Grammar

1. Articles

Articles are a kind of adjective, they show how particular or how general a noun is.

There are three kinds of article: the, a/an, and having no article, zero article.

2. A/An - Indefinite Article

A is used for indefinite things. For example:

- I have a book. I don't have a specific book, just any book in general.
- She lives in a house. Again, the house is just a general house, not a particular house.

A is also used only for singular countable nouns. For example:

- A book, a chair, a person, a building, etc.

An has the same meanng as a.

A is used in front of words starting with a consonant sound, such as b, c, d, g, p.
An is used in front of words that start with a vowel sound such as a, e, i, o, or u. For example:

- a bear, a fox, a newspaper.

- an apple, an egg, an umbrella.

An can also be used before words starting with "h".

Sometimes this is optional, for example: a hotel, or "an hotel". Here the "h" sound in hotel is pronounced.
Occasionally this is not optional, for example: an honor, not a honor. The "h" sound in honor is not
pronounced, so this word actually starts with the vowel sound "o". As a result, we need to use an.

2. The - Definite Article

The is used for particular, definite things. For example:

The is used for something already mentioned.particular, definite thing. For example:

The is used for a particular, definite thing. For example:

3. Zero Article

Zero article is generally for when something is seen as neither definite nor indefinite, it simply exists.

Zero article is used in front of plural countable nouns. For example:

I like eggs. I like an eggs.
Flowers are beautiful. A flowers are beautiful.

Zero article is used in front of singular uncountable nouns. For example:

I like milk. I like a milk.
Soccer is fun. The soccer is fun.

Zero article is used in front of proper nouns. For example:

My name is Jeremy. My name is a Jeremy.
I live in London. I live in a London.
Grammar

1. Plural Nouns

-s ending - Plurals are generally made by adding -s to the noun. For example:
Cat - cats, tree - trees, building - buildings.

There are a number of exceptions to this rule, here are some of the most common ones.

-es ending: Nouns ending with -o, -s, -x, -z, -ch, and -sh usually add -es to the noun. For example:
tomatoes, dresses, foxes, quizzes, watches, stashes.

- ies ending: Nouns ending with a consonant + -y usually replace the -y with -ies. For example:
country - countries, party - parties.

- ves ending: Some nouns ending in -f replace the -f with -ves. For example:
wife - wives, knife - knives, elf - elves.

Grammar

1. Demonstratives - this, that, these, those.

This/that/these/those show the relative distance between the speaker and a noun.

This refers to something near to the speaker, that to something further away. These is the plural of this,
and those is the plural of that.

Sometimes demonstratives are pronouns, for example:

- "This is my Mom." Mom is near to the speaker
- "These are my books." The books are near the speaker.
- "I don't like that." He doesn't like something that is farther away.

Sometimes demonstratives can also be adjectives, for example:

- That man is a doctor.
- I like those jackets.
- I don't like that movie.
Grammar

1. Quantifiers - Some / Any

Quantifiers are words that show how much there is of something - they show quantity. Numbers for
example are also quantifiers.

Some

Some is used to show an indefinite quantity, the exact number is not important. It is used in affirmative
statements, for example:
- I have some books.
- She wants some apples.

Some is also in questions, but only when you think the answer wil be "Yes". For example:
- Do you have some paper? (I hope the answer is "Yes")
- Would you like some french fries? ( I expect the anwer is "Yes")

Any

Any is used in negative statements. For example:

- I don't have any money.
- There aren't any taxis near here.

Any is also generally used in questions, especially when we expect the answer to be "No". for example:
- Do you have any paper? (I expect the answer will probably be "No")
- Is there any time to go to the doctor's? ( I think there probably isn't time).

This can however look and sound awkward, so you can sometimes just use ' instead. For example with
names:
Thomas's book, Tess's house can also be Thomas' book, Tess' house.

Some and any are often used like articles for plural nouns. A/an is used for singular countable nouns, and
some/any can be used for plural noun, countable or uncountable. For example:
I have a newspaper, some newspapers, and some money.
"A newspaper" is a singular countable noun so uses a, "newspapers" is a plural countable nouns so
uses some, and money is an uncountable noun so also uses some.

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Grammar

1. Quantifiers - Much / Many / A Lot of

Quantifiers are words that show how much there is of something - they show quantity. Much, many, and a
lot of indicate a large quantity of something, for example "I have a lot of milk" means I have a large
quantity of milk.
Much

Much is used with uncountable nouns, and is generally used in negative statements and questions. It's
uncommon to use much in positive statements. For example:
- I don't have much money.
- Do you have much time?
- "I have much time." This sounds unusual.

Many

Many is used with plural countable nouns, and is often used in negative statements and questions. It is
also used in positive statements however. For example:
- I don't have many apples.
- Do you have many friends?
- Many people come here in summer.

Much and many can be used in affirmative statements, but give a more formal meaning. For example:
- He has many good friends from Harvard University.

Much and many often appear in short answers. For example:

- Do you see your family much?
- No, not much.

A lot of

A lot of is used with uncountable and countable nouns, and is generally used for affirmative statements.
For example:
- I have a lot of friends.
- I have a lot of time.

