Topic: Quantifiers

Quantifiers are words used before a noun to indicate its amount or quantity.

The following can used before a noun:

Some/any much/many each/every both fewer/less several all/no enough
With count nouns only With uncount nouns only With both count and uncount nouns
(not) many cigarettes (not) much luck Some nomey
A few cars A little cheese Some eggs
Very few trees Very little experience (not) any water
Fewer books Less time (not) any friends
Several answers More/most rice
More/most people
All/no work
All/no children
Enough food
Enough apples

With singular count nouns only With plural nouns only

Each boy Both parents
Every time

Most of the quantifiers can be used without a noun. No, all, every and each cannot.
Have you got any money? Not/ alittle/enough.
Are there any eggs? A few/not many.
Have some more wine. I don´t want any.
Did Ann and Sam go? Both
Most of the quantifiers can be used with of+the /my/ those,etc.+noun. No and every
cannot.
They took all of my money. Take a few of these tablets.
Very few of my friends smoke. Not much of the food was left.

For no and every, we use none and every one and all. In formal, written English, none
is followed by a singular form of the verb.
None of the audience was listening All of the hotels were booked.
None of the guests has arrived yet.

In formal, Writtrn English, none is followed by a singular form of verb, but in informal
English a plural is possivble.
None of the guests has arrived yet. None of my friends smoke.
Note When we use none with a plural noun or pronun, the verb can be singular or
plural.Grammatically, it should be singular but people often use the plural when they speak.

None of my friends are coming. None of my friends is coming.

 Topic: Some, any and no its compounds
The basic rule is that ´some´ and ´´its compounds´´ are used in affirmative sentences
and ´´Any´´ and ´´its compounds´´ in negative and questions.
I need some help I need somebody to help me
I don´t need any shopping is there any sugar left?
´´Some´´ and ´´its compounds ´´are used in requests or invitations, or when we expect
the answer´´ yes´´.
Have you got some money you could lend me? Would you like something to eat?

´´Any´´ and ´´its compounds´´ are uesd in affirmative sentences that have a negative
meaning. He never has any money You made hardly any mistakes.
Nobody, no one, nowhere, nothing
These are more emphatic forms. They are used at the beginning of sentences.
I saw nobody all weekend. I No one was saved.
´ve eaten nothing all day. Nobody understand me

Much, many, a lot of, lots of, a great deal of, a large number of and
plenty of
Much and many are usually used in questions and In affirmative sentences these forms are found.
negative. Spoken/informal
How musch does it cost? There´ll be pleny of food/people.(uncount and count)
How many people came to the party? We´ve got lots of time/friends.(uncount and count)
I don´t have much money. I lost a lot of my furniture/things.(uncount and count)
You don´t see snakes in England. Written/more formal
We find much and many in affirmativ sentences A geat deal of money was lost last week.( uncount)
after so, as, and too. A large number of students hate math.(count)
She hasn´t got as many friends as I have. These forms are found without nouns.
You make too many mistakes.
Have you got enough socks? ´Lots`.
He´s so much money.
How many people were there? ´A lot`.

(A) Little, (a) few, fewer and less

A little and a fw express a small amount or number in Fewer is the comparative of few, less is the
a positive way.Although there is only a little,it is comparative of little.
probably enough. Fewer people go to church these days.(count)
Can you lend me a little sugar? I spend less and less time doing what I want
A few friens are coming round tonight. to. ( uncount)
Little and few express a small amount in a
negative way. There is no enough.
Very few people passed the exam.
There´s very little milk left.
 All
We don´t usually use all to mean everybody/everyone/everything, but if all is followed
by a relative clause it can mean everything.
Everybody had a good time. All (that) I own is yours
Everything was ruins in the fire. I spend all I earn.
This structure can have a negative meaning, expressing ideas such as nothing more or
only this. All I want is a place to sleep. All I had was a couple of beers.
Before a noun with a determiner both all and all of are possible.
You eat all (of) the time All (of) my friends are coming tonight

Before a noun no determiner, we use all of. All people are born equal
With personal pronouns, we use all of. All of you passed.Well done!

Topic: Introducing Like, Introduction like

Like can be a verb or preposition. Like as verb can be followed by ind or to, sometime
with a change in meaning.

To talk about enjoying activities in general, we use like...ing ( especially in Brit) or like+
infinitive.

We can use like+ infinitive to talk about choices and habits.

I like going out at weekend ( General enjoyment).
I like to sit in hot bath and read ( habits and preferences).
Like as verb has a person as the subject and as preposition an objective after it.
I like modern art. I don´t like the way he look at me
He´s nothing like his father. Like father like son

What...like?
What+to be+ like.
What´s your teacher like? She´s very patient.
What are your parents like? They are very kind.

What... like? is used to ask about things that don´t change for example people´s
character and appearance and also something. What´s your brother like?

Like in question is a preposition, not verb and another way can be a verb.
What´s Jim like? He´s intelligent.
What does Jim like? He likes playing tennis.

Note: We don´t use like in the answer.

She´s patient. Not She´s like patient.
How is your mother like?(ask about health, it doesn´t ask for description)
How is your mother like? She´s very well. Thank you.
 Topic: Present Perfect Continuous
It’s been raining. (= It has been…)

Have/Has been + -ing is the present perfect continuous:

We use the present perfect continuous to express an activity which began in the past
and continues to the present.
We´ve been waiting here for hours. It´s been raining for days.
We use the present perfect continuous to refer to an activity with result in the present.
I´m hot ´cause I´ve been running. I haven´t got any money ´cause I´ve been shopping.

Note: Sometimes there is little or no difference between the present perfect

continuous and present perfect in the meaning.
How long have you been working here? How long have you worked here?

