Physics For Secondary Schools

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
LIBRARY
OF THE
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
Received JAN.11.1.910.
Accessions No . ..tt.r/...^..... Book No.../....
Iff*
PHYSICS
FOR
SECONDARY SCHOOLS
BY
CHARLES F. ADAMS, A.M.

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF PHYSIC8,
DETROIT CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL
NEW YORK .-.. CINCINNATI : CHICAGO

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
.A
niYS-IOB DEFT,
COPYRIGHT, 1908, BY
CHARLES F. ADAMS.
ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL, LONDON.
PHY61C8.
W. P. I
PREFACE
PHYSICS deals with phenomena which every child
in
is interested
; it men and
treats of subjects with which all
women have more or less to do in practical life
and its ;
successful study requires clear thinking and accurate ex-
pression. The study of physics should, therefore, be

interesting and practical, and should afford the best
it
of mental discipline. ^The subject should be so presented

that the pupil's interest is maintained not merely because
he entertained by a wonder-working magician, but be-
is
cause he is conscious of successfully exerting his mental

powers in mastering what he desires to know.
This book is the outgrowth of many years of experience
in teaching physics to both boys and girls. I have made
a constant study of the difficulties which beset young
pupils in their attempts to understand the subject. It
has been my chief aim to write a teachable book. I have
endeavored especially to present the subject with such
simplicity and clearness of expression and fullness of
illustration that the average secondary school pupil will
comprehend it.
readily
A large number of problems have been included in the
text for the purpose of giving the teacher a latitude of
choice. They have been selected with great care, espe-
cially with a view to emphasizing and illustrating the
principles involved, the numbers being so chosen that the
actual arithmetical work shall be easy.
I believe that the material for
laboratory_jvork should
be contained in a separate__book. Such material overloads
673276
4 PREFACE
a text-book; and, moreover, the teacher should have greater
range and freedom in the prosecution of that work than

would be possible if he were limited to such material as
could be presented in a book of this character.
The text can be mastered by ordinary classes in a school
year, and it meets the requirements of the College En-
trance Examination Board and the New York State
Syllabus.
wish here to acknowledge my deep obligations to those
I
who have read the proof or the manuscript for their valua-
ble criticisms and suggestions, especially to Dr. Karl E.
Guthe, of the State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa ;
to Dr. Paul R. Heyl, of the Central High School of Phila-
delphia, Pennsylvania to Mr. C. E. Spicer, of the Joliet

;
Township High to Mr. Herbert C.

School, Joliet, Illinois ;
Wood, of the East High School, Cleveland, Ohio and ;
to Mr. C. H. Slater, of the William McKinley High
School, St. Louis, Missouri. I assume all responsibility,
however, for any errors that may remain in the text.

CONTENTS
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
v. Refraction of light 227
vi.
vn. Color ..........
Deviation and dispersion 235
244
vin. Kinds of spectra
ix. Interference and diffraction .....
....
249
255
x. Images formed by plane mirrors
xi. Images formed by spherical mirrors
xu. Lenses and images formed by lenses
....
....
259
266
274
xin. Optical instruments 282
IV. HEAT 292

Temperature and thermometers
i.
ii. Expansion by heat

in. Heat and energy
.......
.......
292
297
806
iv. The steam engine 310
v. Measurement of heat . . . . . . .816
vi. Transmission of heat 822
vn. Change of state 831
V. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 349

PART I. ELECTROSTATICS 349
i. Electrical charges 349
in.
iv.
ii. Induced charges .
Electrical distribution
Potential
......
. . , . . . . 354
359
361
v. Electrical condensers 365
^PART II. MAGNETISM 369

i. Magnets 369
ii. Terrestrial magnetism 373
in. Magnetic induction 375
iv. Magnetic field 377
PART. III. CURRENT ELECTRICITY 380
ii.
i. The voltaic cell
Magnetic effects of the current
in. Galvanometers
....
.......
380
391
406
iv. Resistance 410
v. Ohm's law 412
vi. Current induction
vn. The dynamo and electric motor
vin. Currents induced by currents
.
....
.....
424
430
437
ix. Telephone 446
x. Chemical effects of the electric current . . . 448
xi. Energy of the current heat effects . . . 456
xu. Rontgenrays wireless telegraphy . . .465
APPENDIX 475
INDEX 481
PHYSICS FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS
INTRODUCTION
1. Physics is the science of matter and energy. Each
of these is as important as the other. We know nothing
of matter except through the agency of energy and noth-
ing of energy except through the agency of matter.
Physics is one of the exact sciences. In its investiga-
tions constant use is made of mathematics, and the most
refined and accurate instruments known to man are often
required. It may be said to be a science of measurements.
2. Unit of measure. Every measurement is a compari-
son. The thing with which the measured quantity is
compared is the unit of measure. If you measure the
length of the table by your pencil, you may say the table
is ten pencils long. You have compared the length of
the table with that of the pencil, and the length of the
pencil is the unit of measure. A
unit is the first essential
in all measurements. The magnitude of any quantity is
the ratio of that quantity to the unit.

A unit must always be of the same nature as the thing
measured. A unit with which length is measured must
possess length. We
must use a volume to measure a
volume, a force to measure a force, an area to measure an
area. If we wish to measure heat, we must select a
certain definite quantity of heat for a unit with which
to measure other quantities of heat. Generally, but not
always, a name is given to the quantity selected for the
unit.
7
8 INTRODUCTION
Sometimes quantities are measured indirectly by meas-

uring some other quantity which is proportional to the first
quantity. For example, we may measure the strength of
a man by measuring; what he can do.
^ Standard kncLlegal units.
'Jfc
The selection of a unit
is wholly 4ina*bi^ra^y* matter. A man may
pick up a stick
aiiduseivin'mrasimfrg the length of a log; the length of
the stick becomes his unit of length for the time being.
He might keep the stick, give a name to its length, and
make others of equal length, persuading other people to
use them. Thus in time it might become an established
unit. When a unit has a fixed and definite value and is
used by many people, it becomes a standard unit. Units

sometimes become established by custom or use; but if a
law is enacted by a government adopting any unit, the
unit so adopted becomes a legal unit.
4. Systems of units. There are two systems of units
in use in the United States and Great Britain, the
English, and the French or metric. The English system

isused for general purposes, while the metric is used for
scientificpurposes in these countries. In other countries
the metric system is used almost exclusively for all
purposes. The great advantage of the metric system lies
in the fact that it is a decimal system and that the
various units bear simple relations to one another.
5. Fundamental and derived units. Units selected
and defined without reference to other units are termed
fundamental units. Those used in science are the units
of length, mass, and time.
Nearly all quantities with which physical science deals

may be expressed in terms of these fundamental units.
Thus the unit of area is a square, one unit in length, as
one square inch and the unit of volume may be a cube
;
whose edge is one unit in length, as the liter, which is a

INTRODUCTION 9
cube whose edge is 10 cm. long. Thus we see that the

unit of areaand the unit of volume may be derived from
the unit of length. Such units as may be defined and
expressed in terms of the fundamental units are called
derived units.
6. Absolute units. Whenever any quantity is ex-
pressed wholly terms
in of the units of length, mass, and
time, it is said to be expressed in absolute units. In all

scientific work the centimeter, the gram, and the second
are taken as the fundamental units ; and therefore all
lengths are reduced to centimeters, masses to grams,all
and time to seconds, to express a quantity in absolute

units. This system of measurement is often called the
C.G.S. (Centimeter-Gram-Second) system.
7. The unit of length. In the metric system the unit
of length is the meter. The meter is the distance between
two lines on a platinum-iridium bar (at 0C.) which is
kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Meas-
ures in France and called the International Prototype
is
Meter. It is an exact copy of the original meter in the

Palace of the Archives of the French government. There
is a similar bar in the Bureau of Standards at Wash-
ington, called the National Prototype Meter.

The centimeter, the 100th part of a meter, and the
millimeter, the 1000th part of a meter, are the subdivisions
of the meter usually used in physics.
The yard, the unit of length in the English system, is
legally defined in the United States as ôf a meter.

An inch is ^
of a meter and a meter is 39.37 inches.
The foot and the inch are to be considered as fractions of
the yard.
8. Definition of mass. Mass has been defined as the
quantity of matter in a body. This has been the accepted

definition of mass for many years, but it is not considered
10 INTRODUCTION
satisfactory chiefly because of the uncertainty existing

about the nature of matter. We do not know what
matter really is and cannot define it in any satisfactory
way. We shall, however, use for the present the old
definition of mass.
9. The unit of mass. The mass of a body is usually
determined by weighing it, that is, by comparing it with
certain standard masses or "weights." In the metric
system, the standard mass is the kilogram. It is a cylin-
der of platinum-iridium kept at the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures and called the International Proto-
type Kilogram. It is an exact equivalent of the original
kilogram of the Palace of the Archives of the French
government. A similar cylinder in the Bureau of Stand-
ards at Washington is called the National Prototype
Kilogram. The kilogram has the same weight as a cubic
decimeter or liter of water at its temperature of greatest
density, 4 C. It has therefore a certain relation to the
unit of length.
The gram, which is the thousandth part of the kilogram,
is the unit of mass in the 'me trie system.

The unit of mass in the English system is the avoirdu-
pois pound. The pound is a certain piece of metal kept
by the British government. The United States govern-
ment has 110 standard pound mass worthy of the name,
but defines the pound in terms of the kilogram. One
pound equals ^& of a kilogram or a kilogram equals
2.2046 Ib.
In 1875 most of the nations of the civilized world

agreed to
establish and maintain a scientific and permanent International
Bureau of Weights and Measures.
Standard meters and kilograms were prepared by this bureau with
the greatest possible After they had been compared with
accuracy.
those of the Palace of the Archives of France and with one another,
INTRODUCTION 11
one of each was selected for the international prototypes, and the
rest, callednational prototypes, were distributed by lot among the
several nations maintaining the bureau. Those of the United States
were received by President Harrison with considerable ceremony on
Jan. 2, 1890.
The second, the unit of time used in physics, is êiw ^
the mean solar day.

10. Weight. If a mass of anything is held in the
hand, a force is felt pulling it toward the earth. This
force tending to pull the mass to the earth is the weight
of the mass ; or, more accurately, the weight of a body is
the force that attracts the body to the earth.
For example, the weight of a pound mass is the pull
which the earth exerts upon it. The mass itself (the
matter in it) is called a pound, and the weight of the
mass (the pull of the earth) is also called a pound.
Likewise the weight of a kilogram mass is called a kilo-
gram, and the weight of a gram mass is called a gram.
Thus all the terms, kilogram, gram, pound, ounce, etc.,
have two meanings, each being the name for a mass and
the weight of that mass. This makes it difficult to dis-
tinguish between weight and mass. It is still more diffi-
cult because in ordinary language it is customary to use
the word weight in the same sense in which the word
mass is used in physics. Thus, an iron mass is called
an iron weight, and we always say a " set of weights "
when strictly speaking we should say a "set of masses."
Weight means a force, and mass means a quantity of
matter.
11. The weight of a body variable. The attraction of
the earth for bodies upon slightly at different
it differs
places, being least at the equator and increasing as the

poles are approached. If the kilogram mass of the Bu-
reau of Standards at Washington were taken to the equa-
12 INTRODUCTION
tor, itsweight there would be less than at Washington,

although its weight would be called a kilogram at both
places or wherever it might be. Hence the weight of
any mass is not a constant, but a variable quantity, de-
pending upon the place in which it happens to be.
were just strong enough to withstand a pull of 100 Ib.

If a wire
at Havana, would it withstand a pull of 100 Ib. at New York?
Why?
12. Units of weight. The weights of the units of

mass are taken as the units of weight and have the
same names. For example, the unit of weight in the
English system is the pound, not the mass of metal
called a pound, but the pull of the earth upon that
metal. Therefore, when we use the word pound or
gram, we may mean a mass or we may refer to a weight.
The beginner will find it helpful if for a time he will
say "pound mass" and "gram mass" when using such
words as pound and gram to signify mass and " pound ;
" " "

weight and gram weight when using them to express
weight or force.
13. Relation of weight to mass. Under the same con-
ditions weights of bodies are proportional to their masses.
This means that if one body weighs three times as much
as another at the same place, its mass is also three times
as great. It is because of this principle that masses can
be compared and measured by comparing their weights,
and upon this principle the practice of weighing things
rests. from the definition of the unit of weight
It follows
given above ( 11) and from the proportionality of mass

and weight, that the weight of a body and its mass are
expressed by the same number if the mass of a body
;
is 5 Ib., its weight is also 5 Ib.

14. The density of a substance is the number of unite
INTRODUCTION 13
of its mass per unit volume. For example, a cubic foot

of water weighs 62.4 Ib. or has a mass of 62.4 Ib. hence ;
its density is 62.4 Ib. per cubic foot. Its density may
also be stated in ounces per cubic inch, or in grams
per cubic centimeter, being 0.578 oz. per cubic inch, or

1 g. per cubic centimeter. Since the metric system is in
almost universal use in science, the density of a substance
is usually stated in grams per cubic centimeter, and it is to
be so taken unless stated to the contrary. Thus, when

the density of iron is given as 7.8, it is understood as
7.8 grams per cubic centimeter.
15. Relation between mass, volume, and density. If we
divide the number that represents the mass of a body in
grams by the number that represents its volume in cubic
centimeters, we obtain the number that represents the
mass in grams in which is by defini-
jpne cubic centimeter,
tion the density of thebody therefore, briefly the density
;
1
of a body equals its mass divided by its volume. Letting
m, v, and d represent respectively the mass, volume, and
density of a substance, this relation may be expressed
algebraically by the equation
d= , or m=v x d, or v = .
v d
16 .
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a sub-
stance to the density of a standard substance, water being
the standard for solids and liquids, and air for gases.
Thus when we say that the specific gravity of iron is 7.8,
we mean that it is 7.8 times as dense as water. In English
units the density of water is 62.4 Ib. per cubic foot; there-
fore the density of iron is (7.8 x62.4) 486.7 Ib. per cubic
foot. In C.G.S. units the density of water is 1; there-
1
The common use of brief expressions like this is justified by its con-
venience. The reader must keep constantly in mind the fact that terms
like density, r/iass, volume) etc., when used in equations, stand for numbers.
14 INTRODUCTION
fore the density of iron is (7.8 x 1) 7.8. Thus it is seen

that with C.G.S. units the specific gravity of a solid or
liquid and its density are expressed by the same number.
For this reason the term specific gravity is falling more
or less into disuse, density taking its place. The specific
gravity of a substance is the same with all systems, but
the density of a substance is expressed by different numbers
in different systems.
Problems
1. A piece of marble 2 ft. square and 5 ft.
long weighs 3370 Ib.
What is its density? Its specific gravity?
2. A mass of iron having a density of 486 Ib. per cu. ft. weighs 20
tons. What is its volume ?
'
3. A cube of copper 6 in. on a side weighs 69 Ib. What is its

density () in ounces per cubic inch, (6) pounds per cubic foot, and
(c) in grams per cubic centimeter?

4. A glass globe 18 cm. in diameter held 3.95 g. of air. What
was the density of the air ?
5. A cylinder 4 cm. deep and 6 cm. in inside diameter held 1538
g.
of mercury when exactly full. What is the density of mercury ?
6. A gallon of hydrogen weighs 0.339 g. What is its density ?
7. If 4.5 liters of carbon dioxide gas weigh 8.883 g., what is

itsdensity? What is its specific gravity, the density of air being
0.001293 ?
8. If coal gas has a specific gravity of 0.4, what is its density in
grams per cubic centimeter?
9. The density of hydrogen is 0.0000896. What is its specific
gravity ?
10. The density of gold is 19.3 What is
g. per cubic centimeter.
the weight of a cubic foot of it ?
(This problem should be solved with-
out reducing any metric units to
English units or English to metric
units.)
CHAPTER I
MECHANICS AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

I. MOTION AND FORCE
17. Mechanics treats of the two effects of force on mat-

ter: (1) change of motion, called acceleration, and (2)
change of size or shape, called strain.
Dynamics treats of the first, or the motive effect of force.
18. Motion is continuous change of position. Since the
position of a body cannot be given except with reference

to some other point or position, so change of position of
a body can be conceived only with reference to some
other body that is, all motion is relative.
;
For example,
an object on the deck of a moving ship may be at rest
relatively to the ship itself and to other bodies
in the
ship, while it is in motion relatively to the water or the

shore. A body on the earth may be at rest with refer-
ence to the earth's surface, while at the same time with

reference to the earth's axis or to the sun it is moving
through space at a very rapid rate.
19. Velocity is the rate of motion of a body. It is
measured by the number of units of distance passed over
divided by the number of units of time taken for the
journey, or v= -. For instance, if a train goes 90 mi. in 3

t
hr., it is said to travel at the rate of 30 mi. per hour; its
velocity 30 mi. per hour (-^-=30).

is Its velocity may
also be said to be 44 ft. per second
90 x 5280 =
44.
3 x 60 x 60
15
1C MECHANICS AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Uniform motion.
20. The motion of a body may be
uniform or variable. It is uniform when the body passes
over equal spaces in equal and consecutive units of time ;
it is variable when
the spaces traversed in equal intervals
of time are unequal. When the motion of a body is uni-
form, its is termed constant.
velocity
21.
Average and actual velocity. In the example given
above the train may be imagined to traverse the 90 mi.
with a constant velocity, or to vary its speed greatly, at
times going slowly, at times going very fast, and at times
standing still at stations. In either case, whether having
uniform or variable motion, its velocity is 30 mi. per hour.
In the first case, however, with uniform motion, 30 mi.
per hour is its actual velocity at each instant throughout
the three hours in the second case, 30 mi. per hour is its
;
average velocity for the whole time, while it is possible

that for no length of time during the three hours was its
velocity actually 30 mi. per hour.
The formula, v = -> applies to both cases, giving the

t
actual velocity when the body has uniform motion, and

the average velocity when the motion is variable.
Problems
1. A man walked 20 mi. in 4| hours. What was his velocity?
2. A body having uniform motion passed over 50 m. in 20 sec.

What was its
velocity in meters per second? In centimeters per
second?
3. How take a body having a velocity of 22
long will it ft. per
second to go a mile ?
4. Express a velocity of 60 mi. per hour in feet per second.
5.By means of the answer to the last problem reduce a velocity
of 30 mi. per hour to velocity in feet per second. Also reduce 20,
15, 12, 10, 90, and 40 mi. per hour to feet per second.
MOTION AND FORCE 17
6. What is the velocity in centimeters per second of a body that

moves over a space of 60 Km. in 3 hr. ?
7. Express a velocity of 5 cm. per second in kilometers per hour.
22. Newton's laws of motion. In his Principia (1687)

Sir Isaac Newton enunciated three laws of motion which
still stand as the fundamental laws of dynamics.
I. Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform
motion in a straight line except as it is
compelled to change
that state by some applied force.
II. Change of motion is proportional to the force applied

and takes place in the direction in which the force acts.
To every action there is always an equal, and oppo-

III.
sitereaction; or the mutual actions of any two bodies are
always equal and opposite in direction.
23. Inertia. The first law of motion is sometimes
called the law of inertia, which may be defined as the
inability of a body to change its own state of rest or
of motion.
It is impossible to prove this law perfectly by experi-
ment, because we know of no body that is free from the
action of a force ; but the heavenly bodies furnish the
best illustrations we have of the first law of motion.
The motion of the earth around the sun century after
century an example. There is no need of a force to

is
keep the earth moving, it continues to move because of

its inertia but the constant attraction of the sun is
;
necessary to keep it from moving in a straight line and

to make it travel in its orbit around the sun. We are
all more or less familiar with the fact that bodies do not
move themselves, or stop themselves, or change the di-
rection of their motion themselves. Force and time are
always required to overcome the resistance of a body to
a change of motion. It is because of its inertia that a
ADAMS'S PHTS. 2
18 MECHANICS AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER
body cannot be set in motion or stopped instantane-

ously ; because of its inertia also a body resists a change
of direction of its motion.
Illustrations of inertia are very common. The back-
ward movement of a passenger when a vehicle is started
suddenly, and his forward movement when it is stopped
suddenly, the breaking of a swiftly moving stick when
it strikes some solid object near its center, the removal
of snow from a shovel by suddenly arresting the motion

of the shovel, and the flying of mud from a carriage
wheel, are familiar illustrations of inertia.
Experiment. Let a heavy mass of iron be suspended as shown

in Figure 1. If a sudden downward jerk is given by the handle, the
string will be broken below the ball but if a steady
;
pull given the string above the ball will be broken.

is
In the first case, the inertia of the ball does not allow
it to move so as to break the upper string before
the lower string is broken but in the second case,
;
the force, being slowly increased, has time to over-

come this inertia and the upper one breaks because
it bears the weight of the ball in addition to the
force exerted by the hand.
24. Force. In the preceding pages we

have frequently had occasion to use the
word force, a term with which we are all
more or less familiar. We get our primi-
tive idea of forcefrom muscular exertion
FIG. i. Appara- or by
J having our muscular exertion opposed,
tus to illustrate TTT ,
inertia. When we see an inanimate body producing

an effect exactly like that produced by the
muscular exertion of an animal, we say the body is
exerting force. A force is said to be constant as long
as it acts with unvarying intensity.
The definition of force usually given in physics is
derived from Newton's first law of motion; namely,
MOTION AND FORCE 19
Force is any action that changes or tends to change the

motion of a body.
25. The third law of motion. In order that a body
may exert force it must meet with resistance, and the
force exerted is never greater than the resistance encoun-
tered. Thus, it is hardly possible to exert a great force
on a feather floating in the air, or upon a light, hollow
ball, such a body offers little resistance. A

because
swiftly moving body, such as a cannon ball, exerts no
force except as it encounters some object that offers re-
sistance.
Force is therefore an action occurring always between
two bodies or between two parts of one body, and the
action of one body is always exactly equal to the opposi-
tion or reaction of the other. Action and reaction are
equal and opposite.
Forces, then, always exist in pairs. Thus, to break a
string, stretch an elastic, or squeeze a lemon you must
exert two equal and opposite forces. Such a thing as a
single force acting alone is unknown. Usually, however,

we give our attention to only one of the forces, ignoring
the other.
26. Stress. A pair of forces that constitute an action
and reaction is called a stress. The two forces are two
parts of one stress. If the two forces act away from each
other, as in the breaking of a string, the stress is called a
tension; but if they act toward each other, as in crushing
anything, the stress is called a pressure.
27. Illustrations of the third law of motion are very

common. If
anything pressed by the finger, the finger
is
is pressed an
equal amount in the opposite direction. A
horse drawing a wagon is pulled backward by a force
exactly equal to that which he exerts forward, and if it
were not for the action and the reaction between him and
the ground, he could not move the wagon at all, any more
than a man could lift himself over the fence by his boot
straps.
A
revolving lawn sprinkler illustrates this law. As
the water flows from the side of the pipe, the pipe is
pushed backward with as much force as the water is
thrown forward.
II. ACCELERATED MOTION

28. Acceleration is a term used to denote the rate of
change of velocity, or, it is the change of velocity per unit
of time. It follows from this definition that acceleration
equals the total change of velocity divided by the time,
or = -,. denoting acceleration, v total change of velocity,

c
and t the time in which the change occurs. This defini-

tion applies to retarded motion as well as to increasing
velocity, but in that case the acceleration is considered

negative.
Problem illustrating acceleration. A train moving at first at 15

mi. per hour gained in speed so that at the end of 10 tnin. it was
going at the rate of 45 mi. per hour. What was the acceleration ?
SOLUTION. Since the velocity changed from 15 to 45 mi. per hour,
the total change was 45 minus 15, or 30 mi. per hour; and since this
change occurred in 10 min., the change in one minute was one tenth
of 30 mi. per hour, or 3 mi. per hour. That is, the train changed its
velocity 3 mi. per hour every minute; hence, by definition, its ac-
celeration was 3 mi. per hour per minute.
Let us also express the acceleration in feet per second.
15 mi. per hour = 22 ft. per second and 45 mi. per hour = 66 ft.
per second. The total change of velocity = 66 - 22 = 44 ft. per

second. 10 min. = 600 sec. Since the change of velocity of 44 ft.
per second occurred in 600 sec., the change of velocity in one second
was <^ of 44 ft. per second, which is 0.073 ft, per second. Hence,
its velocity changed 0.073 ft.
per second every second, or the accelera-
ACCELERATED MOTION 21
tion was 0.073 ft.per second per second. This is sometimes expressed
2
tli us, 0.073 ft. per second .
Ans. 3 mi. per hour per minute, or 0.073 ft. per second per second,
2
or 0.073 ft. per second .
It is to be observed that to express acceleration correctly time must

be expressed twice.
Problems
1. A body started from rest and in 15 sec. had a velocity of 600
cm. per second. What was the acceleration ?
Ans. 40 cm. per second 2 .
2. A body was moving with a velocity of 200 cm. per second and
15 sec. later its velocity was 800 cm. per second. What was its
acceleration ? Ans. 40 cm. per second 2 .
3. A body starts from rest and isgiven an acceleration of 500

cm. per second 2 . What is its velocity after 2 min.?
4. A street car 30 sec. after starting had a velocity of 15 mi. per
hour. What was its acceleration? Give the answer in miles per hour
per second and in feet per second per second.
5. An automobile had an acceleration of 4 mi. per hour per sec-
ond. What was its speed 6 sec. after starting?
6. A car moving at the rate of 12 mi. per hour was given a
negative acceleration by the brakes of mile per second 2 . How long
did it take to stop the car ?
7. A ship changed its velocity from 8 mi. per hour to 12 mi. per
hour in 15 min. AVhat was its acceleration ?

8. At 40 X. latitude falling bodies have an acceleration of about
980 cm. per second 2 . What velocity has a falling body at the end of
the fifth second of its fall ?
9. An automobile going at the rate of 10 mi. per hour was stopped

in 22 sec. What was the acceleration ? Ans. - f ft. per second 2 .
10. understand by the expression 20 ft. per second2 ?

What do you
20 ft. per second per minute ? 20 ft. per hour per minute ?
11. An acceleration of 22 ft. per second 2 is how much acceleration
per second per minute ?

12. How many times greater is the velocity of a freely falling
body at the end of the twelfth second of its fall than at the end of
the third second? Why?
13. When a body is thrown upward, its acceleration is 9.8 m.
per second
2 For how long a time will a body rise which starts
.
upward with a velocity of 4900 in. ?

14. A train having a speed of 60 Km. per hour was stopped by
the brakes in 2 min. What was its acceleration in centimeters per
second 2 ?
Uniformly accelerated motion.

29. It follows from the
first and second laws of motion that change of motion
will be uniform or constant when the force causing it is

constant. A constant force causes a constant acceleration;
that is, the change of velocity is the same in each unit of
time. When this is the case, the moving body is said to
have uniformly accelerated motion.
30. Formulas for uniformly accelerated motion. Since
by definition a is the change of velocity in one unit of
time, in t units of time the change of velocity will be
t x a or at. Therefore,
(1) v = at.
This is only another way of stating what has already been
stated in the paragraph on acceleration. Observe that
in this formula v does not represent velocity, but total
change of velocity. When, however, the initial velocity

of a body is zero, thatis, when it starts from rest, v also
represents final velocity ; because initial velocity plus

total change of velocity equals final velocity, or,
+ at = at = v.
When the initial velocity of a body is zero and its final
velocity is at, then its aver-

age velocity is
(0 + at) -f- 2 = I at.

This may be illustrated graphi-
cally by a triangle (Fig. 2). In

FIG. 2. Graphical illustration of moving from A toward B, the
average velocity. distance from the line AB to the
line ACa constantly increasing quantity at A it is zero and at B

is ;
it is EC. The average height

of the triangle is (0 + EC} = \EC.
Likewise the velocity of a body moving with uniformly accelerated
motion is a constantly increasing quantity; and if it is zero at first
and at at the end, its average velocity is \ (0 + at} = \ at.
The space 8 traversed by a body moving with uniformly

accelerated motion in a given time t equals its average
2
velocity multiplied by the time, or % at x t
J at .
Therefore,
(2) s = \ at
2
.
These two formulas, v = at and s = | at 2 are the funda- ,
mental formulas for uniformly accelerated motion. From

them, by eliminating t, a third may be derived. (The
student should perform the operation and derive the
formula.) 7 .2
(3) s= , orv = V2a*.