A lot of is also used in questions, especially when you expect a positive response. Although it is often said
that much and many are used for questions, we usually use them for questions which expect a negative
response. For example:
- Do you want a lot of pizza?
I expect you want to eat a lot.
- Do you want much pizza?
This sounds unusual, as though I expect you don't want to eat much.

Lots of can be used in the same way as a lot of, often in informal speech. For example:
- I have lots of time.
- I have a lot of time.

How much / many?

How much is used to ask about the price of something. For example:
- How much is it?
- How much is that dog in the window?

How much and How many are used to ask about quantity. For example:
- How much money do you have?
- How many apples does he have?

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Grammar

1. Quantifiers - Few / Little / A Few / A Little

These quantifiers are used to show a small quantity of something, for example "I have a few books"
means I have a small quantity of books.

A Few

A few is used with countable nouns to show a small quantity. It is used in affirmative statements, but not
negatives. We generally use any or questions. For example:
- I have a few books.
- I don't have a few books
This is incorrect.
- I don't have any books
This is correct.
- Do you have a few books?
Sometimes this is possibe, but generally speaking we use any for questions, for example "Do you have any
books?"

Few

There is an important difference between a few and few. Few without a is used to mean we don't have
enough of something. For example:
- She has few apples in the refridgerator. (She doesn't have enough apples).
- She has a few apples in the refridgerator. (She has a small quantity of apples)

Put another way, "a few" means "a small quantity", but "few" means "not a big quantity" For example:
- A few friends came to my party. This is a positive idea, I'm happy a few people came./
- Few friends came to my party. This is a negative idea, I'm not happy because not many people came.
Notice how "a few" focuses on how many people did come, but "few" focuses on how many didn't come.

In sum, A few means a small quantity - few means not a big quantity

A Little

A little is used with uncountable nouns to show a small quantity. Again, it is generally used in affirmative
statements, not negatives or questions. For example:
- I have a little orange juice.
Negatives and Questions use "any" as usual.
- I don't have a little orange juice.
This is incorrect.
- I don't have any orange juice.
This is correct
- Do you have a little orange juice?
Again, we generally use any for questions, for example "Do you have any orange juice?"

Little

As with few, there is also the same difference between a little and little. Little without a is used to mean
we don't have enough of something. For example:
- She has little for breakfast. (She doesn't eat enough for breakfast).
- She has a little for breakfast. (She has a small quantity of food for breakfast).
Grammar

1. Possessives

Possessives show who or what something belongs to - they show possession.

Most nouns can be made possessive simply by adding 's. For example:
- The restaurant's food is very good.
- David Beckham's right foot is excellent.
- You can eat an apple's skin.

If the noun is plural and ends in "s", you add just '. For example:

girls is plural and ends in "s" so:'

- The girls' books are interesting. (The girls's books are interesting)
children is plural but doesn't end in "s" so we just add 's as normal:
- The children's boks are interesting.
boss ends in "s" but is not plural, so again just add 's.
- The boss's office is very big.

This can however look and sound awkward, so you can sometimes just use ' instead. For example with
names:
Thomas's book, Tess's house can also be Thomas' book, Tess' house.

The basic rule is; if the noun is plural and ends in "s" add ' - otherwise just add 's.

2. Possessive Adjectives

Here are the possessive adjectives with example sentences. Notice that possessive adjectives come before
the noun.

Possessive Adjective Uncountable

My This is my book
Your (singular) Your car looks great.
Her Her watch is expensive.
His His house is on Chamber Street.
Our Our dog is cute.
Your (plural) Your friends are nice.
Their This is their ball.
Its The cat likes its food.

3. Possessive Pronouns

Here are the possessive pronouns with example sentences. Notice they never come before nouns.

Possessive Pronoun Uncountable

My This book is mine.
Your (singular) That car is yours.
Her Theexpensive watch is hers.
His The house on Chamber Street is his.
Our The cute dog is ours.
Your (plural) Those friends are yours.
Their This ball is theirs.
Its --

There is no possessive pronoun for its, so you cannot say "The book is its". Also possessive pronouns often
come at the end of sentences and are usually stressed. "This is my book" can have a fairly factual
meaning, but "This book is mine" stresses more strongly whose book it is.

Now try and put it all into practice!

Grammar

1. Can

Can is a kind of auixiliary verb called a modal verb. Modal verbs express a particular character or mood of
a verb.

Ability

Can is often used to show ability. For example: "We can speak English", or "He can sing well."

Here are the Simple Present forms of can for ability.

Statements Questions

I can play the piano. Can you play the piano?

She can drive a car. Can she drive a car?

Negatives

I cannot play the piano.

She cannot drive a car.

Contractions

Cannot and can't are the same: eg.

- I cannot cook well.
- I can't cook well.
Can't is much more common in spoken English.

Permission

Can is also used to show permission. For example: "You can go home after class". Here are the Simple
Present forms of can for permission.

Statements Questions

You can meet her tommorrow. - (You have Can we go to the movies? - (Please give us
permission to meet her). permission to watch a movie).

Negatives

She can't come to our house. - (She doesn't have

permisson to visit us).

This Unit is relatively straightforward, so on to the exercises!