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CBSE
Class 12 Chemistry
Quick Revision Notes
Chapter 1
The Solid State
Solid: Solid is a state of matter in which the constituting particles are arranged very
closely.The constituent particles can be atoms, molecules or ions.
Properties of solids:
1. They have definite mass, volume and shape.

2. They are compressible and rigid.
3. Intermolecular distances are very short and hence the intermolecular forces are strong.
4. Their constituent particles have fixed position. sand can only oscillate about their mean
positions.
Classification of on the basis of the arrangement of constituent particles:
Properties of crystalline solids:
They have a definite geometrical shape.

They have a long range order.
They have a sharp melting point.
They are anisotropic in nature i.e. their physical properties show different values
when measured along different directions in the same crystal.
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They have a definite and characteristic heat of fusion.
They are called true solids.
When cut with a sharp edged tool , they split into two pieces and the newly generated
surfaces are plain and smooth.

Polymorphic forms or polymorphs:
The different crystalline forms of a substance are known as polymorphic forms or

polymorphs .For example: graphite and diamond.
Characteristics of amorphous solids:
1. They have an irregular shape.

2. They have a short range order.
3. They gradually soften over arrange of temperature.
4. They are isotropic in nature i.e. their physical properties are the same in all directions.
5. When cut with a sharp edged tool, they cut into two pieces with irregular surfaces.
6. They do not have definite heat of fusion.
7. They are called pseudo solids or super cooled liquids. This is because they have a
tendency to flow,though very slowly.
Types of crystalline solids:
A. Molecular Solids
Constituent Particles: Molecules

Type of Constituent Bonding/ Electrical physical Melting

Examples
solid Particles Attractive Forces conductivity nature point
Non-polar Dispersion or Very Ar, CCl4,

Molecules Insulator Soft
solids London forces low H2, l2, CO2
HCl, solid
Polar Dipole- dipole
Molecules Insulator Soft low SO2, solid
solids interactions
NH3
Hydrogen Hydrogen
Molecules Insulator Hard low H2O (ice)
bonded bonding
B. Ionic Solids
Constituent Particles: Ions

Bonding/Attractive Forces: Coulombic or Electrostatic
Electrical Conductivity: Insulators in solid state but conducts in molten state and in
aqueous solutions
Physical Nature: Hard but brittle
Melting Point: High
Examples: , ZnS, MgO, NaCl
C. Metallic Solids
Constituent Particles: Positive ions in a sea of delocalized electrons
Bonding/Attractive Forces: Metallic bonding
Electrical Conductivity: Conductors in solid state as well as in molten state
Physical Nature: Hard but malleable and ductile
Melting Point: Fairly high
Examples: Fe ,Cu, Ag, Mg
D. Covalent or NetworkSolids
Constituent Particles: Atoms
Bonding/Attractive Forces: Covalent bonding

Electrical Conductivity: Conductors in solid state as well as in molten state
Physical Nature: Hard but malleable and ductile
Melting Point: Fairly high
Examples: , (quartz), SiC, C (diamond), C(graphite)
Crystal lattice: A regular ordered arrangement of constituent particles in three

dimensions is called crystal lattice.
Lattice points or lattice sites:the fixed positions on which the constituent particles
are presentare called lattice points or lattice sites. A group of lattice points which
when repeated over and over againin3dimensions give the complete crystal lattice.
Unit cell: It is defined as the smallest repeating unit in space lattice which when
repeated over and over again generates the complete crystal lattice. The crystal can
consist of an infinite number of unit cells.
Parameters which characterize a unit cell:
1. Dimensions of the unit cell along the three edges ,a, b and c:these edges may or may not
be mutually perpendicular.
2. Inclination of the edges to each other:this is denoted by the angle between the edges , ,

andrespectively. isthe angle between the edges b and c, isthe angle between the edges a
and c ,and is the angle between a and b.
Seven crystal systems:
1. Cubic: = = =90° ,a=b=c

2. Tetragonal: = = =90° ; a=b c
3. Orthorhombic: = = =90°; a b c
4. Monoclinic: = =90°, 90°; a b c
5. Hexagonal: = =90°, =120°; a=b c
6. Rhombohedral or trigonal: = = 90°;a=b=c
7. Triclinic: 90°;a b c
Types of unit cells:
1. Primitive or simple unit cells have constituent particles only at its corners.
2. Centered unit cells are those unit cells in which one or more constituent particles are
present at positions in addition to those present at the corners.
Types of centered unit cells:
1. Face centered unit cell: It consists of one constituent particle present at the centre of each
face in addition to those present at the corners.
2. Body centered unit cell: It consists of a one constituent particle is present at its body
centre in addition to those present at the corners.
3. End centered unit cell: It consists of one constituent particle present at the centre of any
two opposite faces in addition to those present at the corners.
Number of particles at different lattice positions:

Face centre: if an atom is present at the centre of the face, it is shared by two unit
cells. So, only half of the atom actually belongs to the unit cell.
Body centre: if an atom is present at the body centre, it is not shared by any other unit
cell.So,that one atom completely belongs to the same unit cell.
End centre: f an atom is present at the edge centre, it is shared by four unit cells. So,
only one fourth of an atom belongs to the unit cell.
Number of atoms in different unit cells:
1. Primitive unit cell have 1atom

2. Face centered unit cell have 3 atoms
3. Body centered unit cell have 2atoms

Coordination number: Coordination number is the number of nearest neighbours of
a particle.
Close packed structures:
Close packing in two dimensions: It is generated by stacking the rows of close packed
spheres in two ways:
i) Square close packing and ii) Hexagonal close packing.
Close packing in three dimensions: They can be obtained by stacking the two
dimensional layers one above the other. It can be obtained in two ways:
i) Square close packed layers and ii) Hexagonal close packed layers.
Square close packing: Here, the spheres of the second row ware placed exactly
above those of the first row. This way the spheres are aligned horizontally as well as
vertically. The arrangement is AAA type. The coordination number is 4.
Hexagonal close packing: Here, these spheres of these bond row are placed above
the first one in as taggered manner in such a way that its spheres fit in the depression
of the first row. The arrangement is ABAB type. The coordination number is 6.
Three dimensional close packing from two dimensional square close packed
layers: Here , the spheres of the upper layer are placed exactly over the first layer
such the spheres of the layers are perfectly aligned horizontally and vertically.It has a

AAAA type pattern. The lattice is simple cubic lattice.
Three dimensional close packing from two dimensional hexagonal close packed
layers: There are two steps involved as:
1. Placing these bond layer over the first layer
2. Placing the third layer over the second layer
There are two possibilities:
Covering the octahedral voids: Here, octahedral voids of these bond layer may be

covered by the spheres of the third layer. It gives rise to ABCABCABC type pattern. The
three dimensional structure is called cubic close packed structure or face centered
cubic structure. The coordination number is 12.Example: Cu, Ag.
Types of voids:
Octahedral void- It is formed at the centre when six spheres are joined in the form of
an octahedron.
In hexagonal close packing or cubic close packing arrangement, the octa hedral and
tetrahedral voids are present. The number of octahedral voids present in a lattice is
equal to the number of close packed particles. The number of tetrahedral voids is
twice the number of octahedral voids.
For example:
If the number of close packed particles = n

Number of particles present in octahedral voids = n
Then, the number of particles present in tetrahedral voids = 2n
Packing efficiency: It is the percentage of total space occupied by constituent particles

(atoms, molecules orions).
Packing efficiency for face centered unit cell =74%

Packing efficiency for body centered cubic unit cell =68%
Packing efficiency for simple cubic unit cell =52.4%
Radius ratio in an octahedral void: For an atom to occupy an octahedral void, its
radius must be 0.414 times the radius of the sphere.
Radius ratio for tetrahedral void: For an atom to occupy a tetrahedral void, its radius
must be 0.225 times the radius of the sphere.
Density of a unit cell is same as the density of the substance.

Relationship between radius of constituent particle(r) and edge length(a):
1. Simple cubic unit cell: a=2r

2. Face centered unit cell: a=
3. Body centered unit cell: a=
Volume of a unit cell=(edge length)3=
1. Simple cubic unit cell: Volume=

2. Face centered unit cell: Volume=
3. Body centered unit cell: Volume=
Number of atoms in a unit cell(z):
1. Simple cubic unit cell: z = 1

2. Face centered unit cell: z = 4
3. Body centered unit cell: z = 2
Density of unit cell =

Crystal defects are basically irregularities in the arrangement of constituent particles.
Types of defects:
1. Point defects- Point defects are the irregularities or deviations from ideal arrangement
around a point or an atom in a crystalline substance.
2. Line defects- Line defects are the irregularities or deviations from ideal arrange ment in
entire rows of lattice points.
Different types of point defects:
Different types of stoichiometric defects for non- ionic solids:
Interstitial defect: A crystal is said to have interstitial defect when some constituent
particles (atoms or molecules) occupy an interstitial site. This defect results in
increase in density of the substance.

Different types of stoichiometric defects for ionic solids:
Frenkel or dislocation defect: In this defect, the smaller ion (usually cation) is
dislocated from its normal site to an interstitial site. It creates a vacancy defect a tits
original site and an interstitial defect a tits new location. It does not change the
density of the solid. Frenkel defect is shown by ionic substance in which there is a
larged difference in the size of ions. It includes ZnS,AgCl,AgBrand AgI.
Different types of non-stoichiometric defects:

Metal deficiency: This defect arises because of absence of metal ions from its lattice
sites. The electrical neutrality is maintained by an adjacention having a higher
positive charge.
Reasons for the cause of metal excess defect:
a) Anionic vacancies: A compound may have an extra metal ion if the negative ion is absent
from its lattice site.This empty lattice site is called a hole.To maintain electrical neutrality
this site is occupied by an electron. The hole occupied by an electron is called f-centre or
Farbenz enter centre. The F- centre is responsible for the colour of the compound.
b) Presence of extracations: A compound is said to have extracations if a cation is present

in the interstitial site. An electron is present in the interstitial site to maintain the electrical
neutrality.
Classification of solids based on their electrical conductivities:
a) Conductors: The solids with conductivities ranging between to are

called conductors.
b) Insulators: These are the solids with very low conductivities ranging between to
.
c) Semi- conductors: These are the solids with conductivities in the intermediate range from
to .

b) In case of insulators, the forbidden gap is very large and the electrons are unable to excite
to the conduction band.
c) In case of semiconductors, forbidden gap is small. Therefore, some electrons may jump to
conduction band and show some conductivity. Electrical conductivity of semiconductors
increases with rise in temperature, since more electron scan jump to the conduction band.
Types of semiconductors:

a) Intrinsic semiconductors: These are those semiconductors in which the forbidden gap is
small. Only some electrons may jump to conduction band and show some conductivity. They
have very low electrical conductivity. Example: Silicon, germanium.
b) Extrinsic semiconductors: When an appropriate impurity is added to an intrinsic

semiconductor, it is called extrinsic semi conductors. Their electrical conductivity is high.
Doping: The process of adding an appropriate amount of suitable impurity to

increase the conductivity of semiconductors is known as doping.
a) The n-type semiconductors: They are formed when silicon is doped with electron rich
impurity like group 15 elements. The increase in conductivity is due to the negatively
charged electrons.
b) The p-type semiconductors: They are formed when silicon is doped with electron
deficient impurity like group 13 elements. The increase in conductivity is due to the
positively charged holes.
Types of extrinsic semiconductors:

Diode: It is a combination of n-type and p-type semiconductors and is used as a
rectifier.
Transistors: They are made by sandwiching a layer of one type of semiconductor
between two layers of the other type of semi conductor. The npn and pnp type of
transistors are used to detector amplify radio or audio signals.
The 12- 16 compounds: These compounds are formed by the combination of group 12
and group 16 compounds.They possess an average valency of 4.Examples -
ZnS,CdS,CdSe and HgTe.
The 13- 15 compounds: These compounds are formed by the combination of group 13
and group 15 compounds.They possess an average valency of 4.Examples - InSb,AlP
and GaAs.
Every substance has some magnetic properties associated with it. The origin of these
properties lies in the electrons.
Each electron in an atom behaves like at in y magnet. Its magnetic moment originates
from two types of motions:
(i) its orbital motion around the nucleus and

(ii) its spin around its own axis.
Classification of substances based on their magnetic properties:
1. Paramagnetic substances: These are those substances which are weakly attracted by the
magnetic field. It is due to presence of one or more unpaired electrons.
2. Diamagnetic substances: Diamagnetic substances are weakly repelled by a magnetic
field. Diamagnetism is shown by those substances in which all the electrons are paired
and there are no unpaired electrons.
3. Ferromagnetic substances: These are those substances which are attracted every
strongly by a magnetic field.
4. Anti ferromagnetic substances: They have equal number of parallel and anti parallel
magnetic dipoles resulting in a zero net dipolemoment.
5. Ferrimagnetic substances: They have unequal number of parallel and anti parallel
magnetic dipoles resulting in an at dipole moment.

CBSE Class 12 Chemistry
Chapter 2
Solutions
The difference in boiling points of solution and pure solvent is called elevation in
boiling point
Solutions: Solutions are the homogeneous mixtures of two or more than two
components.
Binary solution: A solution having two components is called a binary solution.
Components of a binary solution.
It includes solute and solvent.
1. When the solvent is in solid state, solution is called solid solution.
2. When the solvent is in liquid state, solution is called liquid solution.
3. When the solvent is in gaseous state, solution is called gaseous solution.

Concentration: It is the amount of solute in given amount of solution.
Mass by volume percentage (w/v): Mass of the solute dissolved in 100 mL of
solution.
Molality (m) is the number of moles of solute present in 1kg of solvent.
Molarity (M) is the number of moles of solute present in 1L of solution.
Normality is the number of gram equivalent of solute dissolved per litre of solution.
Solubility: It is the maximum amount that can be dissolved in a specified amount of
solvent at a specified temperature.
Saturated solution: It is a solution in which no more solute can be dissolved at the
same temperature and pressure.
In a nearly saturated solution if dissolution process is an endothermic process,
solubility increases with increase in temperature.
In a nearly saturated solution if dissolution process is an exothermic process,
solubility decreases with increase in temperature.
Henry’s Law: It states “at a constant temperature the solubility of gas in a liquid is
directly proportional to the pressure of gas”. In other words, “the partial pressure of
gas in vapour phase is proportional to the mole fraction of the gas in the solution”.
When a non-volatile solute is dissolved in a volatile solvent, the vapour pressure of
solution is less than that of pure solvent.
Raoult’s law: It states that “for a solution of volatile liquids the partial vapour
pressure of each component in the solution is directly proportional to its mole
fraction”.
Using Dalton’s law of partial pressure the total pressure of solution is calculated.
Comparison of Raoult’ law and Henry’s law: It is observed that the partial pressure of
volatile component or gas is directly proportional to its mole fraction in solution. In
case of Henry’s Law the proportionality constant is KH and it is different from p10
which is partial pressure of pure component. Raoult’s Law becomes a special case of
Henry’s Law when KH becomes equal to p10 in Henry’s law.
Classification of liquid–liquid solutions: It can be classified into ideal and non-ideal
solutions on basis of Raoult’s Law.

Ideal solutions:
1. The solutions that obey Raoult’s Law over the entire range of concentrations are
known as ideal solutions.
2.
3. The intermolecular attractive forces between solute molecules and solvent
molecules are nearly equal to those present between solute and solvent molecules
i.e. A-A and B-B interactions are nearly equal to those between A-B.
Non-ideal solutions:
1. When a solution does not obey Raoult’s Law over the entire range of
concentration, then it is called non-ideal solution.
2.
3. The intermolecular attractive forces between solute molecules and solvent
molecules are not equal to those present between solute and solvent molecules i.e.
A-A and B-B interactions are not equal to those between A-B
Types of non- ideal solutions:
1. Non ideal solution showing positive deviation
2. Non ideal solution showing negative deviation
Non ideal solution showing positive deviation
1. The vapour pressure of a solution is higher than that predicted by Raoult’s Law.
2. The intermolecular attractive forces between solute-solvent molecules are weaker
than those between solute-solute and solvent-solvent molecules i.e., A-B < A-A and
B-B interactions.
Non ideal solution showing negative deviation
1. The vapour pressure of a solution is lower than that predicted by Raoult’s Law.
2. The intermolecular attractive forces between solute-solvent molecules are
stronger than those between solute-solute and solvent-solvent molecules i.e. A-B >
A-A and B-B interactions.
Azeotopes: These are binary mixtures having same composition in liquid and vapour
phase and boil at constant temperature. Liquids forming azeotrope cannot be
separated by fractional distillation.
Types of azeotropes: There are two types of azeotropes namely,
1. Minimum boiling azeotrope
2. Maximum boiling azeotrope

The solutions which show a large positive deviation from Raoult’s law form minimum
boiling azeotrope at a specific composition.
The solutions that show large negative deviation from Raoult’s law form maximum
boiling azeotrope at a specific composition.
Colligative properties: The properties of solution which depends on only the number
of solute particles but not on the nature of solute are called colligative properties.
Types of colligative properties: There are four colligative properties namely,
1. Relative lowering of vapour pressure
2. Elevation of boiling point
3. Depression of freezing point
4. Osmotic pressure
Relative lowering of vapour pressure: The difference in the vapour pressure of pure
solvent and solution represents lowering in vapour pressure .
Relative lowering of vapour pressure: Dividing lowering in vapour pressure by
vapour pressure of pure solvent is called relative lowering of vapour pressure
Relative lowering of vapour pressure is directly proportional to mole fraction of

solute. Hence it is a colligative property.
Elevation of boiling point:
For a dilute solution elevation of boiling point is directly proportional to molal

concentration of the solute in solution. Hence it is a colligative property.
Depression of freezing point: The lowering of vapour pressure ofsolution causes a
lowering of freezing point compared to that of pure solvent.The difference in freezing
point of the pure solvent and solution is called the depression in freezing point.
For a dilute solution depression in freezing point is a colligative property because it is

directly proportional to molal concentration of solute.
Osmosis: The phenomenon of flow of solvent molecules through a semi permeable
membrane from pure solvent to solution is called osmosis.
Osmotic pressure: The excess pressure that must be applied to solution to prevent the

passage of solvent into solution through a semipermeable membrane is called osmotic
pressure.
Osmotic pressure is a colligative property as it depends on the number of solute
particles and not on their identity.
For a dilute solution, osmotic pressure ( ) is directly proportional to the molarity (C)
of the solution i.e. = CRT
Osmotic pressure can also be used to determine the molar mass of solute using the
equation
Isotonic solution: Two solutions having same osmotic pressure at a given temperature
are called isotonic solution.
Hypertonic solution: If a solution has more osmotic pressure than other solution it is
called hypertonic solution.
Hypotonic solution: If a solution has less osmotic pressure than other solution it is
called hypotonic solution.
Reverse osmosis: The process of movement of solvent through a semipermeable
membrane from the solution to the pure solvent by applyingexcess pressure on the
solution side is called reverse osmosis.
Colligative properties help in calculation of molar mass of solutes.
Abnormal molar mass: Molar mass that is either lower or higher than expected or
normalmolar mass is called as abnormal molar mass.
Van’t Hoff factor: Van’t Hoff factor (i)accounts for the extent of dissociation or
association.
Value of i is less than unity in case solute undergo association and the value of i is
greater than unity in case solute undergo dissociation.
Inclusion of van’t Hoff factor modifies the equations for colligative properties as:

Chapter 3
Electrochemistry
Oxidation: It is defined as a loss of electrons while reduction is defined as a gain of

electrons.
In a redox reaction, both oxidation and reduction reaction takes place
simultaneously.
Direct redox reaction: In a direct redox reaction, both oxidation and reduction
reactions take place in the same vessel. Chemical energy is converted to heat energy
in a direct redox reaction.
Indirect redox reaction: In indirect redox reactions, oxidation and reduction take
place in different vessels.
In an indirect redox reaction, chemical energy is converted into electrical energy.The
device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy is known as an
electrochemical cell.
In an electrochemical cell:
1. The half-cell in which oxidation takes place is known as oxidation half-cell
2. The half-cell in which reduction takes place is known as reduction half-cell.
3. Oxidation takes place at anode which is negatively charged and reduction takes
place at cathode which is positively charged.
4. Transfer of electrons takes place from anode to cathode while electric current
flows in the opposite direction.
5. An electrode is made by dipping the metal plate into the electrolytic solution of its
soluble salt.
6. A salt bridge is a U shaped tube containing an inert electrolyte in agar-agar and
gelatine.
Salt bridge: A salt bridge maintains electrical neutrality and allows the flow of
electric current by completing the electrical circuit.
Representation of an electrochemical cell:
1. Anode is written on the left while the cathode is written on the right.