If
The distance traversed by a body during the fifth
second of its motion may be found by subtracting the
distance passed over in four seconds from that traversed
in five seconds and in general, the distance traversed in
;
any particular unit of time is found by subtracting the

distance passed over in t 1 units of time, from that
traversed in t units of time.
Let s' be the space traversed in any one unit of time.
Then s
f
= | at 2 - l a(t - I) 2 = J- at 2 - J a(t2 - 2 1 + 1.) =
i
a (t 2 - t
2
+ 2 t
-'!) = \ a(jl
t - 1). Hence
(4)
'
= Ja(2*-l)
Wehave then four important formulas for uniformly
accelerated motion :
(1) v = at,
(2) 8=at*
(^) 8 ~ ^~ ' or v = V2o,
\ / ^ N. ./ %
Falling bodies.
31. The force of gravity for com-
paratively small distances near the earth's surface is a
constant force, and hence the motion of a freely falling
body (the resistance of the air being neglected) is uni-
formly accelerated; and the same laws and formulas apply
to falling bodies as to any other case of uniformly acceler-
ated motion.
It is customary, however, to represent acceleration due
to the force of gravity by the letter g instead of by a,
and the formulas given in the last paragraph when applied
to falling bodies are stated as follows :
(1) v = gt,
(2) *=|<7^
(4) *' =
The value of g varies on the surface of the earth from
978 cm. or 32.09 ft. per second 2 at the equator to 983.2
cm. or 32.27 ft. per second 2 at the poles. At Washing-
2
ton, D.C., it is 980.1 cm. or 32.155 ft. per second . For
purposes of illustration and in problems in this book we
shall use the numbers 980 and 32 to express the value of g.
32. and of mass on falling bodies.
Influence of the air
It is to beobserved that the quantity mass, or m, does not
appear in any of the above formulas. This implies that
the mass of a body does not affect the rate at which it
falls, and that all bodies light or heavy fall at the same
rate. It is true that the earth attracts a two-pound mass
with twice as much force as it does a one-pound mass ;
but it must be remembered that the two-pound mass has

twice as much inertia to be overcome as the one-pound
mass.
That remarkable man, Galileo (1564-1642), who was
the first to investigate experimentally the laws of uni-
formly accelerated motion (1589-1591), proved that the

mass of a body does not affect its velocity in falling by
dropping a one-pound shot and a one-hundred-pound shot
together from the top of the celebrated leaning tower of
Pisa; both struck the ground at the same time. Every-
day experience, however, teaches us that a light body
such as a feather or a bit of paper will not fall under
ordinary conditions so rapidly as a stone or a bullet.
Experiment. A long glass tube (Fig. 3), sometimes called a

"
guinea and feather tube," closed at each end by a brass cap, is used
to show the effect of the resistance of the air and
the effect of mass on a falling body. One of the
caps has a stopcock by which the tube can be
attached to the air pump and the air exhausted
from it. The tube contains a coin or bullet and
a feather or bits of paper. If the tube is quickly
inverted before exhaustion of the air, the coin
falls much more rapidly than the feather; but
after the air has been taken from the tube, little
or no difference in the rapidity of the fall of the
different bodies can be observed.
33. Experiments in uniformly acceler-

ated A freely falling body
motion.
moves too rapidly to be easily experi-
mented upon, hence various devices have
been used to reduce the rate of accelera-
tion without changing the character of
~ ,.? ,
.
,
FIG. 3. Guinea and
the motion. Galileo s device consisted f ea ther tube,
of a marble on a smooth inclined plank.
34. The Atwood machine is an apparatus much used
to illustrate the laws of uniformly accelerated motion.
It consists of a pulley A (Fig. 4) supported on the top
of a pillar B about 7 ft. tall. The pulley, which is
about 6 in. in diameter and very light, is made to run
with as little friction as possible. A light silk cord

passes over its grooved end
rim, to each of which equal
masses K
and L are attached. These
masses exactly balance each other and
no motion is produced bat when a ;
small additional weight R, called a

rider, is placed upon the mass K, it
begins to fall slowly.
Suppose the masses and L to be K

300 g. each and the mass of the rider
to be 10 g. then there are 610 g.
;
(300 + 300 -h 10 = 610) whose inertia

is to be overcome, but there is only the
weight of the rider to do it that is, a ;
10 g. weight to move a 610 g. mass.

Its motion will be uniformly accelerated,
but only ^T (somewhat less because of
friction and the inertia of the pulley)
as great as that of a freely falling body.
The motion is uniformly accelerated
because the force causing it is constant.
A
rod O graduated in centimeters
serves to measure the distances trav-
ersed by the mass K. Near the top
of this rod is a hinged shelf to
support the mass K before begins to

it
fall. The shelf D or the ring shelf E

may be placed at any desired position
on the rod C. A pendulum beating
seconds is connected electrically with
the shelf and arranged to drop the
Fro. 4. Atwood ma- shelf at its first tick.
place is found A
to illustrate
chine,
theiawsofuniformly
i ., ,1
b ^ repeatedi trials for the i-if
shelf
/
where
i
D
-r* ^
accelerated motion, the mass SI will strike it exactly at the

next tick of the pendulum ; then the shelf D is placed

where the mass K will strike it at theend of two seconds,
three seconds, etc., the distances being measured on the
graduated rod.
Whatever the distance traversed in the first second,
the mass will fall four times as far in two seconds, nine
times as far in three seconds, sixteen times as far in four
seconds, and so on. Similar results may be obtained with
the marble and plank.
A cash car arranged to run down an inclined wire is an excellent

modification of Galileo's device and a very good substitute for an At-
wood machine. A
No. 10 wire 30 ft. or more long should be used.
This should be made taut by a turn-buckle, one end being about 2 ft.
higher than the other. A heavy pendulum connected with a tele-
graph sounder or an electric bell should be used to measure the time
intervals. The car may be arranged so as to be released electrically
and its position at the end of an interval registered electrically.
35. The
acceleration or the velocity acquired* at the
end of any given second is determined by the use of the
ring shelf E. This shelf will allow the mass
.
to pass K
through it, but not the rider R. If it is placed so that K
will reach it exactly at the end of the first second, the
mass K
and the rider R
during the first second will fall
with uniformly accelerated motion but at the end of the ;
first second the rider will be left behind on the ring shelf
and the mass ./Twill move on during the second second

with uniform motion (Newton's first law), since no unbal-
anced force is acting upon it. The distance traversed
during this second second with no force acting will be the
velocity the mass K
had acquired at the end of the first
second.
In a similar manner the velocity acquired during the
two seconds can be measured. For example, to find
first
the velocity at the end of the third second, place the

ring shelf where the rider R

will be removed at the end
of the third second and find the distance goes during K
the fourth second without the rider. This distance will
be equivalent to the velocity at the end of the third
second. Should the mass K
with the rider fall 10 cm.
the second, the velocity at the end of that second
first
will be found to be 20 cm. per second ; at the end of the

second second, 40 cm. per second ;
and at the end of the
third second, 60 cm. per second.
36. Let s = number of centimeters traversed in the whole time.

Let t = number of seconds body is falling.
Let a = acceleration in centimeters per second. 2
Let v = velocity at the end of any given second, or total
change of velocity in centimeters per second.

Let sf = number of centimeters traversed in any given single
second.
TABLE I, LAW FOR s
The second column contains results such as may be obtained by

the use of the Atwood machine. The third column contains the
results of the second column factored by the space passed over during
the first second. Observe that the other factor in each case is the
square of the corresponding time. It is shown in Table III that 5,
the space passed over in the first second, equals a. Substituting \ a
for 5 and t for the other factors gives the formula s = \ at 2 in each
case. This formula is therefore general.
37. The numbers given in column 2 of Table I and

obtained by experiment are used as a basis for Table II.
ACCELERATED MOT1OX 29
To obtain s', or the space traversed in any single second,

the third for example, the space traversed in the first two
seconds is subtracted from the space traversed in the
first three seconds, as 45 cm. 20 cm. 25 cm. =
This is
shown in the second column of Table II. Observe that
TABLE II, LAW FOR s'
t is' tf FACTORED
when these values of s' by Ja, the second

are factored
factors form a series of For example, the
odd numbers.
distance traversed in the fourth second is 5 x 7, 7 being
the fourth odd number. The distance traversed in the
tenth second would be 5 x the tenth odd number. The
tenth odd number is 2 x (10 1) = 19. Substituting ^ a
for 5 and (2 1) for the odd number in each case gives
the formula s' =â(2t 1) which applies to all cases
and is therefore general.
38. The numbers for Table III are either obtained from Table II
as shown in column 2
of Table III, or they may be obtained directly
by experiment with the At wood machine as explained in 35.
TABLE III, LAW FOR v

The force causing the accelerated motion can do no more in one

second than another, no more in the second or third second than it
did in the first. What did it do in the first? It caused the .body to
fall 5 cm., but in the second second the body fell 15 cm. (Table II),
due to the force acting on it the remainder
only 5 cm. of which was ;
must have been due to the velocity acquired during the first second. In
the third second it traversed 25 cm., only 5 cm. of which was due to the
force acting during the third second; the remainder, 20 cm., must
have been due to the velocity acquired during the first two seconds.
The factor 10 answers to the definition of acceleration and the other
factors in each case correspond to the time. Hence, substituting a
for the factor 10 and t for time, v = at in each case. The formula is
therefore general.
Problems
1. The Washington monument is 169 m. high. In what time
will a stone fall from top to bottom? With what velocity will it
strike the ground ?

2. If a body falls 313.6 m. in 8 sec., what is its acceleration ?
What is its velocity at the end of 6 sec. ? How far does it fall during
the last 4 sec. ?
3. If a stone is thrown upward vertically to a height of 144 ft.,
how long will it take it to return to its starting point ?
4. A body is rolling up a smooth incline at the rate of 25 cm. per

second and loses velocity at the rate of 5 cm. per second. How
far up
the plane will it move before coming to rest ?
5. A ball starting from rest and rolling down a smooth inclined

plane for 4 sec. moved 14 cm. during the last second. What was its
acceleration ? How far did it move during the 4 sec. ?
6. How far does a freely falling body fall during the last half of
the first second of its fall ?
7. How far does a freely falling body move during the first half of
the ninth second of its fall ? In the last half of the ninth second ?
III. MEASUREMENT OF FORCE

39. The second law of motion. Every rider of a bicy-
cle knows that it takes more force to acquire speed on a
smooth level road than it does to maintain the speed after
MEASUREMENT OF FORCE 31
it is gained, and that it requires more force to attain speed
quickly than it does to do it slowly. After the rider is

under way little force is necessary to maintain the speed,
just enough in fact to balance the opposing forces such as
the resistance of the air and the friction of the moving
parts of the bicycle. Every one is also familiar with the
fact that it requires force to stop a body and more force
to do it quickly than to do it slowly. Facts such as these
teach us that it is not motion, but change of motion, which
requires force. The student must remember that the

word change in the second law of motion is a most
important one.
40. Momentum. The quantity which a mov-
of motion
ing body possesses depends upon mass and its velocity,

its
being measured by the'product of the mass by the velocity.

This product is called the momentum of the body. Thus
the momentum of a 12
Kg. mass moving with a velocity
of 4m. per second is 12 x 4 = 48 units or, since 12 Kg. = ;
12,000 g. and 4m. = 400 cm., its momentum is 12,000 x 400

= 4,800,000 units. No special names have been given
to the various units of momentum. Of course in com-
paring momenta we must use the same units of mass and
velocity throughout the problem.
41. Measurement of force. Motion can be changed
only in quantity and in direction. Therefore, when the
second law of motion states that change of motion is pro-
portional to the force applied, a part of its meaning is that
change in quantity of motion or change of momentum is pro-
portional to the force applied. The second law is some-
times stated in this way in modern text-books.
Since change of momentum is proportional to the force
applied, it follows that force can be measured by the change
of momentum it produces ; for if the change of momentum
is twice or three times as great in one case as in another,
the force causing the change must also be twice or three

times as great.
For instance, if a force which causes a unit change of
momentum in a second is called a unit of force, then that
force which causes a change of momentum of ten units in
a second is a force of ten units. Force measured by the
change of momentum it producesis measured
dynamically.
A unit of force based on this method of measuring force
is called a dynamic unit. Force may also be measured by
comparing it with the attraction of the earth for a unit of
mass, as the pound or the gram. A unit based on this
method ofmeasuring force is called a gravitational unit.
42. A dynamic or absolute unit of force is the force
which can produce a unit change of momentum in a unit
of time.
The dyne is a dynamic or absolute unit of force ; it is
the force which can produce a unit change of momentum
in a unit of time, when the units used in
calculating the
momentum are the centimeter, the gram, and the second.
For example, a force which acting for one second on a
one-gram mass gives it a velocity of one centimeter per
second is a dyne, because the momentum being zero at first
and one at the end of the second, the change of momen-
tum is one unit. Likewise, a force which acting for one
second on one tenth of a gram mass gives it a velocity of
10 cm. per second is a dyne, because the
change of momen-
tum is one unit
( T^ x 10
= 1).
Why is a force which, acting for one second on a mass
of one fiftieth of a gram, gives it a velocity of 50 cm. per
second a dyne ?
Problem. How great is a force which in four seconds

changes the
velocity of a 12 g. mass from 8 to 48 crn. per sec. ?
SOLUTION. Since the body at first has a velocity of 8 cm. per
second, its momentum is 12 x 8 = 96 units and since its velocity at
;
MEASUREMENT OF FORCE
the end is 48 cm. per second, its then 12 x 48 = 576
momentum is
units. The change of momentum is 96 = 480 units.

therefore 576
This change occurs in 4 seconds; the change in one second is
480-4=120 units. Hence the force by definition must be 120
dynes.
43. A gravitational unit of force is the weight of a unit
mass, as the weight of a kilogram, gram, pound, or ounce.

For example, if a boy is said to be pulling a sled with a
force of fifty pounds, the force is expressed by a gravi-
tational unit. The meaning that the boy exerts fifty
is
times as much force on the sled as gravity exerts on a
pound mass. Since the force of gravity varies slightly

with latitude and with elevation above sea level, it follows
that a pound of force does not have exactly the same value
at all places. This is true of all gravitational units of
force. A dynamic unit, however, has the same value
everywhere. A dyne of force is the same at the moon as
at the earth, at the equator as at the pole.
Each unit of force has its equivalent in other units of
force. Dynes may be reduced to grams, kilograms, or
pounds, and pounds may be reduced to dynes, just as yards
may be reduced to meters or centimeters to inches.
A dynean exceedingly small force. At places on
is
g 980 cm. per second 2 1 Kg. =

the earth's surface where ,
980,000 dynes and 1 pound = 444,525 dynes.

44. Classification of units of force.
dynamic or .
absolute dyne (metnc)
Units of force 1
kilogram
v
gram J
gravitational pound
ounce >
(English)
ton, etc.
ADAMS'S PHVS. 3
34 MECHANICS AND PROPERTIES OP MATTER
Value of a gram weight in dynes.

45. If a body is
allowed to fall freely at the equator, the force of gravity

will cause it to have at the end of the first second a
velocity of 978 cm. per second (#

= 978 cm. per second2 ).
If the mass which falls is a gram, then the change of mo-
mentum in a second is 1 x 978 = 978 units. Therefore,
the force of gravity acting on a gram mass at the equator
equals 978 dynes but the force of gravity acting on a
;
gram mass is by definition a gram, therefore a gram weight

of force at the equator equals 978 dynes. The value of g
at 40 about 980 cm. per second 2 hence, at that
N. Lat. is ,
latitude one gram equals about 980 dynes.
Dynes may be reduced to grams at any place by

dividing the number
dynes by the value for g at that
of
place. Conversely, gravitational units of force at any

place may be reduced to dynamic units by multiplying by
the value of g for that place. That is,
m grams = mg dynes.
46. Formula for calculating force in

dynamic units.
Since momentum = mass x change of momen-
velocity,
tum = mass x change of velocity, and change of momentum
per unit of time = mass x change of velocity per unit of
time, which is mass x acceleration. Therefore,
Change of momentum per unit of time = mass x ac-
celeration.
since change of momentum per unit of time is a
But
measure of force ( 43), force =
mass x acceleration, or
/= ma.
This formula gives the value of a force in dynamic
units, in dynes, in theC.G.S. system.
By substituting *
for a in the above formula we obtain
MEASUREMENT OF FORCE 35
/= m or ft = mv. Since v = the total change of veloc-

t
ity, this formula means that force x time it acts = the

total change of momentum produced.
47. Force measured statically. As we have seen, to
measure a force dynamically is to measure it by the mo-
tion it produces or destroys. But force is
perhaps more often measured statically,
that is, by balancing one force by another
so that no motion is produced. An elastic
spring is often used for this purpose.
When an elastic spiral spring is elongated
by a force, the elongation is proportional
to hence the elongation may
the force ;
be used to measure the force. A force of

*
three pounds will stretch such a spring
three times as much as one pound. The
butcher's scale and the common spring
balance are illustrations of this principle.
The spring balance (Fig. 5) when used to
measure forces is called a dynamometer.
It be graduated at pleasure in pounds,

may
grams, dynes, or other units of force. mometer.
Problems
A car having a mass of 270 Kg. was started from rest and in 3
1.
rain,was given a velocity of 720 m. per hour. Assuming that the track
was level and that there was no friction, calculate the force propel-
ling the car.
SOLUTION. 720 m. per hour= 20 cm. per second; 270 Kg. = 270,000
g. ;
and 3 min. = 180 sec. The velocity, and hence the momentum of
the car at first, was zero ;
at the end of 3 min. the momentum was
270.000x20 = 5,400,000 units. The change of momentum was
5.400,000 - = 5,400,000 units. Since this change occurred in 180 sec.,
the change of momentum per second was ^
of 5,400,000 or 30,000 units.
Since by definition a dyne is the force that can cause a change of one
unit of momentum per second, to produce a change of 30,000 units
requires 30,000 dynes of force. Therefore the force propelling the
car was 30,000 dynes. The same result is easily obtained by the
formulay*= ma.
2. A 60-Kg. mass was made to acquire a velocity of 2 m. per second
in 2 min. What force acted on the mass? Ans. 100,000 dynes.

3. A
4000-lb. car has a velocity of 5 ft. per second. What is its
momentum? It is made to go faster and faster until its velocity is
11 ft. per second. What is the change of momentum ? If the change
occurs in 4 min., what is the change per second ?
4. A boat weighing 500 Kg. and having a speed of 15 m. per sec.

isbrought to rest in 11 sec. How much force was used in stopping
the boat?
5. A baseball weighing 250 g. and having a velocity of 1200 cm.
per second was stopped by the hands of the catcher in ^j of a second.
How much force was used in stopping the ball ? How many times as
much force would be used to stop it in ^ of a second ?
6. A 20
g. bullet having a velocity of 600 in. per second penetrat-
ing a sandbank was stopped in of a second.

sistance offered to the bullet by the sand ?
^ What was the re-
7. A
body falling to earth has at the end of the first second a
velocity of 980 cm. per second and at the end of the third second a
velocity of 2940 cm. per second. What is the change of momentum
between the end of the first and the end of the third second, the
mass of the body being 10 g. ? What is the force acting on the
body?
8. What change of momentum will one dyne produce in one
second acting on alg. mass? On a 2 g. mass? On a 10 g. mass? On
a 100 g. mass ?
9. What change of velocity will 1 dyne produce in 1 sec. when
acting on a mass of 1 g. ? On a mass of 2 g. ? On a mass of 10 g. ?
On a mass of 100 g. ?
10. What change of momentum will 50 dynes produce when act-
ing on a 10 g. mass for 2 sec. ? For 4 sec. ? For 12 sec. ?
11. A body slides down a smooth inclined plane in 16 sec., acquir-
ing a velocity of 600 cm. per second. Find the acceleration and the
length of the plane.
COMPOSITION AND RESOLUTION OF FORCES 37
In the following problems the motion is understood to be uniformly

accelerated.
12. A body started from rest and moved over 128 ft. in 4 sec.
What was the acceleration ?
13. A body traversed 80 ft. during the first second of its motion.
What was its acceleration ?
14. If a body passed over 96 cm. in 4 sec., how far would it go in

8 sec. ?
15. How much space has been traversed by a body that has gained
a velocity of 500 cm. in 5 sec. ?
16. If a body traversed 720 cm. during the 13th second of its
motion, how far did it go during the first second ?
17. A body having an acceleration of 36 cm. per second 2 started

from rest and passed over 128 cm. What was the time required and
what was its final velocity ?
18. The velocity of a body after it had traversed 250 m. was 20 m.
per second. What was the time required to traverse the distance ?
19. A mass of 2500 g. passed over 1000 cm. in 10 sec. What was
the force acting on the mass to cause this motion ?
20. A mass of 2 g. passed over 4410 cm. in 3 sec. What force
acted on the body?
21. A gram mass falling freely traversed 490 cm. during the first
second of its fall. How great a force was acting on the body ?
22. A gram mass falling freely traversed during the first two
seconds of its fall 1960 cm. How
great is the force of gravity acting
on the mass ?
23. A mass of 50 g. being acted upon by a constant force passed

over 96 cm. in 4 sec. What was the magnitude of the force ?
24. A body acquired a velocity of 80 cm. per second in going 1200
cm. What was the time required to cover the distance?
25. If a body has a negative acceleration of 980 cm. per second'2
and moving at the rate of 10,290 cm. per second, how long will it
is
be before it comes to rest ?
IV. COMPOSITION AND RESOLUTION OF FORCES

48. Further discussion of the second law of motion.
This law implies, since it makes no statement to the con-
trary, that a force acting on a body already in motion has

the same effect as when acting upon a body at rest. This
is illustrated by the body thrown horizontally
fact that a
the earth just as quickly as one dropped vertically.
falls to
Likewise, when a body is falling vertically, the force of

gravity has the same effect during the last second of its
fall as during the first second; the change of velocity is the
same in each second.
Experiment. Fasten a strip of wood about 4 in. long across the

end of a yardstick, forming aT, and cut out two similar notches in the
upper corners of this crosspiece to hold marbles or bullets. Support
the T in a horizontal position (Fig. 6) and place marbles in the two
FIG. 6. Apparatus to illustrate the second law of motion.
notches. A horizontal blow near the crosspiece will send one of the
marbles off horizontally, while the other will drop vertically to the
floor. The two will be heard to strike the floor at the same time.
Again, the second law of motion implies that if two or
more forces act upon a body at the same time, each pro-
duces its own change of motion in its own direction re-
gardless of the others. The principles of the composition
and resolution of forces and motion which are about to be
discussed are based upon the second law of motion.
49. Graphic representation of forces.
Every force al-
ways acts at some one point, in some definite direction,

and with a certain intensity. Every force must have
these three characteristics, and hence they are the three

essential elements of force. They are called (1) point of
application, (2) direction, (3) magnitude.
A straight line also has these three characteristics or
elements, point of beginning, direction, and length or
magnitude; hence a straight line may be used to represent
a force, one end of the line representing the point of ap-
plication, the direction of the line the direction of the

force,and the length of the line the magnitude of the force.
For example, the two lines AB and A C (Fig. 7) may
represent two forces acting at the point A, one in the
direction A C and the other in the
direction AB; and if one eighth
of an inch be taken to represent
a force of 1 lb., the line AC repre-
sents a force of 6 lb., andAB one
^~~
of 8 lb., AB being one inch long
and AC three fourths of an inch
FIG. 7. -Lines representing
forces.
long.
50. Composition of forces. Several forces may act upon
a body at the same time, producing a certain effect, but
there is often a possible single force which would have the
same effect as the several forces if substituted for them.
The process of finding a single force that may be sub-
stituted for two or more forces and have the same effect is
termed the composition of forces, and the single force that
may be substituted for the other forces and have the same
effect is called the resultant ; the several forces for which
the resultant may be substituted are called the components.
When forces have a common point of application, they
are said to be concurring forces. There are three cases to
be considered with two concurring forces:
First, when two concurring forces act in the same straight
line and in the same direction, their resultant is their sum,
Second, when two concurring forces act in the same straight

line but in opposite directions, the resultant is their difference
and has the direction of the greater.
Third,ivhen two concurring forces act at an angle to

each other, the resultant is found by the principle of the
parallelogram of forces.
51 The parallelogram of forces.
.
If the two adjacent sides
a
of parallelogram are used to represent two forces acting at
an angle to each other, the concurrent diagonal of this paral-
lelogram will represent their resultant.
Let AB
(Fig. 8) be a force of 35 dynes, and AC &
force of 30 dynes, the angle between them, BAG, being
60. Let 1 mm. rep-
resent one dyne, then
the line AB
must be
35 mm. long and
AC 30 mm. long. If
now the parallelogram
ABDC is completed,
and the diagonal AD,
FIG. 8. Two forces acting at an angle of 60.
which is concurrent
with AB and AC,
be drawn, this diagonal will completely
represent the resultant of the two component forces AB
and AC. The magnitude of this resultant can be found
by measuring the length of AD in D
millimeters. It is about 56. 3 mm.
long, hence the resultant of the
two is about 56.3 dynes.
Again let two 'forces, one of 40
and one of 30 dynes, act at right
angles to each other. These
forces being represented by AB FlG - ^--Two forces acting at
and AC(Fig. 9), AD represents

their resultant. Its magnitude may be determined by
measuring the length of AD, but since AD ^ AB 2 -f AC2

its value is When the angle between
easily calculated
the two components not a right angle, the magni-
is
tude of the resultant must usually be found by con-

struction unless the student has a knowledge of
trigonometry.
The resultant of two forces can never be either greater
than their sum or less than their difference. It may have
any value between these two limits.
52. Composition of more than two forces. If three con-
curring forces act at the same time, their resultant may be

determined by first finding the resultant of any two of them,
and then by using this resultant and the third force as two
components finding a second resultant. By a continua-
tion of this process the resultant of any number of forces
may be found.
LetAB, AC, and AD (Fig. 10) be three forces having
a common point of application at A. AE, the resultant
FIG. 10. The resultant of three forces.
of AC ami AD, may first be found by constructing

the parallelogram A CED, then by using AE as a
component in connection with AB, the resultant AF

is found. AF is therefore the resultant of AB, AC,
and AD.
53. Experimental illustration of parallelogram of forces. Join the
hooks of three spring balances together by a cord (Fig. 11) and hang
two of the balances B and C upon
hooks near the top of the blackboard.
Fasten the third balance D to another
hook at such a position as to cause
each balance to register several units
of force. Mark the point A and record
the forces indicated by each balance.
After removing the balances draw
linesfrom the point A toward each
hook (Fig. 12) and lay off on these
linesAG, AH, and AL to represent
the forces. Evi-
dently any two

of these forces
as AG and AH
exactly counter-
act the third
force AL] but a
force AK equal
FIG. 11. Experimental demon- , .
stratum of the parallelogram

and PP slte to
of forces. AL would alone
counteract it.
Hence AK is by definition the resultant of AG

and A H, since it could be substituted for them
FIG. 12. Graphical
and have the same effect. If now the lines GK
representation of the
and HK be drawn, the quadrilateral A GKH forces measured in
will be found to be a parallelogram in which Figure 11.
AG and AH represent the two components and

AK their resultant. Observe that while AK is equivalent to AG
and AH in eifect, it is not equal to their sum.
54. Equilibrant. A
single force that exactly counter-
acts two or more forces is called their equilibrant. It is
always exactly equal to and opposite in direction to their

resultant. For example, AL (Fig. 12) is the equilibrant

of A G- and AH, aiKtAZTof A a and AL.
55. Composition of parallel forces. Let A and B (Fig.
13) represent two forces parallel to each other and acting
in the same direction, but having
different points of application on
a bar (7Z>, and let them be exactly
balanced by the force F whose
point of application is at E. F
is then by definition the equili-
brant of A
and B. R, the result-
ant of A
and B, must be equal
and opposite to F and have the
same point of application. The
resultant of two parallel forces
acting in the same direction is
equal to their sum, and the dis- FIG. 13. Resultant and equili-
tances from its brant of two parallel forces.
point of application
to the points of application of the
two forces are inversely proportional to the intensities of the
two forces. For example (Fig. 13), R=A -f- J5, and A B :
= DE : CE.
Experiment. Suspend a rod CD

(Fig. 14) 24 in. long from two
spring balances^ and B and place a weight F
of 8 Ib. upon the rod.
If the point is 6 in. E
from D and 18 in. from
C, the balance B will
B[\! register 6 Ib. and 2 Ib. A
If is 9 in. from D, B
will register 5 Ib. and A
3 Ib. In each case the
sum of the two forces
"j will be 8 Ib, and the
r\ force A -.force B = ED :
FIG. 14. Composition of parallel forces. EC.

