uranus Mars Mercury Moon Pluto

4.3 Mass and weight
Mass and weight are different. Usually, mass is determined by weighing an object on Earth
and then calculating its mass using the formula
Weight
Mass = Gravity
1. Gravity near sea level on Earth is approximately 10 m/sec2 .

What is the mass of fruit that weighs 40 newtons on Earth?
Result:
40 newtons
= 4 kg
10 m/sec2
Courtesy
NASA/JPL-Caltech
2. What is the mass of fruit that weighs 50 newtons on Earth?
Assume gravity is 10 m/sec2 .
Result:
50 newtons = 5 kg
10 m/sec2

Result:
30 newtons = 3 kg
10 m/sec2

Result:
20 newtons = 2 kg
10 m/sec2

Bonus Questions - answer without Interactive Physics.
A. Gravity on the Moon is 1.67 m/sec2 .

What is the mass of fruit that weighs 40 newtons on the Moon?
Result:
40 newtons = 23.95 kg
1.67 m/sec2 Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech
B. What is the mass of fruit that weighs 50 newtons on the Moon?

Result:
1.67 m/sec2
C. What is the mass of fruit on Earth that weighs 30 newtons on the Moon?
Assume Moon’s gravity is 1.67 m/sec2 and Earth’s gravity is 10 m/sec2 .
Result:
1.67 m/sec2
D. What is the weight of fruit on Earth that weighs 30 newtons on the Moon?
Assume Moon’s gravity is 1.67 m/sec2 and Earth’s gravity is 10 m/sec2 .
Result:
30 newtons ∗ 10 m/sec2 = 179.6 newtons

1.67 m/sec2
E. What is the weight of fruit on the Moon that weighs 30 newtons on the Earth?
Result:
30 newtons ∗ 1.67 m/sec2 = 5.01 newtons

10 m/sec2
Double Bonus Questions - answer without Interactive Physics.
A. A student’s mass on Earth is 50 kg.

Determine his weight on Earth: 490 newtons
Determine his weight on the Moon: 83.5 newtons
B. My weight on Earth is newtons.
My weight on the Moon is newtons.

Chapter 5
Air resistance
In a vacuum or on a planet without an atmosphere, all objects fall at the same rate. In other
words, a feather falls as quickly as a cannon ball. On Earth, the way an object falls depends
on air resistance. For example, on Earth a feather falls more slowly than a cannon ball.
When an object moves through air, it collides with a huge number of air molecules. The
net effect of all the collisions is a force on the object. Depending on how the air and object are
moving, the force usually slows the object down, resisting the object’s motion. Since the force
of air usually resists an object’s motion, it is called air resistance. Scientists and engineers
have found uses for these air forces, e.g., keeping a plane up in the air.
Sometimes, the force of air resistance on a falling object can be ignored - particularly when
the object is heavy and falls for a short distance. In other cases, the air resistance force has
a major effect on how an object falls, particularly when the object is light or falls for a long
distance.
It is very difficult to write an exact equation for the air-resistance force on an object because
it depends on many factors, including
• the object’s motion relative to the air around it

• the object’s shape, material, surface finish, and temperature
• air pressure, temperature, density, humidity, and quality (the type of molecules)
Two equations that approximate Fair , the air resistance force on an object moving in a
straight line in still air, are given below.
Fair = CoefficientOfLowSpeedAirResistance ∗ CrossSectionalAreaOfObject ∗ VelocityOfObject
Fair = CoefficientOfHighSpeedAirResistance ∗ CrossSectionalAreaOfObject ∗ VelocityOfObject2
51
5.1 Air resistance and falling objects - concepts
It is very difficult to accurately predict how an object falls with air resistance. It is significantly
easier to predict how objects move in a vacuum (there is no air or air resistance in a vacuum).
1. A rock and a feather are released from rest from the same height with air resistance on.
Do they hit at the same time? Yes/ No (circle one)
2. A rock and a feather are released from rest from the same height with air resistance off.
Do they hit at the same time? Yes /No (circle one)
3. A rock and a feather are released from rest from the same height with air resistance on.
Determine the time and the speed that each object hits the ground. Repeat this exercise
with air resistance off.
Air resistance on Air resistance off

Object Time to impact Speed at impact Time to impact Speed at impact
m m
Rock 2.5 sec 7 sec
1.6 sec 15.7 sec
m m
Feather 25 sec 0.6 sec
1.6 sec 15.7 sec
4. A rock falls fastest when there is no air resistance. True /False (circle one)
5. A feather falls fastest when there is no air resistance. True /False (circle one)
6. Without air resistance, a rock and a feather fall at the same speed. True /False
7. With air resistance, a rock and a feather fall at the same speed. True/ False

Copyright c 2005 MSC.Software 52 Chapter 5: Air resistance
5.2 Air resistance & terminal velocity - concepts
When an object falls in air, it eventually reaches a maximum speed. This maximum speed
is called terminal velocity and depends on air resistance and an object’s weight.
1. Complete the table and graph the terminal velocity for each of the following parachutists.
31
30
29
28
Parachutist Terminal
Terminal velocity (km/h)
27
weight velocity 26
25
(N) (km/h) 24
400 17.5 23
22
800 24.8 21
20
1200 30.3 19
18
17
400 600 800 1000 1200
Parachutist weight (N)
2. A heavier object has a higher terminal velocity. True /False (circle one)
3. Without air resistance, the parachutist reaches a terminal velocity. True/ False
With air resistance, the parachutist reaches a terminal velocity. True /False
4. With air resistance, a 400 N and 1200 N parachutist fall at the same speed. True/ False
5. In a vacuum, a 400 N and a 1200 N parachutist fall at the same speed. True /False
6. Estimate the terminal velocity of a 600 N parachutist: 21.0 km/h.
Estimate the terminal velocity of a 1600 N parachutist: 34.3 km/h.

5.3 Air resistance & gravity forces - concepts
When an object falls in air, it eventually reaches a maximum speed. It does not accelerate
further because the upward force due to air resistance exactly balances the downward force due
to gravity.
1. At the instant a 800 N (N is an abbreviation for newtons) parachutist starts to fall, the grav-
ity force on the parachutist is 800 N and the air-resistance force on the parachutist
is 0 N. After the parachutist reaches terminal velocity, the gravity force on the
parachutist is 800 N and the air-resistance force on the parachutist is 800 N.
2. At the instant a 1200 N parachutist starts to fall, the gravity force on the parachutist is
1200 N and the air-resistance force on the parachutist is 0 N. After the parachutist
reaches terminal velocity, the gravity force on the parachutist is 1200 N and the air-
resistance force on the parachutist is 1200 N.
3. When a 400 N parachutist starts to fall, the gravity force on the parachutist is 400 N
and the air-resistance force on the parachutist is 0 N. After the parachutist reaches
terminal velocity, the gravity force on the parachutist is 400 N and the air-resistance
force on the parachutist is 400 N.
4. The parachutist reaches terminal velocity when the downward gravitational force on the
parachutist is less than/ equal to /greater than (circle one) the upward air resis-
tance force on the parachute.
5. There is a larger gravitational force on a heavier parachutist. True /False (circle one)
6. It takes less/the same/ more (circle one) air resistance force to balance the gravita-
tional force of a heavier parachutist.
7. With the same parachute, a lighter/ heavier parachutist will hit the ground harder.

5.4 Air resistance and projectile motion
Air resistance plays an important role in sports. It affects a runner’s speed, a jumper’s leap,
and the distance a baseball player can hit a ball.
With the baseball’s Speed at 50 m/sec, Angle at 45 deg, and Air resistance OFF, click .
1. What is the horizontal distance traveled by the baseball? 256 m

2. What is the maximum height reached by the baseball in its flight? 65 m
Click . Check the Air resistance box and click .
3. What is the horizontal distance traveled by the baseball? 102 m

4. What is the maximum height reached by the baseball in its flight? 36 m
5. With air resistance, the ball travels a shorter /the same/a longer horizontal distance.
6. Complete the table below which shows the horizontal distance traveled by a baseball at
various initial speeds, with and without air resistance. Use a launch angle of 45 degrees.
Speed Distance without air resistance Distance with air resistance

m/sec mph meters feet meters feet
35 78 126 413 69 226
40 89 164 539 81 266
45 101 208 681 92 302
50 112 256 840 102 335
55 123 310 1016 111 364
60 134 368 1208 121 397
7. Air resistance decreases /increases the distance traveled by a baseball.

8. Complete the graph of horizontal distance versus angle. Use an initial speed of 55 m/sec.
Angle Distance without air resistance Distance with air resistance

deg meters feet meters feet
25 239 783 102 335
30 269 883 109 358
35 291 956 112 367
40 305 1001 113 371
45 310 1016 111 364
50 305 1000 108 354
9. Use the previous table to complete the graph below. Use Xs for the curve that represents
distance traveled by a baseball without air resistance. Use Os for the curve that represents
distance traveled by a baseball with air resistance.
350
300
Horizontal distance traveled (m)
250
200 without air resistance

with air resistance
150
100
50
25 30 35 40 45 50
Launch angle (degree)
10. Without air resistance, the ball travels farthest when the launch angle is about 45 deg.
11. With air resistance, the ball travels farthest when the launch angle is about 40 deg.

Chapter 6
Newton’s Law for motion along a line
Force = Mass ∗ Acceleration

... the whole burden of philosophy seems to consist in this, from the phenomena of
motions to investigate the forces of nature, and from the forces to demonstrate the
other phenomena.
-Isaac Newton, Principia Philosophiae (1686)
Dynamics is a scientific study whose purpose is to describe how mechanical systems move
when acted upon by given forces, or to determine what forces must be applied to a system
in order to cause it to move in a specified manner. Dynamics is useful in the design of auto-
mobiles, aircraft, spacecraft, watercraft, farm equipment, cranes, trucks, plows, construction
tools, unicycles, bicycles, tricycles, motorcycles, skateboards, baggage handling machines, disk
drives, printing equipment, laundry and kitchen equipment, packaging equipment, robotic de-
vices, artificial limbs, exercise equipment, toys, position and rate sensors, military equipment,
gears, bearings, vibration isolators, and nearly every other mechanism. Additionally, dynamics
is useful in motion prediction for accident reconstruction, earthquakes, artificial gravity, hu-
man blood circulation, planetary exploration, crash-testing, medical research, and human and
animal locomotion.
Prior to the advent of computers, extensive knowledge of mathematics was required to
analyze even simple systems such as a spinning top. When personal computers became available
in the 1980s, it became much easier to analyze complicated systems with sophisticated computer
programs such as Interactive Physics.
57
6.1 Force, mass, and acceleration - Newton’s apple
The legend is that Newton discovered the important law of physics
when he was struck by an apple falling from an apple tree. By studying the motion of the apple,
Newton determined its acceleration. By knowing the mass of the apple and its acceleration,
Newton could determine the resultant vertical force on the apple.
1. Using time-motion studies, the acceleration of a 0.1 kg apple is determined to be 9.8 m/sec2 .
What is the resultant vertical force on the apple?
Result:
0.1 kg ∗ 9.8 m
sec2
= 0.98 newtons
2. A 0.2 kg apple falls with an acceleration of 9.8 m/sec2 .