2. Anode represents the oxidation half-cell and is written as: Metal/Metal ion
(Concentration)
3. Cathode represents the reduction half-cell and is written as: Metal ion
(Concentration)/Metal
4. Salt bridge is indicated by placing double vertical lines between the anode and the
cathode
5. Electrode potential is the potential difference that develops between the electrode
and its electrolyte. The separation of charges at the equilibrium state results in the
potential difference between the metal and the solution of its ions. It is the
measure of tendency of an electrode in the half cell to lose or gain electrons.
6. Standard electrode potential: When the concentration of all the species involved in
a half cell is unity, then the electrode potential is known as standard electrode
potential. It is denoted as EΘ.
According to the present convention, standard reduction potentials are now called
standard electrode potential.
Types of electrode potential: There are 2 types of electrode potentials namely,
1. Oxidation potential
2. Reduction potential
Oxidation potential: It is the tendency of an electrode to lose electrons or get
oxidized.
Reduction potential: It is the tendency of an electrode to gain electrons or get
reduced.
Oxidation potential is the reverse of reduction potential.
The electrode having a higher reduction potential have higher tendency to gain
electrons and so it acts as a cathode whereas the electrode having a lower reduction
potential acts as an anode.
The standard electrode potential of an electrode cannot be measured in isolation.
According to convention, the Standard Hydrogen Electrode is taken as a reference
electrode and it is assigned a zero potential at all temperatures.
Reference electrode: Standard calomel electrode can also be used as a reference
electrode
SHE: Standard hydrogen electrode consists of a platinum wire sealed in a glass tube
and carrying a platinum foil at one end. The electrode is placed in a beaker containing

an aqueous solution of an acid having 1 Molar concentration of hydrogen ions.
Hydrogen gas at 1 bar pressure is continuously bubbled through the solution at 298 K.
The oxidation or reduction takes place at the Platinum foil. The standard hydrogen
electrode can act as both anode and cathode.
If the standard hydrogen electrode acts as an anode:
If the standard hydrogen electrode acts as a cathode:
In the electrochemical series, various elements are arranged as per their standard
reduction potential values.
A substance with higher reduction potential value means that it has a higher tendency
to get reduced. So, it acts as a good oxidising agent.
A substance with lower reduction potential value means that it has a higher tendency
to get oxidised. So, it acts as a good reducing agent.
The electrode with higher reduction potential acts as a cathode while the electrode
with a lower reduction potential acts as an anode.
The potential difference between the 2 electrodes of a galvanic cell is called cell
potential and is measured in Volts.
The cell potential is the difference between the reduction potential of cathode and
anode.
E cell = E cathode – E anode
Cell potential is called the electromotive force of the cell (EMF) when no current is
drawn through the cell.
Nernst studied the variation of electrode potential of an electrode with temperature
and concentration of electrolyte.
Nernst formulated a relationship between standard electrode potential EΘ and
electrode potential E.
Electrode potential increases with increase in the concentration of the electrolyte and
decrease in temperature.
Nernst equation when applied to a cell, it helps in calculating the cell potential.

At equilibrium, cell potential Ecteell becomes zero.
Relationship between equilibrium constant Kc and standard cell potential EΘcell:
Work done by an electrochemical cell is equal to the decrease in Gibbs energy
The substances which allow the passage of electricity through them are known as
conductors.
Every conducting material offers some obstruction to the flow of electricity which is
called resistance. It is denoted by R and is measured in ohm.
The resistance of any object is directly proportional to its length l and inversely
proportional to its area of cross section A.
Where ρ is called specific resistance or resistivity.

The SI unit of specific resistivity is ohm metre.
The inverse of resistance is known as conductance, G
Unit of conductance is ohm-1 or mho. It is also expressed in Siemens denoted by S.
The inverse of resistivity is known as conductivity. It is represented by the symbol .
The SI unit of conductivity is Sm-1. But it is also expressed in Scm-1.
Conductivity = Conductance × Cell constant
For measuring the resistance of an ionic solution, there are 2 problems:
1. Firstly, passing direct current changes the composition of the solution
2. Secondly, a solution cannot be connected to the bridge like a metallic wire or a
solid conductor.
Conductivity cell: The problem of measuring the resistance of an ionic solution can be
resolved by using a source of alternating current and the second problem is resolved
by using a specially designed vessel called conductivity cell.
A conductivity cell consists of 2 Pt electrodes coated with Pt black. They have area of
cross section A and are separated by a distance ‘l’. Resistance of such a column of
solution is given by the equation:
Where is called cell constant and is denoted by the symbol

Molar conductivity of a solution: It is defined as the conducting power of all the ions

produced by dissolving 1 mole of an electrolyte in solution.
Molar conductivity
Where = Conductivity and M is the molarity Unit of Molar conductivity is Scm2 mol-
1
Equivalent conductivity: It is the conductivity of all the ions produced by dissolving
one gram equivalent of an electrolyte in solution. Unit of equivalent conductivity is S
cm2 (g equiv) -1
Equivalent conductivity:
Kohlrausch’s Law of independent migration of ions: According to this law, molar
conductivity of an electrolyte, at infinite dilution, can be expressed as the sum of
individual contributions from its individual ions.
If the limiting molar conductivity of the cations is denoted by and that of the
anions by , then the limiting molar conductivity of electrolyte is:
Molar conductivity,
Where v+ and v- are the number of cations and anions per formula of electrolyte
Degree of dissociation: It is ratio of molar conductivity at a specific concentration ‘c’
to the molar conductivity at infinite dilution. It is denoted by.
Dissociation constant: WhereKa is acid dissociation constant, ‘c’ is

concentration of electrolyte, α is degree of ionization.
Faraday constant: It is equal to charge on 1 mol of electrons. It is equal to 96487 C
mol-1 or approximately equal to 96500 C mol-1.
Faraday’s first law of electrolysis: The amount of substance deposited during
electrolysis is directly proportional to quantity of electricity passed.
Faraday’s second law of electrolysis: If same charge is passed through different
electrolytes, the mass of substance deposited will be proportional to their equivalent
weights.
Products of electrolysis: The products of electrolysis depend upon
The nature of electrolyte being electrolyzed and the nature of electrodes. If electrode
is inert like platinum or gold, they do not take part in chemical reaction i.e. they
neither lose nor gain electrons. If the electrodes are reactive then they will take part
in chemical reaction and products will be different as compared to inert electrodes.
The electrode potentials of oxidizing and reducing species. Some of the

electrochemical processes although feasible but slow in their rates at lower voltage,
these require extra voltage, i.e. over voltage at which these processes will take place.
The products of electrolysis also differ in molten state and aqueous solution of
electrolyte.
Primary cells: A primary cell is a cell in which electrical energy is produced by the
reaction occurring in the cell, e.g. Daniel cell, dry cell, mercury cell. It cannot be
recharged.
Dry Cell:
At anode
At cathode
The net reaction:
Mercury Cell: The electrolyte is a paste of KOH and ZnO.
At Anode:
At cathode:
The net reaction:
Secondary cells: Those cells which are used for storing electricity, e.g., lead storage
battery, nickel – cadmium cell. They can be recharged.
Lead storage battery:
Anode:
Cathode:
The overall cell reaction consisting of cathode and anode reactions is:
On recharging the battery, the reaction is reversed.

Nickel cadmium cell: It is another type of secondary cell which has longer life than
lead storage cell but more expensive to manufacture.
The overall reaction during discharge is
Fuel cells:
At Anode:
At cathode:
Overall reaction:
Corrosion:

Oxidation:
Reduction:
Galvanization: It is a process of coating zinc over iron so as to protect it from rusting.
Cathodic protection: Instead of coating more reactive metal on iron, the use of such
metal is made as sacrificial anode.

Chapter 4
Chemical Kinetics
Chemical kinetics: It is the branch of chemistry that deals with the study of reaction
rates and their mechanisms.
Rate of reaction: It is the change in concentration of reactant (or product) in unit
time.
The unit of rate of reaction is mol L-1s-1.
A + B → C + D
Rate of disappearance of
where d[A] is small change in conc. of ‘A’ and dt is small interval of time
Rate of disappearance of
Where d[B] is small change in conc. of ‘B’ and dt is small interval of time
Rate of appearance of
Where d[C] is small change in conc. of ‘C’ and dt is small interval of time
Rate of appearance of
Where d[D] is small change in conc. of ‘D’ and dt is small interval of time
Rate
Rate law or rate equation: It is the expression which relates the rate of reaction with
concentration of the reactants. The constant of proportionality ‘k’ is known as rate
constant.
Average rate: It is the rate of reaction measured over a long time interval.
Average rate
where is Δx change in concentration and Δt is large interval of time.
Instantaneous rate: It is the rate of reaction when the average rate is taken over a
particular moment of time. Instantaneous rate .
where dx is small change in conc. and dt is the smallest interval of time.
It is the expression which relates the rate of reaction with concentration of the
reactants.
Rate constant: When the concentration of reactants is unity, then the rate of reaction

is known as rate constant. It is also called specific reaction rate.
The constant of proportionality ‘k’ is known as rate constant.
Molecularity of a reaction: The total number of atoms, ions or molecules of the
reactants involved in the reaction is termed as its molecularity. It is always in whole
number and is never more than three. It cannot be zero.
Order of a reaction: The sum of the exponents (power) of the concentration of
reactants in the rate law is termed as order of the reaction. It can be in fraction. It can
be zero also.
If rate law expression for a reaction is Rate = k [A]x [B]y
Then its order of reaction = x + y
Order cannot be determined with a given balanced chemical equation. It can be
experimentally determined.
Integrated rate law for zero order reaction: R → P
If we plot a graph between concentration of R vs time t, the graph is a straight line

with slope equal to -k and intercept is equal to [Ro].
Half- life of a reaction: The time taken for a reaction, when half of the starting
material has reacted is called half- life of a reaction.
For zero order reaction, the half-life time is

For first order reaction, the half-life time is , where ‘k’ is rate constant.
It is independent of initial concentration for first order reaction.
Rate law for first order reaction: R P
where ‘k’ is rate constant or specific reaction rate, [Ro] is initial molar conc., [R] is
final molar conc. after time ‘t’.
where ‘a’ is initial conc. reacted in time ‘t’ final conc., after time ‘t’ is (a – x).
If we plot a graph between ln[R] with time, we get a straight line whose slope = - k and
intercept ln[Ro].
To calculate rate constant for first order gas phase reaction of the type
A(g) B(g) + C(g)

Where pi is initial pressure of A, pt is total pressure of gaseous mixture containing A ,
B, C
t = A + B + C
Pseudo first order reaction: The reaction which is bimolecular but order is one is
called pseudo first order reaction. This happens when one of the reactants is in large
excess.Example - Acidic hydrolysis of ester (ethyl acetate).
Activation energy (Ea): It is extra energy which must be possessed by reactant

molecules so that collision between reactant molecules is effective and leads to the
formation of product molecules.
Arrhenius equation of reaction rate: It gives the relation between rate of reaction
and temperature.
where k = rate constant, A = frequency factor, Ea = energy of activation R = gas

constant, T = temperature in Kelvin,
Probability factor or Steric factor
Where ZAB represents the collision frequency of reactants, A and B, represents

the fraction of molecules with energies equal to or greater than Ea and P is called the
probability or steric factor.
Mechanism of reaction: It is the sequence of elementary processes leading to the
overall stoichiometry of a chemical reaction.
Activated complex: It is an unstable intermediate formed between reacting molecules.
Since, it is highly unstable and it readily changes into product.
Rate determining step: It is the slowest step in the reaction mechanism.
The number of collisions per second per unit volume of the reaction mixture is known
as collision frequency (Z).

Chapter 5
Surface Chemistry
Adsorption:
(i) The accumulation of molecular species at the surface rather than in the bulk of a
solid or liquid is termed as adsorption.
(ii) It is a surface phenomenon.
(iii) The concentration of adsorbate increases only at the surface of the adsorbent.
Adsorbate: It is the substance which is being adsorbed on the surface of another
substance.
Adsorbent: It is the substance present in bulk, on the surface of which adsorption is
taking place.
Desorption: It is the process of removing an adsorbed substance from a surface on
which it is adsorbed.
Absorption:
(i) It is the phenomenon in which a substance is uniformly distributed throughout the
bulk of the solid.
(ii) It is a bulk phenomenon.
(iii) The concentration is uniform throughout the bulk of solid.
Sorption: When adsorption and absorption take place simultaneously, it is called
sorption.
Enthalpy or heat of adsorption: Since, adsorption occurs with release in energy, i.e.,
it is exothermic in nature. The enthalpy change for the adsorption of one mole of an
adsorbate on the surface of adsorbent is called enthalpy or heat of adsorption.
Types of adsorption: There are different types of adsorption namely,
1. Physical adsorption
2. Chemical adsorption
Physical adsorption
(i) If the adsorbate is held on a surface of adsorbent by weak van der Waals’ forces,

the adsorption is called physical adsorption or physisorption.
(ii) It is non-specific.
(iii) It is reversible.
(iv) The amount of gas depends upon nature of gas, i.e., easily liquefiable gases like
NH3, CO2, gas adsorbed to greater extent than H2 and He. Higher the critical
temperature of gas, more will be the extent of adsorption.

(v) The extent of adsorption increases with increase in surface area, e.g. porous and
finely divided metals are good adsorbents.
(vi) There are weak van der Waals’ forces of attraction between adsorbate and
adsorbent.
(vii) It has low enthalpy of adsorption (20 – 40 kJ mol-1).
(viii) Low temperature is favourable.
(ix) No appreciable activation energy is needed.
(x) It forms multimolecular layers.
Chemical adsorption or chemisorption:
(i) If the forces holding the adsorbate are as strong as in chemical bonds, the adsorption
process is known as chemical adsorption of chemisorption.
(ii) It is highly specific.
(iii) It is irreversible.
(iv) The amount of gas adsorbed is not related to critical temperature of the gas.
(v) It also increases with increase in surface area.
(vi) There is strong force of attraction similar to chemical bond.
(vii) It has enthalpy heat of adsorption (180 – 240 kJ mol-1).
(viii) High temperature is favourable.
(ix) High activation energy is sometimes needed.
(x) It forms unimolecular layers.
Factors affecting adsorption of gases on solids:
a. Nature of adsorbate: Physical adsorption is non-specific in nature and therefore every

gas gets adsorbed on the surface of any solid to a lesser or greater extent. However, easily
liquefiable gases like NH3,HCl, CO2, etc. which have higher critical temperatures are

absorbed to greater extent whereas H2, O2, N2 etc. are adsorbed to lesser extent. The
chemical adsorption being highly specific, therefore, a gas gets adsorbed on specific solid
only if it enters into chemical combination with it.
b. Nature of adsorbent: Activated carbon, metal oxides like aluminum oxide, silica gel and
clay are commonly used adsorbents. They have their specific adsorption properties
depending upon pores.
c. Specific area of the adsorbent: The greater the specific area, more will be the extent of
adsorption. That is why porous or finely divided forms of adsorbents adsorb larger
quantities of adsorbate. The pores should be large enough to allow the gas molecules to
enter.
d. Pressure of the gas: Physical adsorption increases with increase in pressure.
Adsorption isotherm:
The variation in the amount of gas adsorbed by the adsorbent with pressure at
constant temperature can be expressed by means of a curve is termed as adsorption
isotherm.
Freundlich Adsorption isotherm: The relationship between and pressure of the gas
at constant temperature is called adsorption isotherm and is given by
Where x- mass of the gas adsorbed on mass m of the adsorbent and the gas at a particular
temperature k and n depends upon the nature of gas
The solid first increases with increase in pressure at low pressure but becomes
independent of pressure at high pressure.

Taking logarithm on both sides, we get,
If we plot a graph between log and log P, we get a straight line.
The slope of the line is and intercept will be equal to log k.
Catalyst: These are substances which alter the rate of a chemical reaction and
themselves remain chemically and quantitatively unchanged after the reactionand
the phenomenon is known as catalysis.
Promoters: These are the substances which increase the activity of catalyst. Example -
Mo is promoter whereas Fe is catalyst in Haber’s Process.
Catalytic poisons (Inhibitors): These are the substances which decrease the activity of
catalyst. Example -Arsenic acts as catalytic poison in the manufacture of sulphuric
acid by ‘contact process.’
Types of catalysis:
There are two types of catalysis namely,
1. Homogeneous catalysis: When the catalyst and the reactants are in the same phase, this
kind of catalytic process is known as homogeneous catalysis.
2. Heterogeneous catalysis: When the catalyst and the reactants are in different phases, the
catalytic process is said to be heterogeneous catalysis.
3. Activity of catalyst: It is the ability of a catalyst to increase the rate of a chemical reaction.
4. Selectivity of catalyst: It is the ability of catalyst to direct a reaction to yield a particular

product (excluding others).
For example: CO and H2 react to form different products in presence of different catalysts as
follows:
1.
2.
3.
Shape – selective catalysis: It is the catalysis which depends upon the pore structure of
the catalyst and molecular size of reactant and product molecules. Example - Zeolites
are shape – selective catalysts due to their honey- comb structure.
Enzymes: These are complex nitrogenous organic compounds which are produced by
living plants and animals. They are actually protein molecules of high molecular
mass. They are biochemical catalysts
Steps of enzyme catalysis:
(i) Binding of enzyme to substrate to form an activated complex.

