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4.2 Significance
Solids are substances that are rigid, have a definite shape and the particles are tightly packed in
orderly repeating manner or irregularly. The particles atoms, ions and molecules constitute the
solid. These constitute particles occupy fixed position in the solid and do not move from place to
place. They can only vibrate or oscillate about their positions.
Molecular Arrangement in Solid, Liquid and Gases
 Molecular arrangement in solid:
In solids the molecules are closely packed. They have least amount of intermolecular spaces. The
force of attraction between the molecules is very strong and free motion of molecules is not
possible. That is why solids are rigid and retain their shape.
For example: Metals

Fig. 4.9
 Molecular arrangement in liquids :
In liquids the molecules are loosely packed. There are large intermolecular spaces in liquids. The
force of attraction between the molecules is small and motion of molecules is possible. That’s
why liquids are not rigid and they don’t have their own shape. They take the shape of the
container.
For example: Water

Fig.4.10
 Molecular arrangement in gases :
In a gas the molecules are separated from one another by wide spaces. The force of attraction
between the molecules is least and the molecules have maximum freedom of motion. Hence the
gas has neither a definite shape nor a definite volume.
Gases and liquids are called fluids because of their ability to flow.
For example: Air.

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Fig . 4.11

Table 4.4
Solid Liquid Gases
Rigid Not rigid Not rigid
Fixed shape No fixed shape No fixed shape
Fixed volume Fixed volume No fixed volume

4.3. Classification of solid on the basis of bond type

Fig. 4.4.4
 Crystalline solids: The substances whose constituent particles (atoms, ions or molecules) are
arranged in definite orderly arrangements are called crystalline solids.
Many naturally occurring solid substances occur in the crystalline form. X-ray diffraction
shown that the regular arrangement of the constituents (atoms, ions, molecules) extends
throughout three dimensional networks.
 Examples: Sodium chloride, sulphur, diamond, graphite, sugar.
 Properties of crystalline solids
1) The crystalline solids exhibit regular repeating structure represented by unit cells.
2) These are characterized by long range order.

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3) These solids usually show sharp melting points.

4) The crystalline solids are anisotropic. Therefore, the physical properties of crystalline
solids are different in different directions - like electrical conductivity, refractive index,
thermal expansion etc.
5) When crystalline solid is cut with a sharp knife, it cleaved along perfect directions.
 Amorphous solids: The substances whose constituent particles are not arranged in an orderly
manner are called amorphous solids.
 Examples: Plastics, rubber, starch, proteins, glass, coal, coke etc.
 Properties of amorphous solids.
1) The amorphous solids do not have regular arrangement of particles but are randomly
arranged in three dimensions.
2) They do not have specific long range order.
3) They do not have sharp melting points.
4) The amorphous solids are isotropic. Therefore their physical properties are same in all
directions.
5) When an amorphous solid is cut with a sharp knife, it results in an irregular breakage.

Differences between crystalline solids and amorphous solids:

Table 4.5
Sr. Crystalline solids Amorphous solids
No.
1 They have definite arrangement of atoms, They have random arrangement of atoms,
ions or molecules. ions or molecules.
2 They have sharp melting points. They do not have sharp melting points.
3 They have definite geometry. They do not have definite geometry.
4 They are anisotropic. They are isotropic.
5 Cleavage is uniform. Cleavage is not uniform.
6 Examples : Sodium chloride, diamond, Examples: Glass, rubber, plastic.
graphite , etc.

Classification of crystalline solids:

The crystalline solids can be classified into four types depending on the nature of intermolecular
forces operating in them.
The structures of different types of solids are discussed below:
1) Molecular solids: These are the crystalline substances in which constituent particles are
molecules which are held together by dispersion forces, dipole-dipole forces or hydrogen bonds.

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Types of Molecular solid:

Table 4.6
Type of Molecular solid Intermolecular forces Example
1.Polar molecular solid Dipole-dipole forces Solid HCl, Solid NH3
2.Non Polar molecular solid Dispersion forces or London Solid H2, I2, CO2
forces
3. Hydrogen bonded Hydrogen bonds. Solid water ( Ice )
molecular solid

2) Ionic solids: - These are the crystalline substances in which constituent particles are
oppositely charged ions which are held together by very strong electrostatic force of attraction.
These forces of attraction are very strong and therefore the ionic solid shows higher melting
point.
For example: Crystalline NaCl and KNO3
Structure of sodium chloride

Fig. 4.11
In sodium chloride, the ions are cubic close packed (ccp) /Face centered Cubic packed crystal.
Sodium ions are surrounded by six chloride ions. Similarly each chloride ion is surrounded by
six sodium ions.