What is the resultant vertical force on the apple?
Result:
0.2 kg ∗ 9.8 m
sec2
= 1.96 newtons
3. What is the resultant force on a 0.3 kg apple that accelerates at 9.8 m/sec2 ?
Result:
0.3 kg ∗ 9.8 m
sec2
= 2.94 newtons

Copyright c 2005 MSC.Software 58 Chapter 6: Newton’s Law for motion along a line
4. What is the resultant force on a 0.4 kg apple that accelerates at 9.8 m/sec2 ?
Result:
0.4 kg ∗ 9.8 m
sec2
= 3.92 newtons

The downward gravitational force on any object near Earth is equal to the
object’s mass multiplied by Earth’s gravitational constant, 9.8 m/sec2 , i.e.,
ForceFromGravity = Mass ∗ Gravity
What is the gravitational force on a woman whose mass is 50 kg? Courtesy

Result: NASA/JPL-
Caltech
50 kg ∗ 9.8 m
sec2
= 490 newtons

6.2 Force, mass, and acceleration - rocket
In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton postulated that force, mass, and acceleration were related by
By videotaping the motion of a 400 kg rocket sled, its acceleration can be determined. Calculate
the resultant horizontal force that caused the motion.
1. Suppose the 400 kg rocket has an acceleration of 5 m/sec2 (the abbreviation m/sec2 stands for
meters per second squared). What is the resultant horizontal force on the rocket?
Result:
400 kg ∗ 5 secm2 = 2000 newtons
To answer this question with Interactive Physics, click the button and verify that the meter that
measures the resultant horizontal force matches the value you calculated with the formula above.
m
2. What is the resultant horizontal force on a 400 kg rocket whose acceleration is 10 sec2
?
Result:
400 kg ∗ 10 m
sec2
= 4000 newtons
2
the slider so that its value is 10 m/sec . Then, click the button, and verify that the meter that
measures the resultant horizontal force matches the value you calculated with the formula above.
m
3. What is the resultant horizontal force on the rocket if it has an acceleration of 15 sec2
?
Result:
400 kg ∗ 15 m
sec2
= 6000 newtons

m
?
Result:
400 kg ∗ 20 m
sec2
= 8000 newtons
m
?
Result:
400 kg ∗ 25 m
sec2
= 10,000 newtons
6. A rocket that has a larger acceleration requires a larger force. True /False (circle one)
7. Bonus Questions - answer without Interactive Physics.
A. A rocket accelerating at 1 g is accelerating at a rate equal to the acceleration due

to gravity on Earth (approximately 10 m/sec2 ). How many g s does a rocket have
when its acceleration is 5 m/sec2 ?
Result:
5 m/sec2
= 0.5 g s
10 m/sec2
B. How many g s does a rocket have when its acceleration is 15 m/sec2 ?

Result:
15 m/sec2
= 1.5 g s
10 m/sec2
C. How many g s does a rocket have when its acceleration is 25 m/sec2 ?

Result:
25 m/sec2
= 2.5 g s
10 m/sec2

6.3 Acceleration, force, and mass (A)
One way an astronaut or computer can control a spaceship is by controlling the force on its
rockets. When the mass of the spaceship is known, its acceleration can by calculated by
Acceleration = Force
Mass
1. A rocket applies a horizontal force of 1000 newtons to a 400 kg rocket sled that slides on
smooth tracks. What is the acceleration of the rocket sled?
Result:
1000 newtons m
= 2.5 sec2
400 kg
2. A rocket applies a 6000 newton horizontal force to a 400 kg rocket sled that slides on
smooth tracks. What is the rocket sled’s acceleration?
Result:
6000 newtons = 15 m
400 kg sec2
3. A larger force produces a smaller/ larger (circle one) acceleration.

4. A rocket applies a force to a 400 kg rocket sled. For each of the forces in the following
table, calculate the resulting acceleration and then complete the graph.
20
Force Acceleration
(newtons) (m/sec2 ) 15
0 0
1000 2.5 10
2000 5.0
4000 10.0
5
5000 12.5
8000 20.0
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
Force (newtons)

m
Estimate the acceleration with a 6000 newton force: 15 sec2
m
Estimate the acceleration with a 9000 newton force: 22.5 sec2

6.4 Acceleration, force, and mass (B)
To make it easier to control the motion of spaceships, they are made with as little mass as
possible. In mathematical terms, acceleration and mass are related by
Mass
1. A rocket applies a force of 1200 newtons to a 100 kg rocket sled.

What is the acceleration of the rocket sled?
Result:
1200 newtons = 12 m
100 kg sec2
2. A rocket applies a 1200 newton force to a 400 kg rocket sled.

What is the rocket sled’s acceleration?
Result:
1200 newtons = 3 m
400 kg sec2
3. A 1200 newton force produces a smaller /larger (circle one) acceleration on a 400 kg
rocket sled than on a 100 kg rocket sled.

A rocket applies a 1200 newton force to various rocket sleds. For each rocket sled in the
following table, calculate the acceleration and then complete the graph.
12
Mass Acceleration 10
(kg) (m/sec2 )
100 12.0 8
200 6.0
300 4.0 6
400 3.0
500 2.4 4
600 2.0
2
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600
Mass (kg)

Estimate the acceleration of a 350 kg sled: 3.4 secm2
m
Estimate the acceleration of a 50 kg sled: 24 sec2

6.5 Acceleration, force, mass, and friction
Because a rocket sled rides on train tracks that are not perfectly smooth, there is a frictional
force that resists the motion of the rocket. This frictional force depends on the weight of the
rocket and a quantity called the coefficient of friction. The equation that relates the rocket
sled’s acceleration with the rocket sled’s mass and the resultant horizontal force (the rocket’s
horizontal force minus the friction force), is
Mass
rough tracks. The friction force between the sled and the tracks is 400 newtons.
Determine the resultant horizontal force on the rocket sled and its acceleration.
Result:
ResultantForce = 600 newtons
Acceleration = 600 newtons = 1.5 m

400 kg sec2
Result:
Acceleration = 1600 newtons = 4 m

400 kg sec2

Result:

400 kg sec2
rough tracks. The friction force between the sled and the tracks is 400 newtons,
Result:

400 kg sec2

A rocket applies a horizontal force of 6000 newtons to a 400 kg rocket sled that slides on
rough tracks. The friction force between the sled and the tracks is 400 newtons, and, at
a certain speed, the air-resistance force opposing the rocket sled’s motion is 800 newtons.
Result:

400 kg sec2
6. A rocket sled accelerates more slowly/ quickly (circle one) when there is no friction.

6.6 Force, mass, acceleration, and air resistance
The resultant force on a parachutist is the difference between two forces, namely the downward
force due to Earth’s gravitational pull and an upward force due to air resistance.
• The downward force on a parachutist due to Earth’s gravitational pull is equal to the
mass of the parachutist multiplied by Earth’s gravitational constant, 9.8 m/sec2 , i.e.,
• Although it is known that the upward force on the parachutist from air resistance depends
on the size of the parachute, the parachutist’s speed, air pressure, etc., it is difficult to
write an equation for the forces due to air resistance. One way to exactly calculate the air
resistance forces is to do time-motion studies on the parachutist and then use Newton’s
law which relates the sum of all forces acting on the parachutists with the parachutist’s
mass and acceleration, i.e.,
ForceFromAirResistance + -ForceFromGravity = Mass ∗ Acceleration
• It is worth mentioning that there is a minus sign before ForceFromGravity because it

points downward whereas the ForceFromAirResistance is treated as positive because it
points upward . Similarly, a negative acceleration means the acceleration is downward .
By rearranging the previous equation, one finds
ForceFromAirResistance = ForceFromGravity + Mass ∗ Acceleration
1. What is the resultant upward force on a 100 kg parachutist due to air resistance if the
parachutist’s acceleration is 0?
Result:
100 kg ∗ 9.8 secm2 + 100 kg ∗ 0 secm2 = 980 newtons

parachutist has an acceleration of -1.4 m/sec2 ? (For this problem, a negative acceleration means
an acceleration downward.)
Result:
100 kg ∗ 9.8 m
sec2
+ 100 kg ∗ -1.4 m
sec2
= 840 newtons
parachutist has an acceleration of -4.2 m/sec2 ?
Result:
100 kg ∗ 9.8 m
sec2
+ 100 kg ∗ -4.2 m
sec2
= 560 newtons
Result:
100 kg ∗ 9.8 m
sec2
+ 100 kg ∗ -7.0 m
sec2
= 280 newtons
Result:
100 kg ∗ 9.8 m
sec2
+ 100 kg ∗ -9.8 m
sec2
= 0 newtons
6. Determine the upward force on a 100 kg parachutist due to air resistance when the
parachutist is falling at a constant speed.
Result:
100 kg ∗ 9.8 m
sec2
+ 100 kg ∗ 0 m
sec2
= 980 newtons
Courtesy NASA

6.7 Force, mass, acceleration, and horizontal springs
The force in a linear spring depends on its spring constant and its stretch.
ForceInSpring = SpringConstant ∗ SpringStretch
If a block on a smooth horizontal table is attached to a spring and the spring is stretched, the
block will slide on the table in a manner predicted by Newton’s law
1. A linear spring has a spring constant of 50 N/m (abbreviation N/m means newtons per meter).
Determine the magnitude and direction of the initial spring force on the block and the
magnitude and direction of the initial acceleration of the 2 kg block for the following
spring stretches and spring compressions.1
Spring Stretch Initial Initial Direction of Initial
or Compression Spring Force Acceleration Force or Acceleration
(m) (newtons) ( secm2 ) (circle one)
0.5 (stretch) 50 N
∗ 0.5 m = 25 25 newtons = 12.5 to the right/ left
m 2 kg
1.0 (stretch) 50 N
∗ 1.0 m = 50 50 newtons = 25 to the right/ left
m 2 kg
0.5 (compression) 50 N
∗ 0.5 m = 25 25 N = 12.5 to the right /left
m 2 kg
1.0 (compression) 50 N
∗ 1.0 m = 50 50 N = 25 to the right /left
m 2 kg
1
A spring that has a negative stretch is said to be in compression.
6.8 Force, mass, acceleration, and vertical springs
The resultant force on a block that is suspended by a spring is the difference between two forces,
namely the downward force due to Earth’s gravitational pull and the force due to the spring.
The downward gravitational force on the block is equal to the mass of the block multiplied
by Earth’s gravitational constant, 9.8 m/sec2 , i.e.,
The upward force on the block from the linear spring depends on the spring constant and
the stretch in the spring, i.e.,
ForceInSpring = SpringConstant ∗ SpringStretch
To calculate the initial acceleration of the block, use Newton’s law
N
1. A linear spring with a spring constant of 50 m
is stretched downward 0.5 meters.
Determine the following quantities:
• magnitude and direction of the initial spring force on the block

• magnitude and direction of the gravity force on the 2 kg block
• magnitude and direction of the initial resultant force on the block
• magnitude and direction of the initial acceleration of the block