(ii) Decomposition of the activated complex to form product.
Characteristics of enzyme catalysis:
(i) They are highly efficient. One molecule of an enzyme can transform 106 molecules of
reactants per minute.
(ii) They are highly specific in nature. Example - Urease catalysis hydrolysis of urea only.
(iii) They are active at optimum temperature (298 – 310 K). The rate of enzyme catalysed
reaction becomes maximum at a definite temperature called the optimum temperature.
(iv) They are highly active at a specific pH called optimum pH.
(v) Enzymatic activity can be increased in presence of coenzymes which can be called as
promoters.
(vi) Activators are generally metal ions Na+, Co2+ and Cu2+ etc. They weakly bind to enzyme
and increase its activity.
(vii) Influence of inhibitors (poison): Enzymes can also be inhibited or poisoned by the

presence of certain substances.
True solution:
(i) It is homogeneous.
(ii) The diameter of the particles is less than 1 nm.
(iii) It passes through filter paper.
(iv) Its particles cannot be seen under a microscope.
Colloids:
(i) It appears to be homogeneous but is actually heterogeneous.

(ii) The diameter of the particles is 1 nm to 1000 nm.
(iii) It passes through ordinary filter paper but not through ultra-filters.
(iv) Its particles can be seen by a powerful microscope due to scattering of light.
Suspension:
(i) It is heterogeneous.
(ii) The diameter of the particles are larger than 1000 nm.
(iii) It does not pass through filter paper.
(iv) Its particles can be seen even with naked eye.
Dispersed phase: It is the substance which is dispersed as very fine particles.
Dispersion medium: It is the substance present in larger quantity.
Classification of colloids on the basis of the physical state of dispersed phase and
dispersion medium:
Name Dispersed phase Dispersed medium Examples
Solid sol solid Solid Coloured gem stones
Sol Solid Liquid Paints

Aerosol Solid Gas Smoke, dust
Gel Liquid Solid Cheese, jellies
Emulsion Liquid Liquid Hair cream, milk
Aerosol Liquid Gas Mist, fog, cloud
Solid sol Gas Solid Foam rubber, pumice stone
Foam Gas Liquid Whipped cream
Classification of colloids on the basis of nature of interaction between dispersed phase

and dispersion medium, the colloids are classified into two types namely,
1. Lyophobic sols
2. Lyophilic sols
Lyophobic sols:
(i) These colloids are liquid hating.

(ii) In these colloids the particles of dispersed phase have no affinity for the dispersion
medium.
(iii) They are not stable.
(iv) They can be prepared by mixing substances directly.
(v) They need stabilizing agents for their preservation.
(vi) They are irreversible sols.
Lyophilic sols:
(i) These colloids are liquid loving.

(ii) In these colloids, the particles of dispersed phase have great affinity for the dispersion
medium.

(iii) They are stable.
(iv) They cannot be prepared by mixing substances directly. They are prepared only by
special methods.
(v) They do not need stabilizing agents for their preservation.
(vi) They are reversible sols.
Classification of colloids on the basis of types of particles of the dispersed phase:
There are three types of colloids based on the type of dispersed phase, namely,
1. Multimolecular colloids: The colloids in which the colloidal particles consist of aggregates
of atoms or small molecules. The diameter of the colloidal particle formed is less than 1
nm.
2. Macromolecular colloids: These are the colloids in which the dispersed particles are
themselves large molecules (usually polymers). Since these molecules have dimensions
comparable to those of colloids particles, their dispersions are called macromolecular
colloids, e.g., proteins, starch and cellulose form macromolecular colloids.
3. Associated colloids (Micelles): Those colloids which behave as normal, strong electrolytes
at low concentrations, but show colloidal properties at higherconcentrations due to the
formation of aggregated particles of colloidal dimensions. Such substances are also
referred to as associated colloids.
Kraft Temperature (Tk):Micelles are formed only above a certain temperature called
Kraft temperature.
Critical Micelle Concentration (CMC): Micelles are formed only above a particular
concentration called critical micelle concentration.
Soaps: These are are sodium or potassium salts of higher fatty acids e.g., sodium
stearate CH3(CH2)16COO-Na+
Methods of preparation of colloids:
1. Chemical methods: Colloids can be prepared by chemical reactions leading to the

formation of molecules. These molecules aggregate leading to formation of sols.
2. Electrical disintegration or Bredig’s Arc method: In this method, electric arc is struck

between electrodes of the metal immersed in the dispersion medium. The intense heat
produced vaporizes the metal which then condenses to form particles of colloidal size.
3. Peptization: It is the process of converting a precipitate into colloidal sol by shaking it
with dispersion medium in the presence of a small amount of electrolyte. The electrolyte
used for this purpose is called peptizing agent.
Purification of colloids:
1. Dialysis: It is a process of removing a dissolved substance from a colloidal solution by

means of diffusion through a suitable membrane.
2. Electro dialysis. The process of dialysis is quite slow. It can be made faster by applying an
electric field if the dissolved substance in the impure colloidal solution is only an
electrolyte.
3. Ultrafiltration: It is the process of separating the colloidal particles from the solvent and
soluble solutes present in the colloidal solution by specially prepared filters, which are
permeable to all substances except the colloidal particles.
4. Ultracentrifugation: In this process, the colloidal solution is taken in a tube which is
placed in ultracentrifuge. On rotating the tube at very high speed, the colloidal particles
settle down at the bottom of the tube and the impurities remain in solution. The settled
particles are mixed with dispersion medium to regenerate the sol.
Properties of colloids:
Positively charged colloidal particles:
(i) These include hydrated metallic oxides such as Fe2O3. H2O, Cr2O3. H2O, Al2O3.
H 2O
(ii) Basic dye stuff like malachite green, methylene blue sols.
(iii) Example - Haemoglobin (blood).
Negatively charged colloidal particles:
(i) Metallic sulphides like As2S3, Sb2S3 sols.
(ii) Acid dye stuff like eosin, methyl orange, Congo red sols.
(iii) Examples - Starch sol, gum, gelatin, clay, charcoal, egg albumin, etc.

1. Colour: The colour of colloidal solution depends upon the wavelength of light
scattered by the colloidal particles which in turn depends upon the nature and
size of particles. The colour also depends upon the manner in which light is
received by the observer.
2. Brownian movement: Colloidal particles move in zig – zag path. This type of
motion is due to colliding molecules of dispersion medium constantly with
colloidal particles.
3. Colligative properties: The values of colligative properties (osmotic pressure,
lowering in vapour pressure, depression in freezing point and elevation in boiling
point) are of small order as compared to values shown by true solutions at the
same concentrations.
4. Tyndall effect: The scattering of a beam of light by colloidal particles is called
Tyndall effect. The bright cone of light is called the Tyndall cone.
5. Charge on colloidal particles: Colloidal particles always carry an electric charge.
The nature of this charge is the same on all the particles in a given colloidal
solution and may be either positive or negative.
6. Helmholtz electrical double layer: When the colloidal particles acquire negative or
positive charge by selective adsorption of one of the ions, it attracts counter ions
from the medium forming a second layer. The combination of these two layers of
opposite charges around colloidal particles is called Helmholtz electrical double
layer.
7. Electrokinetic potential or zeta potential: The potential difference between the
fixed layer and the diffused layer of opposite charges is called electrokinetic
potential or zeta potential.
8. Electrophoresis: The movement of colloidal particles under an applied electric
potential is called electrophoresis.
9. Coagulation or precipitation: The process of settling of colloidal particles as
precipitate is called coagulation.
Hardy – Schulze rules:
i) Oppositely charged ions are effective for coagulation.

ii) The coagulating power of electrolyte increases with increase in charge on the ions used
for coagulation. Examples - Al3+> Ba2+> Na+ for negatively charged colloids. Fe (CN)6]4->

> >Cl- for positively charged colloids.
Types of emulsions:
1. Water dispersed in oil: When water is the dispersed phase and oil is the dispersion
medium. E.g. butter
2. Oil dispersed in water: When oil is the dispersed phase and water is the dispersion
medium. E.g. milk
Emulsification: It is the process of stabilizing an emulsion by means of an emulsifier.
Emulsifying agent or emulsifier: These are the substances which are added to stabilize
the emulsions. Examples - soaps, gum
Demulsification: It is the process of breaking an emulsion into its constituent

liquidsby freezing, boiling, centrifugation or some chemical methods.

CBSE Class-12 Chemistry Quick Revision Notes
Chapter-06: General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements
• Minerals:
The naturally occurring chemical substances in the earth’s crust which are obtained by
mining are known as minerals.
• Metals may or may not be extracted profitably from them.
• Ores:
The rocky materials which contain sufficient quantity of mineral so that the metal can be
extracted profitably or economically are known as ores.
• Gangue:
The earthy or undesirable materials present in ore are known as gangue.
• Metallurgy:
• The entire scientific and technological process used for isolation of the metal from its
ores is known as metallurgy.
• Chief Ores and Methods of Extraction of Some Common Metals:
Sodium metal
a) Occurrence: Rock salt (NaCl), Feldspar (Na3AlSi3O8)
b) Extraction method: Electrolysis of fused NaCl or NaCl/ CaCl2
c) Inference: Sodium is highly reactive and hence, it reacts with water.
Copper metal
a) Occurrence: Copper pyrites (CuFeS2), Malachite (CuCO3.Cu(OH)2), Cuprite ( Cu2O)
Copper glance (Cu2S)
b) Extraction method: Roasting of sulphide partially and reduction.
2 Cu2O + Cu2S → 6 Cu +SO2
c) Inference: It is self-reduction in a specially designed converter. Sulphuric acid
leaching is also employed.
Aluminium metal
a) Occurrence: Bauxite:(AlOx(OH)3-2x where 0 < x < 1), Cryolite (Na3AlF6), Kaolinite
(Al2(OH)4Si2O5 )
b) Extraction method: Electrolysis of Al2O3 dissolved in molten cryolite or in Na3AlCl6
c) Inference: A good source of electricity is needed in the extraction of Al
Zinc metal
a) Occurrence: Zinc blende or Sphalerite (ZnS), Zincite (ZnO), Calamine (ZnCO3)
b) Extraction method: Roasting and then reduction with carbon.
c) Inference: The metal may be purified by fractional distillation.
Lead metal
a) Occurrence: Galena (PbS)
b) Extraction: Roasting of the sulphide ore and then reduction of the oxide.
c) Inference: Sulphide ore is concentrated by froth floatation process.
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Silver metal
a) Occurrence: Argentite (Ag2S)
b) Extraction method: Sodium cyanide leaching of the sulphide ore and finally
replacement of Ag by Zn.
c) Inference: It involves complex formation and displacement.
Gold metal
a) Occurrence: Native, small amounts in many ores such as those of copper and silver
b) Extraction method: Cyanide leaching, same as in case of silver
c) Inference: Gold reacts with cyanide to form complex
Iron metal
a) Occurrence: Haematite (Fe2O3), Magnetite (Fe3O4), Siderite (FeCO3), Iron pyrites
(FeS2)
b) Extraction method: Reduction with the help of CO and coke in blast furnace.
c) Inference: Limestone is added as flux which removes SiO2 as calcium silicate (slag)
floats over molten iron and prevents its oxidation. Temperatures approaching 2170
K is required.
• Steps of metallurgy:
a) Concentration of ore
b) Conversion of concentrated ore to oxide
c) Reduction of oxide to metal
d) Refining of metal
• Concentration of ore:
The process of removal unwanted materials like sand, clay, rocks etc from the ore is
known as concentration, ore – dressing or benefaction. It involves several steps which
depend upon physical properties of metal compound and impurity (gangue). The type of
metal, available facilities and environmental factors are also taken into consideration.
• Hydraulic washing (or gravity separation):
It is based on difference in densities of ore and gangue particles. Ore is washed with a
stream of water under pressure so that lighter impurities are washed away whereas
heavy ores are left behind.
• Magnetic separation:
This method is based on the difference in magnetic and non – magnetic properties of two
components of ore (pure and impure). This method is used to remove tungsten ore
particles from cassiterite (SnO2). It is also used to concentrate magnetite (Fe3O4),
chromite (FeCr2O4) and pyrolusite (MnO2) from unwanted gangue.
• Froth floatation process:
It is based on the principle that sulphide ores are preferentially wetted by the pine oil or
fatty acids or xanthates etc., whereas the gangue particles are wetted by the water.
Collectors are added to enhance the non-wettability of the mineral particles.
Froth stabilizers such as cresols, aniline etc., are added to stabilize the froth.

If two sulphide ores are present, it is possible to separate the two sulphide ores by
adjusting proportion of oil to water or by adding depressants.
For example, in the case of an ore containing ZnS and PbS, the depressant used is NaCN.
It selectively prevents ZnS from coming to froth but allows PbS to come with the froth.
• Leaching (Chemical separation):
It is a process in which ore is treated with suitable solvent which dissolves the ore but
not the impurities.
• Purification of Bauxite by leaching ( Baeyer’s process):
a) Step 1:
Al2O3 ( s ) + 2 NaOH (aq ) + 3H 2O(l ) → 2 Na[ Al (OH ) 4 ](aq )
b) Step 2:
2 Na[ Al (OH ) 4 ](aq ) + CO2 ( g ) → Al2O3 . XH 2O( s ) + 2 NaHCO3 (aq )
c) Step 3:
Al2O3 . XH 2O ( s ) 
Heat at 1470K
→ Al2O3 ( s ) + XH 2O ( g )
d) Concentration of Gold and Silver Ores by Leaching:
4 M ( s ) + 8CN − ( aq ) + 2 H 2O ( aq ) + O2 ( g ) → 4[ M (CN ) 2 ]− ( aq ) + 4OH − ( aq )
2[ M (CN ) 2 ]− ( aq ) + Zn( s ) → [ Zn(CN ) 4 ]2 − ( aq ) + 2 M ( s )
Where [M =Ag or Au]
• Conversion of ore into oxide:
It is easier to reduce oxide than sulphide or carbonate ore. Therefore, the given ore
should be converted into oxide by any one of the following method:
a) roasting
b) calcination
• Roasting:
a) It is a process in which ore is heated in a regular supply of air at a
temperature below melting point of the metal so as to convert the given ore
into oxide ore.
b) Sulphide ores are converted into oxide by roasting
c) It is also used to remove impurities as volatile oxides
d) example - 2 ZnS + 3O2 → 2 ZnO + 2 SO2
• Calcination
a) It is a process of heating ore in limited supply of air so as to convert carbonate
ores into oxides.
b) Carbonate ores are converted into oxide by roasting
c) It is also used to remove moisture and volatile impurities.
d) Example - CaCO3  Heat
→ CaO + CO2
• Reduction of oxide to metal:

The process of converting metal oxide into metal is called reduction. It needs a suitable
reducing agent depending upon the reactivity or reducing power of metal. The common
reducing agents used are carbon or carbon monoxide or any other metals like Al, Mg etc.
• Thermodynamic principles of metallurgy:
Some basic concepts of thermodynamics help in understanding the conditions of
temperature and selecting suitable reducing agent in metallurgical processes:
a) Gibbs free energy change at any temperature is given by ΔG = ΔH – TΔS where ΔG
is free energy change, ΔH is enthalpy change and ΔS is entropy change.
b) The relationship between ∆Gθ and K is ∆Gθ = –2.303 RT log K where K is
equilibrium constant. R = 8.314 JK-¹ mol-1, T is temperature in Kelvin.
c) A negative ΔG means +ve value of K i.e., products are formed more than the
reactants. The reaction will proceed in forward direction.
d) If ΔS is +ve, on increasing temperature the value of TΔS increases so that TΔS >
ΔH and ΔG will become negative.
• Coupled reactions:
If reactants and products of two reactions are put together in a system and the net ΔG of
two possible reactions is –ve the overall reaction will take place. These reactions are
called coupled reactions.
• Ellingham diagrams:
The plots between ∆fGθ of formation of oxides of elements vs. temperature are called
Ellingham diagrams. It provides a sound idea about selecting a reducing agent in
reduction of oxides. Such diagrams help in predicting the feasibility of a thermal
reduction of an ore. ΔG must be negative at a given temperature for a reaction to be
feasible.
• Limitations of Ellingham Diagrams:
It does not take kinetics of reduction into consideration, i.e., how fast reduction will take
place cannot be determined.
• Reduction of iron oxide in blast furnace:
Reduction of oxides takes place in different zones.
a) At 500 – 800 K (lower temperature range in blast furnace)
3Fe2O3 + CO → 2 Fe3O4 + CO2
Fe3O4 + 4CO → 3Fe + 4CO2
Fe2O3 + CO → 2 FeO + CO2
b) At 900 – 1500 K (higher temperature range in blast furnace)
C + CO2 → 2CO
FeO + CO → Fe + CO2
c) Limestone decomposes to CaO and CO2
CaCO3 
Heat
→ CaO + CO2
e) Silica (impurity) reacts with CaO to form calcium silicate which forms slag. It floats
over molten iron and prevents oxidation of iron.

