Lab 7: Transient Response of a 2nd Order Circuit

Theory and Introduction

Goals for Lab 7 – Students will learn about a relatively simple op-amp circuit that creates a 2nd
order response. Students will measure the transient (step) response of the circuit and compare
with theory and simulations results.

Theory

In class we often used circuits with resistors, capacitors and inductors to produce 2nd order
responses (i.e., circuits whose voltages and currents are described by 2nd order differential
equations). In practice, we tend to avoid using circuits with inductors as they are not easily
integrated onto a chip and therefore result in circuits that cannot easily be miniaturized. In this lab
we will use an op-amp circuit with resistors and capacitors that can synthesize any desired 2nd
order response. The circuit is show in Figure 7.1 and is known as a Sallen-Key circuit.

𝐶1
𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑉2
+
𝑉1
+ _ +
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝐶2 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
_ _

Figure 7.1 – A Sallen-Key 2nd Order Circuit

This circuit is analyzed as follows. First, note that 𝑉2 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (why?). Then perform a KCL at
node 1 resulting in

𝑉𝑖𝑛 −𝑉1 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑉1 𝑑

+ + 𝐶1 (𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑉1 ) = 0.
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑑𝑡

This equation can be rearranged to produce

 𝑅1 𝑑
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 + (1 +
𝑅2
) (𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) + 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑑𝑡 (𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ).

Next, perform a KCL at node 2 to produce the equation

𝑉1 −𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
=𝐶2 .
𝑅2 𝑑𝑡

Plugging this equation into the one before it produces a 2nd order differential equation which
describes the operation of this circuit,

𝑑 2 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡)

𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑅2 𝐶2 + (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )𝐶2 + 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (𝑡).
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

The characteristic equation associated with this differential equation is

𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑠 2 + (𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )𝐶2 𝑠 + 1 = 0,

whose roots are

2
−(𝑅1 +𝑅2 )𝐶2 ±√(𝑅1 +𝑅2 )𝐶2 −4𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑅2 𝐶2
𝑠= .
2𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑅2 𝐶2

By carefully selecting component values, we can get real, complex, or repeated roots. Recall that
these cases lead to overdamped, underdamped, and critically damped responses respectively.

It is common to express the roots of the characteristic equation of a 2nd order circuit in the form,
𝑠 = −𝛼 ± 𝑗𝜔𝑑 , so that in the underdamped case (complex roots), the solution (homogeneous) to
the differential equation will be of the general form

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (𝑡) = 𝐵1 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡) + 𝐵2 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 sin⁡(𝜔𝑑 𝑡).

This is the form of a damped oscillation where 𝛼 is the damping factor (also known as the neper
frequency) and 𝜔𝑑 is the damped radian frequency. Other common terms to described a 2nd order
circuit can be defined by expressing the roots of the characteristic equation in the form 𝑠 = −𝛼 ±
𝑗√𝜔𝑜 2 −𝛼 2, where 𝜔𝑜 is the resonant radian frequency of the circuit. This is the frequency that
the circuit would oscillate at if it was completely undamped (𝛼 = 0). In that case, the circuit would
be a simple harmonic oscillator that you studied in your physics class. Finally it is common to
refer to the quality factor or Q-factor of a 2nd order circuit which is defined as
 𝜔𝑜
𝑄= .
2𝛼

The Q-factor is a quantitative measure of how damped a 2nd order circuit is. Note that the case of
𝜔𝑜 = 𝛼 will lead to repeated roots of the characteristic equation and a value of 𝑄 = 1/2. Thus,
𝑄 = 1/2 is the dividing line between underdamped and overdamped. For 𝑄 > 1/2, the roots are
complex and the circuit is underdamped, while for 𝑄 < 1/2, the roots are real and the circuit is
overdamped. Plots of typical output voltages for the underdamped and overdamped cases are
shown in Figure 7.2. For an underdamped system, the real roots will cause the voltage response
to have an exponential form, while in an underdamped system, the complex roots will produce a
decaying sinusoidal response.

Over damped

Under damped

Figure 7.2 – Responses of 2nd order systems.