Result:
InitialSpringForce = 50 N
m
∗ 0.5 m = 25 N up /down
GravityForce = 2 kg ∗ 9.8 m
sec2
= 19.6 N up/ down
InitialResultantForce = 25 N − 19.6 N = 5.4 N up /down
InitialAcceleration = 5.4 N = 2.7 m

up /down
2 kg sec2
2. Answer the same questions when the spring is stretched 1.0 meter.
Result:
m
∗ 1.0 m = 50 N up /down
sec2
= 19.6 N up/ down
InitialResultantForce = 50 N − 19.6 N = 30.4 N up /down

up /down
2 kg sec2
3. Answer the same questions when the spring is compressed 0.5 meters.
Result:
m
∗ 0.5 m = 25 N up/ down
sec2
= 19.6 N up/ down
InitialResultantForce = 25 N + 19.6 N = 44.6 N up/ down

up/ down
2 kg sec2
4. Answer the same questions when the spring is compressed 1.0 meters.
Result:
m
∗ 1.0 m = 50 N up/ down
sec2
= 19.6 N up/ down
InitialResultantForce = 50 N + 19.6 N = 69.6 N up/ down

up/ down
2 kg sec2

Chapter 7
Potential and kinetic energy
Energy exists in many forms, including mechanical, chemical, electromagnetic, and nuclear,
and can be converted from one form to another. For example, putting gasoline in a car adds
chemical energy, which is converted during combustion into the mechanical energy required to
move the engine’s pistons, and ultimately, the wheels and the car. At the same time, the engine
runs the alternator, generating electrical energy to run the radio and the headlights.
This chapter focuses on the mechanical energy associated with the position (potential
energy) or movement (kinetic energy) of objects. Total mechanical energy of a system is
the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy in the system. Two specific types of potential
energy are gravitational potential energy and spring potential energy.
GravitationalPotentialEnergy = Mass ∗ Gravity ∗ Height
SpringPotentialEnergy = 12 ∗ SpringConstant ∗ SpringStretch2
KineticEnergy = 21 ∗ Mass ∗ Speed2
73
7.1 Gravitational potential energy
Gravitational potential energy is energy associated with an object’s height and is related to
gravity and the object’s mass. In mathematical terms,
The SI units for energy are joules. One joule is defined as

kg∗m2
1 joule = 1 newton ∗ m = 1 kg∗m
sec2
∗m = 1 sec2
1. Find the gravitational potential energy of the block when it is 1 m above the ground.
Result:
10 kg ∗ 9.8 m
sec2
∗ 1 m = 98 newtons ∗ m = 98 joules
To answer this question with Interactive Physics, click and verify that the value in the potential
energy meter when the block’s height is 1 m matches the value you calculated with the formula above.
2. Find the gravitational potential energy of the block when it is 2 m above the ground.
Result:
10 kg ∗ 9.8 m
sec2
∗ 2m = 196 joules
3. The higher the block, the more potential energy it has. True /False
4. If the block is on the ground, its gravitational potential energy is zero. True /False
5. If the block is below the ground, its gravitational potential energy is negative. True /False
Find the gravitational potential energy of a 20 kg block 4 m above the ground.
Result:
20 kg ∗ 9.8 m
sec2
∗ 4m = 784 joules

Copyright c 2005 MSC.Software 74 Chapter 7: Potential and kinetic energy
7.2 Potential energy in a spring
Potential energy is a measure of stored energy. One way to store energy is in a spring. For
example, when you wind a mechanical watch, energy is stored by stretching the spring inside
the watch. This energy is then used to make the watch run. The potential energy stored in a
linear spring is calculated by the equation
SpringPotentialEnergy = 12 ∗ SpringConstant ∗ SpringStretch2
For the following questions, assume the spring has a spring constant of 50 mN .
1. Find the potential energy in a spring that is stretched 1.0 m.

Result:
1 N
∗ 50 m ∗ ( 1.0 m )2 = 25 newtons ∗ m = 25 joules
2
2. Find the potential energy in a spring that is stretched 2.0 m.

Result:
1 ∗ 50 N
∗ (2.0 m)2 = 100 joules
2 m
3. Find the potential energy in a spring that is compressed 1.0 m (i.e., stretched -1.0 m).
Result:
1 ∗ 50 N
∗ (-1.0 m)2 = 25 joules
2 m
4. Find the potential energy in a spring that is compressed 2.0 m.

Result:
1 ∗ 50 N
∗ (-2.0 m)2 = 100 joules
2 m

5. Using your previous answers and additional calculations, fill in the table and complete
the following graph. Assume that the spring constant is 50 N/m.
Spring stretch Spring potential energy

(m) (joules)
-2.0 100
-1.5 56.3
-1.0 25.0
-0.5 6.3
0.0 0
0.5 6.3
1.0 25.0
1.5 56.3
2.0 100
100
Potential energy in spring (joules)
80
60
40
20
0
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Spring stretch (m)
6. The potential energy in a spring is never a negative number. True /False

7. The shape of the curve you drew is a straight line/ parabola .

7.3 Kinetic energy and mass
Kinetic energy measures the energy of an object in motion. It is related to the speed and mass
of an object. The more massive a moving object is, the more kinetic energy it has. A moving
train has more kinetic energy than a car travelling at the same speed. In mathematical terms,
1. Find the kinetic energy1 of a 5 kg toy car traveling at 5 m/sec.

Result:
1 kg∗m2
∗ 5 kg ∗ ( 5 m 2
sec
) = 62.5 sec2
= 62.5 newtons ∗ m = 62.5 joules
2
2. Find the kinetic energy of a 10 kg toy car traveling at 5 m/sec.

Result:
2
1 m 2 kg ∗ m
∗ 10 kg ∗ ( 5 sec ) = 125 = 125 newtons ∗ m = 125 joules
2 sec 2
3. Find the kinetic energy of a 15 kg toy car traveling at 5 m/sec.

Result:
1 ∗ 15 kg ∗ ( 5 m
)2 = 187.5 joules
2 sec
1
This problem neglects the rotational kinetic energy associated with the car’s spinning wheels.
the following graph. Assume the car’s speed is 5 m/sec.
250
Mass Kinetic energy 200
Kinetic energy (joules)

(kg) (joules)
0 0.0 150
5 62.5
100
10 125.0
15 187.5
50
20 250.0
0
0 5 10 15 20
Mass of car (kg)

The kinetic energy of a car moving at 5 m/sec is 220 joules.
A. Use the previous graph to estimate its mass. ≈ 17.5 kg
B. Use the equation for kinetic energy to exactly calculate its mass.
Result:
220 joules
1 = 17.6 kg
∗ ( 5 sec )
m 2
6. The kinetic energy of a 0.0 kg car is zero. True /False

It is possible to build a 0.0 kg car. True/ False

7.4 Kinetic energy and speed
Kinetic energy measures the energy of an object in motion. It is related to the speed and mass
of an object. The faster an object moves, the more kinetic energy it has. A car traveling at
high speeds on the freeway has more kinetic energy than it does when it is slowly pulling into
a driveway. In mathematical terms,
1. Find the kinetic energy2 of a 10 kg toy car traveling at 2 m/sec.

Result:
1 m 2 kg ∗ m 2
∗ 10 kg ∗ ( 2 sec ) = 20 = 20 newtons ∗ m = 20 joules
2 sec 2
2. Find the kinetic energy of a 10 kg toy car travelling at 4 m/sec.

Result:
1 m kg ∗ m 2
∗ 10 kg ∗ ( 4 sec )2 = 80 = 80 newtons ∗ m = 80 joules
2 sec 2
3. Find the kinetic energy of a 10 kg toy car travelling at 6 m/sec.

Result:
1 ∗ 10 kg ∗ ( 6 m )2 = 180 joules
2 sec
2
This problem neglects the rotational kinetic energy associated with the car’s spinning wheels.
the following graph. Assume the car’s mass is 10 kg.
500
450
Speed Kinetic energy 400
(m/sec) (joules)
Kinetic energy (joules)

350
0 0
300
2 20
250
4 80 200
6 180 150
8 320 100
10 500 50
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Speed of car (m/s)

The kinetic energy of a 10 kg car is 400 joules.
m
A. Use the previous graph to estimate its speed. 9 sec
B. Use the equation for kinetic energy to exactly calculate its speed.
Result:
400 joules m
1 ∗ 10 kg = 8.94 sec
2

Is it possible for a 10 kg car to have -80 joules of kinetic energy? Yes/ No
Try to calculate the speed at which the car must be travelling.
√
The car’s speed is 4 ∗ -1, which is not physically meaningful (it is an imaginary number).
A 10 kg red car is moving at 5 m/sec and a 5 kg blue car is moving at 10 m/sec.

The red car has less /the same/more kinetic energy than the blue car.
Explain:
Red car: 12 ∗ 10 kg ∗ ( 5 sec

m
)2 = 125 joules
Blue car: 21 ∗ 5 kg ∗ ( 10 sec

m
)2 = 250 joules

Chapter 8
Conservation of energy
Potential energy can be converted to kinetic energy and vice versa. For example, a bungee
jumper on the platform before a jump is at rest and has potential energy and no kinetic energy.
Once he jumps, this potential energy is converted into kinetic energy as he falls towards the
river. When he bounces back up, the kinetic energy is converted into potential energy.
Sometimes, the mechanical energy in the system is conserved, i.e. the sum of the initial
potential energy and initial kinetic energy is the same as the final sum. However, when non-
conservative forces such as friction and air resistance act on the system, total mechanical energy
is not conserved.
For example, a book sliding on a flat frictionless floor will have a constant speed and constant
mechanical energy. On the other hand, a book sliding on a real floor (with friction) loses speed
and loses mechanical energy in the form of heat. With high-precision temperature sensors, you
can measure an increase in temperature in both the book and the floor.
Lubricants are used to decrease friction and energy loss in machines. It takes less effort
(energy) to ride a bicycle with well-oiled gears and chain than one with rusty components. The
same is true for a car, lawn-mower, scissors, or sliding books.
InitialPotentialEnergy + InitialKineticEnergy = FinalPotentialEnergy + FinalKineticEnergy

1
SpringPotentialEnergy = ∗ SpringConstant ∗ SpringStretch2
2
1
KineticEnergy = ∗ Mass ∗ Speed2
2
81
8.1 Potential and kinetic energy in a pendulum
When a pendulum swings back and forth, there is an exchange between potential and kinetic
energy. At the highest part of its swing, it moves most slowly, while at the lowest part of its
swing, it moves most quickly.1
With air resistance set to 0, click .
1. The potential energy is largest when the pendulum is at the top /bottom of its swing.
When the potential energy is largest, the kinetic energy is smallest /largest .
2. The kinetic energy is largest when the pendulum is at the top/ bottom of its swing.
When the kinetic energy is largest, the potential energy is smallest /largest .
Click , set the pendulum amplitude to Small, and click .
3. When the pendulum swings down, potential/ kinetic energy increases and
potential /kinetic energy decreases.
4. When the pendulum swings up, potential /kinetic energy increases and potential/ kinetic
energy decreases.
5. The sum of potential energy and kinetic energy is constant (does not change). True /False
6. With air resistance set to 1.0 (set the value in the air resistance slider to 1.0) , the sum of
potential energy and kinetic energy is constant. True/ False
1
Similarly, in an idealized setting with no friction, a pendulum clock does not require winding. However, in
the real world, air resistance and friction cause the clock to slow down and lose energy.
Copyright c 2005 MSC.Software 82 Chapter 8: Conservation of energy
8.2 Conservation of energy in a roller coaster (Windows only)
As a free-moving roller coaster moves up and down, there is an exchange between potential and
kinetic energy. The cart slows down as it goes higher and speeds up as it goes lower.2

1
2
Click , and observe the cart’s speed and height as it moves along the track.
1. The higher the cart is, the more potential /kinetic energy it has.
The faster the cart moves, the more potential/ kinetic energy it has.
2. As the cart moves uphill, potential /kinetic energy increases and potential/ kinetic
energy decreases. Alternately, as the cart moves downhill, potential/ kinetic energy
increases and potential /kinetic energy decreases.
3. Calculate the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy of the 150 kg cart at the bottom
m
of the track (where the height is 0 m), when its speed is 15 sec . Verify your calculations with
the results from Interactive Physics.
Result:
PotentialEnergy = 150 kg ∗ 9.8 m
sec2
∗ 0.0 m = 0 joules
1
∗ 150 kg ∗ (15 sec
KineticEnergy = m 2
) = 16, 875 joules
2
PotentialEnergy + KineticEnergy = 16, 875 joules
2
This problem assumes no energy loss due to air resistance or friction along the track. In reality, these can
be important factors when designing a roller coaster.
Use the meter information in Interactive Physics for cart height and speed at the top of the track.
4. Calculate the sum of the potential energy and kinetic energy of the 150 kg cart at the
top of the track, where the height is 9.0 m and the speed is 6.971 m/sec. Verify your
calculations with Interactive Physics.3
Result:
PotentialEnergy = 150 kg ∗ 9.8 m
sec2
∗ 9.0 m = 13, 230 joules
KineticEnergy = 1 ∗ 150 kg ∗ (6.971 m 2