CaO + SiO2 
→ CaSiO 3
Calcium Silicate (slag)
• Types of iron:
a) Pig iron: The iron obtained from blast furnace is called pig iron. It is impure from of
iron contains 4% carbon and small amount of S,.P, Si and Mn. It can be casted into
variety of shapes.
b) Cast iron: It is made by melting pig iron with scrap iron and coke using hot air blast.
It contains about 3% of carbon content. It is extremely hard and brittle.
c) Wrought iron: It is the purest form of commercial iron. It is also called malleable iron.
It is prepared by oxidative refining of pig iron in reverberatory furnace lined with
haematite which oxidises carbon to carbon monoxide.
Fe2O3 + 3C → 2 Fe + 3CO
The substance which reacts with impurity to form slag is called flux e.g. limestone is
flux.
S + O2 → SO2
4 P + 5O2 → 2 P2O5
Si + O2 → SiO2
CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3 ( slag )
3CaO + P2O5 → Ca3 ( PO4 ) 2 ( slag )
The metal is removed and freed from slag by passing through rollers.
• Electrolytic Reduction (Hall – Heroult Process):
Purified bauxite ore is mixed with cryolite (Na3AlF6) or CaF2 which lowers its melting
point and increases electrical conductivity. Molten mixture is electrolysed using a
number of graphite rods as anode and carbon lining as cathode.
The graphite anode is useful for reduction of metal oxide to metal.
2 Al2O3 + 3C → 4 Al + 3CO2
Al2O3 
Electrolysis
→ 2 Al 3+ + 3O 2−
At cathode: Al 3+ (melt ) + 3e − → Al (l )
At anode: C ( s ) + O 2− (melt ) → CO( g ) + 2e−
C ( s ) + 2O 2 − (melt ) → CO2 ( g ) + 4e −
Graphite rods get burnt forming CO and CO2. The aluminium thus obtained is refined
electrolytically using impure Al as anode, pure Al as cathode and molten cryolite as
electrolyte.
At anode: Al → Al 3+ + 3e−
(Impure)
At cathode: Al 3+ + 3e− → Al ( pure)

• Electrolysis of molten NaCl:
NaCl → Na + + Cl −
( Molten )

At cathode: Na + + e − → Na
At anode: 2Cl − → Cl2 + 2e −
Thus sodium metal is obtained at cathode and Cl2 (g) is liberated at anode.
• Refining:
It is the process of converting an impure metal into pure metal depending upon the
nature of metal.
• Distillation:
It is the process used to purify those metals which have low boiling points, e.g., zinc,
mercury, sodium, potassium. Impure metal is heated so as to convert it into vapours
which changes into pure metal on condensation and is obtained as distillate.
• Liquation:
Those metals which have impurities whose melting points are higher than metal can be
purified by this method. In this method, Sn metal can be purified. Tin containing iron as
impurities heated on the top of sloping furnace. Tin melts and flows down the sloping
surface where iron is left behind and pure tin is obtained.
• Electrolytic refining:
In this method, impure metal is taken as anode, pure metal is taken as cathode, and a
soluble salt of metal is used as electrolyte. When electric current is passed, impure metal
forms metal ions which are discharged at cathode forming pure metal.
At anode: M → M n + + ne −
(Impure)
At cathode: M n + + ne − → M
( Pure )
• Zone refining:
It is based on the principle that impurities are more soluble in the melt than in the solid
state of the metal. The impure metal is heated with the help of circular heaters at one
end of the rod of impure metal. The molten zone moves forward along with the heater
with impurities and reaches the other end and is discarded. Pure metal crystallizes out
of the melt. The process is repeated several times and heater is moved in the same
direction. It is used for purifying semiconductors like B, Ge, Si, Ga and In.
• Vapour phase refining:
Nickel is purified by Mond’s process. Nickel, when heated in stream of carbon monoxide
forms volatile Ni(CO)4 which on further subjecting to higher temperature decomposes to
give pure metal.
330 −350 k 450 − 470 k
Ni + 4CO  → Ni (CO )4  → Ni + 4CO
Impure Pure
• Van- Arkel method:

It is used to get ultra pure metals. Zr and Ti are purified by this process. Zr or Ti are
heated in iodine vapours at about 870 K to form volatile ZrI4 or TiI4 which are heated
over tungsten filament at 1800K to give pure Zr or Ti.

Ti + 2 I 2 → TiI 4 → Ti + 2 I 2
Impure Pure
Zr + 2 I 2 → ZrI 4 → Zr + 2 I 2
Impure Pure
• Chromatographic method:
It is based on the principle of separation or purification by chromatography which is
based on differential adsorption on an adsorbent. In column chromatography, Al2O3 is
used as adsorbent. The mixture to be separated is taken in suitable solvent and applied
on the column. They are then eluted out with suitable solvent (eluent). The weakly
adsorbed component is eluted first. This method is suitable for such elements which are
available only in minute quantities and the impurities are not very much different in
their chemical behaviour from the element to be purified.

Chapter 7
The P-Block Elements
The p-Block elements: Elements belonging to groups 13 to 18 of the periodic table are
called p-block elements.
General electronic configuration of p-block elements: The p-block elements are

characterized by the ns2np1-6 valence shell electronic configuration.
Representative elements: Elements belonging to the s and p-blocks in the periodic

table are called the representative elements or main group elements.
Inert pair effect: The tendency of ns2 electron pair to participate in bond formation
decreases with the increase in atomic size. Within a group the higher oxidation state
becomes less stable with respect to the lower oxidation state as the atomic number
increases. This trend is called ‘inert pair effect’. In other words, the energy required to
unpair the electrons is more than energy released in the formation of two additional
bonds.
GROUP 15 ELEMENTS
Nitrogen family: The elements of group 15 – nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), arsenic
(As), antimony (Sb) and bismuth (Bi) belong to configuration is .
Atomic and ionic radii:
1. Covalent and ionic radii increase down the group.

2. There is appreciable increase in covalent radii from N to P.
3. There is small increase from As to Bi due to presence of completely filled d or f orbitals in
heavy elements.
Ionisation energy:
1. It goes on decreasing down the group due to increase in atomic size.

2. Group 15 elements have higher ionisation energy than group 14 elements due to smaller
size of group 15 elements.
3. Group 15 elements have higher ionization energy than group 16 elements because they
have stable electronic configuration i.e., half-filled p-orbitals.
Allotropy: All elements of Group 15 except nitrogen show allotropy.
Catenation:
1. Nitrogen shows catenation to some extent due to triple bond but phosphorus shows
catenation to maximum extent.
2. The tendency to show catenation decreases down the group.
Oxidation states:
1. The common oxidation states are +3, +5 and –3.

2. The tendency to show –3 oxidation state decreases down the group because of decrease in
electronegativity by the increase in atomic size.
3. The stability of +5 oxidation state decreases whereas stability of +3 oxidation state
increases due to inert pair effect.
4. Nitrogen shows oxidation states from –3 to +5.
5. Nitrogen and phosphorus with oxidation states from +1 to +4 undergo oxidation as well
as reduction in acidic medium. This process is called disproportionation.
Reactivity towards hydrogen:
1. All group 15 elements from trihydrides, .

2. It belongs to hybridisation.
3. The stability of hydrides decreases down the group due to decrease in bond dissociation
energy down the group.
Boiling point:
1. Boiling point increases with increase in size due to increase in van der Waals forces.

2. Boiling point of NH3 is more because of hydrogen bonding.
Bond angle:
1. Electronegativity of N is highest. Therefore, the lone pairs will be towards nitrogen and
hence more repulsion between bond pairs. Therefore bond angle is the highest. After
nitrogen, the electronegativity decreases down the group.
2. Basicity decreases as NH3> PH3> AsH3> SbH3< BiH3. This is because the lone pair of
electrons are concentrated more on nitrogen and hence the basicity will be maximum in
the case of NH3. It will decrease down the group as the electronegativity decreases down
the group. The reducing power of hydrides increases down the group due to decrease in
bond dissociation energy down the group.
Reactivity towards oxygen:
1. All group 15 elements from trioxides ( ) and pentoxides ( ).

2. Acidic character of oxides decreases and basicity increases down the group. This is
because the size of nitrogen is very small.
3. It has a strong positive field in a very small area. Therefore, it attracts the electrons of
water O-H bond to itself and release H+ ions easily.
4. As we move down the group, the atomic size increases and so, the acidic character of
oxide decreases and basicity increases down the group.
Reactivity towards halogen:

Group 15 elements form trihalides and pentahalides.
1. Trihalides: These are covalent compounds and become ionic down the group with
hybridisation, pyramidal shape.
2. Pentahalides
a). They are lewis acids because of the presence of vacant d – orbitals.
b). They possess hybridisation and hence possess trigonalbirpyamidal shape.

3. PCl5 is ionic in solid state and exist as
4. In PCl5, there are three equatorial bonds and two axial bonds. The axial bonds are longer
than equatorial bonds because of greater repulsion from equatorial bonds.
5. Nitrogen does not form pentahalides due to absence of d- orbitals.
Reactivity towards metals: All elements react with metals to form binary
compounds in –3 oxidation state.
Anomalous behaviour of nitrogen: The behaviour of nitrogen differs from rest of

the elements.
Reasons:
i. It has a small size.

ii. It does not have d – orbitals
iii. It has high electronegativity
iv. It has high ionization enthalpy
Dinitrogen:
a) Preparation:
b) Physical Properties:
i) It is a colourless, odourless, tasteless and non – toxic gas.

ii) It is chemically un-reactive at ordinary temperature due to triple bond in N ≡ N which has
high bond dissociation energy.
Ammonia:
1. Ammonia molecule is trigonal pyramidal with nitrogen atom at the apex.

2. It has 3 bond pairs and 1 lone pair.
3. N is hybridised.

4. Preparation:
Haber’s process:
Pressure 200 10 Pa Temperature 773 K Catalyst is FeO with small amounts of and
Nitric Acid:
Ostwald Process: The NO thus formed is recycled and the aqueous can be
concentrated by distillation upto ~ 68% by mass. Further concentration to 98% can be
achieved by dehydration with concentrated . Nitric acid is strong oxidizing agent in
the concentrated as well as in the dilute state.
Phosphorus:
a) It shows the property of catenation to maximum extent due to most stable P – P bond.
b) It has many allotropes, the important ones are:

i) White phosphorus
ii) Red phosphorus
iii) Black phosphorus
White phosphorus:
1. Discrete tetrahedral P4 molecules

2. Very reactive
3. Glows in dark
4. Translucent waxy solid
5. Soluble in but insoluble in water
6. It has low ignition temperature, therefore, kept under water

Red phosphorus
1. Polymeric structure consisting of chains of P4 units linked together

2. Less reactive than white phosphorus
3. Does not glow in dark
4. Has an iron grey lustre
5. Insoluble in water as well as
Black phosphorus
1. Exists in two forms - black phosphorus and black phosphorus

2. Very less reactive
3. Has an opaque monoclinic or rhombohedral crystals
Phosphine
1. It is highly poisonous, colourless gas and has a smell of rotten fish.

2. Preparation
Chlorides of Phosphorous:
a) Phosphorus Trichloride
i) It is a colourless oily liquid.
ii) Preparation

iii) With water,
It gets hydrolysed in the presence of moisture.
iv) Pyramidal shape, sp3 hybridisation
v) With acetic acid
vi). With alcohol
b) Phosphorus pentachloride
1. Yellowish white powder.

2. Trigonalbipyramidal shape, sp3dhybridisation .
3. Preparation
4.
5. With water
6.
7. With acetic acid

8.
9. With alcohol
10. With metals
GROUP 16 ELEMENTS
Oxidation states:

1. They show -2, +2, +4, +6 oxidation states.
2. Oxygen does not show +6 oxidation state due to absence of d – orbitals.
3. Po does not show +6 oxidation state due to inert pair effect.
4. The stability of -2 oxidation state decreases down the group due to increase in atomic size
and decrease in electronegativity.
5. Oxygen shows -2 oxidation state in general except in and
6. Thus, the stability of +6 oxidation state decreases and +4 oxidation state increases due to
inert pair effect.
Ionisation enthalpy:
1. Ionisation enthalpy of elements of group 16 is lower than group 15 due to half-filled p-

orbitals in group 15 which is more stable.
2. However, ionization enthalpy decreases down the group.
Electron gain enthalpy:
1. Oxygen has less negative electron gain enthalpy than S because of small size of O.
2. From S to Po electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative to Po because of increase in
atomic size.
Melting and boiling point:
1. It increases with increase in atomic number.

2. Oxygen has much lower melting and boiling points than sulphur because oxygen is
diatomic ( ) and sulphur is octatomic ( ).
Reactivity with hydrogen:
1. All group 16 elements form hydrides.

2. They possess bent shape.
3. Bond angle:
Acidic nature:
This is because the H-E bond length increases down the group. Therefore, the bond
dissociation enthalpy decreases down the group.
Thermal stability:

Reducing character:
Reactivity with oxygen: and
1. Reducing character of dioxides decreases down the group because oxygen has a strong
positive field which attracts the hydroxyl group and removal of becomes easy.
2. Acidity also decreases down the group.
3. is a gas whereas SeO2 is solid. This is because has a chain polymeric structure
whereas SO2 forms discrete units.
Reactivity with halogens: EX2, EX4 and EX6
1. The stability of halides decreases in the order

2. This is because E-X bond length increases with increase in size.
3. Among hexa halides, fluorides are the most stable because of steric reasons.
4. Dihalides are hybridised and so, are tetrahedral in shape.
5. Hexafluorides are only stable halides which are gaseous and have hybridisation
and octahedral structure.
6. is a liquid while H2S is a gas. This is because strong hydrogen bonding is present in
water. This is due to small size and high electronegativity of O.
Oxygen:
The compounds of oxygen and other elements are called oxides.

Oxides: The compounds of oxygen and other elements are called oxides.
Types of oxides:
{/tex}
1. Acidic oxides: Non- metallic oxides are usually acidic in nature.

2. Basic oxides: Metallic oxides are mostly basic in nature. Basic oxides dissolve in water
forming bases e.g.,
3. Amphoteric oxides: They show characteristics of both acidic as well as basic oxides.
4. Neutral oxides: These oxides are neither acidic nor basic. Example: Co, NO and N2O
Ozone:
1. Preparation: It is prepared by passing silent electric discharge through pure and dry
oxygen 10 – 15 % oxygen is converted to ozone.
2. Structure of Ozone: Ozone has angular structure. Both O = O bonds are of equal bond
length due to resonance.
Sulphur:
1. Sulphur exhibits allotropy:

1. Yellow Rhombic ( - sulphur)
2. Monoclinic ( - sulphur)

2.
3. At 369 K both forms are stable. It is called transition temperature.
4. Both of them have S8 molecules.
5. The ring is puckered and has a crown shape.
6. Another allotrope of sulphur – cyclo ring adopts a chair form.
7. S2is formed at high temperature ( 1000 K).
8. It is paramagnetic because of 2 unpaired electrons present in anti bonding * orbitals like
O 2.
Sulphuric acid:
By contact process
1. Preparation:
2. Exothermic reaction and therefore low temperature and high pressure are favourable.
3. It is dibasic acid or diprotic acid.
4. It is a strong dehydrating agent.
5. It is a moderately strong oxidizing agent.
GROUP 17 ELEMENTS
Atomic and ionic radii: Halogens have the smallest atomic radii in their respective
periods because of maximum effective nuclear charge.
Ionisation enthalpy: They have very high ionization enthalpy because of small size
as compared to other groups.

Electron gain enthalpy:
1. Halogens have maximum negative electron gain enthalpy because these elements have
only one electron less than stable noble gas configuration.
2. Electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative down the group because atomic size
increases down the group.
Electronegativity:
1. These elements are highly electronegative and electronegativity decreases down the
group.
2. They have high effective nuclear charge.
Bond dissociation enthalpy:
1. Bond dissociation enthalpy follows the order:

2. This is because as the size increases bond length increases.
3. Bond dissociation enthalpy of Cl2 is more than F2 because there are large electronic
repulsions of lone pairs present in F2.
Colour: All halogens are coloured because of absorption of radiations in visible

region which results in the excitation of outer electrons to higher energy levels.
Oxidising power:
1. All halogens are strong oxidisingagents because they have a strong tendency to accept
electrons.
2. Order of oxidizing power is:
Reactivity with Hydrogen:
1. Acidic strength: HF <HCl<HBr< HI

2. Stability: HF >HCl>HBr> HI. This is because of decrease in bond dissociation enthalpy.
3. Boiling point: HCl<HBr< HI < HF. HF has strong intermolecular H bonding. As the size
increases van der Waals forces increases and hence boiling point increases.
4. % Ionic character: HF >HCl>HBr> HI Dipole moment: HF >HCl>HBr> HI. Electronegativity
decreases down the group.
5. Reducing power: HF <HCl<HBr< HI

Reactivity with metals:
1. Halogens react with metals to form halides.

2. Ionic character: MF >MCl>MBr> MI. The halides in higher oxidation state will be more
covalent than the one in the lower oxidation state.
Interhalogen compounds:
Reactivity of halogens towards other halogens:
1. Binary compounds of two different halogen atoms of general formula X are called
interhalogen compounds where n = 1, 3, 5, or 7. All these are covalent compounds.
2. Interhalogen compounds are more reactive than halogens because X-X is a more polar
bond than X-X bond.
3. All are diamagnetic.
4. Their melting point is little higher than halogens.
5. XX’ (CIF, BrF, BrCl, ICl, IBr, IF) (Linear shape) XX’3 ( ) (Bent T-
shape) XX’5 – , (square pyramidal shape) XX’7 – (Pentagonal
bipyramidal shape)
Oxoacids of halogens:
1. Fluorine forms only one oxoacid HOF (Fluoric (I) acid or hypofluorous acid) due to high
electronegativity.
2. Acid strength:
3. Reason:
4. Acid strength: HOF >HOCl>HOBr> HOI. This is because Fluorine is most electronegative.
GROUP 18 ELEMENTS:
Ionisation enthalpy:
1. They have very high ionization enthalpy because of completely filled orbitals.
2. Ionisation enthalpy decreases down the group because of increase in size.

Atomic radii: Increases down the group because the number of shells increases down
the group.
Electron gain enthalpy: They have large electron gain enthalpy because of stable
electronic configuration.
Melting and boiling point: It has low melting and boiling point due to the presence of
only weak dispersion forces.
Shapes:
is linear, is square planar and is distorted octahedral. is known

but no true compound of He Ne and Arare known.
Compounds of Xe and F:
and are powerful fluorinating agents.
Compounds of Xe and O:

Chapter 8
The D and F-Block Elements
The d -Block elements:
1. The elements lying in the middle of periodic table belonging to groups 3 to 12 are known
as d – block elements.
2. Their general electronic configuration is where (n – 1) stands for
penultimate (last but one) shell.
Transition element:
1. A transition element is defined as the one which has incompletely filled d orbitals in its
ground state or in any one of its oxidation states.
2. Zinc, cadmium, mercury are not regarded as transition metals due to completely filled d –
orbital.
The f-Block elements: The elements constituting the f -block are those in which the 4
f and 5 f orbitals are progressively filled in the latter two long periods.
Lanthanoids: The 14 elements immediately following lanthanum, i.e., Cerium (58) to

Lutetium (71) are called lanthanoids. They belong to first inner transition series.
Lanthanum (57) has similar properties. Therefore, it is studied along with
lanthanoids.
Actinoids: The 14 elements immediately following actinium (89), with atomic

numbers 90 (Thorium) to 103 (Lawrencium) are called actinoids. They belong to
second inner transition series. Actinium (89) has similar properties. Therefore, it is
studied along with actinoids.
Four transition series:
1. 3d – transition series. The transition elements with atomic number 21(Sc) to 30(Zn) and
having incomplete 3d orbitals is called the first transition series.