56. Resolution of forces. The process of finding two or

more forces that can be substituted for a single force and
have the same effect is called the resolution of forces.
This the converse of the composition of forced. The
is
solution of the problem consists in constructing a parallel-
ogram upon a line representing the single force, the given

line being the diagonal of the parallelogram.
Let AB
(Fig. 15) represent the given force to be re-
solved into two component forces. By constructing the
parallelogram ACBD
upon as AB
a diagonal, the two components
AC and AD which are equivalent
in effect to AB are found.
If nothing is stated as to the
direction or the magnitude of the
two components, then an indefinite
number of parallelograms
r & can be
FIG. 15. Resolution of a force
into two components. constructed on AB and an in-
definite number of pairs of com-
ponents of AB
can be found which . will be equivalent
to it. If, however, the directions of the two components,
or their magnitudes, or the magnitude and direction of
one of them, are specified, then only one solution of the
problem is possible.
57.Applications of resolution of forces. It very often
happens that the direction of the force and the direction

of the motion produced by it are not the same, and it is
desirable to determine what portion of the force is effec-
tive in the direction of the motion. For example a boy
in pulling a sled exerts a force obliquely upward in the
direction AC
(Fig. 16) while the sled moves horizontally
in the direction AB. How much of the force AO is ef-
fective in producing motion in the direction is easily AB
determined by the resolution of forces. The force AC
must be resolved into two components, one of which shall

have no effect in producing motion in the line AB and
FIG. 10. To find what portion of a force is useful in a given direction.
hence is eliminated from the problem, and another all of

which must be effective in the line AB. One of the com-
ponents must therefore have the direction at right AE
angles to AB,
because a force in that direction only will
have no effect in moving the sled horizontally, either for-
ward or backward; and the other must lie in the direction
of AB because only such a force will be wholly effective in
that direction. Completing the parallelogram AFCD, we
have the two components AD and AF,
representing AF
that portion of the force exerted by the boy which is use-
ful in moving the sled, while AD
represents that part of
the force A
O which tends to lift the sled.
If a force is to have no effect in any particular direction,
itmust act at right angles to that direction. Thus, AF
has no effect in the direction AD, and AD has no effect
in the direction AF. Components which act at right
angles to each other are called rectangular components.
58. The inclined plane, which consists of a smooth, plane
surface, making an acute angle with the horizontal plane,

affords a practical illustration of the resolution of forces.
Let A
(Fig. 17) represent a barrel upon a plank, one end
of which rests in a wagon and the other on the ground.
How great is the
force which tends
to make it roll down
the plank ? Since
gravity acts verti-
cally, the weight of

the barrel acts in
the direction repre-
sented by AD. Let
AE represent this
FIG. 17. Showing what component of the weight force. By complet-
of the barrel must be used to keep it on the j n p.
ing the parallelo-
inclined plane.
gram AGEH, AE
can be resolved into two components AH" and AG. The
latter has no effect in moving the barrel either up or
down the plane, being perpendicular to it but it is all ;
used in producing pressure on the plane. AH, being

parallel to the plane, produces no pressure, but is wholly
effective in moving the barrel down the plane. To hold
it in position a force equal and opposite to AH must
be used.
The triangles OPB and AHE (Fig. 17) are similar, and
therefore AH AE =
:
OP : OB.
Hence, the
force necessary to hold a
body in place on the plane,
when it acts parallel to
the plane, is to the weight
of the body as the height

of the plane is to its
length. FIQ lg _ Force acting paran e i to tne base

If the force holding of the inclined plane.
the barrel in place acts parallel to the base of the plane,

as AL (Fig. 18), the weight AE
may be resolved into
two components, AGr and AH. AH is the component that
must be overcome by AL. Since the two triangles
AEHaud PBC are similar, AH:AU=CP: BP. There-
fore the force holding body in place on the plane,

the
when it acts parallel to the base of the plane, is to the weight
of the body as the height of the plane is to its base.
59. Composition and resolution of motions and velocities.
A linecan be used to represent the direction and magni-
tude of a motion or of a velocity as well as of a force and ;
motions, velocities, and accelerations can be compounded

and resolved by the same methods used for the composition
and resolution of forces. For example,
a vessel sailed 100 miles toward the
northeast ; how far east and how far
north did it go? Let (Fig. 19) AB
represent the motion of the ship, then
it is evident that AC
represents the
eastward and AD
the northward com- FIG. 19. Resolution of
a motion into two
ponent of its motion. Again,
e suppose
r*
components.
a man to row at the rate of three miles
per hour at right angles to the current of a river which

flows at the rate of four miles per hour. His actual
velocity will be represented by the diagonal of a parallelo-
gram whose sides represent the component velocities.
60. Composition of uniform motion with uniformly accel-
erated motion. If a body is thrown out horizontally from
a high building, its actual motion (the resistance of the
air being disregarded) will be the resultant of uniform
motion in a horizontal direction and uniformly accel-
erated motion in a downward direction. Let AB (Fig.
20) represent the horizontal component and AC the
vertical component of its motion, thenumbers 1, 2, 3, etc.,
representing the seconds of time. The actual path of

the body will be represented by the curved line AD, a
A+^
FIG. 20. Composition of a uniform horizontal motion with a uniformly

accelerated downward motion.
being its position at the end of the first second, b at the

end of the second second, c at the end of the third, etc.
V. GRAVITATION
61. Gravitation is the force of attraction existing be-
tween all bodies of matter at all distances.
It is universal star, for
;
every example, attracts every
other star. The
earth attracts every star and is in turn
attracted by every star. But not only does gravitation act
between the heavenly bodies at enormous distances, but it
GRAVITATION 49
also acts between small bodies upon the earth. A book

attracts all other bodies and is attracted by them. Cav-
endish, in 1789, by a celebrated experiment proved the
existence of this attraction between two small masses of
lead.
Nothing is known of the real nature of gravitation or

its cause. Sir Isaac Newton was the first to establish the
universality of gravitation both as to distance and all
matter, and it was he who first formulated the law of
gravitation.
62. Newton's law of gravitation. The attraction between
two bodies varies directly as the product of their masses and
inversely as the square of the distance between their centers
of mass.
The gravitational attraction between the earth and
bodies upon it which causes bodies to fall to the earth is
given the special name of gravity.
The weight of a body is the force of gravity acting
between that body and the earth.
63. Laws of weight. The laws of weight are merely
special applications of the general law of gravitation to the
force of gravity. They may be stated as follows (1) :
The weight of a body varies directly as its mass. 1 (2) The

weight of a body varies inversely as the square of the distance
between its center of gravity and the center of the earth.
This law does not apply to bodies below the surface of the
earth. If the weight of a body on the surface of the
earth be represented by w and its distance from the center
1
According to Newton's law of gravitation the weight of a body would
vary as the product of its mass and the mass of the earth but in compar-
;
ing the weight of one body with that of another by a proportion the mass
of the earth would appear in two terms of the proportion and could be
canceled. Hence the mass of the earth need not be considered in the
law of weight.
ADAMS'S PIIVS. 4
of the earth (4000 miles) by d, and if the weight of

another body above the surface of the earth be represented
by w 1 and its distance from the center of the earth by d v
this law may be expressed algebraically as follows:
w oc -~ -
,
or w W = df
:
1
: d?.
d
(3) The weight of a body below the surface of the earth

varies directly as its distance from the center of the earth. 1
It follows from the last two laws that a body weighs most
at the earth, being less either above or
the surface of
below it. Using the same letters as in the previous para-
graph, this law may be expressed as follows:
w oc e?, or w :
w-^= d : dr
64. Equilibrium. When two or more forces so act

upon a body as exactly to counteract the effect of each
other, they are said to be in equilibrium. Forces that are

in equilibrium, therefore, produce no change of motion,
that no acceleration. If the body upon which they act
is,
is and remains at rest, the forces acting upon it

at rest
are in equilibrium; if a body is in motion and forces act
upon it in such a way as to produce no change of motion,
the forces are in equilibrium.
Abody is in equilibrium when all the forces acting upon
it are in equilibrium. A
body at rest is in equilibrium ;
likewise a body having uniform motion in a straight line

is in equilibrium, because no matter how many forces are
acting upon they must exactly counteract the effect of

it,
one another, would be a change either in the

else there
magnitude or the direction of the motion.

65. Center of gravity. A
body is composed of a great
number of particles each one of which is pulled toward
1 This law assumes that the density of the earth is uniform throughout.
Since the density is not absolutely uniform, the law is not rigidly exact.
GRAVITATION 51
the center of the earth by the force of gravity. Although

these forces converge toward the center of earth, yet for
bodies of ordinary size they are practically
parallel because the center of the eartli
is so far distant. A
single force G-F
(Fig. 21) that could take the place of j
all these forces would be their resultant,
and its magnitude would equal the

weight of the body.
The center of gravity of a body is the
point of application of the resultant of FIG. 21. Center of
all the parallel forces of gravity acting gravity or center
., ,. , . . , .
f of mass.
on its particles. Since the weight of
each particle is proportional to its mass, the center of
gravity of a body is also its center of mass and its center of
inertia.
weight of body were a single force applied at its

If the
center of gravity it would have the same effect as the
many
parallel forces acting on the particles of the body, hence
the weight of a body may be considered as concentrated
at its center of gravity.
Support of a body.
66. A body may be supported (1)
on one point or pivot; (2) on two or more points in
a straight line, that is, on an axis such as a knife edge ; or
(3) on three or more points not in the same straight line,
that is, on a base. The base of a body is the figure in-
cluded by a string drawn tightly around the points of
support. For example the base of a chair is the quadri-
lateral of which its feet are the four corners.
A is supported when its center of gravity is sup-
body
ported. The supporting force, or the resultant of the
supporting forces when there are two or more, must be
the equilibrant of the forces of gravity acting on all the
particles of the body. It will therefore be exactly equal

and opposite to their resultant, that is, it will be a vertical

line passing through the center of gravity.
67. Line of direction. A vertical line passing through
the center of gravity of a body toward the center of the
earth is called its line of direction. A body is supported
in equilibrium only when its line of direction passes through
its support. This is true whether the support be a pivot,
an axis, or a base and whether the support
;
be above, below, or at the center of gravity.

When a body falls freely, its center of
gravity follows the line of direction. Thus
if a crooked stick is whirling while it is
falling, its center of gravity will traverse

a straight line, while the paths of other
points in the stick may be very irregular.
68. Locating the center of gravity. Let
a body be suspended by a cord. A line
coinciding with the cord and extending
through the body will pass through its
center of gravity and be vertical. It is
on this principle
that the use of the
plumb line de-

pends. This (Fig.
22) consists of a
conical mass of
FIG. 22. Plumb
line. lead (plumbum) or
other metal sus-
pended by a cord. The cord in-

dicates the vertical direction.
FIG. 23. Finding the center of
It body (J<lg. 23) be SUS-
a gravity of a body.
pended from two different points
by a cord, two lines passing through its center of gravity
may be found, and thus its center of gravity may be
GRAVITATION 53
located ; for since it lies in both of the lines, it must be

at their intersection.
Experiment. A and B (Fig. 24) in a thin board

Bore two holes
of uniform thickness and suspend the board by one of these holes
upon a wire held horizontally. Suspend a plumb
line from the same wire in front of the board
and draw a line on the board just back of the
plumb line and parallel to it, starting exactly
underneath the wire. In the same way draw
another line after suspending the board by the
other hole B. The intersection of these two
lines C will indicate the center of gravity of the
board. Bore a hole at C
and test the accuracy
of the method by suspending the board by the
hole C. It should rest in any position.
69. States of equilibrium with reference

to gravity. The center of gravity of a FIG. 24.-Finding the
body always tends to take the lowest center of gravity of
a board.
possible position. This fact gives rise
to three states of equilibrium, stable, unstable, and neutral
(Figs. 25, 26, 27).
A body is in stable equilibrium when it is so supported
that a slight displacement tending to overturn it raises its
FIG. 25. Three states of equilibrium. A, neutral ; B, stable ; C, unstable.
center of gravity; the body tends to return to its original

position. A
body is always in stable equilibrium when its
support is above its center of gravity also when its sup- ;
port a base, whether it is above or below, or passes

is
through its center of gravity.

A is in unstable equilibrium when it is so sup-

body
ported that a slight displacement tending to overturn it
lowers its center of gravity, and the body tends to fall
FIG. 26. Three states of equilibrium. A, stable; , unstable; C, neutral.
farther away from its original position. The support must

be a point or an axis below the center of gravity. A cone
balanced on its apex and a cube
balanced on one of its edges are
illustrations of this kind of
equilibrium.
A body is in neutral equilib-
rium when it is supported in
such a way that a slight displace-
ment tending to overturn it does
not change the height of its
center of
gravity ; it tends
neither to return nor to move
farther away from its original
FIG 27. -A pencil, balanced on A body is a l ways in
position
*
.
its point, in stable equilib- i
ri um .
neutral equilibrium when its
support is a point at its center

of gravity or an axis passing through it. perfectly A
balanced bicycle wheel, a sphere A (Fig. 25) whose center
of gravity is at its center of volume resting on a level
GRAVITATION 55
surface, and an empty (Fig. 26) on its side are

flask
illustrations neutral equilibrium.
of If the center of
gravity of a sphere is not at its center of volume, B

and C (Fig. 25), then it may be in stable or in unstable
equilibrium.
Stable equilibrium is illustrated in Figures 26 and 27.
Figure A, represents a round-bottomed flask containing

26,
about 500 g. of shot held in place by wax which has been
melted about it. This brings the center of gravity so
low that it must be raised to overturn the flask. Figure
27 represents a pencil into which two hat pins have been
thrust. The stability of the pencil may be increased by
loading the pins with pieces of bent wire as shown in the

figure.
70. Stability. Bodies in stable equilibrium may have
different degrees of stability. The degree of the stability
of a body depends (1) on its weight, (2) on the height of
its center of gravity, and (3)
on the size of its base. In
order to overturn a body, it
is necessary to turn it on one
of its edges as i (Fig. 28)

until the line of direction cd
of its center of gravity falls
outside of the base. The cen-
ter of gravity must pass through
an arc cc' of which i is the cen-
, ,
,
FIG. 28. Diagram to illustrate the
ter, and be raised through a measu rement of the degree of
stability of a body.
!
vertical distance equal to ec .
When the weights of different bodies are the same, the

vertical distance ec* through which their centers of gravity
must be lifted to overturn them is the measure of their
stability, as illustrated in Figure 29.

It is obvious that if two bodies are alike in every re-
spect except weight, the lighter one is the more easily

overturned.
Suppose the three bodies A, B, and C (Fig. 29) to have
the same weight, A and B having bases of the same size but
differing in the
height of their
centers of grav-
ity, and B and
having the same
height of centers
of gravity but dif-
Diagram illustrating what stability
depends upon. fering in the size
of their bases.
It is evident from a comparison of A and B that the
lower the center of gravity, other things being equal, the
greater the stability of the body, because the distance ec'
is greater.
From a comparison of B and it is evident that the
larger the base of a body, other things being equal, the
greater its stability.
Problems
1. How
great the equilibrant of two forces, one of 900 dynes
is
and one of 1600 dynes, acting perpendicularly to each other ?

2. If a mass of 100 Ib. is suspended 4 ft. from one end of a bar
and 6 ft. from the other end, how much pressure is exerted at each
end of the bar on its supports?
3. A body is projected horizontally with a velocity of 10 ft. per
second from a tower 256 ft. high. How far from the foot of the
tower will it strike the ground?
4. a force of 600 dynes is resolved into two equal rectangular
If
components, how great is each component ?

5. What part of a force is useful in producing motion in a
given direction, which acts at an angle of 45 with that direction ?
Ans. 0.707 of it.
GRAVITATION 57
6. What part of a force is useful in a given direction, that acts

at an angle of 60 with that direction ?
7. John and James are carrying a pail of sand weighing 135 Ib.
on a bar 9 ft. long. The pail is 4 ft. from John's end. How much
of the weight does each boy support?
8. Where must the pail be placed so that James shall support
100 Ib. ?
9. A man in rolling a barrel up a plank pushed with a force of

200 Ib., but exerted his force in such a direction that the useless com-
ponent of it was 100 Ib. How much useful force was exerted on the
barrel?
10. Three forces act outward from a point at an angle of 120
with one another. One of them, A, equals 1200 dynes, and the other
two, B and C, equal 800 dynes each. What is the direction and mag-
nitude of the resultant of the three forces,?
11. A boy is pulling a sled in such a way that he exerts a force of
40 Kg. usefully in moving the sled horizontally and a force of 30 Kg.
vertically. How great a force is he actually using?
12. Resolve a force of 80 dynes into two rectangular components
one of which shall be | as great as the other. What is the magnitude
of each component?
13. A
team of horses was moving a car by a rope attached to one
side of They pulled at such an angle that the useful component
it.
of their pull was 400 Kg., and the useless component was 300 Kg.
How great a pull were they exerting ?
The sail of a boat was set at an angle of 45 with its keel, and
14.
the wind struck the sail at an angle of 45. How much pressure would
the wind exert on the sail which exerts a pressure of 10 Kg. on a sur-
face perpendicular to it? How much force would this wind exert in
the direction of the keel? Ans. 5 Kg. in the direction of its keel.
15. A steamer sailing east with a velocity of 240 m. per minute

is
and a man runs north on the deck at the rate of 180 m. per minute.
Show by a diagram his actual direction and calculate his actual veloc-
ity in centimeters per second.
16. Assuming the radius of the earth to be 4000 miles, determine
what the weight of a body would be 4000 mi. from the surface of the
earth that weighs 32 Ib. on the surface. Ans. 8 Ib.
17. At what height would a bodv weigh 50 Kg. which weighs
100 Kg. on the earth's surface?
18. At what distance below the earth's surface will the 100 Kg
mass weigh 50 Kg.? How much would it weigh 1000 mi. from the
earth's center?
19. The moon is about 240,000 mi. from the center of the earth.
How many times less is the attraction of the earth for a small piece
of the moon than it would be if that piece were on the earth's surface ?
VI. CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

71. Centripetal force. Curvilinear motion is motion
whose direction changingis at every instant of time,
that is, According to the first law of
continuously.
motion a body in motion continues to move in a straight
line except when a force acts to change its direction. It
follows, therefore, that a force must act continuously upon

a body to cause it to change its direction continuously.
Moreover, this continuous force must not act in the direc-
tion of the motion, but at an angle to its direction, for a
force acting in the direction in which the body is moving
could change only the magnitude of the motion, not its
direction.
Motion in a circle, or circular motion, is a familiar form
of curvilinear motion. In such motion the continuous
force which acts
at right angles to the motion and toward
the center of the circle is called the centripetal (center
seeking) force.
The pull we exert on the string when whirling an
object around the hand is a familiar illustration of cen-
tripetal force, and the fact that the object moves off in a
straight line, tangent to the circle, the instant the string
is broken, shows that the force must be continuous to
produce circular motion.

72.
Centrifugal force. We
have learned ( 25) that a
body can exert force only when it encounters resistance
and that the force cannot be greater than the resistance
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE 59
encountered. The resistance which the centripetal force

encounters is due to the inertia of the body ( 23). This
resistance is called centrifugal force. By the third law
of motion the centripetal and the centrifugal forces are
equal. The two together constitute a stress.
The magnitude of either one of these forces is calculated
by the formula
f = -- or/ =
/. T
. ., /,
-
dynamic units, gravitational units.
c
r gr
73. formula for centrifugal

Development of force. The term
acceleration appliedisto change of
direction as well as to change of mag-
nitude of motion. We have seen that
a continuous force is necessary to cause
either one. If the force is constant,
the acceleration is constant.
A body moving with uniform veloc-
ity in a circle has a constant accelera-
tion toward the center of the circle
and may be said to be falling toward
the center with uniformly accelerated
motion.
Let r = the radius of the circle in cm.
Let a = the acceleration toward the FlG - 30. -Diagram for demon-
stratin 6 formula for
center in cm. per sec*. J*, /
centrifugal force.
Let v =
the uniform velocity in cm.
per sec. of a body moving in a circle.
Let t = the number of seconds required for the body to traverse
the arc AE.
Let m = the mass of the body in grams.
A C, the tangent at the point A, represents the path the body would
take if the force acting toward the center should cease at that point.
DB is drawn parallel to AC. When t is exceedingly small, is AB
very short coinciding with the chord *AB. CB, or its equal AD, is
the distance the body is turned from a straight line, or it is the dis-
tance the body moves toward the center with uniformly accelerated
motion in the time t. Hence, AD = a/ 2 ;

and since the body moves
with uniform velocity in the circle, A B= vt.
By geometry AD AB = AB AE. Substituting at for AD, vl

2
: :
for AB, and 2r for AE, we have %at*:vt vt:2r from which we
obtain a = - ,
the value of the centripetal acceleration toward the
center.
Multiplying both terms of this equation by m, we obtain ma = ,
but / = ma therefore, / =
;
--
This formula gives the value of fin dynamic units, in dynes in the
C.G.S. system but if it is divided by g, the value of f is given in
;
gravitational units.
Problems
1. A of 49 g. was whirled in a circle by a string 50 cm. long
mass
with a velocity of 100 cm. per second. What was the pull on the
string?
=9800d 49x100*^
50 50 x 980
2. A flywheel 16 ft. in diameter made 120 revolutions per minute.
What centrifugal force did a portion of the rim of the wheel weigh-
2
ing 100 Ib. exert? Ans. 400 7r or 3948 Ib.
3. A mass of 500 g. revolved in a circle 120 cm. in diameter with

a velocity of 200 cm. per second. What was the centrifugal force?
4. Calculate the number of times the force in the last problem
would be increased by doubling the number of revolutions per second.
5. How many times is the centrifugal force increased by increas-
ing the number of revolutions per second 5 times? 8 times? 20

times ?
6. How is the centrifugal force affected by doubling the diameter
of a revolving wheel, the mass of the wheel and the rate of rotation
remaining the same ?
74. Illustrations of centrifugal force are familiar to us

all. The mud from a revolving carriage wheel and
flying
water from a grindstone are phenomena due to this force.
The inclination of a bicycle rider on turning a corner is
necessary to counteract this force. Great damage and
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE 61
loss of life sometimes result from the bursting of enormous

iron fly wheels when by some accident their speed becomes
so great that the centrifugal force breaks the wheel in
pieces. It should be noted that this force varies as the

square of the velocity ; this means that the centrifugal
force is quadrupled when the velocity is doubled and 100
times as great when the velocity is increased 10 times.
There are many useful applications of this force. The
centrifugal drier used in laundries is one of them. It
consists of a cylinder with
perforated sides in which

the clothes are placed and
revolved very rapidly, the
Water flying Ollt through FlG 31. .
Apparatus for showing the
the holes in the sides. effect of centrifugal force on liquids
By of different densities.
.
, .
f -,
this force
honey is sepa-
rated from the comb, sirup from the crystals of sugar, and
cream from milk. If oil and water are placed in two
inclined tubes (Fig. 31), the oil being the lighter will
remain at the top
when the tubes are
at rest ; but when
they are revolved,
the water and the
oil change positions.
The denser liquid
goes to the outside.
This may be illus-
trated still further

FIG. 32. Apparatus for applying centrifugal
mercury and water.
force to by placing some
mercury and colored
water in a flask and revolving it by a whirling machine.
The mercury will form a ring about the center of the
flask, the water being on each side of it (Fig. 32).
A body always tends to rotate about its center of grav-

ity and upon its shortest axis. This may be illustrated
by suspending such an object as a ring, a disk, a chain
bracelet, or two balls of unequal size joined by a wire,
from a whirling machine by a string and revolving it
rapidly. Although the string may not be attached to
the object at its center of gravity, yet the body will
revolve about that point. The moon, for example, does
not revolve about the earth, but the earth and the moon
together revolve about their common center of gravity,
which is about 2880 miles from the
earth's center.
75. The fact that a body tends to rotate

about its center of gravity may be used to
verify the formula for centrifugal force. Let
A (Fig. 33) be a mass of 6 Kg. connected
FIG. 33. Diagram of two by a rod 120 cm. long to B, a mass of 2 Kg.,
bodies revolving about
the masg of the rod bei disregarded. By
their common center of ,. , , *\ * t xv -n. *
the law of parallel iorces the resultant of
their weight will be at C, 90 cm. from B
and 30 cm. from A, hence C is the center of gravity of the system
about which it will revolve. Since the radius of B's path is 3 times
that of A's, its velocity will be three times as great. Let v = the
velocity of A and 3 v that of B ;
then the centrifugal force for A =
d and that for B=

30 90
dynes. The centrifugal forces of the two bodies therefore balance
each other when they revolve about their common center of gravity.
VII. THE PENDULUM

76. Simple pendulum. A
body suspended from a point
or axis so as to vibrate to and fro under the influence of
gravity is a pendulum. A
simple pendulum consists of a
single heavy particle supported by a thread without weight.
Such a pendulum has, of course, no more actual existence
than a geometric line ; but it is conceived for the purpose
THE PENDULUM 63
of arriving at the laws of the pendulum. small dense A

ball such as a lead bullet suspended by a fine silk thread
isan approximation to a simple pendulum and is often
used as such in experimental work. Every actual pendu-
lum is a compound or physical pendulum because the sup-
porting thread or rod must have weight and the bob must
have size it may be conceived to be composed of as many
;
simple pendulums as there are particles in it.

77. Motion of a pendulum. Let (Fig. 34) be the
center of suspension of a pendulum which is drawn aside
to the point A, and
let ABrepresent
the weight of the
bob. This force
AB, which of
course acts verti-
cally, may be re-

solved into two
rectangular com-
ponents, one AC, in
line with the cord
OA, which has no

effect in causing
motion but is en-
tirely used in pro-
FIG. 34. Diagram of the motion of a simple
ducing tension on pendulum.
the cord, and the
other AD, tangent to the arc of motion, which is all
used in causing motion toward P. As it approaches the
point P the component AD becomes less and less until at
P it iszero, while the other component AQ
increases until
it equals AB
at P. The inertia of the pendulum carries
it past P, but now the component EH
begins to retard it
and finally brings it to rest at E, when the motion is
repeated in the opposite direction. Were it not for the

resistance of the air and the friction of the point of sup-
port it would continue to vibrate to and fro indefinitely.