) = 3, 645 joules
2 sec
PotentialEnergy + KineticEnergy = 16, 875 joules
5. The sum of the cart’s potential energy and kinetic energy at the top and bottom of the
track are equal. True /False
6. Using Interactive Physics, determine which speed(s) give the cart enough kinetic energy
m
to reach the top of the track: 10/12.5/ 15 sec .
Use conservation of energy to calculate the minimum kinetic energy the cart needs at the
bottom of the track in order to reach the top of the track.
Hint: One way to write conservation of energy is
where the initial potential energy and initial kinetic energy are calculated when the cart is at the bottom
of the track, and final potential energy and final kinetic energy are calculated when the cart is at the top.
The first step to solve this problem is to calculate the following quantities:
InitialPotentialEnergy = 0 joules
FinalPotentialEnergy = 150 kg ∗ 9.8 m
sec2
∗ 9.0 m = 13, 230 joules
FinalKineticEnergy = 0 joules
Now you are ready to plug in to the conservation of energy equation:
Result:
0 joules + InitialKineticEnergy = 13, 230 joules + 0 joules
InitialKineticEnergy = 13, 230 joules

Using results from the previous question, calculate the speed the cart
needs at the bottom of the track in order to reach the top of the track.
Result:

13, 230 joules
Speed = = m
13.28 sec
1 ∗ 150 kg
2
3
The numbers displayed in Interactive Physics are rounded. Use a height of 9 m and a speed of 6.971 m/s
in your calculation.
8.3 Conservation of energy for a snowboarder
A snowboarder gains potential energy as he is lifted by the ski lift to the top of the mountain.
As he goes down a slope, his potential energy decreases as his kinetic energy and speed increase.

1
2
Set the initial height of the snowboarder to 10 m.
1. Calculate the sum of the potential energy and kinetic energy of the 50 kg snowboarder
whose initial height is 10 m. Verify your calculations with Interactive Physics.4
Result:
InitialPotentialEnergy = 50 kg ∗ 9.8 m
sec2
∗ 10.0 m = 4900 joules
1
∗ 50 kg ∗ (0 sec
InitialKineticEnergy = m 2
) = 0 joules
2
InitialPotentialEnergy + InitialKineticEnergy = 4900 joules
Click , and note the snowboarder’s height and speed at the bottom.
2. Calculate the sum of the potential energy and kinetic energy of the 50 kg snowboarder
when he reaches the bottom of the slope. Verify your calculations with Interactive Physics.
Result:
sec2
∗ 0.0 m = 0 joules
FinalKineticEnergy = 1 ∗ 50 kg ∗ (14.0 m 2
) = 4900 joules
2 sec
FinalPotentialEnergy + FinalKineticEnergy = 4900 joules

4
The symbol kJ in the Interactive Physics meter is an abbreviation for kilojoules (1000 joules).
3. The sum of the potential energy and kinetic energy at the bottom of the slope is equal to
the sum of the potential energy and kinetic energy at the top of the slope. True /False

A. Calculate the potential energy and kinetic energy of a 50 kg snowboarder who starts
from a height of 15 m with an initial speed of 0 m/sec.
Result:
InitialPotentialEnergy = 50 kg ∗ 9.8 m
sec2
∗ 15.0 m = 7350 joules
InitialKineticEnergy = 1 ∗ 50 kg ∗ (0.0 m 2
) = 0 joules
2 sec
B. Calculate the potential energy of the 50 kg snowboarder when he reaches the bottom
of the slope (height = 0 m).
Result:
sec2
∗ 0.0 m = 0 joules
C. Use conservation of energy to calculate the snowboarder’s kinetic energy when he

reaches the bottom of the slope.
Hint: One way to write conservation of energy is
where the initial potential energy and kinetic energy are calculated when the snowboarder is at the top,
and final potential energy and kinetic energy are calculated when he is at the bottom.
Result:
7350 joules + 0 joules = 0 joules + FinalKineticEnergy
FinalKineticEnergy = 7350 joules
D. A 50 kg snowboarder starts at the top of a slope that is 15 m high. Calculate the

snowboarder’s speed at the bottom of the slope.
Result:

7350 joules
Speed = = m
17.15 sec
1 ∗ 50 kg
2

8.4 Conservation of energy in a spring
When you pull back a pebble in a sling shot, you store energy in the springy elastic. When you
release it, the stored energy is converted to kinetic energy as the pebble zooms away.
1
2
1
2
With the initial spring stretch set to 2.0 m, click and watch the block move back and forth.
1. Calculate the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy when the spring is stretched
2.0 m. (Note: The spring has a spring constant of 50 N/m.)
Result:
1
InitialPotentialEnergy = ∗ 50 mN ∗ (2.0 m)2 = 100.0 joules
2
1
InitialKineticEnergy = ∗ 10 kg ∗ (0 sec
m 2
) = 0 joules
2
InitialPotentialEnergy + InitialKineticEnergy = 100.0 joules
2. The sum of potential energy and kinetic energy (as shown in Interactive Physics)
increases/decreases/ remains the same .
3. The spring potential energy is largest when the spring stretch is 2.0 m or -2.0 m.
The kinetic energy is largest when the spring stretch is 0.0 m.
4. Use conservation of energy to calculate the kinetic energy of the 10 kg block when it is
at the middle of its travel (spring stretch = 0.0 m).
Result:
100.0 joules + 0
joules = 0 joules + FinalKineticEnergy
FinalKineticEnergy = 100.0 joules
5. Bonus Question.
Using your results from the previous question, calculate the maximum speed of the 10 kg
block that is initially stretched 2.0 m.
Result:

100.0 joules
= m
4.47 sec
1 ∗ 10 kg
2
To verify this result with Interactive Physics, click the button, then
click on the arrow that is on the furthest right and bottom part of the
screen. Each click will step the simulation forward. Observe the block’s
speed and record the largest value.
6. Bonus Question.
Calculate the maximum speed of a 10 kg block that is initially stretched 1.0 m. Verify
your results with Interactive Physics.
Result:
InitialPotentialEnergy = 12 ∗ 50 m
N
∗ (1.0 m)2 = 25.0 joules
InitialKineticEnergy = 1
2
∗ 10 kg ∗ (0 m 2
) =
sec
0 joules
FinalPotentialEnergy = 1
2
∗ 50 N
m
∗ (0.0 m)2 = 0 joules
25.0 joules + 0 joules = 0 joules + FinalKineticEnergy

FinalKineticEnergy = 25.0 joules

25.0 joules
Speed = = 2.24 m
1 ∗ 10 kg sec
2
A 10 kg block is attached to a spring with a spring constant of 50 N/m. The block is
observed to have a speed of 9.0 m/sec when the spring is unstretched. Determine the
maximum stretch of the spring.
Result:
InitialPotentialEnergy = 12 ∗ 50 m ∗ (0.0 m) = 0 joules
N 2
InitialKineticEnergy = 1 ∗ 10 kg ∗ (9.0 m 2
) = 405 joules
2 sec
) = 0 joules
2 sec

0 joules + 405 joules = FinalPotentialEnergy + 0 joules
FinalPotentialEnergy = 405 joules

405 joules
SpringStretch = = 4.02 m
1 ∗ 50 N
2 m

8.5 Conservation of energy for a bungee jumper
Energy can be exchanged between gravitational potential energy, spring potential energy, and
kinetic energy. When a bungee jumper is at the bottom of her bounce, all of her gravitational
potential energy and kinetic energy has been converted to spring potential energy.
Click and watch the bungee jumper bounce up and down a few times.
1. The gravitational potential energy is largest when the jumper is at the top /middle/bottom,
and smallest when she is at the top/middle/ bottom .
2. When the bungee jumper is at the top, there is no stretch in the bungee cord. Therefore,
the spring potential energy is smallest /largest . At the bottom, the bungee cord is
highly stretched, and the spring potential energy is smallest/ largest .
3. The kinetic energy seems to be highest when the jumper is at the top/ middle /bottom
of a bounce. At this point, her speed is smallest/ largest .
4. The sum of potential energy and kinetic energy (as shown in Interactive Physics)
increases/decreases/ remains the same .
Complete the following table. Each row represents a different bungee jumper height.
Gravitational Spring Total

potential potential Kinetic mechanical Bungee jumper height
energy energy energy energy
(joules) (joules) (joules) (joules)
1000 0 0 1000 top /bottom/in between
356 415 229 1000 top/bottom/ in between
0 1000 0 1000 top/ bottom /in between
276 524 200 1000 top/bottom/ in between

8.6 Energy loss due to friction
In the real world, the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy is not usually constant.
Friction, air resistance, and other forces cause some energy to be converted to heat.
1
2
1
2
Click , and watch the block move back and forth.
1. Calculate the sum of the initial potential energy and initial kinetic energy when the spring
is stretched 2.0 m. (Note: The spring has a spring constant of 50 N/m.)
Result:
1
InitialPotentialEnergy = ∗ 50 mN ∗ (2.0 m)2 = 100.0 joules
2
1
InitialKineticEnergy = ∗ 10 kg ∗ (0 sec
m 2
) = 0 joules
2
InitialPotentialEnergy + InitialKineticEnergy = 100.0 joules
2. With no friction or air resistance, the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy (as
shown in Interactive Physics) increases/decreases/ remains the same .

Click , and check the Friction box. Click , then click when the timer reads 2.50 sec. You
may need to use the or arrows to rewind or advance the simulation. Record the spring stretch and block
speed at 2.50 sec.
3. With friction, calculate the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy at 2.50 seconds.
Result:
FinalPotentialEnergy = 1 ∗ 50 N ∗ (1.01 m)2 = 25.5 joules
2 m
) = 23.5 joules
2 sec
FinalPotentialEnergy + FinalKineticEnergy = 49.0 joules
This sum is less than /greater than/equal to the sum of the initial potential energy
and kinetic energy.
4. Over time, friction causes the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy to
increase/ decrease .
Click . Uncheck the Friction box and check the Air resistance box. Click , then click when
the timer reads 5.00 sec. You may need to use the or arrows to rewind or advance the simulation. Record
the spring stretch and block speed at 5.00 sec.
5. With air resistance, calculate the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy at 5.00 seconds.
Result:
FinalPotentialEnergy = 1 ∗ 50 N ∗ (0.13 m)2 = 0.4 joules
2 m
) = 29.3 joules
2 sec
FinalPotentialEnergy + FinalKineticEnergy = 29.7 joules
This sum is less than /greater than/equal to the sum of the initial potential energy
and kinetic energy.
6. Over time, air resistance causes the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy to
increase/ decrease .
7. Bonus Question.
With air resistance ON, the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy decrease most
quickly in Interactive Physics when the block is moving slowly/ quickly .