2. 4d – transition series. It consists of elements with atomic number 39(Y) to 48 (Cd) and
having incomplete 4d orbitals. It is called second transition series.
3. 5d – transition series. It consists of elements with atomic number 57(La), 72(Hf) to 80(Hg)
having incomplete 5d orbitals. It is called third transition series.
4. 6d – transition series. It consists of elements with atomic number 89(Ac), 104(Rf) to
112(Uub) having incomplete 6d orbitals. It is called fourth transition series.
General Characteristics of transition elements:
a) Metallic character: All transition elements are metallic in nature, i.e. they have strong
metallic bonds. This is because of presence of unpaired electrons. This gives rise to
properties like high density, high enthalpies of atomization, and high melting and boiling
points.
b) Atomic radii: The atomic radii decrease from Sc to Cr because the effective nuclear
charge increases. The atomic size of Fe, Co, Ni is almost same because the attraction due to
increase in nuclear charge is cancelled by the repulsion because of increase in shielding
effect. Cu and Zn have bigger size because the shielding effect increases and electron
electron repulsions repulsion increases.
c) Lanthanoid Contraction: The steady decrease in the atomic and ionic radii of the
transition metals as the atomic number increases. This is because of filling of 4f orbitals
before the 5d orbitals. This contraction is size is quite regular. This is called lanthanoid
contraction. It is because of lanthanoid contraction that the atomic radii of the second row of
transition elements are almost similar to those of the third row of transition elements.
d) Ionisation enthalpy: There is slight and irregular variation in ionization energies of
transition metals due to irregular variation of atomic size. The I.E. of 5d transition series is
higher than 3d and 4d transition series because of Lanthanoid Contraction.
e) Oxidation state: Transition metals show variable oxidation states due to tendency of (n-
1)d as well as ns electrons to take part in bond formation.
f) Magnetic properties: Most of transition metals are paramagnetic in nature as a result of
which they give coloured compounds and it is all due to presence of unpaired electrons. It
increase s from Sc to Cr and then decreases because number of unpaired and then decrease
because number of unpaired electrons increases from Sc to Cr and then decreases. They are
rarely diamagnetic.
g) Catalytic properties: Most of transition metals are used as catalyst because of (i) presence

of incomplete or empty d – orbitals, (ii) large surface area, (iii) varuable oxidation state, (iv)
ability to form complexes, e.g., Fe, Ni, V2O3, Pt, Mo, Co and used as catalyst.
h) Formation of coloured compounds: They form coloured ions due to presence of
incompletely filled d – orbitals and unpaired electrons, they can undergo d – d transition by
absorbing colour from visible region and radiating complementary colour.
i) Formation of complexes: Transition metals form complexes due to (i) presence of vacant
d – orbitals of suitable energy (ii) smaller size (iii) higher charge on cations.
j) Interstitial compounds: Transition metals have voids or interstitials in which C, H, N, B
etc. can fit into resulting in formation of interstitial compounds. They are non –
stoichiometric, i.e., their composition is not fixed, e.g., steel. They are harder and less
malleable and ductile.
k) Alloys formation: They form alloys due to similar ionic size. Metals can replace each
other in crystal lattice, e.g., brass, bronze, steel etc.
Preparation of Potassium dichromate ( ): It is prepared by fusion of

chromate ore (FeCr2O4) with sodium carbonate in excess of air.
Effect of pH on chromate and dichromate ions: The chromates and dichromates are
inter-convertible in aqueous solution depending upon pH of the solution. The
oxidation state of chromium in chromate and dichromate is the same.
Potassium dichromate acts as a strong oxidizing agent in acidic medium:
Preparation of Potassium permanganate (KMnO4):
a) Potassium permanganate is prepared by fusion of MnO4 with alkali metal hydroxide

(KOH) in presence of O2 or oxidising agent like KNO3. It produces dark green K2MnO4 which
undergoes oxidation as well as reduction in neutral or acidic solution to give permanganate.

b) Commercially, it is prepared by the alkaline oxidative fusion of MnO2 followed by the
electrolytic oxidation of manganate (Vl).
c) In laboratory, Mn²+ salt can be oxidized by peroxodisulphate ion to permanganate ion.
In acidic medium:
In neutral or faintly basic medium:
Properties of Lanthanoids:
1. +3 oxidation state is most common along with +2 and +4.

2. Except Promethium, they are non – radioactive.
3. The magnetic properties of lanthanoids are less complex than actinoids.
Properties of Actinoids:
1. Actinoids also show higher oxidation states such as +4, +5, +6 and +7.
2. They are radioactive.
3. The magnetic properties of the actinoids are more complex than those of the lanthanoids.
4. They are more reactive.
Mischmetall
1. It is a well-known alloy which consists of a lanthanoid metal and iron

and traces of S, C, Ca and Al.
2. A good deal of mischmetall is used in Mg-based alloy to produce bullets, shell and lighter
flint.

Chapter 9
Co-ordination Compounds
Co-ordination compounds:
1. A coordination compound contains a central metal atom or ion surrounded by number of

oppositely charged ions or neutral molecules. These ions or molecules re bonded to the
metal atom or ion by a coordinate bond.
2. Example:
3. They do not dissociate into simple ions when dissolved in water.
Double salt
1. When two salts in stoichiometric ratio are crystallised together from their saturated
solution they are called double salts
2. Example: (Mohr’s salt)
3. They dissociate into simple ions when dissolved in water.
Coordination entity:
1. A coordination entity constitutes a central metal atom or ion bonded to a fixed number of
ions or molecules.
2. Example: In - represents coordination entity.
Central atom or ion:
1. In a coordination entity, the atom/ion to which a fixed number of ions/groups are bound
in a definite geometrical arrangement around it, is called the central atom or ion.
2. Example: In , is the central metal ion.
Ligands:
1. A molecule, ion or group that is bonded to the metal atom or ion in a complex or
coordination compound by a coordinate bond is called ligand.

2. It may be neutral, positively or negatively charged.
3. Examples: etc.
Donor atom:
1. An atom of the ligand attached directly to the metal is called the donor atom.
2. Example: In the complex ,CN is a donor atom.
Coordination number:
1. The coordination number (CN) of a metal ion in a complex can be defined as the number
of ligand donor atoms to which the metal is directly bonded.
2. Example: In the complex , the coordination number of Fe is 6.
Coordination sphere:
1. The central atom/ion and the ligands attached to it are enclosed in square bracket and are
collectively termed as the coordination sphere.
2. Example: In the complex is the coordination sphere.
Counter ions:
1. The ions present outside the coordination sphere are called counter ions.
2. Example: In the complex , K+ is the counter ion.
Coordination polyhedron:
1. The spatial arrangement of the ligand atoms which are directly attached to the central
atom/ ion defines a coordination polyhedron about the central atom.
2. The most common coordination polyhedra are octahedral, square planar and
tetrahedral.
3. Examples: is square planar, is tetrahedral while [Cu(NH3)6]3+ is
octahedral.
Charge on the complex ion: The charge on the complex ion is equal to the algebraic
sum of the charges on all the ligands coordinated to the central metal ion.
Denticity: The number of ligating (linking) atoms present in ligand is called denticity.

Unidentate ligands:
1. The ligands whose only one donor atom is bonded to metal atom are called unidentate
ligands.
2. Examples:
Didentate ligands:
1. The ligands which contain two donor atoms or ions through which they are bonded to the
metal ion.
2. Examples: Ethylene diamine ( ) has two nitrogen atoms, oxalate ion
has two oxygen atoms which can bind with the metal atom.
Polydentate ligand:
1. When several donor atoms are present in a single ligand, the ligand is called polydentate
ligand.
2. Examples: In , the ligand is said to be polydentate and
Ethylenediaminetetraacetate ion is an important hexadentate ligand. It
can bind through two nitrogen and four oxygen atoms to a central metal ion.
Chelate:
1. An inorganic metal complex in which there is a close ring of atoms caused by attachment
of a ligand to a metal atom at two points.
2. An example is the complex ion formed between ethylene diamine and cupric ion,
.
Ambidentate ligand:
1. Ligands which can ligate (link) through two different atoms present in it are called
ambidentate ligand.
2. Example: and . Here, can link through N as well as O while
can link through S as well as N atom.
Werner’s coordination theory:

1. Werner was able to explain the nature of bonding in complexes.
2. The postulates of Werner’s theory are:
a). Metal shows two different kinds of valencies: primary valence and secondary valence.
b). The ions/ groups bound by secondary linkages to the metal have characteristic spatial
arrangements corresponding to different coordination numbers.
c). The most common geometrical shapes in coordination compounds are octahedral, square
planar and tetrahedral.
Primary valence
1. This valence is normally ionisable.

2. It is equal to positive charge on central metal atom.
3. These valencies are satisfied by negatively charged ions.
4. Example: In , the primary valency is three. It is equal to oxidation state of central
metal ion.
Secondary valence
1. This valence is non – ionisable.

2. The secondary valency equals the number of ligand atoms coordinated to the metal. It is
also called coordination number of the metal.
3. It is commonly satisfied by neutral and negatively charged, sometimes by positively
charged ligands.
Oxidation number of central atom: The oxidation number of the central atom in a
complex is defined as the charge it would carry if all the ligands are removed along
with the electron pairs that are shared with the central atom.
Homoleptic complexes: Those complexes in which metal or ion is coordinate bonded

to only one kind of donor atoms. For example:
Heteroleptic complexes: Those complexes in which metal or ion is coordinate

bonded to more than one kind of donor atoms. For example:

Isomers: Two or more compounds which have same chemical formula but different
arrangement of atoms are called isomers.
Types of isomerism:
a). Linkage isomerism
b). Solvate isomerism or hydrate isomerism
c). Ionisation isomerism
d). Coordination isomerism
1. Structural isomerism
2. Stereoisomerism
a). Geometrical isomerism
b). Optical isomerism
Structural isomerism:
1. It arises due to the difference in structures of coordination compounds.

2. Structural isomerism, or constitutional isomerism, is a form of isomerism in which
molecules with the same molecular formula have atoms bonded together in different
orders.
Ionisation isomerism:
1. It arises when the counter ion in a complex salt is itself a potential ligand and can
displace a ligand which can then become the counter ion.
2. Example:
Solvate isomerism:
1. It is isomerism in which solvent is involved as ligand.

2. If solvent is water it is called hydrate isomerism, e.g., and
.
Linkage isomerism:

1. It arises in a coordination compound containing ambidentate ligand.
2. In the isomerism, a ligand can form linkage with metal through different atoms.
3. Example: and .
Coordination isomerism:
1. This type of isomerism arises from the interchange of ligands between cationic and
anionic entities of different metal ions present in a complex.
2. Example: and .
Stereoisomerism: This type of isomerism arises because of different spatial

arrangement.
Geometrical isomerism: It arises in heteroleptic complexes due to different possible

geometrical arrangements of ligands.
Optical isomerism: Optical isomers are those isomers which are non-superimposable
mirror images.
Valence bond theory:
1. According to this theory, the metal atom or ion under the influence of ligands can use its
(n-1)d, ns, np or ns, np, nd orbitals for hybridisation to yield a set of equivalent orbitals of
definite geometry such as octahedral, tetrahedral, and square planar.
2. These hybridised orbitals are allowed to overlap with ligand orbitals that can donate
electron pairs for bonding.
Coordination
Type of hybridisation Shape of hybrid
Number
4 Tetrahedral
4 Square planar

5 Trigonalbipyramidal
(nd orbitals are involved – outer orbital

6 Octahedral
complex or high spin or spin free complex)
d orbitals are involved –inner orbital

6 Octahedral
or low spin or spin paired complex)
Magnetic properties of coordination compounds:
A coordination compound is paramagnetic in nature if it has unpaired electrons and

diamagnetic if all the electrons in the coordination compound are paired.
Magnetic moment where n is number of unpaired electrons.
Crystal Field Theory:
1. It assumes the ligands to be point charges and there is electrostatic force of attraction
between ligands and metal atom or ion.
2. It is theoretical assumption.
Crystal field splitting in octahedral coordination complexes:

Crystal field splitting in tetrahedral coordination complexes:
For the same metal, the same ligands and metal-ligand distances, the difference in
energy between eg and t2g level is
Metal carbonyls:
1. Metal carbonyls are homoleptic complexes in which carbon monoxide (CO) acts as the
ligand.
2. Example:
3. The metal-carbon bond in metal carbonyls possess both s and p character.
4. The M–C bond is formed by the donation of lone pair of electrons from the carbonyl
carbon into a vacant orbital of the metal.
5. The M–C bond is formed by the donation of a pair of electrons from a filled d orbital of
metal into the vacant antibonding orbital of carbon monoxide.
6. The metal to ligand bonding creates a synergic effect which strengthens the bond
between CO and the metal.

Chapter 10
Haloalkanes and Haloarenes
Nature of C-X bond in alkyl halides: X is more electronegative than carbon. So, the
C-X bond is polarized with C having a partial positive charge and X having a partial
negative charge.
Preparation of haloalkanes:
a)
b)
c)
d) Halogen Exchange Method:
Preparation of haloarenes:
a) By elecrophilic substitution reaction:
b) Sandmeyer’s reaction:

c) Gattermann reaction:
d) From Diazonium Chloride:
e). Balz – Schiemann reaction:
Physical properties of haloalkanes:
a) Solubility
1. Although haloalkanes are polar in nature, yet they are practically very slightly soluble in
water.
2. In order for a haloalkane to dissolve in water, energy is required to overcome the
attractions between the haloalkane molecules and break the hydrogen bonds between
water molecules.
3. However Haloalkanes are not able to form hydrogen bonds with water and therefore,

less energy is released when new attractions are set up between the haloalkane and the
water molecules because these are not as strong as the original hydrogen bonds in water
molecules.
4. As a result, solubility of haloalkanes in water is low.
b) Density
1. Simple fluoro and chloroalkanes are lighter than water while bromides and
polychlorodevrivatives are heavier than water.
2. With the increase in number of carbon atoms, the densities go on increasing. With the
increase in number of halogen atoms, the densities go on increasing. The densities
increase in the order: Fluoride < chloride < bromide < iodide
3. The density also increases with increasing number and atomic mass of the halogen.
c) Boiling Points
1. Molecules of organic halogen compounds are generally polar.

2. Due to the polarity as well as higher molecular mass as compared to the parent
hydrocarbon, the intermolecular forces of attraction (dipole – dipole and van der Waals)
between the molecules are stronger in halogen derivatives of alkanes.
3. As a result melting and boiling points of chlorides, bromides and iodides are considerably
higher than those of the parent hydrocarbon of comparable molecular mass.
4. For the same alkyl group the boiling points of alkyl chlorides, bromides and iodides
follow the order RI >RBr>RCl> RF where R is an alkyl group. This is because with the
increase in the size of the halogen, the magnitude of van der Waals force increase.
5. In general, the boiling points of chloro, bromo and iodo compounds increase with
increase in the number of halogen atoms.
6. For the same halogen atom, the boiling points of haloalkanes increase with increase in
the size of alkyl groups.
7. For isomeric alkyl halides, the boiling points decrease with branching. This is because
branching of the chain makes the molecule more compact and, therefore, decrease the
surface area. Due to decrease in surface area, the magnitude of van der Waals forces of
attraction decreases and consequently, the boiling points of the branched chain
compound is less than those of the straight chain compounds.

Physical Properties of Haloarenes:
a. These are generally colourless liquids or crystalline solids.
b. These are heavier than water.
c. Melting and boiling points of haloarenes

i. Melting and boiling points of haloarenes are nearly the same as those of alkyl halides
containing the same number of carbon atoms.
ii. The boiling points of monohalogen derivatives of benzene are in the order:
iodo>bromo>chloro>fluoro
iii. For the same halogen atom, the melting and boiling points increase as the size of the aryl
group increases.
iv. The melting point of para isomer is quite higher than that of ortho or meta isomers. This
is due to the fast that is has symmetrical structure and therefore, its molecules can easily
pack loosely in the crystal lattice. As a result intermolecular forces of attraction are stronger
and therefore, greater energy is required to break its lattice and it melts at higher
temperature.
Chemical properties of haloalkanes:
Nucleophilic substitution reaction:
Mechanism of Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction:
SN1 Mechanism
1. First order reaction.