3) Covalent solids: The constituent particles of covalent solid are atoms which are held by
strong covalent bonds. The bonding extends throughout the crystal and results in a giant
interlocking structure as the covalent bond is directional.

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a) Structure of diamond

Fig. 4.12
In the structure of diamond, each carbon atom is covalently bonded to four other carbon atoms. It
has tetrahedral arrangement. Due to presence of strong covalent bonds between carbon atoms,
diamond is extremely hard, brittle, having high melting point and poor conductor of electricity.

b) Structure of graphite:

Fig. 4.13
In graphite, each carbon atom is covalently bonded by three other carbon atoms in a plane
forming hexagonal network structure and the planes of layers are held parallel by weak Van der
Waal’s forces. The weak Van der Waal’s forces are responsible for soft nature of graphite. The
electrons forming π bonds in the rings of graphite are delocalized and are relatively free to move
under the influence of electric field hence it a good conductor of electricity and used as an inert
electrode in electrolysis.

4) Metallic solids: These are the crystalline substances in which constituent particles are

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Positive ions i.e. metal atoms immersed in a sea of mobile electrons. In metallic solids, the metal
atom occupies fixed positions but their valence electrons are mobile.

Fig. 4.14

For example: All metallic elements like Cu, Na, Fe, Zn and their alloys.
4.3.2 Properties of metallic solids
The properties of metallic solids can be explained on the basis of electron sea models as follows:
1) Metallic lustre: The bright lustre of metal is due to presence of delocalised mobile
electrons. When a beam of light falls on the metallic surface, the loosely held electrons
absorb photons of light and start oscillating to and fro at a frequency equal to that of incident
light. The oscillating electrons emit electromagnetic energy in the form of light. As a result,
the incident light appears to be reflected from metal surface and the surface exhibits shining
appearance.

2) Electrical conductivity:
The electrical conductivity of a metal is due the presence of mobile valence electrons. When a
potential difference is applied across the metal, the free mobile electrons move readily towards
positive electrode. These electrons simultaneously replaced by the electrons coming from the
negative electrode. This constitutes electrical conductivity.

Fig. 4.13

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2) Thermal conductivity:
The thermal conductivity of metal is due to the presence of high valency electrons. When the
metal is heated, the kinetic energy of electrons in that region increases. As the electrons in
metallic crystal are free and mobile, these energetic electrons move rapidly to the cooler parts
and some of their thermal energy is transferred to these parts by means of collision.
Therefore, the heat is transferred from hotter to cooler parts of metal.

Fig.4.14

4) Malleability and ductility:

In the metal the valency electrons are spread all over the crystal due to this the metallic bond is
non-directional. Whenever any stress or force is applied on metal, the position of positive
metallic kernals is changed without destroying the crystal. Due to slippage of one layer of
kernels relative to adjacent layers of kernals the metallic lattice get deformed. The deforming
forces simply move the kernals from one lattice site to another. The nearest neighbors can thus
be changed easily and new metal bonds can be formed readily, explains the malleability (beaten
into sheets) and ductility (drawn into wires).

Fig.4.15
5) Tensile strength or tenacity
Tensile strength is the ability of metal to resist pull without breaking. Metals have high tenacity
because there is a high electrostatic force of attraction between the positively charged kernals
and sea of electrons.

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6) Elasticity in metals:
Elasticity is the property of metal by virtue of which metal can regain its original shape as soon
as the stretching force is released. In the metallic crystal elasticity is due to the ease with which
positive kernals in metallic lattice can slide from one site to another.
7) Hardness:
Hardness is the property of metal by virtue of which metal can resist wear or abrasion and
penetration. The hardness is due to the strength of metallic bond. The strength of bond based on
two factors;
i) Number of valence electrons: Greater the number of valence electrons stronger is the
metallic bond.
ii) Size of kernel: Smaller the size of kernel of metal atom, strong attraction of mobile electrons
and therefore stronger is the metallic bond.