Chapter 9
Temperature and heat
Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold an object is. Common tools for measuring
temperature are alcohol, mercury, electronic, liquid crystal, and infrared thermometers.
Two common scales used in measuring temperature are the Fahrenheit temperature scale
and the Celsius temperature scale. In the Fahrenheit scale, developed by German physicist
Daniel Fahrenheit (1686-1736), water freezes at 32 ◦ F and boils at 212 ◦ F. The Celsius scale,
in which water freezes at 0 ◦ C and boils at 100 ◦ C, is named after Swedish astronomer Anders
Celsius (1701-1744). Until the 1970’s, the Fahrenheit scale was widely used in English-speaking
countries. Today, most countries in the world use the Celsius scale.
Another temperature scale widely used in science named after British physicist William
Kelvin (1824-1907). Kelvin (K) is the official unit of temperature measurement in the metric
system. The most famous reference point in the Kelvin scale is 0 K, also known as absolute
zero. Absolute zero (approximately -459.69 ◦ F or -273.16 ◦ C) is the lowest temperature possible
theoretically. At absolute zero, atoms have no kinetic energy and no molecular motion.
Courtesy U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
92
9.1 Temperature
Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold an object is. For a gas, temperature is directly
related to the average kinetic energy of the molecules.1
Set the gas temperature to Cold, click . After observing the movement of the molecules, slide the tempera-
ture to Hot and notice how the change in temperature affects the motion of the molecules. Slide the temperature
to Cold and again notice the change in the motion of the molecules.
1. At higher temperatures, the average speed of the gas molecules
increases /decreases/stays constant.
2. At lower temperatures, the average speed of the gas molecules
increases/ decreases /stays constant.
3. The Fahrenheit scale (◦ F) and the Celsius scale (◦ C) are related as followed.
9 ◦
◦
F = ∗ C + 32
5
5
◦
C = ∗ (◦ F − 32)
9
Complete the following table.
◦ ◦
Description F C
Water freezes at 32 0
Water boils at 212 100
Normal body temperature is about 98.6 37
The surface of the sun is about 10832 6000
Paper burns at 451 232.8
Absolute zero2 -459.4 -273
2
1
1
The temperature of an ideal gas is related to its average kinetic energy by T = 3 kB 2
m v2 where
-
kB = 1.38 x 10 23 joules
is the Boltzmann’s constant and 1
m v is the average translational kinetic energy of the
2
K 2
molecules.
Copyright c 2005 MSC.Software 93 Chapter 9: Temperature and heat
9.2 Heat capacity
Specific heat is a measure of how much heat is required to change the temperature of an
object with a specified mass and material. In mathematical terms3
Heat = Mass ∗ SpecificHeat ∗ TemperatureChange
With the Mass set to 0.25 kg, click . Observe the 80 ◦ C temperature change over 10 sec.
joules
1. Calculate the heat added to 0.25 kg of water (which has a specific heat of 4180 kg ∗ ◦ C
)
when the candle changes the water’s temperature by 80 ◦ C.
Result:
0.25 kg ∗ 4180 kgjoules
∗ ◦C
∗ 80 ◦ C = 83, 600 joules
Click , set the Mass to 0.50 kg, and click .

joules
2. Calculate the heat added to 0.50 kg of water (which has a specific heat of 4180 kg ∗ ◦ C
)
when the candle changes the water’s temperature by 40 ◦ C.
Result:
∗ ◦C
∗ 40 ◦ C = 83, 600 joules
The temperature change in the 0.50 kg of water is less than /greater than/equal to
the temperature change in the 0.25 kg of water. The heat added to the 0.50 kg of water
is less than/greater than/ equal to the heat added to the 0.25 kg of water.
Click , set the Mass to 1.00 kg, and click .
3. Calculate the heat added to 1.00 kg of water (which changes the temperature by 20 ◦ C).
Result:
∗ ◦C
∗ 20 ◦ C = 83, 600 joules
3
A positive value of heat means that heat flows into the object and its temperature increases. A negative
value of heat means that heat flows out of the object and its temperature decreases.
How much heat must be added to 1.0 kg of water to raise its temperature by 80 ◦ C?
Result:
∗ ◦C
∗ 80 ◦ C = 334, 400 joules

40, 000 joules of heat is added to 0.15 kg of water that is initially at 10 ◦ C.
Calculate its final temperature.
Result:
40, 000 joules ◦
TemperatureChange = = 63.8 C
∗ ◦C
FinalTemperature = 10 ◦ C + 63.8 ◦ C = 73.8 ◦

C

9.3 Phase change
Heating a substance does not always change its temperature. Sometimes, heating a substance
changes the phase of a substance from solid to liquid, liquid to gas, or solid to gas.4
Click . Press and hold the Add heat button until the ice begins to melt. Observe the temperature change.
1. Before the ice begins to melt, its temperature increases /decreases/stays constant.
◦
2. The ice begins to melt at 0 C.
3. While the ice is melting, the temperature increases/decreases/ stays constant.
4. While the ice is melting, the ice and liquid water are at the same temperature. True /False
Press and hold the Add heat button until the water begins to boil. Observe the temperature change.
5. Before the water begins to boil, the temperature increases /decreases/stays constant.
◦
6. The water begins to boil at 100 C.
7. While the water is boiling, the temperature increases/decreases/ stays constant.
Note: To re-run the experiment, close and re-open the file.
4
One reason that Earth is unique in our solar system is that water is naturally found in three phases - solid
ice, liquid water, and gaseous water vapor.
9.4 Thermal Expansion
As temperature increases, the molecules in a material tend to move farther apart from each
other. The resulting expansion is known as thermal expansion. With few exceptions, all
solids, liquids, and gases expand as temperature increases.5 For a solid, the amount of thermal
expansion is calculated with the following equation
ChangeInLength = ExpansionCoefficient ∗ OriginalLength ∗ TemperatureChange
With the temperature set to Low, click .
1. The brass strip and the iron strip start at the same length. True /False
Slide the temperature to Medium and then Hot and observe how the brass and iron strips change length.
2. An increase in temperature causes the brass /iron to expand more.

3. When the brass and iron are glued together as a single strip with the brass on top, a
temperature increase causes the strip to bend up/ down .
4. Based on your observations, brass /iron has the larger expansion coefficient.
The 110-story Sears Tower in Chicago is about 440 m high on a cold winter night when the
temperature is -15 ◦ C (5 ◦ F). The structure of the building is mostly steel and concrete,
both of which have an expansion coefficient of .000011 ◦1C . Calculate how much taller the
building is during a warm summer day when the temperature is 40 ◦ C (104 ◦ F).
Result:
ChangeInTemperature = 40 ◦ C − -15 ◦ C = 55 ◦ C
ChangeInLength = .000011 1
◦C ∗ 440 m ∗ 55 ◦ C = .266 m = 26.6 cm
5
Water has the uncommon property that it is most dense at 4 ◦ C, (39 ◦ F) and is actually less dense as a
solid than as a liquid. This is why ice floats in a cup of water. If ice did not float on oceans and lakes, earth’s
ecosystem would be dramatically different.
Chapter 10
Heat transfer
Heat transfer is the flow of energy from a warm object to a colder one. Heat is transfered
from the warm object to the cold one until both objects are the same temperature. Heat may
be transferred by conduction, convection, or radiation.
Conduction is heat transfer between or within objects in direct contact.

For example, when you put a cold metal spoon in hot soup, the spoon
becomes warmer because heat flows from the hot soup to the cold spoon.
Materials that conduct heat well are called conductors; those that con-
duct heat poorly are called insulators. Diamond is the best conductor
known,a far better than silver, copper, and aluminum, which are all con-
sidered good conductors. Diamond’s conducivity is so high that you can
melt and cut through ice by simply holding a small piece of diamond with
your warm fingers and pressing it against the ice. Ouch!
a
Diamond is also the hardest substance known and has the highest melting point.
Convection occurs by the movement of a substance. When the move-

ment is caused by a pump or a fan, such as cooling of computer chips by a
fan, it is called forced convection. When the movement occurs because
of difference in density, such as water being boiled in a pot or air around
a fire, it is called natural convection. When water is boiled, the water
closest to the fire is warmed first. This heated water expands, becomes
less dense, and rises to the top of the pot. This allows the cooler water
to sink to the bottom of the pot, where it is heated.
Radiation is the third means of heat transfer. Any object with a tem-
perature above absolute zero emits radiation continuously. This radiation
is absorbed and/or reflected by surrounding objects.a An object that ab-
sorbs more radiation than it emits becomes warmer while an object that
emits more radiation than it absorbs becomes cooler. When you stand
in the sun, radiation emitted by the sun is absorbed/reflected by you; at
the same time, radiation emitted by you is absorbed/reflected by the sun.
You become warmer because you absorb more radiation than you emit.
a
A black body is a theoretical object that absorbs 100% of the radiation that hits
it and emits the maximum amount of radiation possible at a given temperature.
98
10.1 Heat transfer
Heat flows from warmer objects to colder objects, and continues to flow until the objects are
at the same temperature. When you heat a pot of water on the stove, heat from the burner
flows into the pot and the water. When you place a cup of warm milk in the refrigerator, heat
flows from the milk to the cold surroundings.1
Initialize the thermometer by moving the slider to Cold. Set the temperature to Medium. Click to
bring the right hand in contact with the left hand.
1. The temperature of the right hand is less than/ equal to /greater than the temper-
ature of the left hand. Is there a net transfer of heat? Yes/ No
2. The temperature of the left hand increases/decreases/ stays constant .
Slide the temperature to Hot.
3. The temperature of the cocoa mug is less than/equal to/ greater than that of the
hand. As heat flows from the cocoa mug /hand to the cocoa mug/ hand , the
temperature of the hand increases /decreases/stays constant .
Slide the temperature to Cold.
4. The temperature of the ice is less than /equal to/greater than the temperature of
the hand. As heat flows from the ice/ hand to the ice /hand, the temperature of
the hand increases/ decreases /stays constant.
5. Heat always flows from a warmer /colder object to a warmer/ colder object.
1
For this problem, assume the object on the right has a fixed temperature.
Copyright c 2005 MSC.Software 99 Chapter 10: Heat transfer
10.2 Conduction
Conduction is the means by which heat flows between (or within) objects that are in direct
contact. Materials that conduct heat well are called heat conductors. Materials that conduct
heat poorly are called heat insulators.
Good conductors and insulators

Material Conductivity ( m∗W◦ C )
Good conductors
Diamond 2300
Silver 406
Copper 385
Good insulators
Concrete 0.8
Air (at 0 ◦ C) 0.02
Styrofoam 0.01
Click so the hot iron is in contact with the steel rod. Observe how the temperature along the rod changes.
1. The steel rod starts at a uniform (all the same) temperature. The part of the rod in
contact with the hot iron increases its temperature most quickly. True /False
2. Heat flows along the rod to the left/ right , from where it is warmer /colder to where
it is warmer/ colder .
Click , bring the slider to Clay, and click . Observe how the temperature along the rod changes.
3. The clay rod starts at a uniform temperature. The part of the rod in contact with the
hot iron increases its temperature most quickly. True /False
4. Heat flows along the rod from where it is warmer /colder to where it is warmer/ colder.
5. Compared to the steel rod, the temperature of the clay changes more slowly /quickly .
6. Clay is a better heat conductor/ insulator . Steel is a better heat conductor /insulator.

Which material would make a better mug to hold your hot cocoa, so that the cocoa stays
warm and your hand doesn’t burn? Clay /Steel
Which material would make a better cooking pot, so that heat from the burner easily
transfers to whatever is inside the pot? Clay/ Steel

10.3 Convection
Convection is another form of heat transfer. In liquids and gases, convection is what allows
heat to be transferred when molecules move. When the movement is caused by a pump or a
fan, such as cooling of computer chips by a fan, it is called forced convection. When the
movement occurs because of difference in density, such as water being boiled in a pot or air
around a fire, it is called natural convection.
Click to begin the exercise.
1. The flame makes the bottom of the pot hottest near the center /sides.
2. Heat is transferred from the flame to the water at the bottom of the pot.2
The water becomes less /more dense and rises /sinks.
3. The water farthest from the flame is cooler /warmer than the water near the flame,
hence the water at the top of the pot is less/ more dense, which causes it to rise/ sink.
4. Convection allows water in different parts of the pot to quickly reach the same temperature
even though it is only being heated at the bottom. True /False
5. Research Questions - answer without Interactive Physics.