2. Rate = k [RX] [Nu]
3. Racemic mixture
4. One step reaction
5. Order: CH3X < 10< 20< 30
SN2 Mechanism

1. Second order reaction
2. Rate = k [RX]
3. Inversion of configuration
4. Two step reaction
5. Order: CH3X > 10> 20> 30
Elimination reaction: Dehydrohalogentaion( - elimination): When a haloalkane with

β-hydrogen atom is heated with alcoholic solution of potassium hydroxide, there is
elimination of hydrogen atom from β-carbon and a halogen atom from the α-carbon
atom. As a result, an alkene is formed as a product. Zaitsev rule (also pronounced as
Saytzeff) is followed.It states that “In dehydrohalogenation reactions, the preferred
product is that alkene which has the greater number of alkyl groups attached to the
doubly bonded carbon atoms.”
Reaction with metals:
a) Reaction with Magnesium
b) Wurtz reaction
Chemical properties of haloarenes:
a) Dow’s Process

b) With halogens
c) With conc. nitric and sulphuric acid
d) On heating with conc. sulphuric acid
e) With methyl chloride
f) With acetyl chloride

g) Fittig reaction:
h) Wurtz – fittig reaction:
i) Other conversions:

Chapter 11
Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
Structure of alcohols:
Preparation of alcohols:
a) From alkene
b) From esters
c) From aldehydes and ketones
d) From carboxylic acids
Structure of phenols:

Preparation of phenols:
a) From benzene
b) From chlorobenzene
c) From cumene
d) From aniline

Physical properties of alcohols and phenols:
a) Boiling points: Boiling points of alcohols and phenols are higher in comparison to other
classes of compounds. This is because the –OH group in alcohols and phenols is involved in
intermolecular hydrogen bonding.
The boiling points of alcohols and phenols increase with increase in the number of carbon
atoms. This is because of increase in van der Waals forces with increase in surface area.
In alcohols, the boiling points decrease with increase of branching in carbon chain. This is
because of decrease in van der Waals forces with decrease in surface area.
b) Solubility: Solubility of alcohols and phenols are soluble in water due to their ability to
form hydrogen bonds with water molecules. The solubility of alcohols decreases with
increase in size of alkyl/aryl (hydrophobic) groups.
Chemical properties of alcohols:
I. Reactions involving cleavage of O–H bond: Alcohols react as nucleophiles:
a) Reaction with metals
b) Esterification reaction
II. Reactions of alcohols involving cleavage of carbon – oxygen (C–O) bond:

a) Reaction with hydrogen halides
b) Reaction with phosphorus trihalides
c) Dehydration reaction
d). Oxidation reaction
i)
ii)
iii)
Chemical properties of phenols:
I. Reactions involving cleavage of O–H bond: Alcohols react as nucleophiles:
a) Reaction with metals

b) Esterification reaction
II. Other chemical reactions of phenols:
III. Acidic nature of phenol and alcohol:
a). Phenol > H2O > Primary alcohol > Secondary alcohol > Tertiary alcohol.
The acidic character of alcohols is due to the polar nature of O–H bond. Alkyl group is an
electron-releasing group (–CH3, –C2H5) or it has electron releasing inductive effect (+I effect).
Due to +I effect of alkyl groups, the electron density on oxygen increases. This decreases the

polarity of O-H bond. And hence the acid strength decreases.
b) Phenol is more acidic than alcohol: In phenol, the hydroxyl group is directly attached to
the sp2hybridised carbon of benzene ring which acts as an electron withdrawing group
whereas in alcohols, the hydroxyl group is attached to the alkyl group which have electron
releasing inductive effect. In phenol, the hydroxyl group is directly attached to the
sp2hybridised carbon of benzene ring whereas in alcohols, the hydroxyl group is attached to
the sp3hybridised carbon of the alkyl group. The sp2hybridised carbon has higher
electronegativity than sp3hybridised carbon. Thus, the polarity of O–H bond of phenols is
higher than those of alcohols. Hence, the ionisation of phenols is higher than that of alcohols.
The ionisation of an alcohol and a phenol takes place as follows:
In alkoxide ion, the negative charge is localised on oxygen while in phenoxide ion, the charge
is delocalised.
The delocalisation of negative charge makes phenoxide ion more stable and favours the
ionisation of phenol. Although there is also charge delocalisation in phenol, its resonance
structures have charge separation due to which the phenol molecule is less stable than

phenoxide ion.
c) In substituted phenols, the presence of electron withdrawing groups such as nitro group
enhances the acidic strength of phenol. On the other hand, electron releasing groups, such as
alkyl groups, in general, decreases the acid strength. It is because electron withdrawing
groups lead to effective delocalisation of negative charge in phenoxide ion.
Differentiate between organic compounds:
a) Alcohols and phenols

Phenol on reaction with neutral FeCl3 gives purple colour whereas alcohols do not give
purple colour.
b) Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols

Lucas reagent test:
If it is a primary alcohol, no turbidity appears at room temperature. Turbidity appears only

on heating. If it is a secondary alcohol, turbidity appears in 5 minutes. If it is a tertiary
alcohol, turbidity appears immediately.
c) Methanol and ethanol
Iodoform test: Ethanol when reacted with (I2 and NaOH) or NaOI gives yellow ppt of
iodoform since it has the presence of CH3-CH (OH)- group.

Structure of ethers:
Preparation of ethers:
a) From alcohols
b) From alkyl halide and sodium alkoxide
Here, the alkyl halide should be primary and alkoxide should be tertiary. In case of aromatic
ether, the aromatic part should be with phenoxide ion.
Physical properties of ethers:
a) Miscibility: Miscibility of ethers with water resembles those of alcohols of the same
molecular mass. This is due to the fact that just like alcohols, oxygen of ether can also form
hydrogen bonds with water molecule.
b) Boiling points:
Ethers have much lower boiling points than alcohols. This is due to the presence of hydrogen
bonding in alcohols. Hydrogen bonding is absent in ethers.

Chemical properties of ethers:
a) Cleavage of C–O bond in ethers:

R-O-R’ + HX → R-X + R’OH
Excess
The order of reactivity of hydrogen halides is as follows: HI >HBr>HCl
Alkyl halide formed is always the lower alkyl group. But if a tertiary alkyl group is present,
the alkyl halide is always tertiary. In case of phenolic ethers, the cleavage occurs with the
formation of phenol and alkyl halide.
b) Electrophilic substitution reaction in aromatic ethers:
The electrophilic substitution reaction of aromatic ether involves the following reaction:
Other conversion reactions:

a) Phenol to salicyldehyde
b) Phenol to benzene diazonium chloride

CSBE Class 12 Chemistry
Revision Notes
Chapter 12
Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic acid
Aldehydes: Aldehydes are the organic compounds in which carbonyl group is attached to
one hydrogen atom and one alkyl or aryl group.
Where R can be an alkyl or aryl group
Preparation of aldehydes:
a) By oxidation of alcohols: Oxidation of primary alcohols in presence of oxidizing agent like

K2Cr2O7/H2SO4, KMnO4,CrO3 gives aldehydes.
b) By dehydrogenation of alcohols: When the vapours of primary alcohol passed through

heated copper at 573 K, it forms aldehyde.
c) By hydration of alkynes: Ethyne on hydration with at 333 K forms

acetaldehyde.

d) By Rosenmund reduction: Hydrogenation of acyl chloride over palladium on barium
sulphate gives aldehyde.
e) By reduction of nitriles:
i) Stephen Reaction: Reduction of nitriles in presence of stannous chloride in presence of HCl
gives imine which on hydrolysis gives corresponding aldehyde.

ii) Nitriles are selectively reduced by DIBAL-H (Diisobutylaluminium hydride) to aldehydes.
f) By reduction of ester: Esters are reduced to aldehydes in presence of DIBAL-H

(Diisobutylaluminium hydride)
g) From Hydrocarbons:
(i) By oxidation of methyl benzene: Etard Reaction: Chromyl chloride oxidizes

methyl group to a chromium complex, which on hydrolysis gives corresponding
benzaldehyde.

Using chromium oxide : Toluene or substituted toluene is converted to benzaldehyde
in presence of chromic oxide in acetic anhydride.
(ii) By side chain chlorination followed by hydrolysis:Halogenation of toluene: Side chain

halogenation of toluene gives benzal chloride which on hydrolysis gives Benzaldehyde.

(iii) Gatterman –Koch reaction: Benzene or its derivatives on treatment with carbon
monoxide and HCl in presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride or cuprous chloride (CuCl)
gives benzaldehyde or substituted benzaldehydes.
Ketones: Ketones are the organic compounds in which carbonyl group is attached to
two alkyl group or aryl group or both alkyl and aryl group.
Where R, R’ may be alkyl or aryl.

Preparation of ketones:
a) By oxidation of alcohols: Oxidation of secondary alcohols in presence of oxidizing
agent like , gives ketones.
b) By dehydrogenation of alcohols: When the vapours of a secondary alcohol are

passed over heated copper at 573 K, dehydrogenation takes place and a ketone is
formed.
c) By hydration of alkynes: Alkynes on hydration with at 333 K

form ketones.

d) From acyl chloride: Acyl chloride on treatment with dialkyl cadmium (prepared by
reaction of cadmium chloride with Grignard reagent) gives ketone.
e) From nitriles: Nitriles on treatment with Grignard reagent followed by hydrolysis give
ketones.
f) By Friedel Crafts acylation reaction: Benzene or substituted benzene on treatment with

acid chloride in presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride forms ketone.

g) Preparation of aldehydes and ketones by ozonolysis of alkenes:
Reactions of aldehydes and ketones:
1. Aldehydes are generally more reactive than ketones in nucleophilic addition reactions
due to steric and electronic reasons (or inductive effect).
2. Electronic Effect: Relative reactivities of aldehydes and ketones in nucleophilic addition
reactions is due the positive charge on carbonyl carbon. Greater positive charge means
greater reactivity. Electron releasing power of two alkyl groups in ketones is more than
one in aldehyde. Therefore positive charge is reduced in ketones as compared to
aldehydes. Thus ketones are less reactive than aldehydes.
3. Stearic Effect: As the number and size of alkyl group increase, the hindrance to the attack
of nucleophile also increases and reactivity decreases. In aldehydes there is one alkyl
group and one hydrogen atom, whereas in ketones there are two alkyl groups (same or
different).
Nucleophilic addition reactions of aldehydes and ketones:
(a) Addition of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) to form cyanohydrins

(b) Addition of sodium hydrogensulphite to form bisulphate addition compound
(c) Addition of Grignard reagent (RMgX) to form alcohol
(d) Addition of alcohol:
(i) Aldehydes on addition of monohydric alcohol in presence of dry HCl forms hemiacetal
and acetal.
(ii) Ketones do not react with monohydric alcohols. Ketones react with ethylene glycol under
similar conditions to form cyclic products known as ethylene glycol ketals.

(e) Addition of ammonia and its derivatives:
Reduction of aldehydes and ketones:
(a) Reduction to alcohols:
Aldehydes and ketones on catalytic hydrogenation in presence of Ni, Pt or Pd by using

lithium aluminium hydride or sodium borohydride forms primary
and secondary alcohols respectively.
(b) Reduction to hydrocarbons:
(i) Clemmensen reduction: Carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones is reduced to

group on treatment with zinc amalgam and concentrated hydrochloric acid.
(ii) Wolff-Kishner reduction: Carbonyl group of aldehydes and ketones is reduced to

group on treatment with hydrazine followed by heating with sodium or potassium hydroxide
in high boiling solvent such as ethylene glycol.
(iii)

Oxidation of aldehydes and ketones:
(i) Aldehydes are oxidized to acids in presence of mild oxidising agents HNO3, K2Cr2O7,
KMnO4.
(ii) Ketones are oxidized under drastic conditions i.e. with powerful oxidising agents like
at higher temperature.
In case of unsymmetrical ketones cleavage occurs in such a way that keto group stays with
smaller alkyl group. This is known as Popoff’s rule.
(iii)Haloform reaction: Aldehydes and ketones having at least one methyl group linked to the
carbonyl carbon atom i.e. methyl ketones are oxidised by sodium hypohalite to sodium salts
of corresponding carboxylic acids having one carbon atom less than that of carbonyl
compound. The methyl group is converted to haloform.

Reactions of aldehydes and ketones due to -hydrogen:
(i) Aldol condensation: Aldehydes and ketones having at least one -hydrogen undergo a
self condensation in the presence of dilute alkali as catalyst to form -hydroxy aldehydes
(aldol) or -hydroxy ketones (ketol), respectively.

(ii) Cross aldol condensation: Aldol condensation between two different aldehydes and
ketones is called aldol condensation. If both of them contain -hydrogen atoms, it gives a
mixture of four products.
Canizzaro reaction: Aldehydes which do not have an -hydrogen atom undergo

self-oxidation and reduction (disproportionation) reaction on treatment with
concentrated alkali to form alcohol and salt of acid.

Test to distinguish aldehydes and ketones:
1. Tollen’s test: When an aldehyde is heated with Tollen’s reagent it forms silver mirror.
Tollen’s reagent is ammoniacal solution of
Ketones do not form silver mirror and hence do not give this test.
2. Fehling’s test: When an aldehyde is heated with Fehling’s reagent it formsreddish brown
precipitates of cuprous oxide.Fehling’s reagent: Fehling solution A (aqueous solution of
) + Fehling solution B (alkaline solution of sodium potassium tartarate)
Ketones do not give this test.
Carboxylic Acids:Carboxylic acids are the compounds containing the

carboxylfunctional group (-COOH).
Preparation of carboxylic acid:
(i) From alcohols: Primary alcohols are readily oxidised to carboxylic acids with common
oxidising agents such as potassium permanganate in neutral, acidic or alkaline
media or by potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) and chromium trioxide in acidic

media.
a)
b)
(ii) From aldehydes: Oxidation of aldehydes in presence of mild oxidizing agents like Tollen’s
reagent (ammoniacal solution of ) or Fehling reagent (Fehling solution A (aqueous
solution of ) + Fehling solution B (aqueous solution of sodium potassium tartarate))
forms carboxylic acids.
1.
2.
(iii) From alkylbenzenes: Aromatic carboxylic acids can be prepared by vigorous oxidation of
alkyl benzenes with chromic acid or acidic or alkaline potassium permanganate.
(iv) From alkenes: Suitably substituted alkenes are oxidised to carboxylic acids on oxidation
with acidic potassium permanganate or acidic potassium dichromate.
1.
2.
(v) From Nitriles: Nitriles on hydrolysis in presence of dilute acids or bases forms amide
which on further hydrolysis gives carboxylic acid.

(vi) From Grignard reagent: Grignard reagents react with carbon dioxide (dry ice) to form
salts of carboxylic acids which on hydrolysis forms carboxylic acids.
(vii) From acyl halides and anhydrides: Acid chlorides when hydrolysed with water give
carboxylic acids .On basic hydrolysis carboxylate ions are formed which on further
acidification forms corresponding carboxylic acids. Anhydrides on hydrolysis forms
corresponding acid(s)
(viii) From esters: Acidic hydrolysis of esters gives directly carboxylic acids while basic
hydrolysis gives carboxylates, which on acidification give corresponding carboxylic acids.
Physical properties of carboxylic acids:
(i) Solubility: As the size of alky group increases solubility of carboxylic acid decreases
because non-polar part of the acid increases
(ii) Boiling points: Carboxylic acids are higher boiling liquids than aldehydes, ketones and
even alcohols of comparable molecular masses. This is due to extensive association of

carboxylic acid molecules through intermolecular hydrogen bonding.
Acidity of carboxylic acids:
Carboxylic acids are more acidic than phenols. The strength of acid depends on extent of
ionization which in turn depends on stability of anion formed.
(i) Effect of electron donating substituents on the acidity of carboxylic acids: Electron
donating substituent decreases stability of carboxylate ion by intensifying the negative
charge and hence decreases acidity of carboxylic acids.
(ii) Effect of electron withdrawing substituent on the acidity of carboxylic acids: Electron
withdrawing group increases the stability of carboxylate ion by delocalizing negative charge
and hence, increases acidity of carboxylic acid. The effect of the following groups in
increasing acidity order is Ph< I < Br 2 < CF3
(a) Effect of number of electron withdrawing groups: As the number of electron withdrawing
groups increases –I effect increases, increasing the acid strength
(b) Effect of position of electron withdrawing group: As the distance between electron
withdrawing group and carboxylic group increases, electron withdrawing influence
decreases.
Reaction of carboxylic acids:
Reactions involving cleavage of C-OH bond:
Carboxylic acids on heating with mineral acids such as or with give

corresponding anhydride.
(i) Anhydride formation:

(ii) Esterification: Carboxylic acids are esterified with alcohols in the presence of a mineral
acid such as concentrated or HCl gas as a catalyst.
(iii) Carboxylic acids react with PCl5, PCl3 and SOCl2 to form acyl chlorides.
1.
2.
3.
(iv) Reaction with ammonia (NH3): Carboxylic acids react with ammonia to give ammonium
salt which on further heating at high temperature gives amides.
i)
ii)

Reactions involving COOH group:
(i) Reduction: Carboxylic acids are reduced to alcohols in presence of LiAlH4 or B2H6.
(ii) Decarboxylation : Sodium or potassium salts of carboxylic acids on heating with soda
lime (NaOH + CaO in ratio of 3:1) gives hydrocarbons which contain one carbon less than the
parent acid.
(c) Reactions involving substitution reaction in hydrocarbon part:
(i) Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky reaction: Carboxylic acids having an -hydrogen are halogenated

at the -position on treatment with chlorine or bromine in the presence of small amount of
red phosphorus to give -halocarboxylic acids)
(ii) Ring substitution in aromatic acids: Aromatic carboxylic acids undergo electrophilic
substitution reactions. Carboxyl group in benzoic acid is electron withdrawing group and is
meta directing.
i)

ii)

CBSE Class-12 Chemistry
Chapter 13
Amines
Amines: Amines are regarded as derivatives of ammonia in which one, two or all
three hydrogen atoms are replaced by alkyl or aryl group.
Classification of amines:
Preparation of amines:
(i) By reduction of nitro compounds: Nitro compounds can be catalytically reduced by

passing hydrogen gas in presence of Raney Ni, finely divided Pt or Pd as catalyst at room
temperature.
a)
b)
Nitro compounds can also be reduced with active metals such as Fe, Sn, Zn etc. with conc.
HCl.
a)

b)
(ii) By Hoffmann’s method (Ammonolysis of alkyl halides): Reaction of alkyl halides with
an ethanolic solution of ammonia in a sealed tube at 373 K forms a mixture of primary,
secondary and tertiary amine and finally quarternary ammonium salt. Process of cleavage of
C-X bond by ammonia is called ammonolysis.
The free amine can be obtained from the ammonium salt by treatment with a strong
base:
a)
b)
c)
Order of reactivity of halides is: RI>RBr>RCl

Larger the size of halogen atom easier is the cleavage of R-X bond
Limitations of Hoffmann’s method: Method gives mixture of amines which are
difficult to separate in a laboratory.
Methods to get only one product by Hoffmann’s method:
(i) When ammonia is taken in excess primary amine is formed as main product
(ii) When alkyl halide is used in excess quarternary ammonium salt is formed as main
product.
Method is not suitable for preparation of aryl amines because aryl amines are relatively less
reactive than alkyl halides towards nucleophilic substitution reactions.
(iii) By reduction of nitriles: Nitriles can be reduced to amines using H2 / Ni , LiAlH4 or
Na(Hg) / C2H5 OH

(iv) By reduction of amides: Amides are reduced to corresponding amines by LiAlH4
(v) By Gabriel phthalimide synthesis: Gabriel synthesis is used for the preparation of
primary amines. When phthalimide is treated with ethanolic potassium hydroxide, it forms
potassium salt of phthalimide which on heating further with alkyl halide followed by
alkaline hydrolysis produces the corresponding primary amine.
Aromatic primary amines cannot be prepared by this method because aryl halides do not
undergo nucleophilic substitution with potassium phthalimide.
(vi) By Hoffmann bromamide degradation reaction: Primary amines can be prepared from
amides by treatment with Br2 and KOH. Amine contains one carbon atom less than the
parent amide.