4.3.3 Unit Cell and Crystal Lattices

 The crystalline solids have definite orderly arrangement of their constituent particles in three
dimensions. The positions of these particles in a crystal, relative to one another are usually
shown by points. The arrangement of an infinite set of these points is called space lattice.
 Lattice point : The point which represents the position of constituent particles in a crystal
Lattices are called as lattice points.
1) One dimensional lattice points (along one axis)

Fig. 4.16

2) Two dimensional lattice points (Along x and y axis)

Fig. 4.17

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3) Three dimensional lattice points (Along x, y and z axis)

Fig. 4.18
A crystal lattice is a ordered set of constituent particles in three dimension. The constituent
particles are represented by lattice points. The lattice point may be atom, ion or molecule.
 Space lattice or Crystal lattice “An arrangement of points showing how constituent particles (atoms,
ions or molecules) of a crystal are arranged at different positions in three dimensional spaces is called as
space lattice”.
French mathematician Bravais proved that lattice points can be arranged in maximum of fourteen
types. The arrangement is called Bravais lattices.
 Unit cell :
It is observed that in a space lattice, we can select a group of lattice points which is repeated
again and again in the whole crystal lattice. The smallest repeating pattern in a crystal structure is
called as the unit cell. Unit cell shows the shape of the entire crystal. The complete crystal lattice
can be obtained by extending the unit cell in all the three directions. “Unit cell is defined as the
smallest three dimensional repeating portion of a space lattice which when repeated over again
and again in different direction producing the complete crystal lattice”.
Parameters of Unit cell.
The unit cell is characterized by
i) Its lengths along three edges a, b and c.
ii) The angles, , . between the pairs of edges

Fig.4.19

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Types of Crystal System:

There are basically two types of unit cell constituting different crystal system. These are
i) Primitive or simple unit cells: These are unit cells which have points or particles only at
corners.
ii) Non- Primitive or centred unit cells: These are unit cells which have points or particles at
corners as well as at some other points.
The centred unit cells are of three types:
a) Body centred unit cell: These are unit cells which have points or particles at corners as well as
at the body centre of unit cell.
b) Face centred unit cell: These are unit cells which have points or particles at corners as well as
at the centre of each faces.
c) End centred unit cell: These are unit cells which have points or particles at corners as well as
at centre of two opposite faces .
Seven Crystal systems:
 The unit cells have seven different types of simple or primitive unit cell among crystal namely
i) Cubic
ii) Tetragonal
iii) Orthorhombic
iv) Hexagonal
v) Rhombohedral
vi) Monoclinic
vii) Triclinic

 Types of cubic lattices: All the edges are of equal length and are at right angle to each other.
i. e. a= b= c and = = = 90 0. It is observed that a cubic unit cell has three types of lattices.
1) Simple Cubic unit cell (SC) or Primitive unit cell
2) Body Centred Cubic unit cell (BCC)
3) Face Centred Cubic unit cell (FCC)
 Calculation of number of particles per unit cell : The number of atoms in unit cell is
calculated by following rules :
1) The atoms present at the corner of a unit cell are shared by eight another unit cells. Therefore,
each atom contributes 1/8 to the unit cell.
2) The atom present at the face centred is shared by two unit cells. Therefore, contributes 1/2 to
the unit cell.
3) The atom present within the body of the unit cell is shared by no other unit cell. Therefore,
each atom contributes 1 to the unit cell.
4) The atoms present on the edge are shared by four unit cells. Hence, each atom contributes 1/4
to the unit cell.

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1) Simple Cubic unit cell (SC)

In this type of unit cell, constituent particles (atoms, ions, molecules) are present only at the
corners of the unit cell. Simple Cubic unit cell consist of total eight atoms at the corner of cube.

Fig. 4.20
The atoms present at the corner of a unit cell are shared by eight another unit cells. Therefore,
each atom contributes 1/8 to the unit cell. Hence in Simple cubic unit cell, number of atoms per
= (8  1/8) = 1 atom.
2) Body Centred Cubic unit cell (BCC)
In this type of unit cell, atoms are present at the corners of cube i. e eight atoms at corner and one
at the center of the unit cell.

Fig. 4.21
i) Eight atoms of the corners = 8  1/8 = 1 atom.
ii) Atoms at the body centre = 1 atom.
Hence in Body centered cubic unit cell, number of atoms per unit cell
= 1 + 1 = 2 atoms.

3) Face Centred Cubic unit cell (FCC)

In this type of unit cell, atoms are present at the corners i. e eight atoms at corner and at the
center of each face i.e six atoms at the center of six faces of the unit cell.