A. Convection occurs in gases as well as liquids. True /False
B. Due to convection, air above a candle flame is hotter /colder than air beside it.
C. Large scale convection causes our Earth’s winds to blow. True /False
2
Assume the water’s temperature is above 4 ◦ C (39 ◦ F) and hence becomes less dense as it gets hotter.
10.4 Radiation (Windows only)
Radiation is the means by which heat is transferred from one object to another without direct
contact or movement of molecules. All objects emit radiation, and warmer objects emit more
than cooler ones. When radiation hits an object, it is partly reflected and partly absorbed. The
part that is absorbed heats the object.
With the man inside the shelter during the day, click .
1. If the air temperature inside the shelter is the same as it is outside, the man feels
warmer/ cooler inside than he would outside because (circle one)
a. the shelter blocks some heat radiated by the sun.
b. the shelter blocks some of the heat radiated by the man.
Move the man out from the shelter by changing the bottom slider to Outside.
2. When the man is outside and exposed to the sun, more heat radiates from the man/ sun
to the man /sun, and the man feels hot /cold.
Change the top slider to Night, and keep the man Outside the shelter.
3. At night, when the man is outside the shelter, more heat radiates from the man /night
sky to the man/ night sky , and the man feels hot/ cold .
Bring the man back inside the shelter by changing the bottom slider to Inside.
4. At night, if the air temperature inside the shelter is the same as it is outside, the man
feels warmer inside /outside because
a. the shelter blocks some heat radiated by the night sky.
b. the shelter blocks some of the heat radiated by the man.

Your mom is sitting in front of a closed, well insulated, triple-paned window on a cold
clear night in a room at 21 ◦ C (70 ◦ F). She complains that she feels cold. You explain
that she will feel warmer if she closes the drapes mostly because
a. the drapes are good insulators.
b. the drapes block some of her radiation.

Chapter 11
Wave and sound
A wave is a disturbance that carries energy from one place to another with relatively small
disturbance to the medium through which it travels. Waves are characterized by their fre-
quency, wavelength, and amplitude. Water waves and sound waves are two common waves.
A pebble thrown into a lake generates a water wave. The wave begins at the impact point
where the pebble hits the water and spreads to other parts of the water, in increasingly larger
circles centered on the impact point. The speed at which the wave moves outward is called
wave speed. It is important to note that even though the wave is spread to a location far
away from the impact point, the water molecules are not displaced - they simply oscillate up
and down and forward and backward.1
WaveSpeed = WaveFrequency ∗ WaveLength
Sound waves are important for human communication.2 Transmission of sound waves requires
a medium, such as air, water, or a string. The speed of sound is related to the elasticity and
density of the medium. For example, sound travels more quickly in warmer air than in cooler
air because air molecules are closer together in warmer air.
SpeedOfSound = DistanceTraveled
ElapsedTime
1
The oscillation of water waves is eventually damped out by friction and air resistance.
2
Sound waves that can be heard by humans have frequencies between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. Ultrasonic waves
are above the audible range (above 20,000 Hz) and infrasonic waves are below the audible range (below 20 Hz).
104
11.1 Wave motion
The frequency of a wave is the number of cycles per unit time and is usually measured in
cycles per second, or hertz (Hz). The period of a wave is the amount of time required per cycle
and is equal to 1/frequency. The amplitude of an undamped wave is half the vertical distance
from the wave’s crest (its high point) to its trough (its low point).
With Frequency at 2 Hz and Amplitude at 1 m, click .
1. A wave at 2 Hz has 2 cycles in 1 sec.
Click , set Frequency to 4 Hz, and click .
2. A wave at 4 Hz has 4 cycles in 1 sec.
3. A higher frequency means more cycles in a given amount of time. True /False
Click , set Frequency to 3 Hz, and click . Observe the amplitude of the wave.
4. What is the wave’s amplitude? 1 m
5. What is the vertical distance between the crest and the trough? 2 m

Copyright c 2005 MSC.Software 105 Chapter 11: Wave and sound
11.2 Wave speed
The speed at which a wave travels through a medium such as air or water is called wave speed
and is related to the wave’s frequency and wavelength by
WaveSpeed = WaveFrequency ∗ WaveLength
With Frequency at 1 Hz, click .

1. Find the wavelength of a wave traveling at 60 m/s with a frequency of 1 Hz.
Result:
m m
60 sec 60 sec m
1 Hz = = 60 cycle
1 cycle
sec

Result:
m m
60 sec 60 sec m
2 Hz = = 30 cycle
2 cycle
sec

Result:
m m
60 sec 60 sec m
3 Hz = = 20 cycle
3 cycle
sec
4. At a given wave speed, an increase in frequency causes the wavelength to increase/ decrease.

5. Complete the following chart about the various waves.
(A) (B)
(C) (D)
Wave Wavelength Wave Frequency Wave Speed

(m/cycle) (Hz or cycle
sec
) (m/sec)
m
100 sec
A 5 m
5 cycle = 20 cycle
sec
100 m
sec
B 10 20 cycles
sec
20 cycle
sec
∗ 10 m
cycle
= 200 m
sec
m
280 sec cycle m
C 7 m
7 cycle = 40 sec
280 sec
D 8 30 cycles
sec
30 cycle
sec
∗ 8 m
cycle
= 240 m
sec

11.3 Speed of sound
Sound is a wave and travels through a medium. The speed of sound depends on the density
and elasticity of the medium, which can be solid, liquid, or gas. Without a medium (i.e., in
a vacuum), sound is not possible. In general, sound travels faster in solids than liquids, and
faster in liquids than air. The speed of sound is calculated by the equation
SpeedOfSound = DistanceTraveled
ElapsedTime
Click . Choose Air, Water, or Iron and click .
1. Determine the time it takes for the sound of a hammer strike to travel 1000 m in the
various substances listed below.
Substance Speed of sound Time for sound to travel 1000 m

Air at 20 ◦ C 343 m 1000 mm = 2.92 sec
sec 343 sec
Water at 25 ◦ C 1493 m 1000 mm = 0.67 sec

sec 1493 sec
Iron 5130 m 1000 mm = 0.19 sec

sec 5130 sec
2. Sound travels more quickly in iron than in air. True /False
3. Sound travels more quickly in air than in water. True/ False
4. Sound travels more quickly in water than in iron. True/ False

A starting gun is fired to begin a 100 m race. At the finish line, one official started her
timer the instant she saw the gun fired whereas a second official started his timer the
instant he heard the gun fired. Assume the air temperature is 20 ◦ C (68 ◦ F).
(a) What is the difference in the race-time recorded by the two officials?
Result:
100 mm = 0.29 sec
343 sec
(b) The correct race time is reported by the official who saw /heard the gun fired.

Determine the time difference reported by the various observers who see the lightning and
hear the thunder. Assume the air temperature is 20 ◦ C (68 ◦ F).
Observer Distance from lightning Time difference

A 1000 m 1000 mm = 2.92 sec
343 sec
B 1609 m (1 mile) 1609 mm = 4.69 sec

343 sec
C 2000 m 2000 mm = 5.83 sec

343 sec
D 3000 m 3000 mm = 8.75 sec

343 sec

An observer reports hearing thunder 1 second after seeing the lightning. How far away
was the lightning? Assume the air temperature is 20 ◦ C (68 ◦ F).
Result:
1 sec ∗ 343 m
sec
= 343 m

A person sees lightning and hears its thunder 14 seconds later. How far away was the
lightning? Assume the air temperature is 20 ◦ C (68 ◦ F).
Result:
343 m
sec
∗ 14 sec = 4802 m ≈ 3 miles

11.4 Mach number
The Austrian physicist Ernst Mach developed the Mach number (M) to describe high-speed
flight. At Mach 1, an aircraft travels at the speed of sound whereas at Mach 2, the aircraft
travels at twice the speed of sound.
Mach number and the speed of sound depend on air temperature and density, which vary
with altitude. At sea level, the speed of sound is 1223 km
h
(340 ms ) whereas 12,000 m above sea
level, the speed of sound is 1061 kmh
(295 ms ). Since the speed of sound depends on altitude,
Mach 1 at sea level is faster than Mach 1 at an altitude of 12,000 m.
Mach number is calculated by the equation
FlightSpeed
MachNumber =
SpeedOfSound
Click . Select the appropriate Altitude and Speed of the jet, and click .
1. Determine the Mach number of a jet traveling at the altitudes and speeds listed below.
Speed of jet (m/sec) Altitude of jet (m) Mach number

300 12000 1.02
9000 0.99
6000 0.95
3000 0.91
900 12000 3.05

9000 2.96
6000 2.85
3000 2.74

A jet travels at Mach 2.4 at an altitude of 12,000 m. What is its speed?
Result:
2.4 ∗ 294.7 m
sec
= 707.28 m
sec

The SR-71 Blackbird, one of the fastest and highest-flying aircraft, can fly at a speed
m
of Mach 3.3 at an altitude of 23,000 m where the speed of sound is 295 sec . How many
minutes does the SR-71 take to travel the 4600 km from Los Angeles to New York?
Result:
3.3 ∗ 295 m
sec
= 973.5 m
sec
m ∗ 1 km ∗ 60 sec
973.5 sec = 58.41 km
1000 m 1 min min
4600 km ∗ 1 min = 78.8 min

58.41 km
Courtesy NASA Dryden Flight Research Center Photo Collection

11.5 Doppler effect (Windows only)
As a sound source moves towards an observer (like a fire truck approaching you), the sound
frequency heard by the observer increases. As the sound source moves away from an observer, the
sound frequency heard by the observer decreases. The change in frequency due to the motion of either
the sound source (fire truck) or the observer (you) is an example of the Doppler Effect.
With Fire truck (source) velocity and Skateboarder (observer) velocity at 0.00 m/s, click .
1. When both the fire truck and the skateboarder are stationary, the siren frequency observed by
the skateboarder is the same as the source frequency. True /False
Click , set the Fire truck (source) velocity to -20.00 m/s, and click .
2. As the fire truck approaches the stationary skateboarder, the siren frequency observed by the
skateboarder is lower than/ higher than /equal to the source frequency. As the fire truck
moves away from the stationary skateboarder, the siren frequency observed by the skateboarder
is lower than /higher than/equal to the source frequency.
Click , set the Skateboarder (observer) velocity to 20.00 m/s, and click .
3. As the fire truck and the skateboarder approach each other, the siren frequency observed by
the skateboarder is lower than/ higher than /equal to the source frequency. As they move
away from each other, the siren frequency observed by the skateboarder is lower than /higher
than/equal to the source frequency.
Click , set the Fire truck (source) velocity to 0.00 m/s, and click .
4. As the skateboarder approaches the stationary fire truck, the siren frequency observed by the
skateboarder is lower than/ higher than /equal to the source frequency. As the skate-
boarder moves away from the stationary fire truck, the siren frequency observed by the skate-
boarder is lower than /higher than/equal to the source frequency.