78. Definitions. The motion of the pendulum to or fro,
as from A to E, or E to A, is called a simple vibration;
while a motion to and fro, as from to A E
and back again,
is called a complete vibration. or axis aboutThe point
which the pendulum oscillates is the center of suspension.
The distance from the position of rest to the extremity P
of the arc of vibration A iscalled the amplitude of vibra-
tion. It is measured by the angle POA. The time or
period of a pendulum is the time required for a simple
vibration. A pendulum whose time or period is a second
is called a seconds pendulum.
79. Center of oscillation. We are all familiar with the
fact that a short pendulumvibrates faster than a long
one. It is evident then that particles in the upper part
of a compound pendulum tend to make it vibrate faster
than it actually vibrates, and that those in the lower part
of it tend to make it vibrate slower than it actually
vibrates. There must be therefore an intermediate point
or particle between these two sets of particles, w hich tends r
to vibrate neither faster nor slower than the pendulum

actually vibrates.
The point or particle in a compound pendulum that tends
to vibrate neither faster nor slower than the compound pen-
dulum actually vibrates is called its center of oscillation.
If all the other particles of the pendulum but this one
could be removed, it would still vibrate at the same rate
as thecompound pendulum does. It follows therefore
that every
compound pendulum is equivalent to a simple
pendulum whose length is equal to the distance from the
center of suspension to the center of oscillation. This
distance is the true length of the compound pendulum.
THE PENDULUM 65
Experiment. Cut a notch in the end of a uniform bar such as a

meter stick and cover the top of the notch by a piece of tin or thin
brass (Fig. 35). Drive a three-cornered file,
the edge of which has been ground sharp, or
a knife blade into an upright support with the
sharp edge up, and suspend the bar from it by
resting the brass strip upon the knife-edge.
This will form a compound pendulum. Sus-
pend a simple pendulum consisting of a round
bullet and a fine silk thread in front of the bar
or at its side, having their centers of suspen-
sion at the same level.
First, make the simple pendulum about half
as long as the bar and compare their rates of
vibration. The simple pendulum will vibrate
the faster.
Second, make the simple pendulum of the
same length as the bar and setthem both in
vibration. The bar will now vibrate the faster.
Third, shorten the simple pendulum and
find by trial such a length for it that the rates
FIQ _
^ A compound
of the two pendulums are the same. A point O pendulum and a simple
in the bar on the same level as the center of pendulum compared.
the bullet will be the center of oscillation of
the bar pendulum. Bore a hole through the bar at this place so that
the lower edge of it shall be exactly at the center of oscillation.
80. Interchangeable points. The centers of suspension

and oscillation are interchangeable that is, ;
if the pen-
dulum is reversed and the center of oscillation is made the

center of suspension, the first center of suspension be-
comes the center of oscillation, and the pendulum vibrates
at the same rate as before. This makes it possible to
find the true length of a compound pendulum with great
accuracy by finding two points on opposite sides of* its
center of gravity about which it will vibrate in the same
time.
If the bar pendulum (Fig. 35) is reversed and suspended
on the knife-edge at its center of oscillation 0, it will still
ADAMS'S PHTS. 5
vibrate at the same rate as the simple pendulum. In a bar

of uniform thickness, when the center of suspension is at
one end, the center of oscillation is at a point two thirds
of the length of the bar from the center of suspension.
81. Laws of the pendulum. The laws of the simple
pendulum apply to the compound pendulum when its true
length and not its apparent length is taken.

I.The time of a pendulum is independent of its ampli-
tude. This law holds true only when the amplitude is
small. If, for example, the arc through which the pendu-
lum swings is at first about 5 or 6 and gradually becomes
less, its time of vibration does not appreciably change ;
but if a pendulum is made

to swing through a large arc, its
time of vibration becomes shorter as the length of the arc
diminishes. The law is sometimes stated as follows: The
vibrations of a pendulum are isochronous (Galileo, 1583).
II. The time of a pendulum is independent of its mass.
The time of a pendulum is directly proportional
III.
square root of its length.

to the Let t and I = respectively
the number of units of time 'and of length of one pen-
dulum and t' and I' = the number of units of time and
of length of another pendulum. Then t t' = VZ VZ'.
: :
IV. The time of a pendulum is inversely proportional to.
the square root of the acceleration due to gravity, g.

82. Experimental verification of the laws of the pen-
dulum. Galileo wa& the and verify
first to discover
experimentally these laws. His attention was drawn to

the subject in 1583 by a swinging chandelier which still
hangs in the cathedral at Pisa. These laws may be

roughly illustrated by experiments in the class room, but
accurate experiments are suited only to the laboratory.
Experiment Suspend two simple pendulums (a bullet supported

i.
by a the center of the bullet being taken for the

fine silk thread,
center of oscillation) of the same length side by side. Pull them
THE PENDULUM 67
aside through small but unequal arcs and let go of them simultane-
ously. The two pendulums will swing in unison for a long time if
their lengths are accurately equal.
In like manner start them vibrating again, making one of them
swing through a very long arc. The one vibrating through the long
arc will soon fall behind the other in its vibration.
Experiment 2. Repeat the first part of the preceding experiment,

using a wooden or a hollow ball of the same size as the bullet in place
of the bullet. This will illustrate the second law.
Experiment 3. Make one pendulum exactly 100 cm. long, and
another 81 cm. long, and start them vibrating at the same time. The
shorter one will make exactly 10 vibrations while the longer makes
9. Whatever the time of the longer one, the time of the shorter one
9
is T as great
ff for, suppose the time of the longer one is to be 1
;
second, then it will take it 9 seconds to make 9 vibrations, and accord-

ingly 9 seconds for the other to make 10 vibrations. Hence the time
of the shorter one is ^
of 9 seconds, which is 0.9 sec. The times of the
two pendulums are therefore 1 sec. and 0.9 sec., but 1 : 0.9 VlOO V8L
: : :
In the same way the times of two pendulums

81 and 64 cm. long may
be compared, or two. pendulums one of which is four times as long as
the other.
Experiment 4. Support two pendulums of the same length side
by side, using an iron ball for the bob of one of them. If some
magnets are placed under the iron ball pendulum, it will vibrate
faster than any other pendulum, that is, its time will be shorter. The
attraction of the magnets for the iron ball is an equivalent to .an
increase in the force of gravity.
83. Theory of the pendulum. The mathematical theory

of the pendulum was first worked out by Huygens (1673),
who discovered the interchangeability of the centers of
suspension and oscillation. The laws of the pendulum
are expressed mathematically by the formula t TT
y
which can easily be reduced to the form g = ^ .
By
the use of this formula the value of g for any place can be
obtained when the time and length of a pendulum at that
place have been experimentally determined ; or the length
of a seconds pendulum can be calculated for any place

when g is known
for that place. For the northern lati-
tudes of the United States the seconds pendulum is about
99.3 cm. or 39.1 in.
The United government has determined the

States
value of g at many places by means of the pendulum.
The following are some of the results obtained :
980.10 cm. Cleveland, O. 980.23 cm.

Washington, B.C.
Boston, Mass. 980.38 Chicago, 111. 980.26
Ithaca, N.Y. 980.29 Cincinnati, O. 979.99
Charlottesville, Va. 979.92 Denver, Col. 979.60
Philadelphia, Pa. 980.18 Pikes Peak, Col. 978.94
84. Uses of the pendulum. The chief use for the pen-
dulum is in the measurement of time (Fig. 36). The
firstand third laws of the pendulum make
its use possible in regulating the motion
of the hands of a clock. The motive

power is supplied by weight or a spring,
\\ an impulse being given to the pendulum

by the escapement wheel at each swing
sufficient to overcome the resistance of
the air and the friction at the point of
support. If the clock gains time, the
pendulum is lengthened by lowering the

bob; and if it loses time, it is shortened
by raising the bob. In his early experi-
ments with falling bodies before he dis-
covered the laws of the pendulum, Galileo
measured time by weighing the amount of
water flowing from an orifice.
Problems
1. How long is a seconds pendulum at Wash-
FIG. 3G. A clock ington, D.C.?
pendulum. 2. If a seconds pendulum were a meter long,
WORK 69
how long would a pendulum have to be to make a simple vibration

in 2 seconds? 3 seconds? 4 seconds?
3. At what value of g would a seconds pendulum be a meter long?
4. If a seconds pendulum is 99.3 cm. long, what is the
length of
apendulum whose time is 1.5 seconds?
5. If the time of a pendulum 88 in. long is 1.5 seconds, how long
is a pendulum whose time is 1.2 seconds?
6. How does the time of one pendulum compare with that of

another twice as long? three times as long? five times as long? n
times as long?
7. A 50-centimeter pendulum was found to make a simple vibra-
tion at a certain place in 0.7101 second. What was the value of g
at that place ?
8. A clock having a seconds pendulum 39.1 in. long keeps correct
time in winter. How much will it lose a day in summer if it becomes
39.2 in. long by expansion ?
VIII. WORK*
Work is force acting through space. For example,
85.
when a horse pulls steadily on a load moving it 100 feet,
the horse exerts force through a space of 100 feet and
does work. should pull with the same force
If the horse
for any and yet not move the load at all,
length of time
he would do no work upon it according to the meaning
given to that word in physics. Force without motion is
not work, neither is motion without force. When a bullet
is shot from a
gun, work is done on the bullet because the
gases resulting from the explosion of the powder exert
force upon the bullet through the length of the gun bar-
rel; ifthe bullet penetrates an embankment, it does work,
since it exerts force through the space it penetrates. The
1
It often happens that a familiar word is taken from ordinary lan-
guage and given a special and peculiar meaning. When a word is thus
appropriated and given a limited and precise meaning, it becomes a
technical term. The student must learn to use such a word with pre-
cision and exactness. The word work is used in this wav in physics.
body exerting the force is said to do the work, and the

body upon which the force is exerted and which is moved
is said to have work done upon it.
86. Measurement of work. Work, therefore, consists

of two elements or factors, force and space. It is ob-
vious that the force acting through a given space is

if
doubled, the work done is also doubled, or if the space

is doubled, the work done is doubled ; hence when both
the force and the space are doubled the work done is four
times as great. From such considerations it follows that
the amount of work done is measured by the product of
the force and the space, or
w = fs.
When the force and the motion do not have the same direction, the
work is not computed by multiplying all the force by all the space,
but by multiplying all the force
by that component of the motion
lying in the direction in which
the force acts, or by multiplying
all the space by that component
of the force acting in the direc-

tion of the motion. For ex-
ample, let A C (Fig. 37) represent
a force acting upon a body at C
pushing it from C to D. In this
FIQ. 37.-Diagram of work done by
a body acting with a force AC
c ^ ^ wQrk done ig not ,
through a space CD.

to AC X CD, but to EC X CD,
EC being the rectangular com-
ponent of the force A C acting in the direction CD or the work done
;
equals A C x CF, CF being the rectangular component of the motion

CD lying in the direction of the force A C.
87. Units of work. A unit of work = a unit of force
acting through a unit of space. There are two kinds of
units of work in use, the dynamic and the gravitational.
A dynamic unit of force acting through a unit of space
does a dynamic unit of work. A gravitational unit of
WORK 71
force acting through a unit of space does a gravitational

unit of work.
The the joule, the kilogrammeter, and the foot
erg, pound
are the units of work in use.
1. The erg is the work done by a force of one dyne
acting through a space of one centimeter.
The number of dynes of force x the number of centi-
meters of space = the number of ergs of work. The erg
is sometimes called the dyne centimeter of work. The erg
is a unit so exceedingly small that a multiple of it called
& joule is often used in scientific calculations.
2. A joule = 10,000,000 ergs, or 10 7 ergs of work.

3. The kilogrammeter is the work done by a force of
one kilogram acting through a space of one meter.
The number of kilograms of force x the number of
meters of space = thenumber of kilogrammeters of work.
4. The foot pound AS the work done by a force of one
pound acting through a space of one foot.

The number of pounds of force x the number of feet of
space = the number of foot pounds of work.
88. Classification of units of work.
er S ( d y ne centimeter)
dynamic or absolute I
Units of j joule (!<>' ergs)
work
I
Mogniminetar
gravitational
[
foot pound
89. Illustrative problems. A team drew a load of logs weighing

3 tons on smooth ice 1295 ft. How much work did the team do if
the average pull exerted ou the load throughout the distance was
684 lb.?
SOLUTION. 1. A force of 684 lb.
acting through a space of 1295 ft.
isequivalent to a force of 1295 x 684 lb., or 885,780 lb. acting through
a space of one foot, or 885,780 foot pounds of work.
In solving this problem the mass and the weight of the load are
not considered, since the work done depends solely on the twp factors
of work, force and space.
2. How much work is done in carrying 30 bricks to the top of a
building 60 ft. high, each brick weighing 6 Ib. ?

SOLUTION-. Weight of bricks = 30 x 6 Ib. = 180 Ib. In this case
the force exerted must be equal to the weight of the bricks. Hence
the work done, in foot pounds, is 180 x 60 = 10,800.
3. How many
ergs in a kilogram meter at Washington ?
SOLUTION. At Washington g = 980.1 cm. and hence at that place
1 gram = 980.1 dynes and 1 Kg. = 980,100 dynes. 1 meter = 100 cm.
Hence 1 Kgm. = 100 x 980,100 = 98,010,000 ergs.
90. Power or activity. In computing amount of work

done time does not enter into the problem. Thus, if 1000
bushels of grain are carried from a vessel to the top of an
elevator, the amount of work done is the same whether it is
done in an hour or a day or a month. In fact, time has
nothing to do with the problem.
But in estimating the ability of an agent to do work,
time is a factor. For example, if one machine can do a
certain amount of work in one third the time required by
another to do the same work, the first has three times the
power for doing work that the second one has.
The power or activity of a machine is the rate at which
it is able to do work. The horse power is the unit of
power in common
use in this country. Doing work at
the rate of 33,000 foot pounds per minute, or 550 foot
pounds per second, constitutes a horse power (H.P.).
One horse power is equivalent to 4562 Kgm. per minute.
A 10 H.P. engine is one that can do 330,000 foot pounds
of work per minute.
In the C.G.S. system the unit of power is the watt,
which means ability to do work at the rate of one joule per
second. 746 watts = 1 horse power. Electrical machinery
is commonly rated in kilowatts. A kilowatt, which means
1000 watts, = 1J horse power nearly (746 x 1=
994 f).
ENERGY 73
A
watt hour is a unit of work and equals 3600 joules,
and a kilowatt hour equals 3,600,000 joules of work.
IX. ENERGY
91. Energy is capacity for doing work. We are all
familiar with the fact that a body in motion can overcome
resistance and exert force through space. Illustrations of
this are occurring about us constantly. The wind may turn
a windmill or propel a boat, and a falling hammer will
drive a nail. We
instinctively fear a swiftly moving body,
and we know that such a body, especially if its mass is
large, can do great damage when resistance is encountered.

Such facts teach us that a body in motion can do work and
it therefore possesses energy. A
body in motion always pos-
sesses energy because of its motion. Such energy is called
kinetic energy (literally motion energy).
92. Measurement of kinetic energy. Since the energy
of a body is its capacity for doing work, the amount of
work it can do is a measure of its energy; and hence
energy and work are measured by the same units, ergs,
joules, kilogrammeters, or foot pounds.
All experience teaches us that the faster a body is mov-
ing or the greater its mass, the greater the force it can
exert and the greater the space through which it can exert
the force. Hence the amount of kinetic energy a body
possesses depends on its mass and its velocity. The exact
relation between the kinetic energy, mass, and velocity of
a body is expressed by the formula :
e = J mv 2.
This formula means that

I. The kinetic energy of a body is proportional to ite mass.
IT. The kinetic energy of a body is proportional to the
its
of velocity.
93. Development formula for kinetic energy.

of the Sup-
pose a force m with uniformly accelerated
/ moves a mass
motion through a space s, giving it an acceleration of a
and a velocity of v. The work done or the energy im-
parted to the mass is given by the formula, e
= fs but / ;
= ma and s = J at
2
.
Substituting these values for / and s
in the formula, we have e = ma x J 2

at .
Again, a = - ;
t>
substituting
- for a in the last
equation, we have
2.
which is easily reduced to the form e
J mv
is developed by the use of the formula
Since this formula
/= ma, which is the formula for dynamic units of force,
it gives us dynamic units of energy. Whenever this
formula is used, the result is ergs of energy, provided the
mass is expressed in grams and the velocity in centimeters
per second. The formula

2
e= mv
"
^
gives the kinetic energy in gravitational units; in foot
pounds, when the mass is expressed in pounds, the velocity
in feet per second, and g in feet per second 2
in kilogram- ;
meters, when
the kilogram, meter, and second are used
to express these quantities.
Problem. How much kinetic energy has a mass of 4 Kg. moving

with a velocity of 7 m. per second?
4 Kg. = 4000 g. and 7 m. = 700 cm. Substituting in the formula
we have
e = $ x 4000 x 700 x 700 = 980,000,000 ergs of energy.
Or, using the other formula,
e = 4X 7X7 = 10 Km - of
ENERGY 75
Problem. A falling mass of 10 Ib. strikes the ground with a

velocity of 8 ft. per second. What is its kinetic energy just before it
strikes? Ans. 10 ft. Ib.
Potential energy.
94. We have learned that a body
in motion possesses energy because of its motion but a ;
body at rest may also possess energy. A mass of iron

such as the weight of a clock or the hammer of a pile
driver when lifted has energy because it can do work
when allowed to fall. The water in a milldam, although
at rest, can do work because it is at a higher level than
the stream below the mill. Again, a coiled watch spring
or a bent bow can exert force through space and hence
possesses energy, and gunpowder because of the relations

of its constituent parts has capacity for doing work and
hence possesses energy even though it be at rest. The
energy in all these cases is due to the relative positions of
the bodies or to the relative positions of the parts of the
body.
The energy of a body due to its position or the relative
positions of its
parts is called potential energy.
In all cases of potential energy the bodies, or parts of a
body, hold their positions in opposition to a stress, hence
potential energy is often called energy of stress. For ex-
ample a lifted weight is under gravitational stress and
the earth and the weight have been separated from each
other in opposition to this stress. A coiled watch spring
is under an elastic, stress. The parts of the gunpowder
are under atomic stress or stress of chemical affinity.
Potential energy is measured or calculated by the prod-
uct of the stress or force by the strain or displacement,
or, e =fs.
If, for example, a mass of 8 Kg. is suspended 4 m. above
the ground, its potential energy is 32 Kgm. (8 x 4), be-
cause the force acting upon it is 8 Kg. and the displace-
ment is Kgm. of work would have to be done

4 m. and 32
upon it from
to raise the ground to its position.
it
95. Forms of energy. Every one deals with energy

continually, and it presents itself to us in various forms
or aspects bat in whatever form it may appear, it is
;
either energy of motion, that is, kinetic, or energy of
position, that is, potential. The chief forms of kinetic

energy are :
1. Energy of mechanical motion, i.e. motion of any
mass of matter of sensible size, called mechanical energy.

2. Energy of molecular motion, called heat.
3. Energy of electricity in motion, called the electric
current.
4. Energy of wave motion in the ether, called radiant
energy. Light is radiant energy.
The chief forms of potential energy are :
1. of gravitational stress or gravitational sepa-

Energy
ration, as a lifted weight.
2. Energy of molecular stress due to extension, com-
pression, or distortion, as a coiled spring.
3. Energy of atomic stress or chemical separation, en-
ergy possessed by gunpowder, coal, etc.

4. Energy of ether stress or electrical separation, as
electrification.
96. Transformation of energy. The changing of one
form of energy to another form of energy is called trans-
formation of energy. Each form of energy can be changed
either directly or indirectly into any other form of energy.
Indeed these transformations are going on all about us
continually. As a pendulum swings to and fro its energy
alternately changes from kinetic to potential and from
potential to kinetic ; at the extremity of its arc its energy
is all potential, at- the center all kinetic, and between
ENERGY 77
these two points part kinetic and part potential. A

steam engine transforms the kinetic energy of heat into
the kinetic energy of mechanical motion. In our bodies
the potential energy possessed by the food we eat is trans-
formed into kinetic energy of heat and also into kinetic
energy of mechanical motion.
Energy in the potential form always tends to become
kinetic, or the potential energy of a system tends to become

as small in amount as possible.
The wholescience of physics is very largely a study of
the transference and transformation of energy.
97. Conservation of energy. The amount of energy
in the universe is never increased or decreased by any
changes through which it passes. This fact is known as
the principle of the conservation of energy. It is to en-
ergy what indestructibility is to matter. The doctrine of

the conservation of energy has been said to be the greatest
principle discovered in the realm of science during the
nineteenth century.
98. Transference of Energy. Energy may be trans-
ferred from one body to another. It follows from the
principle of conservation of energy that when one body

gains energy it gets it at the expense of some other body.
Doing work always consists in the transfer of energy from the
body doing the work to the body upon which the work is done.
Hence a body can gain energy only by having work done
upon it. Very often, but not always, when energy is
transferred from one body to another, it is at the same
time transformed.
99. Energy valuable. Energy has a commercial value
in the markets of the world and men buy and sell it every
day. A steamship or railway company, or a house-
holder, buys coal because the coal has energy. As soon
as the coal is stripped of its energy, it has no value, and
the material of the coal, the ashes and the gases, is thrown
away. The energy of the coal is used to propel the ships
and the trains of cars and to warm our houses.
buy water from canal companies with
Mill owners often
which run the machinery of their mills.
to In reality
they buy, not the water, but the energy which the water
possesses and when the

;
water has parted with its energy
to the machinery of the mill, it goes on its way, of no
further use to the mill owner.
no exaggeration to say that we eat food for the
It is
sake of its energy. The heart expends many foot pounds
of energy every day in propelling the blood through the
body, and many foot pounds of energy are also required to

keep our bodies warm. We walk and run and climb
stairs, rise up and sit down, in innumerable ways expend
large amounts of energy every day, and all of it comes
from the food we eat. Our bodies are machines for
transforming and transferring energy.
Problems
1. How much work must be done to cause a displacement of 180

cm. of a 10 Kg. mass against a resistance of 200 g. ?
2. What force in dynes will lift a mass of 5 Kg.? How many
ergs of work are done in lifting a mass of 5 Kg. 20 cm. ?
3. How much work is done in lifting a 10 Kg. mass vertically
180 cm.? Give the answer in kilogrammeters, in ergs, and in joules.
Suppose a carpenter pushes a saw downward with a force of 10

4.
Ib. and drawsit back with a force of 6 Ib. If he makes 30 complete
strokes 15 in. long in sawing off a board, how much work does he do ?
5. A constant force of 100 Kg. was applied to a body and moved
it 800 m., but the direction of the force made an angle of 45 with
the direction in which the body moved. How much work was done ?
Ans. 56,568 Kgm.
6. What is the power of an agent which could do the work of
the last problem in 1.5 min. ?

ENERGY 79
7. How many
joules in a kilogram meter where g equals 980 cm.
2
per second ? Ho\v many joules in a kilogrammeter at the equator?
8. An inclined plane is 12 ft. long and 4 ft. high. How much
work is done in moving a mass of 300 Ib. up the plane, the force
being applied parallel to the plane and friction being neglected?
9. inclined plane is 16 ft. long and 4 ft. high. How much
An
work done in moving a mass of 300 Ib. up the plane, as in
is
problem 8?
10. In problems 8 and 9 calculate the work done when the force
acts parallel to the base of the plane, the lengths of the bases being
respectively 11.31 ft. and 15.49 ft. Ans. 1200 ft. Ib.
11. How much work is done in moving a mass of 200 Ib. up an
inclined plane 10 ft. long and 3 ft. high ?
12. What is the kinetic energy of a mass of 20 Ib. which has a
velocity of 32 ft. per second ? 64 ft. per second ?
13. What is the kinetic energy of a mass of 5 Kg. which is moving
with a speed of 4.9 m. per second? (Give three answers, that is,
answers in three different units.)
14. What is the kinetic energy of a ball weighing 10 Ib. after it
has been falling 5 sec. ?

15. It took a ball weighing 100 Kg. 4 sec. to fall from the top to
the bottom of a canyon. How much potential energy did it have at
starting? (Find the depth of the canyon.) How much kinetic and
how much potential energy did it have when it had been falling
2 sec. ? How much and what kind of energy did it possess just as it
struck the bottom ?
16. How much kinetic energy has a mass of 20.58 Kg. which has
a velocity of 2 Km. per second?
17. What is the kinetic energy of a cannon ball weighing 100 Ib.
and having a velocity of 2000 ft. per second ?
18. What is the horse power of a steam engine which is able to
lift 180 tons of ore
per hour from the bottom of a mine shaft 1100 ft.
deep?
19. About 198,000 joules of energy are required per hour for a 16
candle power incandescent electric lamp. How many such lamps can
be kept burning by a 60 horse power steam engine ?
20. What must be the horse power of a steam engine which is to
run a 250 kilowatt dynamo ?
21. What must be the horse power of a motor to operate an ele-

vator which with maximum load weighs 4000 lb., if the speed of
its
the elevator is to be 90 ft. per min. and friction adds two thirds as
much more to the work to be done ?
X. MACHINES. PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS

100. A Machine is a contrivance for the transference of
energy, or both the transference and the transformation

of energy at the same time it is therefore an instrument
;
for doing work. A steam engine is a machine because it

transfers energy from the steam to the moving parts of
the engine, at the same time transforming the kinetic
energy of heat into kinetic energy of mechanical motion.
A dynamo is a machine because it transforms the kinetic
energy motion into the kinetic energy of
of mechanical
the electric current. Our bodies may be considered as
machines since they transfer and transform energy.
It must be remembered, however, as one of the funda-
mental facts of physics, that a machine does not and can-
not create energy it can only give out the same amount
;
of energy as has been given to it, being merely the agent

for transferring it from one body to another. Many
attempts have been made to construct machines which,
when once started, will run themselves, giving out more
energy than they receive. Such an attempt, called the
search for perpetual motion, always results in failure, and
must do so because of the principle of the conservation of
energy.
101. Law of machines. Since transferring energy to
a body is it, work is done upon a
doing work upon
machine when energy is given to it, and work is done by
the machine upon the body to which it transfers the
energy. There are therefore always two quantities of work
in the operation of a machine, and by the principle of the
MACHINES. PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS
^ 81
V
conservation of energy these two must be equal. This is
l- the fundamental law of machines. It may be stated as
<x follows :
The work done upon a machine the work done by the

machine or the energy applied to a machine
; the energy =
given out by it. Each of these quantities of work must
course be composed of the two factors of work, the
* force factor and the space factor. Hence in the operation
of a machine there are always two forces and two spaces
*J to be considered.
102. Power and weight. The force factor of the work
done upon the machine is called the power or effort. It is
Kthe force applied to the machine. The force factor of the
. work done
by the machine is called the weight or resist-
ance. It is the force exerted by the machine in overcom-
resistance and equals the resistance overcome.
Representing thej3ow_o,r effort by p and the space

hrough which it acts by d, and the weight or resistance
and the space through which the weight acts by d',
,
the law of machines may be expressed as follows :
px d=w x d'.
The power x the distance the power acts = the weight x

the distance the weight acts.
When the product of two quantities equals the product
of two others, two of them may be made the extremes
and two the means of a proportion. Hence, the law of
machines may be expressed as follows :
w.p = d: d'.
The weight is to the power as the distance through which
I
the power acts is to the distance through which the weight
acts.
Thus the law of machines may be stated in different

ways ;
but the student should bear in mind that these are
ADAMS'S PUTS. 6
equivalent expressions, not different laws, but different

methods of stating one law.
103. The mechanical advantage of a machine. If we
consider the equation p x d=w x d f

we shall
,
see that
the factor p may be made very small provided the other
factor d is made correspondingly larger also that w may
;
be very great, if the other factor d' is very small. In

other words, by a machine a small force acting through
a large distance can overcome an enormous resistance
through a small distance. For example, a machine can
be so constructed that when the power works through a
distance of 50 ft. the weight will move only 0.001 ft. In
that case, if p is 10 lb., w will be 500,000 Ib. (10 x 50
= wx 0.001, w=
500,000 lb.) but p will move 50,000
;
times as fast and 50,000 times as far as w.