Physical properties of amines:
(i) Solubility: Lower aliphatic amine is soluble in water because they can form hydrogen
bonding with water. Solubility decreases with increases in molar mass of amines due to
increase in size of hydrophobic group
(ii) Boiling points: Among the isomeric amines primary and secondary amines have high
boiling point because they can form hydrogen bonding. Tertiary amine cannot form
hydrogen bonding due to the absence of hydrogen atom available for hydrogen bond
formation. Hence order of boiling of isomeric amines is Primary>Secondary> Tertiary
Chemical properties of amines:
(a) Basic character of amines: Amines have an unshared pair of electrons on nitrogen atom
due to which they behave as Lewis base. Basic character of amines can be better understood
in terms of their Kb and pKb values
Or
Greater Kb value or smaller pKb indicates base is strong.
(b) Comparison of basic strength of aliphatic amines and ammonia: Aliphatic amines are
stronger bases than ammonia due to +I effect of alkyl groups leading to high electron density
on the nitrogen atom.
(c) Comparison of basic strength of primary, secondary and tertiary amines
(i) The order of basicity of amines in the gaseous phase follows the expected order on the

basis of +I effect: tertiary amine > secondary amine > primary amine > NH3
(ii) In aqueous solution it is observed that tertiary amines are less basic than either primary
or secondary amines. This can be explained on basis of following factors:
a) Solvation effect: Greater is the stability of the substituted ammonium cation formed,
stronger is the corresponding amine as a base. Tertiary ammonium ion is less hydrated than
secondary ammonium ion which is less hydrated than primary amine. Thus tertiary amines
have fewer tendencies to form ammonium ion and consequently are least basic.
On the basis of solvation effect order of basicity of aliphatic amines should be primary
amine>secondary amine>tertiary amine.
b) Steric factor: As the crowding of alkyl group increases from primary to tertiary amine
hinderance to hydrogen bonding increases which eventually decreases the basic strength.
Thus there is a subtle interplay of the inductive effect, solvation effect and steric hinderance
of the alkyl group which decides the basic strength of alkyl amines in the aqueous state.
When the alkyl group is small like CH3 there is no steric hindrance to hydrogen bonding. In
this case order of basicity in aqueous medium is
When alkyl group is ethyl group order of basicity in aqueous medium is
c) Comparison of basic strength of aryl amines and alkylamines: Generally aryl amines are
considerably less basic than alkyl amines .Taking an example of aniline and ethylamine it is
observed that ethyl amine is more basic than aniline. In aniline –NH2 group is directly
attached to benzene ring. Hence unshared pair of electron on nitrogen is less available for
protonation because of resonance. Below mentioned are resonating structures of aniline.
In the above resonating structures there is a positive charge on nitrogen atom making the
lone pair less available for protonation. Hence aniline is less basic than ethyl amine which

has no resonating structures. Less basicity of aniline can also be explained by comparing the
relative stability of aniline and anilinium ion obtained by accepting a proton. Greater the
number of resonating structures, greater is the stability of that species.
Aniline is resonance hybrid of five resonating structures whereas anilinium ion has only two
resonating structures.
Thus aniline has less tendency to accept a proton to form anilinium ion.
d) Effect of substituent on basic character of amines: Electron donating or electron releasing

group/groups (EDG) increases basic strength while electron withdrawing (EWG) decreases
basic strength.
Reactions of amines:
a) Acylation Reaction: Aliphatic and aromatic primary and secondary amines (which
contain replaceable hydrogen atoms) react with acid chlorides, anhydrides and esters to
form substituted amide. Process of introducing an acyl group (R-CO-) into the molecule is
called acylation. The reaction is carried out in the presence of a stronger base than the
amine, like pyridine, which removes HCl formed and shifts the equilibrium to the product
side.

Since tertiary amine do not contain replaceable hydrogen atom they do not undergo
acylation reaction.
b) Carbylamine reaction: Only aliphatic and aromatic primary amines on heating with
chloroform and ethanolic potassium hydroxide form isocyanides or carbylamines.
Secondary and tertiary amines do not give the above test.
c) Reaction of primary amine with nitrous acid:

(i) Primary aliphatic amine on reaction with nitrous acid (HNO2) forms aliphatic
diazoniumsalt which decomposes to form alcohol and evolve nitrogen.

(ii) Primary aromatic amines react with nitrous acid (HNO2) in cold (273-278 K) to form
diazonium salt.
d) Reaction with benzene sulphonyl chloride: Hinsberg’s reagent-Benzenesulphonyl chloride

(C6H5SO2Cl) reacts with primary and secondary amines to form sulphonamides.
The hydrogen attached to nitrogen in sulphonamide formed by primary amine is strongly

acidic due to the presence of strong electron withdrawing sulphonyl group. Hence, it is
soluble in alkali.
Since sulphonamide formed by secondary amine does not contain any hydrogen atom
attached to nitrogen atom, so it is not acidic. Hence it is insoluble in alkali.

Ring substitution in aromatic amine: Aniline is more reactive than benzeneand
undergoes electrophilic substitution reaction preferably at ortho and para position.
(i) Bromination: Aniline reacts with bromine water at room temperature to give a white
precipitate of 2, 4, 6-tribromoaniline
In order to stop reaction at monosubstitution activating effect of –NH2 group is reduced by

acetylation. This prevents di and tri substituted products. Acetyl group is removed by
hydrolysis.
(ii) Nitration:
(a) Under strongly acidic medium aniline gets protonated to form anilinium ion, which is
deactivating group and is meta directing. Hence minitroaniline is also formed in 47% along
with ortho and para products.
Aromatic amines cannot be nitrated directly because HNO3 being a strong oxidising agent
oxidises it forming black mass.

(b) Nitration by protecting the –NH2 group by acetylation reaction with acetic anhydride:
iii) Sulphonation: Aniline reacts with conc. H2SO4 to form aniliniumhydrogensulphate which
on heating with sulphuric acid at 453-473K produces p-aminobenzenesulphonic acid,

commonly known as sulphanilic acid, as the major product.
Reactions of benzene diazonium chloride:

a) Reactions involving displacement of nitrogen:

b) Reactions involving retention of diazo group, coupling reactions: Diazonium ion
acts as an electrophile because there is a positive charge on terminal nitrogen.
Therefore benzene diazonium chloride couples with electron rich compounds like
phenol and aniline to give azo compounds. Azo compounds contain –N=N- bond and
reaction is coupling reaction.

Chapter 14
Biomolecules
Carbohydrates: Polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxyketones or compounds on

hydrolysis give carbohydrates.
Classification of carbohydrates:
Monosaccharides
(a) Simplest carbohydrates
(b) It cannot be hydrolysed into simpler compounds
(c) Examples - Glucose, mannose
Oligosaccharides
(a) Carbohydrates which gives 2 to 10 monosaccharide units on hydrolysis
(b) Examples - Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose
Polysaccharides
(a) Carbohydrates which on hydrolysis give large number of monosaccharide units.
(b) Examples - Cellulose, starch

Anomers: Pair of optical isomers which differ in configuration only around C1 atom
are called anomers. Examples - -D-glucopyranose and -D-glucopyranose.
Epimers: Pair of optical isomers which differ in configurationaround any other C
atom other than C1 atom are called epimers. E.g. D-glucose and D- mannose are
C2epimers.
Preparation of glucose (also called dextrose, grape sugar):

From starch
Structure of glucose
Structure elucidation of glucose:
a) D – glucose with HI
b) D – glucose with HCN
c) D – glucose with NH2OH
d) D- glucose with Fehling’s reagent

e) D – glucose with Tollen’s reagent
f) D – glucose with nitric acid
g) D – glucose with (CH3CO)2O and ZnCl2
h) D – glucose with bromine water

i) Glucose with phenyl hydrazine to form osazone
Glucose and fructose gives the same osazone because the reaction takes place at C1 and C2
only.
Other Reactions of Glucose (Presence of ring structure)
Glucose does not give Schiff’s test and does not react with sodium bisulphite and NH3.
Pentaacetyl glucose does not react with hydroxyl amine. This shows the absence of –CHO
group and hence the presence of ring structure.
Cyclic structure of glucose:

Haworth representation of glucose:
Cyclic structure of fructose:
Haworth representation of fructose
Glycosidic linkage: The oxide linkage formed by the loss of a water molecule when
two monosaccharides are joined together through oxygen atom is called glycosidic
linkage.
Sucrose (invert sugar):

a) Sucrose is a non-reducing sugar because the two monosaccharide units are held together
by a glycosidic linkage between C1 of -glucose and C2 of - fructose. Since the reducing
groups of glucose and fructose are involved in glycosidic bond formation, sucrose is a non-
reducing sugar.
b) Sucrose is dextrorotatory but on hydrolysis it gives dextrorotatory & laevorotatory and the
mixture is laevorotatory.
Haworth Projection of Sucrose:
Maltose:
1. Maltose is composed of two α-D-glucose units in which C1 of one glucose (I) is linked to C4
of another glucose unit (II).
2. The free aldehyde group can be produced at C1 of second glucose in solution and it shows
reducing properties so it is a reducing sugar.

Haworth projection of maltose:
Lactose (Milk sugar):It is composed of β-D-galactose and β-D-glucose. The linkage is

between C1 of galactose and C4 of glucose. Hence it is also a reducing sugar.
Haworth projection of lactose:

Starch: It is a polymer of -glucose and consists of two components — Amylose and
Amylopectin.
Amylose:
1. It is a water soluble component

2. It is a long unbranched chain polymer
3. It contains 200 – 1000 -D-(+)- glucose units held by - glycosidic linkages involving C1 –
C4glycosidic linkage
4. It constitutes about 15-20% of starch
Amylopectin
1. It is a water insoluble component

2. It is branched chain polymer
3. It forms chain by C1 – C4glycosidic linkage whereas branching occurs by C1 –
C6glycosidic linkage
4. It constitutes about 80-85% of starch
Cellulose:
1. It occurs exclusively in plants.

2. It is a straight chain polysaccharide composed only of -D-glucose units which are joined
by glycosidic linkage between C1 of one glucose unit and C4 of the next glucose unit.
Glycogen:
1. The carbohydrates are stored in animal body as glycogen.

2. It is also known as animal starch because its structure is similar to Amylopectin.
3. It is present in liver, muscles and brain.
4. When the body needs glucose, enzymes break the glycogen down to glucose.
Amino acids:
Amino acids contain amino (–NH2) and carboxyl (–COOH) functional groups.
Where R – Any side chain

Most naturally occurring amino acids have L – Config.
Types of amino acids:
a). Essential amino acids: The amino acids which cannot be synthesised in the body and
must be obtained through diet, are known as essential amino acids. Examples: Valine,
Leucine
b). Non-essential amino acids: The amino acids, which can be synthesised in the body, are
known as non-essential amino acids. Examples: Glycine, Alanine
Zwitter ion form of amino acids:
1. Amino acids behave like salts rather than simple amines or carboxylic acids. This
behaviour is due to the presence of both acidic (carboxyl group) and basic (amino group)
groups in the same molecule. In aqueous solution, the carboxyl group can lose a proton
and amino group can accept a proton, giving rise to a dipolar ion known as zwitter ion.
This is neutral but contains both positive and negative charges.
2. In zwitter ionic form, amino acids show amphoteric behaviour as they react both with
acids and bases.

Isoelectronic point: The pH at which the dipolar ion exists as neutral ion and does
not migrate to either electrode cathode or anode is called isoelectronic point.
Proteins: Proteins are the polymers of -amino acids and they are connected to each
other by peptide bond or peptide linkage. A polypeptide with more than hundred
amino acid residues, having molecular mass higher than 10,000u is called a protein.
Peptide linkage: Peptide linkage is an amide linkage formed by condensation

reaction between –COOH group of one amino acid and –NH2 group of another amino
acid.
Peptide link age
Primary structure of proteins: The sequence of amino acids is said to be the primary
structure of a protein.
Secondary structure of proteins: It refers to the shape in which long polypeptide

chain can exist. Two different types of structures:
– Helix:
1. It was given by Linus Pauling in 1951

2. It exists when R- group is large.
3. Right handed screw with the NH group of each amino acid residue H – bonded to – C = O
of adjacent turn of the helix.
4. Also known as 3.613 helix since each turn of the helix hasapproximately 3.6 amino acids

and a 13 – membered ring is formed by H – bonding.
5. C = O and N – H group of the peptide bonds are trans to each other.
6. Ramchandran angles ( and ) - angle which makes with N – H and angle which
makes with C = O.
– pleated sheet:
1. It exists when R group is small.

2. In this conformation, all peptide chains are stretched out to nearly maximum extension
and then laid side by side which are held together by hydrogen bonds.
Tertiary structure of proteins: It represents the overall folding of the polypeptide

chain i.e., further folding of the 2° structure.
Types of bonding which stabilize the 3° structure:
1. Disulphide bridge (-S – S-)

2. H – bonding – (C = O … H – N)
3. Salt bridge (COO– … + )
4. Hydrophobic interactions
5. van der Waals forces
Two shapes of proteins:
Fibrous proteins
a) When the polypeptide chains run parallel and are held together by hydrogen and
disulphide bonds, then fibre– like structure is formed.
b) These proteins are generally insoluble in water
c) Examples: keratin (present in hair, wool, silk) and myosin (present in muscles), etc
Globular proteins
a) This structure results when the chains of polypeptides coil around to give a spherical
shape.
b) These are usually soluble in water.
c) Examples: Insulin and albumins
Quaternary structure of proteins:

1. Some of the proteins are composedof two or more polypeptide chains referred to as sub-
units.
2. The spatial arrangement of these subunits with respect to each other is known as
quaternary structure of proteins.
Denaturation of proteins:
1. The loss of biological activity of proteins when a protein in its native form, is subjected to
physical change like change in temperature or chemical change like change in pH. This is
called denaturation of protein.
2. Example: coagulation of egg white on boiling, curdling of milk.
Nucleoside:
1. Base + sugar
Nucleotide:
1. Base + sugar + phosphate group
Nucleic acids (or polynucletides):

1. Long chain polymers ofnucleotides.
2. Nucleotides are joined by phosphodiester linkage between 5’ and 3’ C atoms of a pentose
sugar.
Two types of nucleic acids:
DNA
1. It has a double stranded -helix structure in which two strands are coiled spirally in
opposite directions.
2. Sugar present is –D–2-deoxyribose
3. Bases:
i) Purine bases: Adenine (A) and Guanine (G)
ii) Pyrimidine bases: Thymine (T) and cytosine (C)
4. It occurs mainly in the nucleus of the cell.
5. It is responsible for transmission for heredity character.
RNA
1. It has a single stranded -helix structure.

2. Sugar present is –D–ribose
3. Bases:
i) Purine bases: Adenine (A) and Guanine (G)
ii) Pyrimidine bases: Uracil (U) and cytosine (C)
4. It occurs mainly in the cytoplasm of the cell.
5. It helps in protein synthesis.
Double helix structure of DNA:
1. It is composed of two right handed helical polynucleotide chains coiled spirally in

opposite directions around the same central axis.
2. Two strands are anti-parallel i.e., their phosphodiester linkage runs in opposite
directions.
3. Bases are stacked inside the helix in planes to the helical axis.
4. Two strands are held together by H – bonds (A = T, G C).
5. The two strands are complementary to each other because the hydrogen bonds are

formed between specific pairs of bases.
6. Adenine forms hydrogen bonds with thymine whereas cytosine forms hydrogen bonds
with guanine.
7. Diameter of double helix is 2 nm.
8. Double helix repeats at intervals of 3.4 nm. (One complete turn)
9. Total amount of purine (A + G) = Total amount of pyramidine (C + T)
Vitamins: Vitamins are organic compounds required in the diet in small amounts to
perform specific biological functions for normal maintenance of optimum growth and
health of the organism.
Classification of vitamins: Vitamins are classified into two groups depending upon
their solubility in water or fat.
1. Water soluble vitamins
i) These vitamins are soluble in water.

ii) Water soluble vitamins must be supplied regularly in diet because they are readily
excreted in urine and cannot be stored (except vitamin B12) in our body.
iii) Example: Vitamin C, B group vitamins.
2. Fat soluble vitamins

i) These vitamins are soluble in fat and oils but insoluble in water.
ii) They are stored in liver and adipose (fat storing) tissues.
iii) Example: Vitamin A, D, E and K
Important vitamins, their sources and their deficiency diseases:
Name of
Sources Deficiency diseases
vitamins
xerophthalmia
Fish liver oil,
Vitamin A (hardening of cornea of eye)
carrots, butter and milk
Night blindness

Vitamin B1 Yeast, milk, green Beriberi
(Thiamine) vegetables and cereals (loss of appetite, retarded growth)
Cheilosis
Vitamin B2 Milk, egg white, liver,
(fissuring at corners of mouth and lips), digestive
(Riboflavin) kidney
disorders and burning sensation of the skin.
Vitamin B6 Yeast, milk, egg yolk,

Convulsions
(Pyridoxine) cereals and grams
Pernicious anaemia
Vitamin B12 Meat, fish, egg and curd
(RBC deficient in haemoglobin)
Vitamin C
Citrus fruits, amla and Scurvy
(Ascorbic
green leafy vegetables (bleeding gums)
acid)
Rickets
Exposure to sunlight, fish (bone deformities in children) and
Vitamin D
and egg yolk osteomalacia
(soft bones and joint pain in adults)
Vegetable oils like wheat Increased fragility of RBCs and

Vitamin E
germ oil, sunflower oil, etc. muscular weakness
Vitamin K Green leafy vegetables Increased blood clotting time

Chapter 15
Polymers
Polymers: Polymers are high molecular mass substance consisting of large number of
repeating structural units. As polymers are single, giant molecules i.e. big size
molecules, they are also called macromolecules
Monomers: The simple molecules which combine to form polymers by forming single
or multiple bonds are called monomers.
Polymerization: The process of formation of polymers from respective monomers is

called polymerization
Classification of Polymers:
1. Based on source of availability, it is classified into

1. Natural polymers: Polymers obtained from nature, mostly plants and animals.
Examples - Cellulose, starch, etc.
2. Synthetic polymers: Polymers prepared in laboratory. Examples - Teflon, Nylon 6,6 ,
Synthetic rubber (Buna - S) etc.
3. Semi synthetic polymers: Polymers derived from naturally occurring polymers by
carrying out chemical modifications. Examples - Rayon (cellulose acetate), cellulose
nitrate, etc.
2. Based on the structure of polymer, it is classified into
1. Linear polymers: Polymer consists of long and straight chains. Examples - High
density polythene, polyvinyl chloride, etc.
2. Branched chain polymers: Polymers contains linear chains having some branches.
Examples - Low density polythene
3. Cross linked or network polymers: Polymers in which monomer units are cross linked
together to form a 3 dimensional network polymers. Examples - Bakelite, melamine,
etc.
3. Based on the mode of polymerisation, it is classified into

I. Addition polymers: Polymers are formed by the repeated addition of monomers with
double and triple bonds. It is further classified into,
Homopolymers:Polymers formed by the polymerisation of a single monomeric species.
Examples - Polythene, Polystyrene.
Copolymers:Polymers formed by addition polymerisation of two different monomers.
Examples - Buna-S, Buna –N.
II. Condensation polymers: Polymers formed by repeated condensation reaction between
two different bi-functional or tri-functional monomeric units with elimination of simple
molecules. Examples - Nylon 6, 6, Nylon 6.
Based on Molecular forces, it is classified into
Step 1: Chain initiating step: Organic peroxides undergo homolytic fission to form free
radicals which acts as initiator. Initiator adds to C-C double bond of an alkene molecule to
form a new free radical
Step 2: Chain propagating step: Free radicals formed by homolytic cleavage adds to a double
bond of monomer to form a larger free radical. Radical formed adds to another alkene
molecule to form a larger free radical. This process continues until the radical is destroyed.
These steps are called propagation steps.
Step 3: Chain terminating step: For termination of the long chain, free radicals combine in

different ways to form polythene. One mode of termination of chain is shown as under:
a). Low density polythene (LDP) is a polymer of ethene.
It is used in the insulation of electricity carrying wires and manufacture of squeeze bottles,
toys and flexible pipes

b). High density polythene(HDP) is a polymer of ethene.
It is used for manufacturing buckets, dustbins, bottles, pipes, etc.
c). Polytetrafluoroethene (is a polymer of Teflon)
It is used in making oil seals and gaskets and also used for non – stick surface coated utensils
d). Polyacrylonitrile is a polymer of acrylonitrile.