Chapter 12
Intermolecular attractions
A molecule is a collection of atoms held together by covalent bonds. Molecules make up the air
you breathe, the water you drink, the food you eat, and the homes you live in.
A molecule’s behavior is primarily determined by intermolecular attrac-
tions, i.e., a molecule’s ability to attract other molecules. Attractions be-
tween molecules create sugar crystals, snowflakes, and the double helix of
DNA. Intermolecular attractions also explain why salt dissolves in water
while oil does not.
Most intermolecular attraction results from the polarity of bonds within

each molecule. The term covalent bond describes a bond between atoms
due to the sharing of electrons. When atoms share electrons equally, the
bond is called non-polar. Alternately, when atoms share electrons un-
equally, the bond is called a polar bond.
In a polar bond, one of the bonding atoms is slightly positive as its electrons
are pulled away from it, while the other bonding atom is slightly negative
as it pulls electrons towards itself. The symbol δ+ describes the charge on
an atom that is slightly positive, while the symbol δ− describes the charge
on an atom that is slightly negative.
An ionic substance or salt is a collection of atoms held together by ionic bonds. An ionic bond
occurs when one atom takes one or more electrons from another atom (no sharing). The atom with
extra electrons is called a negative ion whereas the atom losing electrons is called a positive ion.
Summary of bonds
Type of bond/force and description Between Strength
Non-polar (pure) covalent bond atoms Strong
Electrons are equally shared
Polar covalent bond atoms Strong
Electrons are unequally shared (δ + and δ − )
Ionic bond atoms Strong
Electrons are transferred (no sharing)
Hydrogen bond polar molecules Weak (≈ 50x weaker than covalent bonds)
Attraction between δ + and δ − atoms
Van Der Waals (dispersion) force non-polar molecules Weaker than a hydrogen bond
Attraction between instantaneous dipoles
113
12.1 Hydrogen bonding between water molecules
Liquid water is the most common polar molecule on Earth. Its polar atoms enable water to attract
many other types of molecules. (which is why it is called the ”universal solvent”).
Water molecules (H2 O) are made from hydrogen and oxygen atoms. Although both hydrogen
and oxygen are gases at room temperature, water is a liquid at room temperature. Water molecules
are capable of forming strong intermolecular attractions known as hydrogen bonds. When hydrogen
bonds exists H2 O is in a liquid or solid state. These hydrogen bonds are what make water a liquid
instead of a gas at room temperature.
Open the Interactive Physics experiment HydrogenBondingBetweenWaterMolecules.ip.
1. An H2 O molecule is shown to the right.

Circle the oxygen atom and put a square around each hydrogen atom.
Oxygen is bonded to one/ two hydrogens.
Hydrogen is bonded to one /two oxygen.
With Hydrogen Bonding ON , click .
2. The water molecules attract /repel each other.
3. The oxygen atoms in one water molecule attract the oxygen/ hydrogen atoms in a neigh-
boring water molecule.
4. The term “hydrogen bond” describe the attraction between a polarized hydrogen (δ+ ) in one
molecule and a negatively polarized atom (δ− ) in a neighboring molecule. In this simulation,
which atom is negatively polarized? Oxygen /Hydrogen .
5. Circle the picture that best describes the hydrogen bonding between two water molecules. Note:
the three dots (. . . ) symbolize a hydrogen bond.
Portions Copyright
c 2006 by Steve Sogo (with permission) 114 Chapter 12: Intermolecular attractions
Turn Hydrogen Bonding OFF and click .
6. With hydrogen bonding OFF, the molecules show no attraction to each other and move off in
random directions. True /False .

On Earth, H2 O molecules exist in three states: solid (ice), liquid (water), and gas (steam/water
vapor). Knowing that increasing temperature breaks hydrogen bonds, guess which states have
hydrogen bonds between the H2 O molecules? (circle all that apply).
Solid H2 O (ice) Liquid H2 O (water) Gas H2 O (steam/water vapor)
Courtesy USAF Courtesy NOAA Courtesy USAF

Hydrogen molecules (H2 ) and oxygen molecules (O2 ) do not form hydrogen bonds (they do not
attract each other and cluster together like water molecules). Why are H2 and O2 incapable of
forming hydrogen bonds with each other? (circle all that apply)
• Both H2 and O2 are non-polar molecules

• Both H2 and O2 lack the δ+ and δ− charges required for forming hydrogen bonds
• Gases do not have hydrogen bonds
• Both H2 and O2 are unstable
Portions Copyright
12.2 Interaction of water molecules and a sodium ion
An atom with extra electrons is called a negative ion (anion) whereas an atom which lost electrons
is called a positive ion (cation). This experiment investigates how water molecules interact with a
positively charged sodium ion.
Open the Interactive Physics experiment InteractionOfWaterMoleculesAndASodiumIon.ip

√
1. Before running the experiment, choose ( ) one of the following hypotheses.
• The water molecules will repel the sodium ion

• The water molecules will attract the sodium ion
• The water molecules will attract each other and leave the sodium ion alone
After making a hypothesis, click and then circle the correct statement above.
2. The oxygen in the water molecule is attracted to the sodium ion. True /False
The hydrogen in the water molecule is attracted to the sodium ion. True/ False
Circle the best reason for your answer.
• The positively charged sodium ion attracts the δ− polarized oxygen atom.
• The positively charged sodium ion attracts the δ+ polarized hydrogen atom.
• The sodium ion has more charge than water.
• Sodium and water are different substances.
Portions Copyright
The lower-left water molecule does not attach to the sodium ion. Click , use the slider to rotate the lower-
left water molecule, and click . If necessary, repeat this process until the lower-left water molecule attaches
to the sodium ion.
3. The lower-left water molecule attaches to the sodium ion when:
• The hydrogens are closest to the sodium ion.

• The oxygen is closest to the sodium ion.

Knowing that solubility depends on intermolecular attraction, circle one of the following:
• Sodium ions do not dissolve in water.

• Sodium ions dissolve easily in water.

(A). Circle the following ions which attract water molecules like a sodium ion.
√
(B). Check ( ) the ion that you think attracts water molecules most.
• Potassium ion (K + )
• Calcium ion (Ca2+ )
√
• Aluminum ion (Al3+ )
Courtesy of Dr. Alain Laderach Courtesy of Dr. Chris Bruns

NIH Center for Biomedical Computation at Stanford NIH Center for Biomedical Computation at Stanford
Portions Copyright
12.3 Interaction of water molecules and a chloride ion
An atom with extra electrons is called a negative ion (anion) whereas an atom which lost electrons
is called a positive ion (cation). This experiment investigates how water molecules interact with a
negatively charged chloride ion.
Open the Interactive Physics experiment InteractionOfWaterMoleculesAndAChlorideIon.ip

√
1. Before running the experiment, choose ( ) one of the following hypotheses.
• The water molecules repel the chloride ion

• The water molecules attract the chloride ion
• The water molecules attract each other and leave the chloride ion alone
After making a hypothesis, click and then circle the correct statement above.
2. The oxygen in the water molecule is attracted to the chloride ion. True /False
The hydrogen in the water molecule is attracted to the chloride ion. True/ False
Circle the best reason for your answer.
• The negatively charged chloride ion attracts the δ− polarized oxygen atom.
• The negatively charged chloride ion attracts the δ+ polarized hydrogen atom.
• The chloride ion has more charge than water.
• Chloride and water are different substances.
Portions Copyright
The upper-middle water molecule does not attach to the chloride ion. Click , use the slider to rotate the
upper-middle water molecule, and click . If necessary, repeat this process until the upper-middle water
molecule attaches to the chloride ion.
3. The upper-middle water molecule attaches to the chloride ion when:
• The hydrogens are closest to the chloride ion.

• The oxygen is closest to the chloride ion.

Knowing that solubility depends on intermolecular attraction, circle one of the following:
• Chloride ions do not dissolve in water.

• Chloride ions dissolve easily in water.

Knowing that noble gases such as helium, neon, and argon are reluctant to gain or lose elec-
trons, explain why noble gases do not dissolve well in water? (circle all that apply).
• Noble gas atoms have positive charges

• Noble gas atoms have negative charges
• Noble gas atoms have no charge
• Noble gas atoms do not attract water molecules

Aluminum atoms exist in two forms, namely neutral (uncharged) aluminum (Al) atoms which
forms pure, elemental aluminum or positively charged Al3+ which forms compounds with neg-
atively charged ions such as chloride (Cl− ). Based on how water interacts with positive and
negative ions, guess which of the following would be soluble in water:
• Neutral Al atoms
• Positively charged Al3+ ions
• Aluminum chloride AlCl3
• Pure aluminum metal, e.g., aluminum foil
Portions Copyright
12.4 Interaction of water with non-polar and polar molecules
Experiments 12.1, 12.2, and 12.3 show that water molecules are attracted to the positive and nega-
tive ions inherent to ionic substances (salts). There are many substances in the world that contain
molecules rather than charged ions. The interaction of water with these molecular substances
is greatly influenced by the polarity of the molecular substance. This experiment investigates how
water molecules interact with non-polar molecules and polar molecules.
Open the Interactive Physics experiment InteractionOfWaterMoleculesWithNonPolarAndPolarMolecules.ip

√
1. Before running the experiment choose ( ) one or more of the following hypotheses.
• The non-polar molecule will repel water

• The non-polar molecule will attract water
• The non-polar molecule will not attract or repel water
• The water molecules will attract each other
After making a hypothesis about non-polar molecules, click and then circle the correct statement above.
2. Based on the behavior seen in this experiment, circle one of the following:
• The non-polar molecule dissolves in water

• The non-polar molecule will not dissolve in water
3. Circle the bonds that were formed during this simulation.
• Covalent bonds
• Hydrogen bonds
• Ionic bonds
Portions Copyright
Set the slider to Polar Molecule and click .
4. Circle the best description of the interaction of water molecules with a polar molecule.
• The polar molecule repels the water molecules

• The polar molecule attracts the water molecules
• The water molecules attract each other and leave the polar molecule alone
5. In observing the interaction of the polar molecule, it seems that the pink atom is δ+ /δ− (circle
one) and the green atom is δ+ / δ− (circle one).
6. The behavior of this simulation suggests that the polar molecule is soluble /insoluble in
water. (Soluble means it dissolves, insoluble means it does not dissolve.)
7. Based on your observation of these simulations, it seems that
• Polar molecules can form hydrogen bonds. True /False

• Non-polar molecules can form hydrogen bonds. True/ False

The word ”hydrophilic” comes from the Greek words hydro (water) and philic (love). Hence,
a hydrophilic molecules ”loves water” (is attracted to water). Circle the hydrophilic molecules
in the following list.
• Alcohol (a polar molecule)

• Sugar (a polar molecule)
• Oil (a non-polar molecule)
• Propane (a non-polar molecule)
• Ammonia (a polar molecule)

Circle the word that describe molecules that are ”afraid of water”.
(Hint: Use a dictionary, encyclopedia, or the web.)
• Hydrometer
• Hydraulic
• Hydrophobic
• Hydrolysis

Molecules that readily dissolve in water are hydrophilic /hydrophobic .
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12.5 Investigating the strength of hydrogen bonds
As summarized in the table at the beginning of this chapter, there are many types of bonds between
atoms and ions. By using a “bowling ball” to test the strength of various bonds, this simulation helps
you compare the strength of hydrogen bonds relative to covalent bonds. In general, strong bonds are
called stable (the bond is not easily broken). This simulation demonstrates how the stability of a
hydrogen bond depends on its surrounding temperature.
Open the Interactive Physics experiment InvestigatingStrengthOfHydrogenBonds.ip and click .
1. Circle the best description of the changes in bonding that occur when the bowling ball strikes
the water molecules.
• Both hydrogen bonds and covalent bonds remain intact