On the other hand, d' may be made very large, provided
w is made correspondingly small, and w will act rapidly
over a large distance. In this case the resistance over-

come will be small, but speed and distance will be great.
We can thus by a machine either gain force at the expense
of speed, or speed at the expense of force. machine A
can increase the force, but not the energy applied to it ;
there is no such thing as the conservation of force.
The ratio of theweight or resistance overcome to the
w called the
power or force applied to a machine, ,
is
mechanical advantage of a machine. In the illustration

given above, the mechanical advantage is 50,000, because
w is 50,000 times as great as p.
In a sewing machine the power applied by the feet is
much greater than the resistance overcome by the needle ;
the mechanical advantage very small, being less than 1,

is
but what is lost in power is gained in speed. Again,

machines are in use which cut in two great rods of iron
MACHINES. PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS 83
as easily as you would break a pipe stem ; here the me-

chanical advantage is very large, but the distance through
which the resistance is overcome is very small compared
with that through which the power acts.
104. Efficiency of machines. Some of the energy given
out by a machine is always used in doing work upon the
machine overcoming the friction of the moving
itself,
parts, resistance of the air, etc. The energy so used is

usually transformed directly into heat and is wasted.
Since it is impossible to construct a machine in which
there are no internal losses due to friction, etc., the useful
work done by a machine is always less than the work done
upon the machine and the law of machines may be stated
;
as follows :
The work done upon a machine = the useful + the wasted

work done by the machine.
The efficiency of a machine is the ratio of the useful
work done by the machine to the total work done upon
the machine. If there were no wasted work, that is, if the
machine were perfect, this ratio would be unity or 100 %
The efficiency of a machine is usually expressed as a per
cent. For example, suppose 480 ft. Ib. of work is done
upon a machine and that 360 ft. Ib. of useful work is
done by the machine its efficiency is 360 -f- 480 = .75, or
;
75%. When a machine is said to have an efficiency of

96 %, the useful work done by the machine is 96 % of the
total work done upon the machine, 4 % being wasted.
105. The simple machines. The lever, wheel and axle,
pulley, inclined plane, screw, and wedge are known as the
812;
simple machines or mechanical powers. They simply
transfer energy, not transform it. All other machines are
mechanically only modifications or combinations of these
simple machines.
In studying the laws of a few simple machines, we shall
treat them as if there were no wasted work, regarding

them having an efficiency of 100 %.
as
106. is a simple machine which consists of a
The lever
rigid bar capable of turning about a fixed axis, called the
fulcrum. There are three
classes of levers, the class to
which a lever belongs being
determined by the relative
positions of the fulcrum,
FIG. 38.-Diagramof a lever of the
and weight .
first class.
(1) In the lever of the first

class (Fig. 38) the fulcrum is between the power and the
weight. One half of a pair
of scissors, the pedal of a
piano, and a hammer when
used to pull a nail are ex-
amples of this class. The *-
distance .FA is called the
power arm and FB the weight

arm of the lever.
FIG. 39. -Diagram of a lever of the
(2) In the lever of the second class.
second class (tig. 89) the
weight is between the power and the fulcrum. The parts
AF and BF are respectively
the power arm and the weight
arm. A bar thrust under a
body in order to lift it illus-
trates this class of levers.

The point where the end of
WHM the bar rests on the ground
FIG. 40.-Diagram of a lever of the
constitutes the fulcrum.
third class. .
(3) In the lever of the third

class (Fig. 40) the power is between the fulcrum and the
weight. FA is the power arm and FB is the weight
MACHINES. PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS
arm. With this lever the power is always greater than

the weight and is sacrificed for speed or quickness of
movement. The forearm is a lever of the third class ;
the elbow joint is the fulcrum. The muscle which exerts

the power is in the upper arm and is joined to the forearm
by a ligament very near the elbow. The hand constitutes
the weight.
The law of the lever.
107. Let AFB (Fig. 41) be a
leverand suppose that the power turns it to the posi-P
tion A'FB'. The
work done by the
P
x A'c C
power is
and the work done
upon the weight is
W x B'e. By the
general law of ma-
chines these two ex-
pressions are equal
to each other,
P xA'c = Wx B'e.'
FIG. 41. Diagram to illustrate the law of
From this equation the lever.
we may form the
proportion, W: P
= A'c B'e. It can be: shown by geome-
try that A'c:B'e =
AF:BF. Hence, W: P = AF BF :
and Wx BF=PxAF. Therefore, (1) The weight is

to the power as the power arm is to the weight arm. Or,
(2) The power times the power arm equals the weight times
the weight arm.
Since by definition the mechanical advantage of a ma-
chine is the ratio of the weight to the power, the mechan-
ical advantage of the lever is equal to the inverse ratio of its

arms.
108. The moment of a force importance in produc-
is its
ing rotation about an axis. For example, in closing a

door, we know that a push near the hinges does not close
itso readily as one near its outer edge. This shows that
the moment or importance of a force in swinging the door
depends upon the distance of its point of application from
the hinges or axis of rotation.
Experiment. Let a small hole be bored through a meter stick

at its 50 cm. mark, and let the meter stick be balanced in a horizontal
position on a nail passing through this hole. A small piece of tin
bent so as to clasp the stick will assist in balancing it. Suspend by a
loop of thread a 50 g. weight A (Fig. 42) 40 cm. from the nail on one
FIG. 42. Apparatus to illustrate the principle that the moment of a force
depends on its distance froin the axis of rotation.
side and a 100 g. weight B 20 cm. from the nail on the opposite side.
They will exactly balance each other. The weight evidently has a B
tendency to rotate the ruler about the nail in a clockwise direction, as
indicated by the arrowhead c the weight A tends to turn it in a
;
counter-clockwise direction, as shown by the arrowhead e. The

importance, however, of the 100 g. weight at 20 cm. from the nail in
producing rotation is the same as that of the 50 g. weight at 40 cm.
from the nail. Hence, the moment of a force depends upon its dis-
tance from the axis of rotation as well as upon its magnitude.
Measure of the moment of a force.

109. The moment of
a force is measured by the product of the force into the
perpendicular distance between its line of direction and

the axis of rotation. For example, the moment of the
force A is 50 x 40 = 2000, and of B, 100 x 20 = 2000.
The moment of a force tending to produce rotation in
a clockwise direction is called positive, while that tending

to produce rotation in the opposite direction is called
negative. The moment of is positive B

and of A
negative.
110. Law of When a body is at rest or in
moments.
equilibrium, the algebraic sum of all the moments acting
upon it is zero; or the sum of the positive moments is
equal to the sum of the negative moments. For example,
if 10 g., 20 g., and 100 g. are placed respectively 15, 25, and
40 cm. from the nail on the right, and 50 g. and 200 g.

respectively 13 cm. and 20 cm. from the nail on the left,
the ruler will be in equilibrium.
POSITIVE MOMENTS NEGATIVE MOMENTS

10 x 15 = 150 50 x 13 = 650
20 x 25 = 500 200 x 20 = 4000
100 x 40 = 4000 Sum = 4650
Sum = 4650
The law power x the power arm = the

of the lever, the
weight x the weight arm, is simply the law of moments

applied to the lever for the power and the weight always
;
tend to turn the lever in opposite directions about the

fulcrum, the moment
of one being positive
and of the other
negative.
If the direction of
the force is not at
right angles to the
bar or if the bar be W
, , FIG. 43. Diagram of a bent lever.
bent, then the mo-
ment of the force is not the product of the force times
the distance from the axis to the point of application of
the force, and in the case of the lever the apparent length
of the arm is not its real length. Thus (Fig. 43) I'D,
not FA, is to be considered the power arm of the lever

AFB, and P x FD is the moment of P about F as an
axis. Likewise OF is
the weight arm and Wx CF is the
moment of W about the axis F.
111. Problem. Let AB (Fig. 44) be a bar 24 m. long with a

mass of 1200 Kg. suspended 3 m. from A and one of 1800 Kg. 5 m.
A n from the end B. What
is the pressure on the
supports at each end?
This problem may be
solved b ? the Principle
1200kg.
of parallel forces ( 55),
but the solution is much
more easily accomplished
FIG. 44. Diagram of a problem in moments -
offerees ^ moments.
Let j9 be the pressure at
A and p atr
J5. First, consider A as an axis of rotation. The two
weights will have positive moments, and
the reaction of the support at B will form
a negative moment about A. Since the
bar is at rest, the positive and negative
moments are equal. Therefore 3 x- 1200
+ 19 x 1800 = p' x 24. (The reaction at
B is equal to the pressure upon it.) Again,
take B as an axis of rotation. The two
weights will have negative moments, and
the reaction of A a positive moment about
B. Hence, 5 x 1800 + 21 x 1200 = p x 24.
Ans. p = 1425 Kg.,;/ = 1575 Kg.
112. The wheel and axle (Fig.

45) consists of a wheel E and a
cylinder D, united so as to turn
together on a common axis. Often
the wheel is replaced by a crank
FIG. 45. Diagram of a
as in the windlass (Fig. 46) or by
wheel and axle.
bars as in the- capstan (Fig. 47)
which is used on board ships for raising the anchor ur
for bringing the ship to the dock. A similar arrange-

ment is used for moving buildings, the power being
supplied by a horse hitched to a

bar and traveling in a circle
around the machine, the rope
which is attached to the build-
ing being wound around a verti-
cal cylinder or axle. The cranks
and large sprocket wheel of a
FIG. 46. A windlass.
bicycle constitute a
wheel and axle, the
cranks corresponding
to the wheel and the
FIG. 47. A capstan.
sprocket to the axle.
113. Lawwheel and axle.
of It is clear (Fig. 45) that
when the wheel and axle revolves once around, the power
acts through a space equal to the circumference of the
wheel, while at the same time the weight moves through
a distance equal to the circumference of the axle. Hence,
by the general law of machines, power x circumference

of wheel = weight x circumference of axle, or w : p cir-
cumference of wheel circumference of axle. By geome-
:
try, circumferences of circles are to each other as their

radii. Hence, denoting the radius of the wheel Ac by r,
and the radius of the axle Be by r', w: p = r: r TJie
r
.
mechanical advantage of the wheel and axle equals the ratio

<>f the radius of the wheel to the radius of the axle.
It follows from the last proportion that p X r= w x r'.

Hence the wheel and axle furnishes another illustration

law of moments.
of the
Figure 45 shows that the wheel and axle may be regarded

as a modified form of the lever of the first class, the axis
being the
fulcrum,
the Ac the
radius
power arm, and the
radius Be the weight
arm.
114. Trains of
wheel work.
Several wheel and
axles are often com-
bined (Fig. 48,) the
energy being com-
municated from one
to the other by belts
FIG. 48. A train of wheel work used on a
derrick.
or by cogwheels or
gears. In such cases
the weight or resistance of the first constitutes the power
of the second, the
weight of the sec-

ond the power of the
third, and so on.
The ratio of the
weight to the
power
may be determined
by the continued ap-
plication of the law
for the simple wheel
and axle, or from the
FIG. 49. A traveling crane.
general law of ma-
chines the following law may be derived The weight is :
to the power as the continued the radii of the

product of
wheels continued product of the radii of the axles.

is to the
A windlass generally one of the essential parts of

is
derricks (Fig. 48) and cranes (Fig. 49) which are used
and moving very heavy weights.
for lifting
In some combinations the radius of the part to which
the power is applied, or the wheel, is often much smaller
than that of the axle. This is always the case when great
speed is
required. The force factor or power is sacrificed
for the space factor or speed. The buzz saw and the
bicycle are good illustrations. When, however, it is de-
sired to sacrifice speed for power the radii of the axles
are made small in comparison with those of the wheels.
115. The pulley (Fig. 50) consists of a wheel called a
sheave, turning freely on an axis fixed in a frame called a
block. The sheave has a grooved
rim to hold a cord or rope. A
pulley serves the purpose of chang-
ing the direction of the pull on the
FIG. 50. Pulleys.
rope; and, friction

aside, the tension is
the same at every point

in the rope, no matter
how many pulleys it
FIG. 51. Diagram of two fixed pulleys. passes over, just as it
would be if it were
straight. This is sometimes known as the principle of
transmitted tension. For example (Fig. 52), if a pull of
10 Kg. is exerted at P, there will be a stress of 10 Kg. at

j, (7, Z>, and at every other point throughout the length
of the rope.
pulley is eitner fixed, as at A (Fig. 52), where the

A
block is fastened to some immovable body, or movable,
as at B, where it rises and falls with the
weight.
If only fixed pulleys are used, as in
Figure 51, nothing is gained except a
change of direction of the force employed.
Thus a horse pulling horizontally may be
used to raise objects vertically; but the
weight and the power, except for friction,
will be equal, and the distances through
which they are exerted will also be equal.
To gain a mechanical advantage, combina-
tions of fixed and movable pulleys are
used as shown in Figure 52. Such an
arrangement is called a block and tackle.
116. The law of the pulley. In Figure
52 when the weight Wis raised one foot,
each of the four parts of the rope support-
FIG. 52. -Block and

in S ^
must be shortened one foot, and
tackle. consequently the part to which the power
P is applied must be lengthened four
feet; that is, P will move four times as far as IF" does.
In general, if there are n parts of rope supporting the
movable pulley and the weight, the power must move n
times as far as the weight. Hence, by the general law
of machines, is n times as W
great as P, or n x W P
and
W= -
n. Therefore the mechanical advantage of the
-p
pulley equals the number of parts of the rope supporting

the weight.
117. The (Fig. 53) consists of two sheaves

differential pulley
or pulleys A and
a fastened rigidly together, the diameter of one
being slightly less than that of the
other. L is a movable pulley to
which the weight is attached. A
continuous chain passes around the
pulleys upon the circumference of
which are spurs fitting the links of
the chain to keep it from slipping.
If the power is applied to the chain
at c, pulling it down until A makes
a whole revolution, the part e is
wound up on A a distance equal to
2 TrR, and the part d is unwound
from a a distance of 2 TIT, R and
r being the radii of and a, respec-
.-I
tively. The parts d and e are there-

fore shortened by an amount equal
to 2 TrR 2 which is equally
TZT,
divided between them. The weight

is therefore lifted half that amount or
2 TrR - 2irr
This is the distance
the weight moves when the power

FIG. 53. -Diagram illustrating
moves 2 rrR. Applying the law of the differential pulley.
machines, we have
.
2 P R- r
118. The inclined plane as a machine. It has

been shown ( 58) that the weight on an inclined
plane is to the force holding it in place as the
length of the plane is to its height. By applying
the law of machines to the plane, the same result is
obtained.
The work done
lifting the weight in (Fig. W
54) against gravity from the bottom to the top of
the plane is W
x A, and the work done by the power P
in pulling the
weight from A to C is x L By the P
law of machines these two amounts of work are equal,

therefore
Wxh or W:P = l: h. Hence,

the mechanical advantage of the inclined plane equals
the ratio of the length of the plane to its height.
FIG. 64. Diagram to illustrate the use of an inclined plane as a machine.
119. The screw is a cylinder A

(Fig. 55) around whose
circumference winds a spiral groove. The ridge between
the adjacent parts of the groove constitutes the thread
of the screw. The screw turns
in a block B called a nut within
which there are a spiral thread
and groove exactly corresponding
to those of the screw. If the
thread or groove winds around
the cylinder twenty times in one
FIG. 55. Screw and nut. inch of its length, the screw is
said to have " twenty threads to

the inch." In that case the pitch of the screw, which
is the distance from one thread to the next measured
along a line parallel to the axis of the cylinder, is one
twentieth of an inch. When the screw is turned once
around it is moved lengthwise in the nut a distance equal
to its pitch. A screw having twenty threads to the inch
must be turned through twenty complete revolutions to

advance it one inch.
120. The law of the screw. The power is usually
applied to the screw at the circumference of a wheel or at
the end of a lever, and hence travels in a circle, and the
weight is overcome by the movement of the screw length-
wise in the nut. When the screw is turned once around,
the power acts through a space equal to the circumference
of the wheel, while at the same time the weight is moved
through a distance equal to the pitch of the screw.

Let r denote the radius of the wheel or the length of
the lever, and d denote the pitch of the screw.
In one revolution of the screw the work done by the
power = P
x 2 TIT, and the work done upon the weight
= W x d. Hence by the general law of machines,
WX d= P x 2 ?rr, or W: P = 2 irr : d.
Therefore,
The weight is to the power as the circumference through
which the power acts is to the pitch of the screw. That is,
the mechanical advantage of the screw equals -.

d
121. The uses of the screw. Since the distance through
which the resistance is overcome by a screw is so very
small in comparison with that through
which the power acts, there is a very
great gain of force at the expense of
space, although the efficiency of the
screw is small because of the large
amount of friction. The screw is often
used to overcome great resistances very
slowly and through small distances. It
is used for
raising great masses, such as
FIG. 56. -Jack screw,
buildings (Fig. 56), and compressing used for raising
cotton and other substances. buildings.
A very important use of the screw, especially for

scientific purposes, is in the measurement of exceedingly
small with great accuracy.
distances The dividing
engine, micrometer screw (Fig. 57), and the spherometer
make use of the screw for this purpose. In such instru-
ments a graduated circle is attached to the screw so that
FIG. 57. Micrometer screw.
itcan be turned through a known fraction of one revolu-

tion. For example, if the pitch of the screw is 0.5 mm.
and the circle is divided into 50 equal parts, turning the
screw through one of the divisions of the graduated circle
will measure -fa of 0.5 mm., which is 0.01 mm., because
one whole revolution of the screw measures 0.5 mm. More
than 25,000 parallel lines have been ruled on glass in the
space of an inch by a dividing engine.
XI. FRICTION
122. Friction. Resistance to the sliding of one body
over another is called friction. It is due to the roughness
of two surfaces and may be lessened, but never
the
entirely destroyed, by making them smoother or by filling
the depressions with oil or some other lubricant.
Friction isgreater just as the body begins to move than
it is after the motion is once established, hence two kinds
of friction have been recognized (1) friction of rest or
:
static friction, and (2) friction of motion or kinetic friction.

FRICTION 97
Resistance to motion is very greatly diminished by

having one of
the surfaces upon the other instead of slide. The ball bearings
roll
of a bicycle illustrate this. There is still, however, resistance to the

motion which is called rolling friction to distinguish it from sliding
friction, but strictly speaking it is not properly called friction.
123. Value of friction. Friction always opposes motion,

and when motion occurs, the energy used in overcoming
it is transformed into heat and is wasted by
being diffused
among surrounding objects.. Friction is therefore the
great obstacle to perfect efficiency in machines.
And yet we could not dispense with friction. The
difficulty ofwalking on very smooth ice shows us that we
could neither walk nor run if tbere were no such thing
as friction we could hold nothing in our hands nails,
; ;
bolts, and screws would hold nothing together machines ;
could not be run by belts locomotives, electric cars,

;
automobiles, and bicycles would be useless, because tbey

depend on the friction between their wheels and the
roadway for their propulsion.
124. Laws of friction. Coulomb (1821) established by
experiment the following laws of friction :
1. Friction is directly proportional to the pressure between

the two surfaces. If, for instance, a brick is drawn along
on a surface, the friction is doubled by placing another

brick upon the first one because this doubles the pressure.
2.Friction is independent of the extent of the two sur-
faces in contact. According to this law the friction
between a brick and the surface on which it slides is
the same whether the brick rest upon its broad side, its
narrow side, or upon its end, because the pressure, the
weight of the brick, is the same in the three cases only ;
the extent of- surface is changed.

3. Kinetic friction is independent of the speed of the
moving parts.
ADAMS'S PHYS. 7
125. Coefficient of friction. The ratio between the

friction and the pressure is called the coefficient of friction,
that is,
coefficient of friction = friction

pressure
Since the friction proportional to the pressure or varies
is
as the pressure, it follows that the coefficient of friction

for any two surfaces a constant quantity ; because
is if
the pressure is multiplied by any quantity, the friction is
also multiplied by the same amount, and the quotient of

one by the other is not changed. It depends on the
nature and roughness of the surfaces in contact.
The laws of friction may be verified by means of the
inclined plane but very accurate and concordant results
;
are not to be expected. The third law is only approxi-

mately true, and in
fact large variations
from all the laws
are generally met
with in practice.
Let (Fig. 58)
be a block of pine
resting on a pine
board AB. The
end B is raised
until the block
FIG. 58. Diagram of the friction of a block
on an inclined plane.
slides down the
sliding
plane with uniform
motion after being started. The weight of the block
represented by OG- may be resolved into two components,
OP, representing the pressure on the board, and OF, which
equals the friction because it just overcomes it. Hence,
OF
OP
the coefficient of friotiua,
, . ...
_=_
OF BO
FRICTION 99
therefore the coefficient of friction equals the height of the
plane divided by its base when the body slides with uniform
motion doivn the plane.
The angle BAC is called the critical angle for sliding
friction. To verify the laws for statical friction, the
angle increased until the block just begins to move.
is
The angle is then called the limiting angle of friction or

the angle of repose.
The first lawis tested by placing different
weights on
the block 0. The angle does not change with different
pressures and hence the ratio BO -r-AC is constant and the
law is verified.
The second law illustrated by turning the block on
is
edge so as to present less surface to the plane. The angle

still remains the same as before.
Problems
1. If the power or effort applied to a machine is 250 Ib. and it
acts through a distance of 50 ft. while the weight moves through a
distance of half an inch, how great is the resistance overcome?
2. What the gain in a machine in which the force applied
is is
100 times as great as the resistance overcome ?

3. A meter stick whose center of gravity is at the 50 cm. mark
weighs 250 g. It is balanced on a knife edge at its 75 cm. mark by a

weight suspended from its 90 cm. mark. How great is the weight?
What is its moment? (See 65.)
4. Ameter stick is balanced on a nail through its center of gravity
at its 50 cm. mark. A 50 g. mass is suspended at its 70 cm. mark, a
100 g. mass at its 85 cm. mark, and a 200 g. mass at the 92 cm. mark.
If a 500 g. mass is placed at the 20 cm. mark, where must a mass of
70 g. be placed to keep the bar in equilibrium ?

5. Show by a diagram how to rig a block and tackle so that its
mechanical advantage shall be 5.
6. How many fixed and how many movable pulleys in a block and
tackle in which the mechanical advantage is 3? 4? 5? 6? 7?
7. The weight arm of a lever of the first class is attached to the

power arm of another of the same kind
weight of the so that the
first becomes the power of the second. The power arm of
lever
the first is 3 ft. and its weight arm 6 in. long, and the power arm
of the second is 4 ft. and its weight arm 3 in. What resistance
can be overcome by the second lever by applying a power of 1 Ib. to
the first ?
8. The handles wheelbarrow measured from the axis of the

of a
wheel are 5 ft. long. A
Ib. is placed 16 in. from the axis
load of 280
of the wheel. How much must a man lift to wheel the load? To
what class of levers does the wheelbarrow belong?
9. A weight of 10 Ib. is 6 in. from the fulcrum of a lever of
the second class. If the power is 2 Ib., how long is the lever?
10. The crank of a derrick (Fig. 48) is 20 and the wheel

in. long,
on the axle turned by the crank has 16 teeth. The larger wheel on
the second axle has 48 teeth and the smaller one, 10 teeth. The
large wheel on the third shaft has 120 teeth and the axle about which
the rope winds is 6 in. in diameter. If a force of 100 Ib. is applied to
the crank, what force is exerted by the rope?
11. Four men are raising an anchor weighing 1 ton by a capstan

the barrel of which is 10 in. in diameter. The circle described by
the handspikes is 8 ft. in diameter.- How much force must each
man exert ?
12. A
power of 60 Kg. applied to a wheel 80 cm. in diameter
exactly balances a weight on the axle of 800 Kg. What is the
diameter of the axle?
13. The pilot wheel of a boat is 4 ft. in diameter and the axle is
8 in. The rudder on being moved offers a resistance of 150 Ib.

What power must be applied to the wheel to turn the rudder ?
14. In a differential pulley the diameter of the larger sheave is
12 and that of the smaller one is llf in. How much force must
in.
be applied to the chain to lift a mass of 9600 Ib. ?
15. How long must an inclined plane be which is 4 m. high to

enable a car weighing 400 Kg. to be pushed up it by a force of
20 Kg. ?
16. The screw of a letter press has 6 threads to the inch and the
diameter of the wheel is 12 in. If a force of 30 1)>. is applied to
the wheel, what pressure is exerted by the plate?

STATES OF MATTER 101
17. A jackscrew has 4 threads to the inch and the lever used to
operate is 3 ft. long. If the efficiency of the screw is 50 %, how much
force must be applied to the lever to raise a mass of 3 tons?
18. In the last problem how far must the power travel to raise the
weight 6 in. ?
19. If it requires a force of 9 Ib. to draw a block of wood weighing

36 Ib. along a horizontal board with uniform velocity, what is the
coefficient of friction ?
20. If the coefficient of friction of wood sliding on wood is 0.30,
how high must one end of a board be placed to allow a block of

wood to slide down it with uniform velocity, the base of the plane
being 10 ft.?
XII. STATES OF MATTER

126. The molecular structure of .matter. It is univer-
sally accepted that any piece of maHey w -not one. ,0*011-

.
tinuous whole, but is a collection of a vast number of

exceedingly small particles called molecules. It is also
believed that these particles are in ceaseless motion and
not in permanent contact with one another. It may seem
incredible to a beginner in science that a piece of solid
iron, for instance, is composed of separate moving parti-
cles ;
but a great number of facts, many of which we
shall study, support this theory ; many of them, if not all,
are fully and satisfactorily explained by this theory and
are not explainable if this theory is discarded.
It is further believed that molecules are composed of
smaller particles called atoms^ and it has been assumed
still
for many years that these atoms are indivisible and in-
destructible being the ultimate divisions of matter.
Recent investigations and discoveries, however, have lead
to the abandonment of the idea that atoms are indivisible
and indestructible, and we now have the electronic hy-
pothesis of the composition of matter.
According to this hypothesis all matter is composed of
molecules, molecules of atoms, of which some seventy or

eighty different kinds are known to chemistry, and atoms
of electrons. All electrons are supposed to be alike, but
there are different kinds of atoms because the numbers of
electrons composing them differ. If, as seems to be the
case, each electron consists of an electric charge, we
may come to believe that all matter is composed of
electricity.
127. Size of molecules. Molecules are almost inconceiv-
ably small, many times too small to be seen by the most
powerful microscope yet their size has been investigated,
;
and the limits to their probable size can be stated with a

l
con!sid erable dfegyee of certainty. Lord Kelvin's famous

comparison in regard* to the size of molecules is this If a :
'-droj)f'pfytaie* êt-e'.tnaghified to the size of the earth, the

molecules in it would be smaller than cricket balls but
larger than fine shot.
128. Porosity. If the molecules of a body are not
in contact with one another, it follows that there must be
spaces between them. These spaces are called pores and

give to matter the property of porosity. Pores in this
physical sense are not visible channels such as extend
through a sponge or a piece of charcoal, but spaces of in-
sensible size existing between the molecules of all sub-
stances.
The porosity of metals has been shown by attempts to
compress water by squeezing a closed leaden shell full
of water. The water came through the pores of the lead,
appearing on its surface as perspiration appears on the
skin. The same result followed when a silver shell was

used and also when the silver was heavily plated with
gold.
The rapid passage of gases through sheet rubber, hot
iron, and steel also illustrates the porosity of matter.
STATES OF MATTER 103
129. States of matter. Matter exists in three physical

states, or forms, the solid, the liquid, and the gaseous.
Wood is an example of the solid, water of the liquid, and
air of the gaseous state of matter.
A solid is a body that has a shape and a volume of its
own, and it offers resistance to achange of its shape and

volume. The characteristic property of a solid is rigidity,
or resistance to change of shape.
Aliquid is a body that has a volume, but not a shape of
its own it takes the shape of the vessel containing it.
;
A liquid offers resistance to a change of volume, but no

permanent resistance to a change of shape.
A gas has neither shape nor volume of its own, but it
takes the shape and volume of the vessel containing it.
Gases expand indefinitely as the pressure upon them is
diminished, always filling the vessels containing them.

Thus we may have a vessel partly full of a liquid with a
definite surface separating it from the space above it, but
this is impossible with a gas.
The term fluid includes both liquids and gases. The
characteristic property of a fluid is mobility, a term having
reference to the ease with which a fluid changes its shape
and parts slide over one another.
its No fluid offers a
permanent resistance to a change of shape, and the
slightest force will cause a movement among its particles.
It is upon this property of mobility that many of the
phenomena which we are to study depend.