Topic: Present perfect continuous and simple

Compare these two situations:
I’ve been painting my bedroom. I’ve painted my bedroom.

There is paint on Kate’s clothes. She has The bedroom was green. Now it is yellow. She
been painting her bedroom. has painted her bedroom.

Has been painting is the present perfect Has painted is the present perfect simple.
continuous.
Here, the important thing is that something
We are thinking of the activity. It does has been finished. ‘She has painted’ is a completed
not matter whether it has been finished or not. In action. We are thinking about the result of the activity
this example, the activity (painting the bedroom) (the painted bedroom), not the activity itself.
has not been finished.
Compare these examples:
 My hands are very dirty. I’ve been  My bike is OK again now. I’ve repaired
repairing my bike. it. (= I’ve finished repairing it)
 Joe has been eating too much recently.  Somebody has eaten all the chocolates.
He should eat less. The box is empty.
 It’s nice to see you again. What have you  Where’s the book I gave you?
been doing since we last met?  What have you done with it?
 Where have you been?  Have you ever played tennis?
 Have you been playing tennis?

We use the continuous to say how long (for We use the simple to say how much,
something that is still happening): how many or how many times (for completed
actions):
 How long have you been reading that book?
 Amy is writing emails. She’s been writing emails  How many pages of that book have you read?
all morning.  Amy has sent lots of emails this morning.
 They’ve been playing tennis since 2 o’clock.  They’ve played tennis three times this week.
 I’m learning Arabic, but I haven’t been learning it  I’m learning Arabic, but I haven’t learnt very
very long. much yet.
 Topic: The passive voice
This house was built in 1981. ( ‘This house was built’ is passive)
Compare active and passive:
Somebody built this house object in 1981. (active)
This house subject was built in 1981. (passive)

When we use an active verb, we say what the subject does:

My grandfather was a builder. He built this house in 1981. It’s a big company. It employs two hundred people.

When we use a passive verb, we say what happens to the subject:

‘How old is this house?’ ‘It was built in 1981.’ Two hundred people are employed by the company.

When we use the passive, who or what causes the action is oft en unknown or
unimportant:
A lot of money was stolen in the robbery. (somebody stole it, but we don’t know who).
Is this room cleaned every day? (does somebody clean it? – it’s not important who).
If we want to say who does or what causes the action, we use by:
This house was built by my grandfather. Two hundred people are employed by the company.

The passive is be (is/was etc.) + past participle (done/cleaned/seen etc.):

(be) done (be) cleaned (be) damaged (be) built (be) seen etc.

The past participle oft en ends in -ed (cleaned/damaged etc.), but many important
verbs are irregular (built/done/stolen etc.).

A table of Acitve tense and their Passive equivalents

Tense/ verb form Active voice Passive voice

Simple present Keeps Is kept
Present continuous Is keeping Is being kept
Simple past Kept was kept
Past continuous Was keeping Was being kept
Present perfect Has kept Has being kept
Past perfect Had kept Had being kept
Condional Would keep Would be kept
Perfect conditional Would have kept Woulf have been kept
Present infinitive To keep To be kept
Perfect infinitive To have keep To have been kept
Present participle/gerund Keeping Being kept
Perfect participle Having kept Having been kept
Future Will keep Will be kept
Note: some verbs, for example give, send, show, have two objects, a person and thing. In
the passive we often make the person the subect, not the thing.
 Topic: Question tags
A Question tag a stament into a question:

We usally use a Question tag when we are fairly sure of the answer.It is direct than an
ordinary question.

We make Question tags like this:

Normally we use a negative question tag … and a positive question tag after a
after a positive sentence: negative sentence:
positive sentence+ negative tag negative sentence+ possive tag

Kate will be here soon, No, she won´t? Kate won’t be late, Will she?
There was a lot of traffic, Wasn´t there? They don’t like us, Do we?
Joe should pass the exam, Woulndn´t he? You haven’t eaten yet, Have you?

Notice the meaning of Yes and no in answer to a negative sentence:

‘You’re not going out this morning, are you? ‘Yes.’ (= Yes, I am going out
‘No.’ (= No, I am not going out)

With the verb to be , we form the tag with the verb and the subject.
It isn´t raining, is it? She is your sister, isn´t she?
Note: with Am the negative is aren´t I?
When a verb has an auxiliary, we form the tag from the auxiliary and subject.
You can swim, can´t you? She won´t be in, Will she?

When the verb hasn´t got any auxiliary, we form the tag from the auxiliary that, we
would normally use for making qustions in that tense.

They arrived yesterday, didn´t they? You like ice-cream, don´t you?

When the subject of the statement is a nouns, we replace it with a pronoun in the tag.
Ana works in an Office, doesn´t she? Teresa and Lucia are twins, aren´t they?

Topic: Conditional Mode

Zero conditional
Form: if/when+Present simple,+Present simple

Jenny never says thank you if you do something for her.

If/when you do something for her, jenny never says thank you.

Zero conditional sentences refer to all time, not just the present or future.They express a
stuaction that is always true.If means when or whenever.
If I promise to do something, I do. When a friend gets in touch with me, I always reply.
 First conditional
Form: If+ Present+Will

If you pass your, exams I´ll buy you a car.

I´ll help you if I have time.

First conditional sentences are based on fact in real time. They express possible
condition and its probable result in the present or future.
If I´ve something to say, I´ll text back. If she likes it, I´ll tell her it looks good.

Second conditional
Form: If+Past simple+Would

Second conditional sentences are not based on fact. They express a situation which is
contrary to reality in the present and future. This unreality is shown by a tense shift from
present to past. They express a hypothetical conditional and its probable result.