The textbook provides values for 𝛼, 𝜔𝑜 , 𝜔𝑑 for the case of simple series and parallel RLC circuits,
but the formulation above allows us to compute these quantities for more complicated 2nd order
circuits like our Sallen-Key circuit. Table 7.1 summarizes these results.
 𝛼 𝜔𝑜 𝜔𝑑 𝑄
Series RLC 𝑅
1 1 𝑅 2 𝐿
2𝐿 √ √ −( ) √ 2
𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶 2𝐿 𝑅 𝐶

Parallel RLC 1
1 1 1 2 𝑅2𝐶
2𝑅𝐶 √ √ −( ) √
𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶 2𝑅𝐶 𝐿

Sallen-Key 1 2
,⁡ 1 1 1 𝐶1 𝑅𝑒𝑞
2𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 √ √ −( ) √
𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑅2 𝐶2 2𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑅𝑒𝑞
𝑅1 𝑅2
=
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Table 7.1 – Parameters for Various 2nd Order Circuits.
Prelab

A. Design a Sallen-Key circuit as shown in Figure 7.1. Choose component values so that the
circuit produces a critically damped response (𝑄 = 1/2) and a resonant radian frequency
of 𝜔𝑜 = 2000𝜋⁡rad/sec (𝑓𝑜 = 1kHz). Be sure to choose component values that are
available to you in your lab kit. You will not be able to exactly achieve the design goals
with the restrictions of the component values, but you should try to get as close as possible
with what you have. Repeat your design for each of the following cases:
a. 𝑄 = 0.25 (slightly over damped)
b. 𝑄 = 0.1 (over damped)
c. 𝑄 = 1 (slightly under damped)
d. 𝑄 = 2.5 (under damped).
Provide a table with your component values for each of the five cases. Save a copy for
yourself as you will need it in the lab this week.
B. Using a 100Hz square wave with 2 Volts (peak-to-peak) as your input source, run SPICE
simulations for each case calculated in part A. Print one copy of the schematic and print
a graph of the transient response for each case in part A to submit with your prelab.
Be sure to label your graphs.
Procedure

Parts and Equipment needed:

Several resistors
Several (non-polarized) capacitors
1—741 OPAMP
Power Supply (+/- 5V)
Function Generator
Oscilloscope

Task 1 – Transient Response of 2nd Order Circuit

A. Build the Sallen-Key circuit in Figure 7.1. Use the component values from your prelab
that produced a critically damped response (𝑄 = 1/2). Use a 100Hz square wave with 2
Volts (peak-to-peak) as your input. You can use the function generator on your AD2 to
provide the square wave voltage source. Display the input on CH1 and the output on CH2
of the oscilloscope. Save the waveforms for your lab report. Be sure to set the triggering
to “edge” on your scope and adjust the scales on the vertical and horizontal axes so that the
waveforms are plainly visible on the scope display.

Note: Your AD2 can simultaneously play the role of the power supply (for the op amp),
function generator (to provide the input voltage), and the scope (to view the input and
output voltages).

Repeat part A for the other cases you worked out in the prelab, namely, 𝑄 = 0.25 (slightly
over damped), 𝑄 = 0.1 (over damped), 𝑄 = 1 (slightly under damped), and 𝑄 = 2.5
(under damped). Be sure to save the waveforms for your lab report.
 Before you leave the lab…

Bring your circuit into the lab to show to your TA. The TA will also show you how to use
the bench function generator. You should also be prepared to show the TA that you know
how to use the scope in the lab.

Lab Report Requirements

1. Title Page
2. Procedure – Summarize in your own words what you have done.
3. Data and Results – For each of the five cases, compare the transient responses found in
each of the following manners:
a. Theoretical – solve the appropriate differential equation with the appropriate initial
conditions (show your calculations),
b. Simulations – Provide the results from your SPICE simulations in the prelab,
c. Measured – Provide measured results from the lab.

Make sure to point out any significant differences you observed and try to explain the most
likely causes of those differences.

4. Discussion – Any changes you could make to the procedure to make your results come out
better if you had to do it all over again.