The term vapor used to designate the gaseous portion of a sub-
is
stance that is part liquid and part gaseous at the same time. Thus,
the space about us at all times contains some water in an invisible form
called water vapor, and the space above any liquid always contains
some vapor of that liquid. A solid or liquid when passing into the
gaseous state is said to vaporize. All true gases or vapors except a
few, which like iodine have color, are invisible. A fog or mist or a
so-called cloud of steam is not a gas or vapor. True steam is invisible.
130.
Liquids incompressible. Although liquids and
gases are alike in some respects, they differ from each
other very greatly in one important particular, that is,
in compressibility. Gases are easily compressible, but
liquids are not. It is an easy matter to force a large
quantity of air into a small space, as is done in inflating a

pneumatic tire and in filling tanks with compressed air for
operating the brakes of electric cars. On

the other hand,
it requires enormous pressures to change the volume of a
liquid even a little ; the amount of the compression is so

small that liquids are commonly said to be incompressible.
Of course, if a liquid is not compressed by pressure, it
does not expand as a gas does when the pressure on it is
removed.
131. The same substance in different states. It is a
familiar fact that water can exist in any one of the three
states, the solid, the liquid, or the gaseous, according to the
conditions of temperature and pressure. What is true of
water, however, is true of many other substances they ;
may exist in any one of the three states, if the proper con-
ditions of temperature and pressure are attained. Liquid
and even solid air can be produced. It is not possible,
however, to liquefy or vaporize some substances, simply
because a proper temperature for the purpose cannot be
reached without causing a chemical change in them.
Wood, for example, cannot exist in the liquid form,
because the heat necessary to liquefy it would entirely
change its character.
132. Molecular forces. Forces acting between the
molecules of a body at distances too small to be perceived
are known as molecular forces. When sufficiently near
together, molecules attract one another with very great
force. This molecular attraction is called cohesion when it
exists between molecules of the same kind, and adhesion
MOLECULAR FORCES AND MOTIONS IX GASES 105
when it acts between unlike molecules. When a piece of

iron or glass is broken, it is the force of cohesion that is
overcome. The clinging of chalk to the blackboard, mud
to the shoes, and flour to the hands are illustrations of
adhesion.
The distance through which molecular attraction acts
is so extremely small that generally when a hard body is
broken, the parts cannot again be brought close enough to
restore cohesion yet many powdered substances, such as
;
graphite of which the leads of lead pencils are made, may

be welded into solid masses by great pressure. Cohesion
may be reestablished between the parts of soft bodies like
wax, putty, and gold with comparative ease. In filling a
tooth, thin leaves of gold are packed so firmly that they
are made to cohere in one solid mass.
XIII. MOLECULAR FORCES AND MOTIONS IN GASES
133. Molecular motions in gases. In gases the molecules

are believed to be so far apart and move with so great
rapidity that each one is independent of the attraction of

the neighboring molecules, so that it moves in a straight
line until it collides with another molecule or strikes the
wall of the containing vessel ; it then bounds off in another
direction. Under ordinary conditions the free path, as the
course from one encounter to another is called, is very
short although in comparison with the size of the mole-
;
cule itself it is very long. The encounters or collisions of

a single molecule with other molecules in a second are
numbered by millions. If a gas is compressed and made
more dense, the molecules are of course crowded more
closely together, and their average free path becomes
shorter and the collisions more frequent.
That the spaces between the molecules of a gas are large
in comparison with the diameter of the molecules is shown
by the great change of volume in a gas when it is con-

densed into a liquid ; steam, for instance, when changed to
water, occupies less than yôo^ ^ ^8 original volume.
The velocities of gas molecules are very great indeed.

It has been calculated that the molecules of hydrogen gas
under standard conditions have an average velocity of
about a mile per second. Oxygen molecules under the
same conditions have a velocity only one fourth as great.
Since an oxygen molecule weighs sixteen times as much as
a hydrogen molecule, but moves one fourth as fast, its
kinetic energy is the same as that of the hydrogen molecule.
Prove it by using the formula e = J mv 2 .
134. Elastic tension of gases. Pressure must be exerted

at all times on a gas to keep it from expanding. The force
with which the gas tends to expand is called its elastic
tension, or, in the case of a vapor, vapor tension.
The elastic tension of a gas at rest must always be equal
to the pressure upon it ; for, if the tension were less than
the pressure, the gas would be compressed; or, if the
tension were greater, the gas would
expand until pressure and tension
became equal.
\
Experiment i. To illustrate the elastic
tension of place an air-tight rubber bag
air,
or a toy balloon containing only a small
quantity of air under the receiver of an air

pump and exhaust the air from the receiver.
As the air about the bag is taken away and
the pressure on the outside of it diminishes,
the air within the bag expands, inflating it
to its full
capacity (Fig. 59). Upon ad-
FIG. 59. Experiment il- mitting the air again to the receiver, the
lustrating the elastic bag shrinks to its original size. Thin glass
tension of air. cubes are sometimes burst by the elastic
MOLECULAR FORCES AND MOTIONS IN GASES 107
tension of the air within them when the pressure on the outside
of them reduced by taking the air surrounding them away.
is
Experiment 2. Fit a bottle about half full of water with a stopper

through which one arm of a U-shaped glass tube extends (A, Fig. 60).
Place the other arm of the tube
in a bottle (B) about one fourth
full of water. The arms of the
tube should extend nearly to the
bottom of both bottles. Place the
apparatus under the receiver of an
air pump and exhaust the air from
it. As the pressure in the receiver
lessens, the elastic tension of

the air in A causes it to
expand
and forces the -water from
the bottle through the tube
into B. When the air is ad-
mitted again into the receiver,
the water is forced back into
A. Thus the elastic tension of
.- Experiment illustrating the
elastic tension of air.
the air in A and the outside
pressure balance each other and hold each other in equilibrium.
The tension or outward pressure of a gas is

elastic
easily explained by the motion of its molecules. Since

even a cubic centimeter of a gas contains many billions of
molecules, and since these molecules are moving with very
great velocities, it is clear that the blows or impacts of
the molecules against the walls of the containing vessel
must be exceedingly numerous so numerous and fre-
quent in fact as to be practically continuous. This bom-
bardment against the sides of the vessel by the molecules
causes the pressure, and if the side of the vessel gives
way, the molecules because of their motion follow it up
and the gas expands.
Consider for a moment how
rapidly the gases in a
cannon must expand in order to propel the shot from the
gun with great velocity. Do you imagine a gas could
expand so quickly and with such great force if its mole-

cules were moving sluggishly or not moving at all ? Or
can you conceive how a gas can expand in such a way,
unless it is composed of small particles with spaces be-
tween them ?
135. Air pump. The air pump, as its name implies, is
an instrument for removing air from a closed vessel. Its
most essential part
is a hollow cylinder
or barrel 00 (Fig.
61), the interior of
which is very smooth,
so that a piston, P, a
sort of close-fitting
plug, can be easily

moved to and fro
within it. This
FIG. 61. Diagram of an air pump.
piston is usually
covered or packed with leather and fits the cylinder so
closely that no air can pass between it and the sides of

the cylinder. T is a tube leading to the vessel from
which the air is to be exhausted, and o is a small hole
through the piston. The opening o and the entrance

to the tube T
are closed by valves v and *.
An air pump for school purposes is usually fitted with
a plate, LL, to the center of which the tube Textends.
This plate is a flat metallic disk perhaps a foot in diame-
ter, so smooth and true that when a glass bell jar is R
placed upon it, mouth downward, an air-tight vessel is
formed from which the air can be taken by the pump.

This bell jar is called a receiver.
136. Action of the air pump. When the piston is
raised by the rod H, the pressure in E
decreases and the
downward pressure of the atmosphere closes the valve v.
MOLECULAR FORCES AND MOTIONS IX GASES 109
The air in the receiver, because of its elastic tension,

expands and lifting the valve the space E.
8 fills
When the piston begins to descend, it compresses the

air in E slightly and the valve 8 closes and v opens. This
allows the air in E to pass to the upper part of the cylinder
and at the next upward stroke of the piston out into the
atmosphere. When the cover of the cylinder is air-tight,

another valve is placed at a which opens when the piston
rises but closes when it descends. Observe that all valves
open outward, thus allowing air to flow out but not in.
With such an air pump as this a very high degree of exhaustion

cannot be attained because the elastic tension of the air finally
becomes too weak to lift the valves. To remedy this the more ex-
pensive pumps are so constructed that the valves are opened and
closed automatically by the movement of the piston and not by the
air. But even then a perfect vacuum cannot be made, though the
valves and piston fit so perfectly that there is no leakage; for if
the receiver has, for example, a volume of three
litersand the barrel of the pump a volume of one
liter, first double stroke of the piston will remove
the
one fourth of the air and leave three fourths of it.
By the second double stroke one fourth of the re-
mainder is taken and three fourths of the remainder
is left, that is, three fourths of three fourths of the
air remains after two double strokes of the piston,
or (|) 2 After ten double strokes the amount re-
.
maining would be (f)

10
Thus it is evident that,
.
no matter how many strokes are made, a portion

of the air still remains in the receiver.
137. The condensing pump. If the

valves of an air pump all opened in the
opposite direction, the air would be forced
into the receiver instead of being with-
drawn from it. Such a pump is a condens-
ing pump. A
bicycle pump (Fig. 62, is
an illustration of a condenser in which the densing pump.
piston itself acts as a valve. It is packed with a cup-
shaped which
piece of leather, aa, allows the air to pass
readily on the up stroke but on
; the down stroke the air
under compression enlarges the rim of the cup so that it
fits the cylinder closely and the air cannot pass by it.
Compressed air, or air which has been forced into large

receivers by condensing pumps, is very extensively used.
The brakes of electric cars and railroad trains and a large
variety of pneumatic tools, such as drills and hammers, are

operated by compressed air.
138. Diffusion. When a room or a vessel is filled with
several gases of different densities, the gases do not
arrange themselves permanently in layers according to
their densities, the densest at the bottom and the lightest
at the top ; but they intermingle so that in time each gas
is distributed throughout the whole space as uniformly as
it would be if it were the only gas present.
This intermingling of different gases is called diffusion.
The diffusion of gases is readily explained by the rela-
tively large spaces between the gas molecules and their

great rapidity and freedom of motion.
We should expect a dense gas to diffuse more slowly
than a rare one because the molecules of a dense gas are
either closer together or in less rapid motion, and experi-
ment shows this to be true, the rates of diffusion of gases
being inversely proportional to the square roots of their
densities.
The composition of air affords a striking illustration of
the diffusion of gases, as the proportions of its different
constituents are practically the same everywhere.
Experiment. Fill two small bell jars, one with hydrogen, the other
with oxygen, and cover the mouth of each with a glass plate. Then
place them together mouth to mouth with the hydrogen jar above the
other and withdraw the glass plates. Since oxygen is 16 times as
MOLECULAR FORCES AND MOTIONS IN GASES 111
dense as hydrogen, we might expect it to remain in the lower jar and

the hydrogen in the upper one but after standing 15 or 20 minutes a
;
test will show that the tw o gases are thoroughly mixed.

r
mixture A
of these two gases is explosive. Insert the plates between the jars
and take them apart. Apply a lighted taper to the gas in each. A
slight explosion in each case will show that the gases have diffused
into each other.
The greater rate of diffusion which a light gas possesses

over that of one more dense is easily shown when the two
gases are separated by a porous partition.
Experiment. Close a battery cup made of unglazed earthenware

with a firm, thick cork which has been rendered impervious to air by
being soaked in hot paraffin, and connect
this cup with a bottle by a glass tube as
shown in Figure 63. The bottle should be
nearly full of water and be provided with

a jet tube extending nearly to the bottom.
Care must be taken that the stoppers and
tubes all fit air-tight.
Place over the porous cup a battery jar or

a bell jar full of hydrogen or illuminating
gas. A jet of water will soon issue from
the jet tube which is due to the increased
pressure in the porous cup. This pressure
is transmitted through the tube connecting
the cup to the bottle, thus forcing the water
out of the jet tube, and it is due to the fact
that the hydrogen diffuses into the cup
through its pores faster than the denser
air diffuses outward from the cup into the
bell jar.
FIG. 63. -Apparatus illus-
If now the bell jar is removed, the reverse
.,-, i mil i
will happen. The hydrogen will diffuse out
tratinsr the diffusion of
hydro| e n gas through a

of the -porous cup faster than the air about porous cup.
it can pass in, and as a
consequence a
diminished pressure in the cup will be the result. This will be
made evident by the water rising in the tube from the bottle to the
porous cup, if that tube is long enough to extend into the water.
lli> MECHANICS AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER
XIV. MOLECULAR FORCES AND MOTIONS IN SOLIDS
139. Molecular forces and motions in solids. In solids

the force of cohesion has greatest intensity, and the
its
molecules, although in constant motion, do not move from

point to point within a body with great freedom as they
do in gases and liquids. Yet it has been shown that when
a body of lead isplaced upon a mass of gold, some of the
latter finds its way slowly up through and into the upper
part of the former. Thus we know that there is diffu-
sion to same extent among solids at ordinary temperatures.
At higher temperatures, about 500 C., it has been proved
that all metals diffuse into each other to a considerable
degree. Such facts as these seem to make it certain that

the molecules of solids as well as those of gases and
liquids are in constant motion.
Different kinds of solids show great diversity in their
characteristics and properties. This fact is doubtless due
to differences in their cohesive forces acting within them, as
well as to variations in their molecular motions.
140. Strain. When a solid is bent or twisted or
changed or size in any way," it is said to be

in shape
Strained, and a change of shape or a change of size of a

body is called a strain. We
thus see that there are two
kinds of strain, one consisting of a change of shape, and
the other of a change of size.
141. Elasticity is the property which matter has of
exerting force to recover from a strain. Just as soon as

a force begins to strain an elastic body, that is, to change
its or shape, an elastic force begins to resist the
size
straining force and tends to restore the body to its

original size or shape. Elasticity has been called power
of recovery. A body is not elastic because it can be
MOLECULAR FORCES AND MOTIONS IN SOLIDS
stretched, bent, twisted, or compressed; but because it
exerts force to resist and recover from such strains.

The
restraining force and the restoring or elastic force
together constitute a stress. The student should be care-
ful not to call a strain a force ; the stress is a force, and
the strain results from the action of the stress.
As there are two kinds of strain, so there are two cor-
responding kinds of elasticity, i.e. elasticity of form or

shape, and elasticity of size or volume. Solids possess both
kinds of elasticity, but fluids have only that of volume.
Illustrations of this property of matter are very com-
mon. The bent bow and a stretched rubber band strive
to recover their shape, and compressed air in an air gun
strives to resume its volume. Steel is made into springs
ofmany forms which well illustrate this property. Glass
and ivory are very elastic.
Experiment. Let a smooth marble block having a plain surface be

coated with a thin layer of printer's ink. If a glass or ivory ball is
now touched to the block, only a small black spot will be made upon
it, since the plane of the block is tangent to the ball but if the ball
;
is dropped upon the block from the height of a meter or so, a much
larger black spot is made upon it. This shows that the ball is slightly
flattened upon striking the marble. The rebound of the ball is caused
by the elastic force exerted by the ball in recovering its shape.
142. Limit of elasticity. If the restoring force of a

strained body continues constant and causes the body
to resume its former size or shape immediately, no matter
how long the strain has lasted, the body is perfectly elastic.
All fluids are perfectly elastic. Glass and steel are practi-
cally so. A piece of glass that had been bent slightly for
twenty-five years was observed to recover its shape per-
fectly as soon as the distorting force was removed.

When a body strained beyond a certain limit, it suffers
is
a permanent change of shape, or a set: The point at

ADAMS'S PHVS. 8
which this is about to take place is termed the limit of
elasticity.
143. Hooke's law. Whenever a body is strained within

the limits of its elasticity, the force with which it reacts is
proportional to the amount of the strain. This is known

as Hooke's law.
The archer in bending his bow illustrates this law. If
he bends the bow a little, only a small force is required ;
but if he bends it twice as much, then he must exert
twice as much force as before, and the bow will exert
twice as much force on the arrow. A spring balance and
the also act on the same principle.
butcher's scale A
three-pound weight distorts the spring just three times as
much as a one-pound weight, and the pointer attached to
the spring moves three times as far.
FIG. 64. Apparatus to illustrate Hooke's law.
Experiment. Fasten a meter stick in a horizontal position

(Fig. 64) by clamping it at one end to a firm support, and suspend a
scale pan from the other end of the stick. Then insert a needle in
MOLECULAR FORCES AND MOTIONS IN LIQUIDS 115
*
the free end of the meter stick for an index, and support another
meter stick just back of the needle in a vertical position. Place in
succession 100 g., 200 g., etc., in the scale pan, and measure by means
of the needle and the upright meter .stickthe amount the horizontal
one is bent by each weight. The amount of the bending will be found
proportional to the weight in the pan. This experiment illustrates

the truth of Hooke's law.
144. Plasticity. A solid which exerts no elastic force

to recover from a strain is said to be perfectly plastic, or
inelastic putty, moist clay, and dough are practically so.
;
Such bodies offer resistance to change of shape because of

their viscosity, not because of lack of plasticity.
A
plastic body that may be beaten into thin leaves is
called malleable.Gold, the most malleable substance, can

be beaten into leaves so thin that 300,000 of them are
required to make a pile an inch high.
A plastic body that may be drawn out into fine wire is
termed ductile; gold, silver, and platinum are the most

ductile substances.
A body that breaks when the strain exceeds a very
small limit is called brittle.
XV. MOLECULAR FORCES AND MOTIONS IN LIQUIDS
145. Molecular motions in liquids. The spaces between

the molecules in a liquid are so much smaller than in
gases that the motecules are never entirely free from one
another's attraction, and the cohesive force in liquids is
considerable. The molecules of liquids have, however,
great freedom of motion, so that they wander from point
to point throughout the whole mass of the liquid. This
freedom which liquids as well as gases possess renders the
explanation of many phenomena relating to them com-
paratively simple and easy to understand.
146. Viscosity. Although there is great freedom of

motion among the molecules of fluids, there is some
resistance to the gliding of one part of a fluid over another
part of it. This resistance offered to the motion of the parts

of a body when gliding over one another is called viscosity.
It it a sort of internal friction. All fluids are more or
less viscous. Ether and alcohol are liquids of small vis-
cosity, being termed mobile or limpid. Honey, molasses,
and balsam are liquids of large viscosity. The viscosity
of water is shown by the fact that it soon comes to rest
after being given a whirling motion. Gases are also
viscous. This is evident in air, from the fact that a stream
of air always drags some of the surrounding air along
with it.
A perfect fluid, if there were such a thing, would have

no viscosity and no rigidity it would be perfectly mobile.
;
147. Diffusion of liquids. Liquids as well as gases

when placed in contact intermingle to a greater or less
extent, but the diffusion is not unlimited as with gases.

Some liquids, such as oil and water, diffuse
into each other scarcely at all or to a
limited extent ; while other liquids,
such as water and alcohol, mingle without
limit.
This diffusion occurs even when the
liquids are left wholly undisturbed it ;
must be, therefore, that the molecules of

the liquids are in motion.
Experiment. Place some water colored with

blue litmus in a small, deep Jjar (Fig.
'
v 65) and then
FIG. 65. Experi- n ,
,
.
ment poul> a 8ma11 <l uantlt y of sulphuric acid very care-

illustrating
the diffusion of ^ty i nto tne bottom of the jar by means of a
one liquid into thistle tube. The acid, which is nearly twice as
another. dense as the water, will remain for a time at the
MOL1-XTLAU FORCES AM) MOTIONS IX LIQUIDS 117
bottom of the jar but will gradually diffuse upward, making itself
evident by changing the color of the liquid from blue to pink.
148. Solution. When a lump of sugar is placed at the

bottom of a deep dish of water, it gradually disappears
from sight and in time the whole mass of water is
sweetened by it. It must be that the sugar is composed
of small particles, or molecules, too small to be seen, and
that they are in motion. When a solid or a gas diffuses
in this way through a liquid, it is said to be dissolved
in it. The molecules of the solid are distributed uni-
formly throughout the liquid, and the solid as such
disappears. The
liquid in which the solution takes place
is called the solvent. The mobility of the molecules of a
dissolved solid approaches the mobility of a gas, and recent
investigation has shown that some of the laws relating to
solids in solution are similar to some of the most important
laws of gases.
149. Osmosis and osmotic pressure. Two different
liquids or solutions when separated by a porous partition
or membrane often pass through the membrane and inter-
mingle at different rates, that is, one liquid passes through

the partition in one direction faster than the other liquid
passes through in the opposite direction. This diffusion
of two liquids at different rates through a porous mem-
brane is called osmosis.
Many animal membranes, such as the walls of an intes-

tine and
also the walls of many plant cells, permit a sol-
vent, such as water, to pass through while not allowing the
dissolved substance to pass in the opposite direction.
Such membranes are termed semipermeable.
The water or the solvent passes through the membrane
into the presence of the dissolved solid, and there is, on
that side of the membrane, an increased pressure called
osmotic pressure. This pressure is due to the presence of
molecules of the dissolved solid. It resembles in

some respects gas pressure, and some of
the most important laws of gas pressure
apply also to osmotic pressure. Osmotic
pressures are often very great, and osmosis
and osmotic pressure play a very im-
portant part in the circulation of liquids
in plants and animals.
Experiment. Bore a hole about 2.5 cm. in

diameter and 8 or 10 cm. deep in a carrot, using a
carpenter's bit for the purpose. Then fill the hole
almost full with dry sugar and add water to
within a centimeter of the top. The hole should
now be closed with a rubber stopper in which are
a glass plug and a long piece of barometer tubing.
Be sure that the stopper is pushed firmly into the
carrot. Support the carrot (Fig. 66) in a tumbler
or wide-mouthed bottle full of water so that the
water shall cover the greater part of its surface.
The cell walls of the carrot constitute a semiper-
meable membrane -which permits the water to
diffuse through into the cavity containing the
sugar, but the sugar molecules cannot pass out-
ward. The osmotic pressure due to the dissolved
sugar forces the water up the tube. It has been
known to rise with such an arrangement more than
3 meters in a few hours, but this is by no means a
measure of the full amount of the pressure.
XVI. SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY

150. Adhesion between gases, liquids,
and solids. Absorption. Whenever a gas
FIG. 66. Vertical ^ i n contact with the surface of a solid or
section of an ap -
liquid, the force of adhesion acts between
paratus to illus- ,- . ,. . .
trate osmotic the gas and that surface .Ine result is

pressure. that the molecules of the gas near the
SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY 119
surface are drawn closer together and thus a film of con-

densed gas covers the solid or liquid surface. All surfaces
about us are thus covered with a film of air which is
denser than ordinary air. For this reason it is very
difficult to remove the last traces of air from a glass
vessel when a vacuum is being formed in it.
A small lump of charcoal because it is filled with small

holes has a very large amount of surface with which a
gas can come in contact, and hence it is able to absorb

a volume of gas many times its
own volume. Spongy platinum

will absorb or condense a jet of
hydrogen so rapidly that the heat
generated will ignite the hydrogen.
Experiment. Collect over mercury a

large test tube full of dry ammonia gas
and insert under the mouth of the test
tube a lump of charcoal which has shortly
before been heated. The ammonia gas
will at once begin to disappear, the mer-
cury rising in the tube to take its place
(Fig. 67). This absorption of the gas by 67. - Apparatus to il-
charcoal is due to the adhesion between lustrate the absorption of

the gas and the charcoal surface. ammonia by charcoal.
151. Adhesion between liquids and solids. Whenever

the adhesion between a solid and a liquid exceeds the
cohesion within the liquid itself, as is the case with water
and clean glass, the solid is wet by the liquid ; but when
the cohesion exceeds the adhesion, as in the case of
mercury and glass, the liquid does not wet the solid.
Experiment. Attach three cords to a disk of glass about 8 cm. in

diameter and suspend it in place of one of the pans of a beam
balance in such a way that the disk shall be as nearly horizontal as
possible. The under side of the disk should be perfectly clean. First
counterpoise the disk by some shot or weights and then place a dish
of water beneath it at such a height that the balance beam shall be
horizontalwhen the disk rests on the surface of the water (Fig. 68).
Add carefully more weights to the opposite pan. At first the water
beneath the disk will be lifted above the
level of the water in the dish, and finally
the disk will be lifted from the water.
The under side of the disk, however, will
be found to be wet. This shows that the
water itself was pulled apart, not the
water separated from the glass, and that

the adhesion of water to glass is greater
than the cohesion between the water
molecules themselves.
Repeat the experiment, using mercury
instead of water. If the mercury is clean
and dry, more force will be necessary to
lift the glass disk than before; but in
this case the glass breaks away from

the mercury, the cohesion between the
FIG. 68. Experiment illus- mercury molecules being greater than
trating adhesion between the adhesion between the mercury and
a liquid and a solid. the glass.
152. The surface of a liquid differs in some respects

from its interior and has peculiar properties. Any mole-
cule in the interior of a
liquid, as at A (Fig. 69), is
surrounded on all sides by

other molecules and is at-
tracted by them equally in
all directions, each molecular
attraction on one side being
,
, ,
,
FIG. 69. Diagram of forces acting
balanced by an equal attrac- 011 a particle near the surface of
tion on the opposite side ;
a liquid.
hence such a molecule is in
equilibrium with respect to the molecular attractions

acting upon it, These attractions are due to the force
of cohesion.
A molecule, however, at or near the surface of a liquid,

as at B and (Fig. 69), is more or less free from molecular
attractions in directions exterior to the liquid, and hence
the attractions toward the interior are not balanced by a
molecular attraction outward. The result is that the sur-
face molecules exert a pressure on the interior of the
liquid and cause the surface to act as if it were an elastic

stretched membrane.
153. Surface tension. The tendency of the surface of
a liquid to contract and to act as an elastic membrane is
called surface tension.

It follows as a result of surface tensions that the free
surface of a liquid must always be trying to become as
small as possible. The form of raindrops, dewdrops,
globules of mercury, and soap bubbles proves this to be
true, because geometry teaches that any given bulk has
the smallest possible surface when it is in the form of a
sphere. All liquids when free from distorting influences
take the spherical form, the form whose surface has the
least possible area. Shot is manufactured on this prin-
ciple. The molten metal is poured through sieves at the
top of a tower, and the bits of metal take the spherical
form while falling. Large drops of a liquid are usually
distorted by their own weight, but in the following experi-
ment the distorting effect of gravity is overcome.
Experiment i. Make a mixture of alcohol and water, using

nearly twice as much alcohol as water. This mixture can easily be
adjusted by the addition of small quantities of water or alcohol at a
time so that a large globule of olive oil will remain suspended in it
at any depth. The fact that the oil takes the spherical form affords
an interesting proof of surface tension.
Experiment 2. By means of a clay pipe blow a large soap bubble,
then remove the pipe from the mouth and observe the contraction
of the bubble. To show that the air is being driven from the bubble
point the stem of the pipe toward a candle flame. Faraday was able
in this way to extinguish the candle. This experiment illustrates

surface tension because the bubble contracts and forces out the air.
Experiment 3. Form from a piece of iron wire a ring 10 or 12 cm.
in diameter, allowing the end of the wire to project for a handle ;
tie tothe ring a loop of thread. Dip this ring into a soap solution,
thus forming a film over
it with the loop lying in
the film (a, Fig. 70).
If now the film within
the loop be broken by
being touched with a hot
FIG. 70. Experiment to illustrate surface
wire or a piece 'of blot-
tension.
ting paper, the loop will
be made to take immediately the form of a circle as shown at b.
Geometry teaches that the opening b has the largest possible area
when it is circular. Since it is as large as possible, the area of the
film outside of the loop covering the remainder of the ring must be
as small as possible. That it becomes as small as possible is proof of
surface tension.
154. Surface of a liquid in contact with a solid. If you

examine the surface of water where it is in contact with
the side of a clean glass dish, you will find it turned
upward as shown at a, Fig. 71. Sometimes, when the
FIG. 71. Diagram of the surfaces of liquids in contact with a solid.
glass is not clean, the surface of the water

next to the
glass takes the form shown at 6, or if the glass
is greasy,
the surface is turned downward as shown at c. Pure

mercury in contact with clean glass takes the form shown

at c.
The angle ODE which the liquid makes with the solid
at the point of contact is called the angle of contact.
If the adhesion between the solid and the liquid is
greater than the cohesive attraction of the liquid mole-

cules for each other, the liquid wets the solid and the
angle of contact is acute, as at a. If the attraction

between the solid and liquid equals the attraction of
the liquid molecules for each other, then the angle of
contact is 90, as at b but when the cohesion is greater
;
than the adhesion, then the liquid does not wet the solid,
and the angle of contact is obtuse, as at c.
155. Capillarity. When

a clean glass tube of fine
bore is
placed vertically in the water, the water rises in
the tube, standing at
a higher level within
the tube than in the
vessel around it.
The angle of contact

causes the surface of
the water in the tube 5
, , FIG. 72. Diagram to illustrate the elevation
to be concave upward and the depression of liquids by capillarity .
(a, Fig. 72), and the

surface tension, tending to contract this surface, trying to
straighten it out as it were, raises the water in the tube.