• Hydrogen bonds are broken, while covalent bonds remain intact
• Covalent bonds are broken, while hydrogen bonds remain intact
• Both hydrogen bonds and covalent bonds are broken
Click . Set the bowling ball speed slider to Low and click .
Then, click , set the bowling ball speed slider to High and click .
2. Circle the statements that are true at low temperature (represented by a slow bowling ball).
• Hydrogen bonds are more likely to hold together (hydrogen bonds are more stable)
• Hydrogen bonds are less likely to hold together (hydrogen bonds are less stable)
• Temperature has no effect on the stability of hydrogen bonds
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On Earth, H2 O molecules exist in three states: solid (ice), liquid (water), and gas (steam/water
vapor). Circle the state of H2 O with the most stable hydrogen bonds.
Solid H2 O (ice) Liquid H2 O (water) Gas H2 O (steam/water vapor)
Courtesy USAF Courtesy NOAA Courtesy USAF

Circle the types of bonds you must break to swim through water.
• Hydrogen bonds
• Covalent bonds
• Both hydrogen bonds and covalent bonds
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Chapter 13
Discovery Learning
In the previous chapters, you used Interactive Physics for inquiry learning. You answered questions
using formulae, calculations, and structured Interactive Physics experiments.
Although inquiry learning is excellent for a conceptual understanding of physics, scientific progress
is made through new discoveries. The most important feature in Interactive Physics is discovery
learning, where you create your own question and build experiments to answer them. With Interactive
Physics, the possibilities in building cars, airplanes, robots, pinball machines, humans, animals, etc.,
are limited only by your imagination.
This chapter shows you how to build an experiment. When you have finished, you can start the
exciting exploration of physics with the same tools used by professional scientists! Who knew learning
physics could be so much fun!
Step Related Physics Concepts

Creating a falling block Mass; freely falling objects; laws of motion; linear kinematics
Adding a velocity vector Vector and scalar quantities; vector components; unit vector
Making a pendulum Oscillatory motion; frequency and amplitude; rotational kinematics
Graphing pendulum motion Graphs and measurements; motion diagrams
Changing gravity Law of gravity; Newtons second law
Adding air resistance Air resistance; non-conservative forces
Adding a spring Oscillations; conservative forces; conservation of kinetic/potential energy
Controlling spring constant Spring constant; natural spring length; equilibrium spring length
Collisions with a circle Collision; elasticity; frictional forces; impulse and momentum
Attaching pictures to objects Attaching pictures makes physics experiments realistic and fun
Adding sound Sound waves; speed of sound; Doppler effect; sound frequency and intensity
Adding a curved slot joint Roller coaster physics; motion in two dimensions; conservation of energy
and momentum
Adding a force Concept of force; Newtons first law; work and energy
Running demo files Interactive Physics allows you to explore other essential physics topics, in-
cluding: electrostatics, evaporation and condensation, gears, kinetic theory
of gas, machines, magnetism, particle dynamics, projectiles and rockets,
pulleys, rotational dynamics, static equilibrium, superposition of waves,
and many more.
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Starting Interactive Physics 4 Graphing the Pendulum’s Motion
1. Ensure that Interactive Physics is installed on your computer. 1. To graph the pendulum’s motion, click on the rectangle. Under the Measure
menu, select Position, then select Rotation Graph.
2. From the Windows menu, click on Programs and then Interactive Physics
and then Interactive Physics. This opens a new experiment. 2. To collect data, click . Note: Data can be displayed as a graph, bar chart,
or number, and can be changed while running the experiment. Click .
3. The graph shows the pendulum’s amplitude and frequency. To make the graph
1 Creating a Falling Block larger, click on the graph and drag its lower right-hand corner to the right.
1. The first simulation is Newton’s first experiment, dropping a block.
2. To draw a rectangle, click on the Rectangle tool, then click in the workspace and
draw a long thin rectangular block.
3. To run the experiment and see the block fall due to gravity, click .
4. Click to reset the experiment.
5 Changing Gravity
1. To change gravity, click on the World menu, select Gravity, slide the slider to the
top for the value 20 m/sec2, and click [OK].
2. Click and observe that, in agreement with theoretical and experimental
predictions, the pendulum has a higher natural frequency. Click .
2 Adding a Velocity Vector

1. To add a velocity vector, click on the rectangle.
2. From the Define menu, click on Vectors and then Velocity.
3. Click and observe that the vector changes magnitude as the block falls.
4. Click .
Optional: To add a numerical value to the velocity vector (or its components), click
on the Define menu, select Vector Display, and check the Value box.
3 Making a Pendulum
1. To make a pendulum, click on the Pin joint tool and then click on the upper left-
hand corner of the rectangle.
2. Click and observe that the vector changes magnitude and direction as the
pendulum moves. Click . 6 Adding Air Resistance
1. Under the World menu, select Air Resistance, click on Low Speed, and accept
the default air resistance value of 0.3 kg/(m*s) by clicking [OK].
2. Click and observe the exponentially decaying oscillations. Click .
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7 Adding a Spring 9 Collisions with a Circle
1. To add a spring, click on the Spring tool. Click on the upper right-hand corner of 1. To create a circle, click on the Circle tool, then click in the workspace and draw a
the block and stretch the spring up and to the right.
circle. (If your rectangle is high on the screen, click to zoom to extents.)
2. Click and observe the pendulum's higher natural frequency and new
2. Click to start the experiment and observe that the circle bounces and rolls
equilibrium position. Click . on top of the rectangle. Automatic collision and contact is a very useful feature in
Interactive Physics (even the elastic and frictional properties of objects may be
varied). Click .
8 Controlling the Spring Constant

1. To control the spring constant, click on the spring. Under the Define menu, select
New Control, then select Spring Constant.
2. The slider that controls the spring will appear in the left-hand side of the
10 Attaching a Picture to an Object
workspace. To move the slider's location closer to the spring, click on its title and 1. To find the spaceman picture on Windows, select menu, then Programs, then
drag it next to the spring. Interactive Physics, then Interactive Physics Files, then the IPIntroduction
3. To see the effect of varying the spring constant, click and observe that the folder.
pendulum angle is a function of the spring-constant (move the slider up and down 2. Double-click on the bitmap file “Spaceman.bmp.” This should open the bitmap in
a program such as Paint.
while the experiment is running). Click . 3. In Paint, select the Edit menu and then choose Select All.
Next, select the Edit menu again and then choose Copy.
4. Go back to Interactive Physics and select its Edit menu and then choose Paste.
5. To attach the spaceman bitmap to the circle, click on the spaceman, then hold
down [Shift] while you click on the circle.
6. Select the Object menu and then Attach Picture. Notice that the circle object has
disappeared and has been replaced by the spaceman image.
7. Click to run the experiment. Click .
Note: Interactive Physics was designed to be easy-to-use. In this exercise, the

only time you need to touch the keyboard is to hold down the [Shift] key.
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11 Adding Sound 14 Running Demo Files
1. Click on the spaceman, select the Measure menu and choose Hear the Collision. Windows users:
2. Click to start the experiment and hear the sound when the spaceman 1. Under the Script menu, click on "Run All Demo Files."
2. Sit back and enjoy a series of demos on a variety of physics topics.
contacts the block. Click .
3. To quit, select the File menu and choose Exit.
Mac Users:
1. Browse to the For Demo Users folder installed with Interactive Physics.
12 Adding a Curved Slot Joint 2. Double-click on each of the files, then click Run.
3. To quit, select the File menu and choose Quit.
1. To add a Curved Slot Joint, click on the Curved Slot joint tool.
2. Click on the spaceman and then click on a couple of other places to the right of
the spaceman, and then double-click to complete the slot (see figure below).
3. Click to start the experiment and observe that the spaceman slides down
the curved slot. Click .
15 Curriculum Workbook
Supplementary workbooks with Interactive Physics exercises of varying difficulty
are available with purchase. To try the instructional curriculum:
Windows users: Go to the Windows , then Programs, then Interactive

Physics, then click on StartCurriculum.html, then choose Demo Users.
Note: The Demo Edition can open only Demo files. The Full Edition must be
purchased to open the curriculum and additional 150+ physics experiments.
13 Adding a Force
1. To add thrust to the spaceman to overcome air resistance, click on the Force
tool, then click on the spaceman, then move the mouse to the left and click again.
2. Click to start the experiment and observe that the spaceman overcomes
air resistance and moves more quickly along the curved slot. Click .
Interactive experiments explore concepts in Energy, Temperature,

Heat Transfer, Waves, and Sound
Plus experiments in speed, distance, time, acceleration, force, weight, mass,
gravity, and air resistance
New curriculum workbook correlated with National and State Educational
Standards and Objectives
Full-color teacher edition and black-line master student edition
http://www.interactivephysics.com
127

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Interactive Physics

Paul Mitiguy, Ph.D.

ISBN 1-58524-999-8 (SI Units) May 2010

General instructions for using Interactive Physics curriculum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

Why Interactive Physics Curriculum?

Michael Woo, M.S.

Closing an experiment or Exiting Interactive Physics

Speed, distance, and time

DistanceTraveled = AverageSpeed ∗ ElapsedTime

c 2006-2010 DST. Portions Copyright

c 2006-2010 DST. Portions Copyright

DistanceTraveled = AverageSpeed ∗ ElapsedTime

2. Suppose the car is going more slowly, at an average speed of 50 km/h.

c 2006-2010 DST. Portions Copyright

6. Bonus Question - answer without Interactive Physics.

c 2006-2010 DST. Portions Copyright

1. What is the average speed of a car that travels 100 km in 2 hours?

2. What is the average speed of a car that travels 200 km in 2 hours?

c 2006-2010 DST. Portions Copyright

5. Bonus Question - answer without Interactive Physics

c 2006-2010 DST. Portions Copyright

9. Bonus Question - answer without Interactive Physics.

10. Bonus Question - answer without Interactive Physics.

c 2006-2010 DST. Portions Copyright

1. What is the average speed of a car that travels 300 km in 3 hours?

2. What is the average speed of a car that travels 300 km in 6 hours?

c 2006-2010 DST. Portions Copyright

8. Bonus Question - answer without Interactive Physics.

9. Bonus Question - answer without Interactive Physics.

A police oﬃcer in an aircraft observes a car that travels 30 km in 15 minutes.

c 2006-2010 DST. Portions Copyright

c 2006-2010 DST. Portions Copyright

5. Bonus Question - answer with the previous graph.

c 2006-2010 DST. Portions Copyright

7. Bonus Question - answer without Interactive Physics.

8. Bonus Question - answer without Interactive Physics.

320 km = 4 hours ⇒ 5:15 p.m.

9. Bonus Question - answer without Interactive Physics.

300 km = 3 hours and 45 minutes

c 2006-2010 DST. Portions Copyright

2. The green car has a constant/ variable (circle one) speed.

3. The red car has a constant/ variable speed.

4. The blue car has a constant /variable speed.

5. The gray car’s speed is constant, so it has a minimum speed of 30 km h

c 2006-2010 DST. Portions Copyright

Average speed = 100 km = 50 km

7. Complete the following table.

c 2006-2010 DST. Portions Copyright

Acceleration and change in speed

Acceleration is a measure of the change in speed in a certain amount of time.

ChangeInSpeed = CurrentSpeed − InitialSpeed

Courtesy Department of Defense

ChangeInSpeed = AverageAcceleration ∗ ElapsedTime

3. Complete the table for a boat that accelerates for 5 seconds.

c 2006-2010 DST. Portions Copyright

Courtesy Department of Defense

c 2006-2010 DST. Portions Copyright

100 km/h km/h

100 km/h km/h