It is used as a substitute for wool in making commercial fibres such as orlon or acrilan.
1. Polyamides: Polymers possess amide linkage (-CONH-) in chain. Thesepolymers are

popularly known as nylons. Examples:
(a) Nylon 6, 6: It is prepared by the condensation polymerisation of hexamethylenediamine
with adipic acid under high pressure and at high temperature.
It is used in making sheets, bristles for brushes and in textile industry.
(b) Nylon 6: It is obtained by heating caprolactum with water at a high temperature

It is used for the manufacture of tyre cords, fabrics and ropes.
2. Polyesters: These are the polycondensation products of dicarboxylic acids and diols
Example: Terylene or Dacron
It is used to create resistance in polymerised product and is used in blending with cotton and
wool fibres and also as glass reinforcing materials in safety helmets, etc.
3. Phenol - formaldehyde polymer (Bakelite and related polymers)
a). Bakelite: These are obtained by the condensation reaction of phenol with formaldehyde
in the presence of either an acid or a base catalyst. The initial product could be a linear
product – Novolac used in paints.
b). Novolac on heating with formaldehyde forms Bakelite

It is used for making combs, phonograph records, electrical switches and handles of various
utensils
4. Melamine – formaldehyde polymer: Melamine formaldehyde polymer isformed by the

condensation polymerisation of melamine and formaldehyde
It is used in the manufacture of unbreakable crockery.
a). Natural rubber: Natural rubber is a linear polymer of isoprene (2-methyl-1, 3-butadiene)
and is also called as cis - 1, 4 - polyisoprene.

b). Synthetic rubber: Synthetic rubbers are either homopolymers of 1, 3 - butadiene
derivatives or copolymers of 1, 3 - butadiene or its derivatives with another unsaturated
monomer.
A) Neoprene or polychloroprene
It is used for manufacturing conveyor belts, gaskets and hoses
B) Buna – N

It is used in making oil seals, tank lining, etc. because it is resistant to the action of petrol,
lubricating oil and organic solvents
C) Buna – S
a). Poly - -hydroxybutyrate – co- -hydroxyvalerate (PHBV):

It is obtained by the copolymerisation of 3-hydroxybutanoic acid and 3 – hydroxypentanoic
acid
It is used in speciality packaging, orthopaedic devices and in controlled release of drugs.
b). Nylon 2–nylon 6: It is an alternating polyamide copolymer of glycine(H2N–CH2–COOH)

and amino caproic acid (H2N (CH2)5 COOH)

Name of
Monomer Structure Uses
Polymer
Polypropene Propene Manufacture of ropes, toys, pipes,

fibres, etc.

(a) Ethylene
Glyptal glycol
Manufacture of Manufacture of paints and lacquers

(b) Phthalic acid
Polystyrene Styrene As insulator, wrapping material,

manufacture of toys, radio and
television cabinets
Polyvinyl Vinyl chloride Manufacture of rain coats, hand bags,

chloride
vinyl flooring, water pipes
(PVC)
1. Elastomers: Polymer chains are held together by weakest intermolecular forces.

Polymers are rubber – like solids with elastic properties. Examples - Buna – S, Buna – N,
Neoprene.
2. Fibre: Polymers have strong intermolecular force like hydrogen bonding. Fibres are the
thread forming solids which possess high tensile strength and high modulus. Examples -
Nylon 6, 6, Polyesters.
3. Thermoplastic polymers: Polymers are held by intermolecular forces which are in
between those of elastomers and fibres. These polymers are capable of repeated
softening on heating and hardening on cooling. Examples - Polythene, Polystyrene.
4. Thermosetting polymers: Polymers are cross linked or heavily branched molecules,

which on heating undergo extensive cross linking in moulds and eventually undergo a
permanent change. Examples - Bakelite, Urea-formaldelyde resins
5. Addition Polymerisation or Chain Growth Polymerisation: Addition polymerisation is
called chain growth polymerisation because it takes place through stages leading to
increase in chain length and each stage produces reactive intermediates for use in next
stage of the growth of chain. Most common mechanism for addition polymerisation
reactions is free radical mechanism
Important Addition Polymers:
Condensation Polymerisation or Step Growth polymerization: Polymerisation generally

involves a repetitive condensation reaction between two bi-functional monomers. In
condensation reactions, the product of each step is again a bi-functional species and the
sequence of condensation goes on. Since, each step produces a distinct functionalized species
and is independent of each other, this process is also called as step growth polymerisation.
Condensation Polymers:
Terylene or Dacron: It is manufactured by heating a mixture of ethylene glycol and

terephthalic acid at 420 to 460 K in the presence of zinc acetate-antimony trioxide catalyst.
Vulcanisation of rubber: The process of heating a mixture of raw rubber with sulphur and
an appropriate additive in a temperature range between 373 K to 415 K to improve upon
physical properties like elasticity, strength etc.
Examples of synthetic rubber:
Biodegradable Polymers: Polymers which are degraded by microorganisms within a suitable

period so that biodegradable polymers and their degraded products do not cause any serious
effects on environment.
Examples of biodegradable polymer:
Commercially important polymers along with their structures and uses:

Chapter 16
Chemistry in Everyday Life
Drugs: Drugs are low molecular mass substances which interact with targets in the
body and produce a biological response.
Medicines: Medicines are chemicals that are useful in diagnosis, prevention and
treatment of diseases
Therapeutic effect: Desirable or beneficial effect of a drug like treatment of
symptoms and cure of a disease on a living body is known as therapeutic effect
Enzymes: Proteins which perform the role of biological catalysts in the body are
called enzymes
Functions of enzymes:
(i) The first function of an enzyme is to hold the substrate for a chemical reaction.
Active sites of enzymes hold the substrate molecule in a suitable position, so that it
can be attacked by the reagent effectively.
(ii) The second function of an enzyme is to provide functional groups that will attack
the substrate and carry out chemical reaction.
Role of drugs: Main role of drugs is to either increase or decrease role of enzyme
catalysed reactions. Inhibition of enzymes is a common role of drug action.
Enzyme inhibitor: Enzyme inhibitor is drug which inhibits catalytic activity of
enzymes or blocks the binding site of the enzyme and eventually prevents the binding
of substrate with enzyme.
Drug can inhibit attachment of substrate on active site of enzymes in following ways:
1. Competitive Inhibition: Competitive Inhibitors are the drugs that compete with the

natural substrate for their attachment on the active sites of enzymes.
2. Non-Competitive Inhibition: Some drugs do not bind to the enzyme’s active site, instead
bind to a different site of enzyme called allosteric site. This binding of inhibitor at
allosteric site changes the shape of the active site in such a way that substrate cannot
recognise it. If the bond formed between an enzyme and an inhibitor is a strong covalent
bond and cannot be broken easily, then the enzyme is blocked permanently. The body
then degrades the enzyme-inhibitor complex and synthesizes the new enzyme.
Receptors: Proteins which are vital for communication system in the body are called
receptors. Receptors show selectivity for one chemical messenger over the other
because their binding sites have different shape, structure and amino acid
composition.
Receptors as Drug Targets: In the body, message between two neurons and that
between neurons to muscles is communicated through chemical messengers. They
are received at the binding sites of receptor proteins. To accommodate a messenger,
shape of the receptor site changes which brings about the transfer of message into the
cell. Chemical messenger gives message to the cell without entering the cell.

Antagonists and Agonists: Drugs that bind to the receptor site and inhibit its natural
function are called antagonists. These are useful when blocking of message is
required. Drugs that mimic the natural messenger by switching on the receptor are
called agonists. These are useful when there is lack of natural chemical messenger.
Therapeutic action of different classes of drugs:
(i) Antacid: Chemical substances which neutralize excess acid in the gastric juices and
give relief from acid indigestion, acidity, heart burns and gastric ulcers. Examples:
Eno, gelusil, digene etc.
(ii) Antihistamines: Chemical substances which diminish or abolish the effects of
histamine released in body and hence prevent allergic reactions. Examples:
Brompheniramine (Dimetapp) and terfenadine (Seldane).
(iii) Neurologically Active Drugs: Drugs which have a neurological effect i.e. affects
the message transfer mechanism from nerve to receptor.
Tranquilizers: Chemical substances used for the treatment of stress and mild or
severe mental diseases. Examples: Derivatives of barbituric acids like veronal, amytal,
nembutal, luminal, seconal.
Analgesics: Chemical substances used to relieve pain without causing any
disturbances in the nervous system like impairment of consciousness, mental
confusion, in coordination or paralysis etc.
Classification of Analgesics:
(a) Non-narcotic analgesics: They are non-addictive drugs. Examples: Aspirin,
Ibuprofen, Naproxen, Dichlofenac Sodium.
(b) Narcotic analgesics: When administered in medicinal doses, these drugs relieve
pain and produce sleep. Examples: Morphine and its derivatives
iv) Anti-microbials: Drugs that tends to destroy/prevent development or inhibit the

pathogenic action of microbes such as bacteria (antibacterial drugs), fungi (anti-
fungal agents), virus (antiviral agents), or other parasites (anti-parasitic drugs)
selectively.
v) Anti-fertility Drugs: Chemical substances used to prevent conception or fertilization
are called anti-fertility drugs. Examples - Norethindrone, ethynylestradiol (novestrol).

Types of antimicrobial drugs :

(a) Antibiotics: Chemical substances produced by microorganisms that kill or prevent
the growth of other microbes.
Classification of antimicrobial drugs based on the mode of control of microbial

diseases:
1. Bactericidal drugs - Drugs that kills organisms in body. Examples - Penicillin,

Aminoglycosides, Ofloxacin.
2. Bacteriostatic drugs - Drugs that inhibits growth of organisms. Examples - Erythromycin,
Tetracycline, Chloramphenicol.
Classification of antimicrobial drugs based on its spectrum of action:
1. Broad spectrum antibiotics - Antibiotics which kill or inhibit a wide range of Gram-
positive and Gram-negative bacteria are called broad spectrum antibiotics. Examples -
Ampicillin and Amoxycillin.
2. Narrow spectrum antibiotics - Antibiotics which are effective mainly against Gram-
positive or Gram-negative bacteria are called narrow spectrum antibiotics. Examples-
Penicillin G.
3. Limited spectrum antibiotics -Antibiotics effective against a single organism or disease
(b) Antiseptics: Chemical substances that kill or prevent growth of microorganisms and can
be applied on living tissues such as cuts, wounds etc., are called anti-spetics. Examples -
Soframicine, dettoletc.
(c) Disinfectants: Chemical substances that kill microorganisms but cannot be applied on
living tissues such as cuts, wounds etc., are called disinfectants. Examples - Chlorine (Cl2),
bithional, iodoform etc.
Food additives: Food additives are the substances added to food to preserve its flavor
or improve its taste and appearance.
Different types of food additives:
1. Artificial Sweetening Agents: Chemical compounds which gives sweetening effect to the
food and enhance its flavour. Examples - Aspartame, Sucrolose and Alitame.
2. Food preservatives: Chemical substances which are added to food material to prevent
their spoilage due to microbial growth. Examples - Sugar, Salts, Sodium benzoate

3. Food colours: Substances added to food to increase the acceptability and attractiveness of
the food product. Examples - Allura Red AC, Tartrazine
4. Nutritional supplements: Substances added to food to improve the nutritional value.
Examples -Vitamins, minerals etc.
5. Fat emulsifiers and stabilizing agents: Substances added to food products to give texture
and desired consistency. Examples - Egg yolk (where the main emulsifying chemical is
Lecithin)
6. Antioxidants :Substances added to food to prevent oxidation of food materials. Examples
- ButylatedHydroxy Toluene (BHT), ButylatedHydroxy Anisole (BHA).
Soaps: It is a sodium or potassium salts of long chain fatty acids like stearic, oleic and
palmitic acid.
This reaction is known as saponification.
Types of soaps:
1. Toilet soaps are prepared by using better grades of fats and oil sand care is taken to
remove excess alkali. Colour and perfumes are added to make these more attractive.
2. Transparent soaps are made by dissolving the soap in ethanol and then evaporating the
excess solvent.
3. In medicated soaps, substances of medicinal value are added. Insome soaps, deodorants
are added.
4. Shaving soaps contain glycerol to prevent rapid drying. A gum called, rosin is added
while making them.It forms sodium rosinate which lathers well.
5. Laundry soaps contain fillers like sodium rosinate, sodium silicate, borax and sodium
carbonate.
6. Soaps that float in water are made by beating tiny air bubbles before their hardening.
7. Soap chips are made by running a thin sheet of melted soap ontoa cool cylinder and

scraping off the soaps in small broken pieces.
8. Soap granules are dried miniature soap bubbles.
9. Soap powders and scouring soaps contain some soap, a scouring agent (abrasive) such as
powderedpumice or finely divided sand, and builders like sodium carbonate and
trisodium phosphate.
Advantages of using soaps: Soap is a good cleansing agent and is 100%

biodegradable i.e., microorganisms present in sewage water can completely oxidize
soap. Therefore, soaps do not cause any pollution problems.
Disadvantages of using soaps: Soaps cannot be used in hard water because hard
water contains metal ions like Ca2+ and Mg2+ which react with soap to form white
precipitate of calcium and magnesium salts
These precipitates stick to the fibres of the cloth as gummy mass and block the ability of
soaps to remove oil and grease from fabrics. Therefore, it interferes with the cleansing
ability of the soap and makes the cleansing process difficult.
In acidic medium, the acid present in solution precipitate the insoluble free fatty acids which
adhere to the fabrics and hence block the ability of soaps to remove oil and grease from the
fabrics. Hence soaps cannot be used in acidic medium
Detergents: Detergents are sodium salts of long chain of alkyl benzene sulphonic
acids or sodium salts of long chain of alkyl hydrogen sulphates.
Classification of detergents:

(a)Anionic detergents: Anionic detergents are sodium salts of sulphonated long chain
alcohols or hydrocarbons. Alkyl hydrogen sulphates formed by treating long chain alcohols
with concentrated sulphuric acid are neutralised with alkali to form anionic detergents.
Similarly alkyl benzene sulphonates are obtained by neutralising alkyl benzene sulphonic
acids with alkali. Anionic detergents are termed so because a large part of molecule is an
anion.
They are used in household cleaning like dishwasher liquids, laundry liquid detergents,
laundry powdered detergents etc. They are effective in slightly acidic solutions where soaps
do not work efficiently.
(b)Cationic detergents: Cationic detergents are quarternary ammonium salts of a mines with
acetates, chlorides or bromides as anions. Cationic parts possess a long hydrocarbon chain
and a positive charge on nitrogen atom. Cationic detergents are termed so because a large
part of molecule is a cation. Since they possess germicidal properties, they are used as
germicides. They has strong germicidal action, but are expensive.

(c) Non- ionic detergents: They do not contain any ion in their constitution. They are like
esters of high molecular mass.
Example: Detergent formed by condensation reaction between stearic acid reacts and poly
ethyl eneglycol.
It is used in Making liquid washing detergents. They have effective H- bonding groups at one
end of the alkyl chain which make them freely water soluble.
Biodegradable detergents: Detergents having straight hydrocarbon chains that are

easily decomposed by microorganisms. Example: Sodium lauryl sulphate
Non-Biodegradable detergents: Detergents having branched hydrocarbon chains

that are not easily decomposed by microorganisms.

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CBSE

1. They have definite mass, volume and shape.

Classification of on the basis of the arrangement of constituent particles:

Properties of crystalline solids:

They have a definite geometrical shape.

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The different crystalline forms of a substance are known as polymorphic forms or

Characteristics of amorphous solids:

1. They have an irregular shape.

Types of crystalline solids:

Constituent Particles: Molecules

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Type of Constituent Bonding/ Electrical physical Melting

Non-polar Dispersion or Very Ar, CCl4,

Constituent Particles: Ions

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Crystal lattice: A regular ordered arrangement of constituent particles in three

Parameters which characterize a unit cell:

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Seven crystal systems:

1. Cubic: = = =90° ,a=b=c

Types of unit cells:

Types of centered unit cells:

Number of particles at different lattice positions:

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Number of atoms in different unit cells:

1. Primitive unit cell have 1atom

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Close packed structures:

i) Square close packing and ii) Hexagonal close packing.

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There are two possibilities:

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Packing efficiency: It is the percentage of total space occupied by constituent particles

Packing efficiency for face centered unit cell =74%

Density of a unit cell is same as the density of the substance.

1. Simple cubic unit cell: a=2r

Volume of a unit cell=(edge length)3=

1. Simple cubic unit cell: Volume=

3. Body centered unit cell: Volume=

Number of atoms in a unit cell(z):

1. Simple cubic unit cell: z = 1

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Density of unit cell =

Different types of point defects:

Different types of stoichiometric defects for non- ionic solids:

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Different types of non-stoichiometric defects:

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b) Presence of extracations: A compound is said to have extracations if a cation is present

Classification of solids based on their electrical conductivities:

a) Conductors: The solids with conductivities ranging between to are

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b) Extrinsic semiconductors: When an appropriate impurity is added to an intrinsic

Doping: The process of adding an appropriate amount of suitable impurity to

Types of extrinsic semiconductors:

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