When the tubeplaced in mercury, the angle of con-
is
tact obtuse, causing the surface to be convex upward

is
(5, Fig. 72), and the surface tension forces the mercury in
the tube to a lower level than in the dish around it.
This elevation or depression of a liquid by. surface tension

is called capillarity.
Capillary action is most noticeable in the fine hairlike
tubes, hence the name (Latin, capillus, a hair). Oil rising

124 MECHANIC'S AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER
in the wick of a lamp and the absorption of ink by a

blotter are familiar illustrations of capillary action.
156. Laws of capillarity.
I. Liquids are elevated in tubes when they ivet them or

when the angle of contact is acute.
IT. Liquids are dejwessed in tubes when they do not wet

them or when the angle of contact is obtuse.
TIT. The elevation or depression of the liquid is inversely
proportional to the diameter of the tube.

The third law is easily illustrated by dipping several
clean glass tubes having different bores in water. The
water will stand highest in the
tube having the smallest bore,
and lowest in the tube of largest
bore.
The same law may be illus-
trated by wetting two glass

plates and bringing them to-
gether along a vertical edge, as
in Figure 73. The water will
FIG 73. -Experiment illustrat-
ing capillarity between two

rf ^ h t h ^ j
glass plates. are nearest together.
XVII. TRANSMISSION OF PRESSURE BY FLUIDS

157. Pressure in fluids at rest is due to two causes,
(1) pressure exerted upon the fluid from without by the
walls of the containing vessel, and (2) pressure due to
gravity or the weight of the fluid itself.
The wall of an inflated bicycle tire exerts pressure on
the air within it, and the piston of a bicycle pump exerts
pressure on the air within the pump.

It is evident that the lower part of a fluid must support
the weight of the fluid that rests upon it, and hence it is
TRANSMISSION OF PRESSURE BY FLUIDS 125
easy to understand how gravity or the weight of the fluid

must cause pressure in a fluid.
The word pressure when used with exactness in physics
does not denote the total force exerted on the ivhole of a
surface, but the force per unit area. Thus, if a force of
100 g. acts on a surface of 5 sq. cm., the pressure is 20 g.
The pressure on any surface is found by dividing the total
force on the surface by the area of that surface ; and con-
versely, t he total force exerted on any surface is found by
multiplying its area by the pressure upon it.
158. Pressure at any point within a fluid at rest is equal
in all directions. true whether the pressure is due
This is
to the walls of the containing vessel, or to gravity, or to

both combined. Imagine a minute cube of water about
the point a in a vessel full of water
(Fig. 74), and suppose the pressure
on this cube to be greater in one
direction than in any other. The
cube would then be moved in the
direction of the greater force be-
cause of the mobility of fluids ;
but the fluid supposed to be at

is
rest, and hence there cuii be no

motion and hence no force at any
point within a fluid greater in one
direction than another. The same 74. - Diagram of a
reasoning holds for air as well as minute cube of water in

wa ter. a jar of water.
159. Fluid pressure perpendicular

to the surface. The pressure of a fluid at rest is always
perpendicular any surface upon which
to exerted. it is
Suppose it were not perpendicular and let pr represent

the pressure of a fluid on the surface AB (Fig. 75).
This force could be resolved into two rectangular forces
cr and er,one perpendicular and one parallel to the sur-

face. Because of the mobility of the fluid it is evident
that the component cr would cause motion
along the surface. But by hypothesis

the fluid is at rest. Hence there can be
no component along the surface produc-
ing motion, and this is true only when
the pressure pr is perpendicular to AB.
160. Transmission of pressure. Pas-
cal's law is as follows : Pressure exerted
at any place upon a fluid inclosed in a
FIG. 75. Diagram vessel is transmitted undiminished in all

to illustrate the directions to every part of the interior of
direction of fluid .-, -,
* VeSSeL
pressure.
Imagine a box (Fig. 76) to be filled
with wheat or with smooth bright bicycle balls. Because
the kernels of wheat or the balls slide over one another
easily the contents of the box will
exert pressure on its sides as well as
on the bottom ; and if additional pres-
sureis exerted on the contents through
an opening in the top by means of the

block B* the wheat will tend to over-
flow or to lift the
cover, exerting
pressure upwards as well as on the
bottom and sides of the box. If the
box were filled with rusty balls or
rough irregular bodies that would FIG. 76. Diagram to il-
not slide over one another, little or lustrate the transmis-

sion of pressure.
no extra pressure would be exerted on
its sidesand top, but the pressure would be transmitted
only to the bottom directly beneath the block B. The
action of the wheat or the balls illustrates ver}^ imper-
fectly how fluids transmit pressure, imperfectly because
TRANSMISSION OF PRESSURE BY FLUIDS 127
there is much friction when the kernels of wheat or the

balls are moved about, whereas the mobility of fluids is
practically perfect.
161. Illustrations of transmitted pressure. If a bottle fitted with

a perforated rubber stopper is filled with water, it can be easily
broken by forcing a smooth brass rod just large
enough to fillthe hole in the stopper down into
the water. In making this experiment it is
necessary to fasten the stopper in place (Fig.
77), and no air bubbles should be left under
the stopper. In forcing the rod into the water
the pressure is exerted on the water at the end
of the rod and this pressure is transmitted to
the whole interior surface of the bottle.
Suppose, for example, the diameter

of the rod to be 0.5 cm. and the force
with which it is pushed into the bottle
is 5 Kg. The area of the end of the
rod would be 0.2 sq. cm. (nearly).
Hence every square centimeter of the
interior surface of the bottle would be FIG. 77. Experiment
subjected to a pressure of 25 Kg., or to illustrate the
transmission of
more than 350 rpounds to the square
pressure by water.
inch. The would probably burst
bottle
long before any such pressure was reached. If you study

this example carefully, you will understand that the
smaller the rod the greater will be the pressure per unit
area and the greater the total force on the interior of
the bottle. If this bottle were connected
by a tube of
any length whatever to another bottle full of water, the
same pressure would be transmitted to that also.
The water mains of a city afford an illustration of the
transmission of pressure by a liquid while the air brake in
use on railroad trains illustrates the transmission of
pres-
sure by gases.
1-28 MECHANICS AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER
162. The hydraulic press, which

a very extended
lias
use in industrial operations, affords, perhaps, the best

illustration of Pascal's law. It consists of two water-
tight cylinders, C and D (Fig. 78), connected by a pipe

E. In each cylinder there is a plunger or piston,A and B.
These pistons work
in the same way as
the rod described in
the preceding para-
graph. They are
free to move up and
down and yet fit so
perfectly where they

enter the cylinders
that little or no water
leaks out. The valve
v allows water to flow
from to D, but not
in the opposite direc-
FIG. 78. Diagram of the hydraulic press.
tion, and the valve d
allows water to enter C
from the supply tank L, which is
kept full by the pipe $, but not to flow back. When
the plunger A, which may be operated by a lever or by
steam, is lifted, water enters through d when A is ;
forced down the water flows from to D, and the pres-

sure exerted on A is transmitted from the end of A to the
end of j, as well as to all other parts within the cylinders.
The pressure on B exactly equals that on A, but the total
force on B is as many times greater than on A as the area
of B is greater than that of A.
When used as a press, the substance to be compressed,
K, is placed between a platform 6r, on the top of J5,
and a rigid structure H, above it. Many of the pas-
senger elevators in high buildings are operated on the
PRESSURE IN FLUIDS DUE TO GRAVITY 129
same principle. Generally the car of the elevator is

moved by wire cables and pulleys attached to the piston
B (although sometimes the car is placed immediately on
top of jB, the cylinder D being a deep one extending
down into the ground beneath the elevator).
The hydraulic press illustrates the general law of ma-
chines. The student should be able to show that the
force on A times the distance A moves down, equals the
force on B times the distance it moves up.
XVIII. PRESSURE IN FLUIDS DUE TO GRAVITY

163. Weight of a fluid causes pressure. The reason
why there pressure in a fluid, due to gravity or the
is
weight of the fluid itself, is easily understood from the

fact that the lower portions must bear the weight of
the upper portions. Because gravity acts downward, we
can readily see why there should be a downward pressure ;
but it has been shown ( 158) that at any point in a

fluid at rest there is an equal pressure in all directions,
upwards and downwards. It is because

laterally, as well as
fluidstransmit pressure in all directions that the downward
pressure due to gravity causes pressure in other directions
as well.
164. Pressure in air due to
gravity. We live at the
bottom of a great ocean of air. The height of the air
above the surface of the earth has been estimated by
some to be about 45 miles and by others at about 200
miles, but the density of the air decreases so gradually that
it is
impossible to place any exact limit to its height. Air
has weight; and the air about us, the surface of the earth,
and our bodies must bear the weight of the air above us.
Although this weight is considerable, we are unconscious of it

because the pressure due to it is the same in all directions, and also
ADAMS'S PHYS. 9
because it is balanced by the elastic tension of the air and gases

within the tissues and liquids of the body. This elastic tension of the
"
air within the body is shown by the process of " cupping used by
physicians. When a cup is placed upon any portion of the body and
the air is exhausted therefrom, the skin bulges up into the cup because
of this elastic tension. The pressure on the outside of the body and
the elastic tension of the air within the body are equalized by the
outside air being taken into the body by the lungs and distributed
throughout the tissues of the body by the blood.
One liter of air at C. and under standard pressure
weighs 1.2932 g., or the density of air is 0.0012932 g. per
cubic centimeter.
Experiment to show weight of air. Fit a large bottle with a

perforated stopper through which a glass tube extends, and place a
thick-walled rubber tube over the end of the glass tube, the rubber
tube being provided with a clamp. Make sure that the stopper and
clamp close the bottle air-tight. Weigh the bottle, tube and all, care-
fully, and then, connecting it to the air pump by the rubber tube,
exhaust the air from it as thoroughly as possible. Close the tube by
the clamp and weigh again. The difference in the two weights will
be the weight of the air removed. Dip the end of the tube into a jar
of cold water, and open the clamp to allow the water to flow into the
bottle. Hold the bottle so that the water in it and in the jar are at
the same level. (Can you tell why the water flows into the bottle ?)
Weigh again as before and find the weight of water in the bottle.
The weight of the water in grams equals the number of cubic centi-
meters of air removed. (Why?) Cal-
culate the density of the air removed.
Experiment i. Place a tumbler in

a basin of water so that it will be filled,
then invert it and nearly out of
lift it
the water. The water will not fall out

FIG. 79.
of the tum *>ler while the edge of it re-
-Experiment to illus-
trate the downward pressure mains below the surface of the water in
of air. the basin. The downward pressure of
the air on the surface of the water in
the basin is transmitted by the water in all directions, so that at the
point b (Fig. 79) there is an upward pressure equal to the downward
pressure at a.
Experiment 2. The fountain

in vacuo shows the pressure of the
air. A (Fig. 80) provided with a stopcock at the
tall glass vessel
bottom has a jet tube extending up into it.

The air is first removed from the vessel by
the air pump. The lower end of the vessel
is then placed in water and the stopcock is
opened. Since the outer end of the jet tube
is under water, the air cannot enter; but the
pressure of the air on the water forces it up

into the vessel in a strong jet. large bottleA
closed with a rubber stopper through which
a glass tube extends
may be used for the
experiment.
Experiment 3.
Fill a large test tube
\vithanevenrimtothe FlG
so.-Simple form
top with water, and O f the fountain in
cover its mouth with a vacuo.

card which has been
soaked in water a few moments. Being sure
that the card touches the rim all round, hold
it in place and invert the test tube. The
hand may now be removed from the card and
the water will not fall
out (Fig. 81). It is the
FIG. 81. -Water sup-
upward pressure of the
ported in a test tube by
air that prevents it.
the upward pressure of
the air.
The test tube may be
held horizontally, or ob-
liquely, in fact, turned through a complete
circle, and the water will be held in the test
tube by the pressure of the air.
Experiment 4. The Magdeburg hemispheres

(Fig. 82) are two hemispherical cups of iron or
brass usually about 10 cm. in diameter. The
edges of the cups are turned so true and smooth
that when they are placed together they form
an air-tight sphere. One of the cups has a F io. 82. Magdeburg
stopcock ending in a screw, by which it can be hemispheres.
attached to an air pump or to which a handle may be screwed. The

other cup is also provided with a handle. Place the cups together and
attach the sphere to the air pump. Remove the air from the sphere
and close the stopcock so that the air cannot enter again. Remove
the sphere from the pump and attach the handle to it. If the exhaus-
tion is nearly complete, it is quite possible that no two boys of the
class can pull the hemispheres apart. It does not matter in what
direction the pull may be, whether horizontal, oblique, or vertical,

they are still held together by atmospheric pressure.
This experiment also illustrates the elastic tension of the air. The
more air there is within the sphere, the more easily are the parts sepa-
rated. When the stopcock is open, the hemispheres fall apart easily,
because the elastic tension of the air within equals the pressure of the
air without.
These experiments show us that there is pressure in air

in all directions, but they do not show that it is equal in
all directions at any point. One more experiment, how-
ever, will make this clear.
Experiment. Fasten a piece of thin sheet rubber over the large end
of a student-lamp chimney (a rubber band will hold it in place better
than a string), and close the other end
of thechimney with a stopper through
which a glass tube about 1 cm. in
diameter extends. Pass a rubber tube
over this glass tube. Then partially
exhaust the air from the chimney by
means of the air pump or by the
lungs. It be necessary to close
may
FIG. 83. Sheet rubber stretched
by the pressure of the air.
,, .
the tube
,
^
,
,
a clam P tO P reV6nt the
air reentering the chimney, or possibly
you can do this by pinching the tube between the thumb and finger.
The air will press the sheet rubber into the chimney, as shown by
Figure 83. The distance it is pressed in ivill be the same whatever the
position in which the chimney is held, thus showing that the pressure is
equal in all directions.
"But," some one will say, "the rubber is drawn in by

suction." Another experiment will show that this is not
true.
Experiment. Cover the sheet rubber of the last experiment with

a plate of glass that fits so that no air can get under it, and repeat the
"
experiment. The rubber will not be drawn in by suction," but as
soon as the plate is slipped off it will be pushed in by atmospheric
pressure. Moisten the glass to make it slide easily on the rubber.
Really there is no such thing as suction.
165. Pressure in liquids due to gravity. have shown We

that at any point in air there is pressure which is equal in
all directions, and that this pressure is due to the weight
of the air itself.

Likewise at any point within a liquid, there is pressure
which is exerted equally in all directions and which is due
to the weight of the liquid itself. In liquids pressure

due to gravity is proportional to depth.
Experiment. A, B, and C (Fig. 84) represent three glass tubes
open at both ends, each containing mercury in the lower bend. When
these tubes are lowered
into a deep jar of water,
C
the water at the opening
of the tubes exerts pressure
which is transmitted by the
inclosed air to the mercury,
causing it to rise in the

long arm of the tube. The
difference in the height of
the mercury in the two
arms is a measure of the
pressure exerted by the
water at the mouth of the
FIG. 84. Diagram of apparatus for measur-
tube. The tube A meas-
ing the downward, lateral, and upward
ures the downward pres-
pressure in a liquid.
sure, B the lateral, and C
the upward pressure. If the three tubes are placed in succession in
water so as to measure the pressure at the same point, it will be found
equal in all directions.
Experiment. Figure 85 illustrates an apparatus for measuring

upward pressures in water. It consists of a thistle tube over the
mouth of which at a is stretched thin sheet rubber. A disk of wood
e rests upon this rubber diaphragm and is fastened to a metal rod
extending up through the tube and supporting the pan A at the

top. Any motion of the pan up or down is indicated by the lever
B. The whole is supported by a platform
attached to a tall glass jar. The position
of the lever is marked at o when there is
no water in the jar, and then a 100 g.

weight is placed in the scale pan and water
poured into the jar carefully until the lever
B is brought back to o. The upward pres-
sure at a then balances the downward pres-
sure of the 100 g. weight. Let b be the
surface of the water at this adjustment.
Substitute now a 200 g. weight for the first
weight and again add water until the lever
is brought to the mark at o. It will be
found that the water is at c, the depth
from c to a being just twice the depth from
FIG. 85. Diagram of ap- b to a. Other
weights may in the same
paratus for measuring up-
ward pressures in water. manner be tried, and it will be found that
the depth of a below the surface of the
water is proportional to the weights in the pan A. This will prove
that upward pressure in a liqaid is proportional to the depth ; but
since pressure at any point is equal in all directions, the same law
applies to other directions as well. D is a siphon for removing water

from the jar, and E is a thistle tube for filling
the jar.
166. The surface of a liquid at rest.

Under the action of gravity alone the free
surface of a liquid at rest is always level

or horizontal.
FIG. 86. Diagram
Let a (Fig. 86) be a particle in the sur- O f the effect of
face of a liquid which is supposed to he at gravity on apar-

ii ,1 P .
,1
rest while the surface is not level.
T -,
Let ac
ticle in the sur-
,
face of a liquid
represent the force of gravity acting on the

particle. This force ac may be resolved into two rec-
tangular components, ad perpendicular and ae tangent to
the surface at a. The component ae would be unopposed
and hence would produce motion ; therefore the liquid

cannot be at rest as supposed. It can be at rest only
when the component ae is zero, and this can occur only
when ad coincides with ac and the surface is perpendicu-
lar to ac, that is, when the surface is level.
167. Pressure in a horizontal plane. Pressure in fluids
due to gravity is equal at all points in the same horizontal
This is true no matter what the shape of the
plane.
vessel maybe and follows from the fact that pressure
varies with the depth. Since the surface of a liquid at
rest is horizontal, all planes through the liquid parallel
to the surface are also horizontal hence all points in any
;
such plane have equal depth and consequently equal

pressures.
Observe that pressure due to gravity differs from pres-
sure exerted externally on a fluid in this respect. While
the first is the same at all points in the same horizontal
plane, it is different in different planes, but the latter is
the same at all points throughout the fluid,

whether in the same horizontal plane or
not.
168. Pressure at any depth below the sur-
face of a liquid. The total force on the
bottom of a vessel with vertical sides
(Fig. 87) equals the weight of the liquid

in the vessel. If the vessel is full, the
volume of the liquid equals the area
EFG-H times its depth AE, and the pressure on the
bottom of a ves-
weight of this liquid equals its volume
. , r r. ,
, , i . sel filled with a
times its density. Therefore the total
force on the bottom of the vessel equals
its area x the
depth x the density of the liquid, but the
pressure on the bottom equals the total force divided by
its area ( 157), or depth x density.
This is true not only of the pressure on the bottom but

at any other depth and in any other direction. In
general then, the pressure in a liquid at any depth and in
any direction is equal to the product of that depth by the
density of the liquid.

For example, the downward pressure at any place in
the surface PG (Fig. 88) is equal to the depth times AB
the density of the liquid filling the
vessel, and the upward pressure on
the surface LIT is equal to the depth
SL x the density
of the liquid. If
the surface is not horizontal, as FH,
the pressure is not uniform, but the
average pressure upon it is equal to
the average depth of the surface x
P B C F ^ ne Density ^ the liquid. The aver-

a g e de P th f a surface is the depth
FIG. 88. -Diagram to il-
lustrate the
pressures to its center of area; for example,
on different surfaces in ac js the average depth of the sur-
a vessel filled with a
face
mr
liquid.
The total force on any surface
below the surface of a liquid may be computed by first
finding the pressure upon it and then multiplying this
pressure by the area of the surface; or since pressure
equals depth x density,

the total force = area x
depth x density.
Experiment. Pascal's
vases. It has been shown
that the total force on the
bottom of a vessel depends
on the area of the bottom. .
FIG. 89. Diagram of Pascals vases for

and the depth and the density
showing thafc pressnre on the bottom of
of the liquid. It does not a vessel does not depend on the quantity
depend on the quantity of of liquid in it.
the liquid or the shape of the vessel. This can be shown by an

apparatus known as Pascal's vases. One form of this apparatus
consists of a tube c (Fig. 89) fastened to a large circular disk ee
which serves to support the vases on a battery jar D. The upper
end of the tube c is threaded so that any one of the three vessels,
A B, or C can be attached
,
asshown in Figure 90.

The bottom of the tube
is by the disk a,
closed
held in
place by the
string d, which is at-
tached to one end of a
scale beam.
Arrange the apparatus

as shown in Figure 90,
and counterpoise the disk
a by placing some weights
in the pan. Then add a
200g. weight to the pan
FIG. 90. Apparatus for experiments with
and pour water carefully
Pascal's vases.
into the vase until the
pressure on the disk a is just sufficient to loosen it from the bottom
so that the water begins to escape. Note the height of the water in
the vase when this happens. Repeat the experiment with 400 g.
in the pan, and then substitute the
other vases for the first one used
and repeat the operations again.
According to the laws stated
above, the height above a should
be the same in all three vases
with the 200 g. weight and
twice as high with the 400 g.
weight.
169. Liquids in connected

Fie. ;!. Apparatus to illustrate
vessels. When several com-
the principle that "water seeks
itslevel." municating vessels of any size
or shape whatever contain a
liquid, the surfaces of the liquid in all the vessels will
have the same level. The saying " Water always seeks
is,
its level." This follows because the pressure is propor-

tional to the depth and is the same at all points in any
horizontal plane. Figure 91 shows an apparatus for
illustrating this principle. Cities are supplied with water-
on this principle. If the supply of water comes from a
reservoir upon a hill, the water will rise to the same height
as that of the water in the reservoir in the buildings in the
various parts of the city, although the pipes connecting
them with the reservoir pass down into valleys and over
elevations. The pipe, however, must not pass over an
elevation higher than the reservoir itself. This principle
holds for liquids at rest. When the water is flowing from
an opening, the pressure and the level decrease as the
opening is approached.
Problems
Density of water = 1 g. per cubic centimeter, or (52.4 Ib. per cubic
foot, or 0.578 oz. per cubic inch. Density of mercury = 13.6 g. per
cubic centimeter.
Suppose the dimensions of the vessel represented in Figure 88 to be
as follows:SL - 40 cm., SC = 48 cm. y SV = 15 cm., KL = 12 cm.,
FP = 36 cm., and AS = 12 cm.
1. Compute the average pressure and the total force on the lower
half of the side SVLO when the vessel is full of water. Solution:
Its area = 20 x 15 = 300 sq. cm. Average depth = (20 + 40) = 30 cm.
Density of water = 1 g. per cubic centimeter.
Total force = 300 x 30 = 9000 g. Ans.
2. Compute the pressure and the total force on the surface CG
when the vessel is full of mercury. Ans. 117,504 g.
3. Compute the pressure and the total force on the surface LH
when the vessel is full of water. Ans. 7,056,000 dynes.
4. Compute the pressure and the total force on the surface AC
when the vessel water,
is full of Ans. 13,824 g.
5. Compute the pressure and the total force on the side SO when
the vessel is full of water.
6. Compute the pressure and the total force on the surface KG

when the vessel is full of mercury.
THi: BAROMETER 139
7. What is the weight of the water in the box when it is full,
and what is the total force on the bottom of the box ?

Ans. 11,520 g. and 25,920 g.
8. A cubical box 4 ft. on each edge is connected with a reservoir
on a hill 4 miles distant. The surface of the water in the reservoir is
498 above the top of the box.
ft. Compute the pressure and the
total force on each of the six sides of the box.
9. A
cube 18 cm. on each edge was placed in an iron tank which
was then filled with water and closed. A hole 1.5 cm. square was
made through the top of the tank and a rod of the same size was
pressed into the hole with a force of 52 g. Compute the pressure
and the total force produced on the surface of the cube.
10. What change would there be in the pressure on the cube if
the rod were half as large as in the last problem?

11. What is the average pressure per square inch on the interior
of the water pipes of a city which has a standpipe 150 ft. high, the
surface of the water in this pipe being on the average 145 ft. above
the pipes of the city?
12. When the gas of the city mains will support a column of
water 2 in. high, what is the pressure in the mains per square inch?
XIX. THE BAROMETER

170. Historical. If tube fitted with an air-tight
a
piston (Fig. 92) is placed in water and i i
the piston drawn upward, the water will

follow it. We
say commonly that it is
drawn up by "suction"; in reality it is
pushed up by atmospheric pressure acting
on the water in the dish. Until 1643, how-
ever, the true explanation was not known,
and men were greatly puzzled because, try
as they might, water could not be raised
in this way to a
height greater than 34 ft. F io. 92. Diagram
This was one of the problems left by to illustrate rais-
Galileo for his pupil Torricelli to solve.