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Fig. 4.23
i) Eight atoms of the corners = 8  1/8 = 1 atom.
ii) Atoms at each of the six face centres = (6  1/2) = 3 atoms.
Hence in Face centered cubic unit cell, number of atoms per cubic unit cell = 1 + 3 = 4
atoms.
Packing of crystals:
When crystal forms, the constituents particle (atoms, ions, molecules) get closely packed
together in such a way that they occupy the maximum available space .This type of packing is
called close packing. To understand packing of constituent particles of crystal, all spheres are
considered of equal size.
Coordination number: The number of atoms/spear touching a given sphere is called its
coordination number. i.e. The number of atoms or ions immediately surrounding a central atom
in a crystal lattice is called as coordination number
1. Simple cubic packing crystal:
Unit parameters of unit cell of this crystal are. a= b= c and = = = 900.
In this type of packing, constituent particles (atoms, ions, molecules) of first layer are placed side
by side. The atoms of next layer are placed directly above the atom of the first layer. Each atom
is in direct contact with six atoms i.e. four in its plane, one atom in the layer above it and one in
the layer below it.
Hence the coordination number of simple cubic packing crystal is 6.
Example: Polonium (Po)

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Fig. 4.24
2. Body centered cubic (BCC) crystal:
Unit parameters of unit cell of this crystal are. a= b= c and = = = 900.
In this type of packing the spear of the first layer are arranged like the spear in simple cubic
packing. The spheres of the second layer are not directly placed above the layer of first layer
rather they fit into the holes/voids between the adjacent spheres of the second layer. The third
layer is exactly similar to first layer. Each atom touches four atoms in the layer above it and four
in the layer below its plane.
Hence the coordination number of body centered cubic packing crystal is 8.
Example: Iron (Fe), Chromium (Cr), Tungsten (W)

Fig.4.25
3. Hexagonal close pack (HCP) crystal:
Unit parameters of unit cell of this crystal are. a= b ≠ c and = = 900 , = 1200. .
The spheres are packed in such a way that the spheres in every second row are placed in the
depressions or interstices between the spheres of the first row sphere. Each sphere or atom has
six closest neighbours.

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Fig. 4.26
Further extending the packing in third row, the spheres will be vertically aligned with spheres in
the first row. This gives rise to hexagonal close packing (hcp).

Hexagonal close packing (ABABAB…)

Fig. 4.26
If the spheres of first layer are labelled as A and the spheres of second layer are labelled as B.
Then the third layer is also labelled as A. Hence in hcp, the pattern is ABABAB ...... is called
hexagonal close packing or hcp. Each atom in an hcp is surrounded by 12 nearest neighbours, six
are in the planar hexagonal layer B and six (three in layer A above and three in layer A below)
form trigonal prism around the central atom.
Hence the coordination number of hexagonal close packing crystal is 12.
For example:: Co, Mg, Zn.

4. Face centred cubic(FCC) crystal or Cubic Closed packing (CCP) crystal:

Unit parameters of unit cell of this crystal are. a= b= c and = = = 900.
The spheres are packed in such a way that the spheres in every second row are placed in the
depressions or interstices between the spheres of the first row sphere. Each sphere or atom has
six closest neighbours. If the spheres of first layer are labelled as A the spheres of second layer
are labelled as B. The atoms of the third layer are placed over unoccupied voids of first layer.
This gives rise to new layer labelled as C. Hence in FCC or CCP, the pattern is ABCABC ...... is

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called face centred cubic or cubic close packing. Each atom in an FCC or CCP is surrounded by
12 nearest neighbours
Hence the coordination number of face centred cubic or cubic close packing crystal is 12.
Example: Aluminium (Al), Copper (Cu) ,Gold(Au), Silver (Ag)

Face centred cubic close packing (ABCABC……)

Fig. 4.27

4.4 Catalysis

Significance:
There are many substances which alter the speed of chemical reaction without being used up in
the reaction J.J. Berzelius (in 1835) was the first scientist who made a systematic study of the
effect of various foreign substances on the rate of chemical reaction. Such a foreign substances
are called as catalyst.

The substance which alters the rate of chemical reaction without taking part in the reaction is
called as catalyst. The process of altering the rate of chemical reaction by using catalyst is known
as catalysis.

4.4.1 Type of Catalysis

A) Homogeneous catalysis B) Heterogeneous catalysis
A) Homogeneous catalysis: In homogeneous catalysis reaction, catalyst and reactants are in the
same phase. i.e. may be in solid, liquid or gaseous phase.
Example: Manufacturing of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) by chamber process.
[NO](g)
2 SO2(g) + O2(g)  2 SO3(g) + 2 [NO](g)

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