JJKTJ? Jhe
Torricelli, suspecting the true cause, atmosphere.
reasoned that the weight of the air was sufficient to

if
support a column of water 34 ft., but no higher, it would

support a column of mercury as high as 13.6 is contained
in times 34 ft., because mercury is 13.6 times as dense
as water. 34 -r- 13.6 = 2.5 ft., or 30 in. Hence he made
his famous experiment.
171. Torricelli's experiment. For this experiment a
glass tube closed at one end and somewhat more than 30 in.,
or 76 cm. long, is needed. The tube is filled
with mercury and the open end closed with
the finger. It is then inverted and the
finger removed
after the open end is placed
beneath the surface of mercury in an open
dish. As soon
as the tube is placed in an
upright position the mercury falls in the

tube to a height about 30 in. above that in
the dish, leaving a vacuum at the top (Fig.
93). A vacuum so formed is called a

"Torricellian vacuum."
Experiment. To show that it is the air that
supports the mercury in the tube, place Torricelli's
apparatus under a tall receiver of an air pump and
exhaust the air from the receiver. As the air is
removed, the mercury falls in the tube, but when it

G ' ' ' rn -
j s admitted again to the receiver, the mercury rises
celli's experi- ..11.1.
to its original height.
T * ^ T
In fact, the height of the
i j. r ^
ment
mercury affords a measure of the amount of air
pumped from the receiver. Instruments based on this principle are
sometimes attached to air pumps for this purpose and are called
manometers.
Pascal thought that if Torricelli's explanation was right, the air at
the top of a mountain would not support so high a column of mercury
as it would in the valley below. He found this to be true, and thus
the truth of Torricelli's explanation was confirmed.
172. The barometer is an instrument for measuring
atmospheric pressure. If Torricelli's apparatus were
THE BAROMETER 141
placed in a frame to support it and a ruler

placed by the side of the tube so that the
height of the mercurial column could be
observed at any time, one would have all
the essential parts of a barometer. The
height of the column above the surface of
the mercury in the cistern is a measure of
the atmospheric pressure. If it is observed
at regular intervals, the height is found to
be varying constantly. At sea level its
average height is 76 cm., or 29.92 in.
This does not mean necessarily that it
often stands exactly at that height, but
that this height is the aver-
age of a great number of

observations taken from day
to day and year to year.
On the borders of the Great
Lakes, Erie, Huron, Michi-
gan, and Superior, which
are about 600 ft. above sea
level, the average height
of the barometer is about
74.3 cm., or 29.3 in.
173. Fortin's barometer.
Figure 94 represents a
common form of the ba-
rometer. The glass tube
is supported within a brass
tube upon which the scale
is placed. Figure 95 shows
FIG. 95. Diagram the cistern and the lower
of a section of the -i e ,1 . \
cistern of a ba-
eild f the tube U P n a n
.
rometer. enlarged scale. It is evi-

dent that as the mercury rises and falls in the tube the
amount of mercury the cistern must vary.
in Hence
the zero of the scale, which must be at the surface of the
mercury in the cistern, would need to be changed at eacji
observation for the sake of accuracy.
To avoid this the bottom of the cistern is made of flex-
ible leather which can be raised or lowered by the screw
0. By this means the surface of the mercury can be
adjusted to the zero of the scale, which is at q, the end of
the ivory point h.
174. The amount of the atmospheric pressure. The
height of the barometer does not depend on the diameter
of the tube. It is true that if the bore of one tube has
twice the area of another, there is twice as much mercury
in it to support, but the total force supporting it is also
twice as great because it is exerted on twice as large
an area ( 168). Suppose the area of the bore of the
barometer tube to be 1 square centimeter and the height
of the mercurial column to be 76 cm., then the volume of
mercury in the tube would be 76 cc. (76 x 1), and since

1 cc. of mercury weighs 13.596 g., 76 cc. would weigh
76 x 13.596 = 1033.3 g. Hence the average atmospheric
pressure at sea level is 1033.3 g. per square centimeter,
which is equivalent to 14.7 Ib. per square inch. The
pressure of one atmosphere, as this pressure is called, is
usually spoken of as 15 Ib. per square inch or 1 Kg. per

square centimeter.
It is customary to speak of a pressure of so man^
centimeters or millimeters; thus, a pressure of 76 cm.
or 760 mm. The meaning is that the pressure is
equivalent to that of a column of mercury of the height
mentioned.
Since the elastic tension of the air always equals the
pressure upon it, the barometer measures it as well as the
THE BAROMETER 143
atmospheric pressure, and it is expressed by the same

numbers.
175. Isobaric lines. A line drawn on a map through
places of equal atmospheric pressure is called an isobaric
line or an isobar.
Before the height of the barometer at one place can be
compared with that at another, the heights at both places
must be reduced to standard conditions. These are sea
level and freezing point of water or 0C. "Warm mer-
cury is less dense than cold mercury, and hence the air
can support a higher column of it when it is warm than
when it is cold. Therefore, when the height of the
barometer is taken, the temperature of the mercury in it
is also observed. When the mercury is warmer than
C., a small amount subtracted from the actual reading;
is
if it is colder, the correction is added, the amount to be
added or subtracted being found in tables printed for

the purpose. We
have already seen that the barometric
height is less the higher the place of observation above
the sea. To allow for this variation the height of the
place of observation above sea level must be known, and
then by the aid of tables the amount to be added to the
actual reading is obtained. The actual height of the
"
barometer is thus " reduced or changed to what it would
be if the mercury of the barometer were at 0C. and
the place of observation were at sea level.
The height of the barometer at any one time or place is
of no very great value in forecasting the weather, although
rapid changes in its height are important. It is by com-
paring barometric readings made simultaneously at regu-

lar intervals at many different places that the barometer
becomes most useful for that purpose.
At the same moment of time each day at each Weather
Bureau station throughout the United States the height
of the barometer is read and reduced to standard condi-

tions. It is then telegraphed to Washington and to the
principal stations, where the isobars are printed on the
weather maps. These maps are then distributed by mail
to the people.
176. The weather map. Figure 96 is a copy of a map
issued by the United States Weather Bureau. The heavy
lines are the isobars drawn for each tenth of an inch between
the highest 'and the lowest barometric reading for the
morning of issue. The region of low barometer, marked
"Low," is called the cyclonic area. The air flows into
this area from all directions, forming a sort of whirlpool of
air. In the United States the direction of the wind about
these areas is counter-clockwise, that is, east of the area
the wind from the south, and west of it the wind is
is
from the north. These cyclones are continually passing

over the country with considerable regularity and along
pretty well-defined paths. The forecaster depends largely
upon his knowledge of the movements of these cyclonic
areas in predicting the weather. The student must not
confuse these cyclones, which are of common occurrence,
with destructive storms such as tornadoes and hurricanes,
which are often but improperly called cyclones.
XX. BOYLE'S LAW

177. Gases, as we have learned, are com-
Boyle's law.
pressible by pressure and also exert a pressure outward,
which is called elastic tension, this elastic tension always
being equal to the pressure on the gas. The relation
between the elastic tension of a gas, or the pressure upon
it, and its volume was first discovered by Robert Boyle,
and is expressed by the following law :
TJie volume of a given quantity of gas is inversely

THE BAROMETER 145
proportional to its elastic tension or to the pressure

it.
upon
This means, for example, that when the pressure on a
gas is doubled, its volume becomes half as great or if the ;
pressure is multiplied by five, its volume becomes one

fifth as great, etc. To express this law algebraically, let
jt?j represent the pressure upon a gas when its volume is v-^
and p 2 the pressure when the volume becomes v 2 then, ;
0=
a= Vl
* or
^2
This last expression shows that although the pressure
and volume have changed, their product is the same as at
first ;hence, Boyle's law is sometimes stated as follows :
The product of the volume times the pressure of a given

mass of gas is constant, if its temperature does not change.
Experiment. To prove this law Boyle used a long J-shaped tube
(Fig. 97) the short arm of which was sealed at the top A. The
bend of the tube was then filled with mercury to
the same level BG in both arms. This inclosed a
quantity of air in the short arm from B to A
which was under a pressure of one atmosphere.
More mercury was then poured into the tube until
it rose to D in the short arm, compressing the air
into half its former volume. When this was
done, the mercury stood at F
in the long arm,
and it was found that the column of mercury
EF exactly equaled the mercury column of a
barometer. This column EF
therefore exerted
FIG. 97. Diagram a
pressure o f one atmosphere on the air in the
snor ^ arm; but the outside air itself was also
tus for proving
*
Boyle'slaw. pressing on the mercury with a force of one atmos-

phere, so the whole pressure on the air in the short
arm was two atmospheres. In the same way, the pressure was found to
be three atmospheres when the volume of air became one third as great.
Boyle's law should be studied experimentally by the student in the
laboratory.
BOYLE'S LAW 147
178. Boyle's law explained. have shown that the We

pressure which a gas exerts on the walls of the containing
vessel is supposed to be due to the bombardment of those
walls by the molecules of the gas. If a gas is compressed
into half its volume, its density must be twice as great as
before, and there must be in a given volume twice as many
molecules as at first. It follows then that the blows
against the sides of the containing vessel must be twice as

frequent as before and the pressure "consequently doubled.
Thus we see Boyle's law is easily and simply
that
explained by the theory that a gas consists of a vast
number of very swiftly moving particles.
Problems
1. A quantity of air has a volume of 80 cc. when the barometer
stands at 74 cm. What volume will the air have when the barometer
reads 75 cm. ? Ans. 78.93 cc.
2. What the volume of a mass of air under a pressure of 32 Ib.

is
per square inch which has a volume of 64 cu. ft. under a pressure of
40 Ib. per square inch? Ans. 80 cu. ft.
3. If the capacity of an inflated automobile tire is 600 cu. in., and
the air in it has an elastic tension of 88.2 Ib. per square inch, how
many cubic inches of ordinary air does it contain?
4. What the volume of a quantity of hydrogen under standard
is
pressure which occupies a space of 33 cc. when the pressure is

73.5 cm.?
5. A chemist collected some oxygen in a tube inverted in a dish of
mercury. The mercury cm. higher than the

in the tube stood 18
mercury in the dish and the barometer reading at the time was 75
cm. What was the volume of oxygen under standard pressure, if the
volume measured 31.6 cc. as collected?
6. The was measured in grams per square centi-
pressure on a gas
meter and its and the product of these two quantities was
volume in cc.,
found to be 1240. What volume did the gas occupy when the pressure
was 40 g. per square centimeter? 62 g. per square centimeter? 8 g.
per square centimeter ?
7. The average density of the air at sea level is about .0013. At

the tops of some of the highest mountains in the United States the
barometer stands about half as high as at sea level what is the;
density of the air at such heights ? What proportion of the atmos-

phere is above the top of such a mountain and what below ?
XXI. THE SIPHON AND PUMPS

179. The Siphon. The siphon is a tube used to convey
a liquid up over an elevation to a lower level than that
from which it started. Figure 98
illustrates a siphon in operation.
To start the flow the tube must first
be filled This may

with the liquid.
be done by suction after the tube is
in place, or it may be filled and then
placed in position, the ends of the

siphon being closed while this is
being done. That part of the tube
extending from its highest point a
into the 'vessel from which the
liquid flows is called the short arm
and that part extending from the
highest point in the direction the
siphon in operation.
liquid flows is the long arm of the
siphon. The real length of the short arm is the vertical
distance from the highest part of the tube to the surface
of the liquid, as be and the real length of the long arm
;
is the vertical distance from the highest part of the tube
to its end, as cd (Fig. 98), or if this arm dips into the
liquid, the long arm is cd as shown in Figure 99. The

flow through the siphon continues while the length of
the long arm exceeds that of the short arm.
180. Explanation of the siphon. The action of the
siphon depends on atmospheric pressure. At the point o

THE SIPHON AND PUMPS 149
(Fig. 99) there is an upward pressure of one atmosphere
(Why?) and a downward pressure due to the weight of a

column of liquid be in height likewise at the point s there
;
is an upward pressure of one
atmosphere and a downward

pressure due to a column of
liquid cd in height. The re-
sultant pressure at either point,
o or *, is one atmosphere minus
the downward pressure at that
point. Since cd is greater than
be, the downward pressure at 8
is greater than it is at o, and
hence the resultant upward pres-
sure at * must be less than at o.
FIG. 99. Diagram to illustrate
Hence the liquid flows in the the principle of the siphon.
direction of the greater upward
pressure. It follows from this explanation that if the

downward pressure of the column of liquid be exceeds
one atmosphere, the siphon will not work, and experience
shows this to be true.
If the short arm of a siphon extends through a two-hole stopper
into a large bottle filled with water, the dependence of the siphon on
atmospheric pressure is easily shown. When the other hole in the

stopper is closed by the finger, the flow through the siphon ceases be-
ginning again when the finger is removed. What would be the theo-
retical limit to the length of the short arm at sea level for a siphon
conveying water? For one conveying mercury?
181. The lifting or suction pump. In the common

cistern pump the piston, barrel, and valves have much the
same arrangement as in the air pump ( 135), and the
action is quite similar. The chief difference is that in the
air pump it is the elastic tension of the air which causes
it to raise the valve s and pass into the cylinder, whereas
in the water pump the pressure of the air on the water in

the cistern forces the water up the tube T (Fig. 100) into
the cylinder when the piston is raised. If the pump has
110 water in it at first, the air will be pumped out of the
cylinder and the tube T by the first few strokes, water

taking its place. When the piston descends, the lower
valve closes and the upper valve opens, the water passing
to the upper side of the piston; when the piston rises
FIG. 100. Diagrams illustrating the operation of the lifting pump.
again, the water above it is lifted by it and atmospheric

pressure forces water up the tube T, filling the cylinder.
Of course the water will not follow the piston to a greater
height above the water in the cistern than that to which
the atmospheric pressure will force it.
182. The force pump. In the force pump shown in
Figure 101, the top of the cylinder, through which the
piston passes, is water tight and the water lifted by the
piston can flow only through the delivery pipe P. As
the pressure above the piston increases, the air in the
THE SIPHON AND PUMPS 151
dome A is compressed and by its elasticity serves to
equalize the varying pressures produced by the alternate

upward and downward motions
and causes a more
of the piston,
even flow from P. The valve
Fis not essential and is often
omitted. Another form of force
pump is shown in Figure 78.
Problems
1. How much is the atmospheric
pressure when the barometric reading
is 74 cm. ? How much is it when the
barometer stands at 28.3 in. ?
2. If a barometer were filled with

a liquid one eighth as dense as mer-
cury, how would its height compare
with that of a mercurial barometer?
3. Compute the height of a ba-
rometer filled with water when the
mercurial barometer stands at 74 cm.
FIG. 101. Diagram of a force
pump.
4. What would be the height of a
glycerine barometer (density 1.26 g. per cubic centimeter) when the
pressure is 76 cm. by the mercurial barometer?
5. What would be the height of the barometer in the previous
example if it were with sulphuric acid whose density is 1.84. g.
filled
per cc. ?
6. When the pressure is 73 cm. -the volume of a gas is 560 cc.
What is the volume when the pressure is 77 cm. ?

7. If the pressure on 120 liters of gas is 4000 g. per square centi-
meter, at what pressure will it expand to 360 cc.?
8. When natural gas was first discovered in Indiana, it came from

the wells at an estimated pressure of 400 Ib. per square inch. If it was
delivered to the consumer at a pressure of 2 oz. per square inch, how
many cubic feet for the consumer did one cubic foot at the well make ?
9. A student in the laboratory took the following data in verifying
Boyle's law Barometer, 74 cm. height of mercury above C (Fig. 97)
:
;
in tube F, 38 cm. in closed tube A, 32 cm.

; top of closed tube A,
;
44 cm. For the second trial the height of mercury in was 34 cm. A
Find the height F for the second trial. Ans. 56 cm.
10. Agiven mass of air has a volume of 20 cc. when the barometer
stands at 75 cm. What is its volume when the barometer reading is
73.6 cm., the temperature being 16 C. in both cases?
Ans. 20.38 cc.
XXII. BUOYANCY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

183. Buoyancy. Any one who has lifted a large stone
under water knows that it is lifted much more easily than
when it is out of water. An expert swimmer can keep
his body afloat with almost no effort. Evidently the
water exerts a lifting force on a body placed in it. Air
as well as water exerts a buoyant force on bodies im-
mersed in it. This lifting force which a fluid exerts upon
a body immersed in it is called buoyancy.
Experiment. A baroscope consists of a hollow, air-tight globe sus-

pended from a scale beam and balanced by a solid counterpoise at the
other end of the. beam (Fig. 102). Place the
baroscope under the receiver of the air pump
and exhaust the air from the receiver. When
this is done, the equilibrium is destroyed, the
counterpoise not being heavy enough to balance

the hollow globe. This experiment teaches
that the air exerts a buoyant force upon bodies
immersed in it. The globe gains in weight
when the air about it is removed the same is
;
true also of the counterpoise, but it does not
gain so much as the globe. This experiment,

therefore, teaches also that the larger the body,
FIG 102 ^he greater the buoyant force of the fluid in
Baroscope.
which it is placed.
184. Principle of Archimedes. The loss of weight of

a body immersed in a fluid equals the weight of the fluid
which it displaces.
BUOYANCY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY 153
A
cubic foot of water weighs 62.4 Ib. Therefore,
according to this principle, any body having a volume of
1 cubic foot loses 62.4 Ib. in weight when immersed
in water, or a body having a volume of 10 cc. loses 10 g.
when immersed in water, because it displaces 10 cc. of
water, which weigh 10 g.
185. Theoretical proof of the principle of Archimedes.
Suppose a cube oc (Fig. 103) to be immersed in water.

The pressures on the opposite
sides are evidently equal and
hence neutralize each other, but
the pressures on the top and
bottom of the cube are not
equal. The downward force
on the top is equal to the
weight of the column of water
soa, the upward force on the
bottom re equals the weight of
a column of water rs in height
and having as its base the sur-
face re. Hence the upward
force on the cube exceeds the
downward force, and the differ-
. . FIG. 103. Diagram to illustrate
ence between them constitutes the principle of Archimedes,
the buoyant force. The dif-
ference between the two columns which cause the two
forces is exactly equal to the volume of the cube itself,
hence the force on re exceeds that on oa by the weight
of a body of water equal to the volume of the cube, or the
loss in weight equals the weight of the water displaced.
Experimental proof of the principle of Archimedes.

186. Use for
this experiment a metal cylinder about 2 cm. in diameter and 3 or 4
cm. long. Measure its diameter and height accurately and calculate
its volume by the formula, v = irr^h. Suspend the cylinder (Fig.
104) from a balance and weigh it. Then place a vessel of water under
it and weigh it again while it is immersed in the water. It will weigh
less in the water and the loss in grams will be

found to equal its volume in cubic centimeters.
Since 1 cc. of water weighs 1 g., the cylinder will
displace as many grams of water as there are cubic
centimeters in its volume.
A cylinder of brass exactly 2 cm. in diameter
and 3.5 cm. long has a volume of almost exactly
11 cc. Such a cylinder will be found to weigh
11 grams less in water than in air.
Problems Involving an Application of the

Principle of Archimedes
FIG. 104. Experi- 1. A piece of silver sustains a loss in weight of

ment illustrating 4.8 g. when weighed in water. What is its
the principle of volume?
Archimedes.
2. A piece of platinum loses 6.8 g. when placed
in mercury. What is its volume? What loss in weight would it
sustain when immersed in water?
3. A piece of iron loses 31.2 Ib. in water. What is its volume?
4. How much buoyant force would be exerted on a block of marble
it is placed in water ? When placed in
of 6 cu. ft. when
having a volume
a liquid twice as dense as water? In a liquid half as dense as water?
5. How much
would a cylinder whose volume is 8.8 cc. lose in
weight when immersed in a liquid weighing 1.8 g. per cubic centi-
meter? In a liquid whose density is 0.8 g. per cubic centimeter?
6. A body having a volume of 5 cc. is buoyed up by a force of 68 g.
when immersed in a liquid. What is the density of the liquid?

7. The density of air under standard conditions (0 C. and 76 cm.
pressure) is0.00129 g. per cubic centimeter. What would a body whose
volume is 800 cc. and whose weight in air is 1200 g. weigh in a vacuum ?
8. A solid whose weight in air is 50 g. has a volume of 50 cc. What
is its weight when immersed in water?
9. A piece of glass whose volume was 3 cc. lost 5.4 g. when im-
mersed in a liquid. What was the density of the liquid?
10. A solid loses 15 g. when weighed in water. What is the
weight of a body of water having the same volume as the solid ?
UrOYAXCT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY 155
187.
Floating bodies. sometimes happens that the
It
buoyant force of a liquid greater than the weight of the

is
solid submerged in it. In that case the weight of the solid

is not sufficient to keep it under the surface of the liquid,
and unless held in some way it will rise to the surface and
Moat. A piece weighing 78 g. would
of iron, for example,
if submerged mercury displace 136 g. of mercury
in ;
hence, according to the principle of Archimedes, the buoy-

ant force would exceed the weight of the iron by 58 g.
Therefore iron floats in mercury. When a body floats on
a liquid, the buoyant force just equals the weight of the
body. Hence, a floating body displaces its own weight of
the liquid in which it floats.
As a consequence of this law it follows that for every
ton of freight placed in a boat the boat sinks enough
deeper in the water to displace a ton more of water.
Experiment i. Connect the stem of a large funnel by means of
a rubber tube to a glass tube about 15 cm. long and support the appa-
ratus in the position shown in Figure 105.
Procure a large wooden ball such as a croquet
ball and have at hand in a beaker an amount
of water exactly equal in weight to the weight
of the ball. Place the ball in the funnel with
sufficient float it and mark the height
water to
in the tube at aby means of a rubber band.
Then remove the ball from the funnel and
pour in the water from the beaker. The
water will again rise to the same height at a
as before, thus showing that the ball dis-
own weight *' K*. ~
Diagram of
its of water.
placed
Fill a glass pocket
....
flask
an experiment to show
Experiment 2. that a wooden ball dis_
with water and place in it a small vial upside own weight
places its
down. The vial should be nearly full of of water.
water but not quite, a small bubble of air
being inclosed by the water (Fig. 106). The amount of air in the
vial should be carefully adjusted so that it will barely float in the
water. Close the flask with a stopper. If the amount of air in the
vial is properly adjusted, it can be made to rise arid sink at pleasure
by compressing the sides of the flask between the thumb and fingers.
If it does not work well, small adjustments
may be made by crowding the stopper farther
into the flask or by loosening it slightly.
There should be a little air in the flask. When
the sides of the flask are compressed, the bubble
of air in the vial is made smaller by trans-
mitted pressure and hence the buoyant force is
lessened; when the pressure is relieved the
bubble expands and the vial rises.
'
This experiment illustrates several things:

(1) the elasticity of glass, (2) Pascal's law of
transmitted pressure, (3) the compressibility
FIG. 106. Flask and _ 5
of air ( 4 ) the elastlc tension of air, and (o)
'
vial experiment.
the buoyant force of liquids.
188.
Specific gravity. The specific gravity of a substance
is a number which expresses how many times denser the sub-
stance is than some substance taken as a standard.
Water at 4 C. is the standard substance for solids and
liquids, and air at xO C. and 76 cm. pressure is the standard
for gases.
The density
of iron is 486.72 Ib. per cubic foot and of water 62.4
Ib.per cubic foot. 486.72
- 62.4 = 7.8.
Again, in the metric system the density of iron is 7.8 g. per cubic
centimeter and that of water is 1 g. per cubic centimeter. 7.8 -*- 1 = 7.8.
Hence iron is 7.8 times as dense as water, or its specific gravity is 7.8.
Gold has a density of 11.16 oz. per cubic inch and water a den-
sity of 0.578 oz. per cubic inch. 11.16 -0.578 = 19.3.
In metric units the density of gold is 19.3 g. per cubic centimeter
and of water 1 g. per cubic centimeter. 19.3 -4- 1 19.3. Hence the
density of gold is 19.3 times that of water, or the specific gravity
of gold is 19.3.
According to the above definition and problems :
(1) Sp. gr. of a substance =

density oj the standard
and consequently
(2) Density of a substance = its specific gravity x density

of the standard.
The specific gravity of a substance is therefore the ratio
of its density to that of the standard.
It should be observed that the same number expresses
both the density and the specific gravity of a substance
provided the density is given in metric units. (Why ?)
In the above problems the specific gravity has been ob-
tained in each case by comparing the masses of equal vol-
umes, as the mass of a cubic foot of the substance with the
mass of a cubic foot of the standard, or the mass of one
cubic centimeter of the substance with that of one cubic
centimeter of the standard. It is not necessary, however,
that the volumes compared shall be unit volumes, but only
that the volumes shall be equal.
189. To find specificgravity of solids. First, a solid
denser than water. Dividing the weight of the solid by
the weight of an equal volume of water gives its specific
gravity. The principle of Archimedes- affords an easy
method for obtaining the weight of an equal volume of
water, for by that principle the weight which a body loses
in water equals the weight of an equal volume of water.
Hence, the specific gravity of a solid is found by dividing
itsweight in air by its loss of weight in water. This is
true whether the body is weighed in pounds, ounces,
grams, or any other unit of weight. The specific gravity
of the solid may be reduced to
density by multiplying it
by the density of water.
/Second, a solid lighter than water. When a solid is
lighter than water it is necessary to tie

it to a sinker, such
as a piece of lead, in order to weigh it in water. First

weigh the sinker in water, then both together in water.
Subtract the weight of the sinker in water from the
weight of both in water; this will give the weight of the
solid alone in water. Since both together weigh less in

water than the sinker alone, the weight of the solid alone
in water will be a negative quantity. (What is the sig-
nificance of the negative sign here ?) To find the loss of
weight of the solid in water subtract (algebraically) its
weight in water from its weight in air. The specific
gravity is then found as in the first case by dividing its
weight in air by its loss of weight in water.
190. To find specific gravity of liquids. First, by use of
a sinker. Find the loss of weight of a piece of glass, such
as a glass stopper, first in water and then in the given
liquid. By the principle of Archimedes these two losses

are the weights of equal volumes of the two liquids.
Hence dividing the loss in the given liquid by the loss in
water gives thespecific gravity of the liquid.
Second, by use of a specific gravity bottle. This bottle
has a glass stopper with a capillary bore extending
through it so that the bottle can be filled and
the stopper inserted without leaving any air
bubble under it.
First weigh the empty bottle, then weigh

it full of water, and lastly weigh it full of the
given liquid. Subtracting the weight of the

empty bottle from each of these weights gives
the weights of equal volumes of the water
and the given liquid, from which the specific
gravity can be calculated as before.
Third, by the use of the hydrometer. This
instrument (Fig. 107) consists of a glass tube
somewhat enlarged in its lower part and
FIG. 107.
Hydrometer. terminating
in bulb which contains shot
a
or mercury to cause the tube to float in a
vertical position. Its action is based on the principle that
a floating body displaces a weight of liquid equal to its
own Hence the lighter the liquid the greater the

weight.
depth whichtothe hydrometer will sink in it. The
hollow stem contains a scale which starts at the point
to which the instrument sinks in water. The scale is
sometimes graduated so that the mark to which it sinks
in any liquid indicates the density of that liquid directly,
but often the scale is an arbitrary one, the value of its
divisions being given in tables. The Beaume scale, for
example, is marked in degrees, and the densities corre-

sponding to these degrees may be found in the Encyclo-
"
paedia Britannica under Hydrometer." The scale of a
hydrometer for liquids lighter than water reads from
the bottom of the stem up, and one for heavier liquids
reads from the top down. A hydrometer intended for
both light and heavy liquids has the beginning of its
scale at the middle of the stem. A hydrometer intended
for testing milk is called a lactometer, one for testing
syrup is called a saccharimeter, and other names are given
to the instrument according to the uses made of it.
Problems
1. A bottle when exactly full holds 23.7 g. of water or 19.9 g. of
kerosene. What is the specific gravity of kerosene? Its density in
grams per cubic centimeter? In ounces per cubic inch? In pounds
per cubic foot ?
2. An empty specific gravity bottle weighed 16.002 g. When full
of water itweighed 42.900 g. and when full of hydrochloric acid,
46.099 g. What was the specific gravity of the acid ?
3. The bottle of example 2 weighed 49.562 g. when full of nitric
acid. What was the specific gravity of the acid ?
4. A solid in air weighed 4.915 g. ;
in water, 4.482 g. What was
its specific
gravity ? Its density ? Its volume ?
5. A piece of wax
weighing 12 g. was tied to a piece of lead which
weighed 8 g. in water. Both together in water weighed 6.7 g. What
was the specific gravity of the wax ?
6. A glass stopper which weighed 24 g. in airweighed 17.6 g. in

water and 18.8 g. when immersed in alcohol. Find the specific gravity
of the alcohol, also its density.
7. A
solid weighs 80 g. in air and 72 g. in a liquid whose density
is0.84 g. per cubic centimeter. How many times denser is the solid
than the liquid? What is the specific gravity of the solid ?
8. A solid whose volume was 2 cu. ft. was supported by a rope in
water. tension on the rope was 499.2
The Ib. What was the
specific gravity and the density of the solid ?
9. A body in air weighed 10 oz., which is equivalent to 283.5 g.,

and in water it weighed 8.8 oz. or 249.48 g. Find its specific gravity,
first by the means of English units, and then by the use of the
metric units.
10. How is the density of a substance determined from its specific
gravity ? What is the specific gravity of water ?
11. A piece of marble weighing 48.6 g. in air weighed 30.6 g. in

water. Find its specific gravity and its density.
12. marble mentioned in the last problem were
If the piece of
suspended by a string so that one third of its volume is in water,

what would be the tension on the string?
13. When a body whose specific gravity is 0.6 floats in a liquid
whose specific gravity is 0.8, what fraction of its volume is below
the surface of the liquid?
14. A body weighing 72 g. displaces 66 cc. of the liquid in which
it floats. What is the density of the liquid ?
15. A
piece of lead weighing 60 g. in air weighs 54.7 in water and
55.6 g. in alcohol. Find the specific gravity of the lead and of the
alcohol.
16. A flask holds 320 g. of a liquid having a specific gravity of 0.8.

What is the capacity of the flask?
17. A hollow iron cube 30 cm. on each edge weighs 120 g. How
much more ought it to weigh to sink in water ?
18. A cube of gold 4 in. on each edge would weigh 44.6 Ib. Find
its specific gravity and its density. How much would a cube of water
of the same size weigh ?
19. A cylinder of wood floats in water with one third of its volume
above the surface. What is the specific gravity of the wood ?
20. A
piece of wood whose weight in air is 12 g. and whose specific
gravity is 0.64 is tied to a piece of lead which alone in water weighs
19 g. How much do the lead and wood when tied together weigh in
water?
21. A piece of aluminum weighs 260 g. in air and 160 g. in
water. What is its specific gravity? What is its density in English
units? In metric units?
22. What is the weight of a wooden ball which, when placed in a
cup full of water, causes an overflow of 36 g. ?
23. How much will 8 cu. ft. of a substance weigh whose specific
gravity is 11.3?
24. A body whose volume is 50 cc. weighs 525 g. What is its
specific gravity?
25. The specific gravity of sulphuric acid is 1.84. A certain vol-
ume of it weighs 36.8 g., and an equal volume of another liquid weighs
272 g. What is the density of the other liquid ?
26. A solid weighs two thirds as much in water as it does in air
and three fourths as much in another liquid as in air. What is the
specific gravity of the liquid?
27. What is the displacement in cubic feet of a boat which weighs
5 tons and which carries a load of 1600 Ib?
28. If the density of air is 0.00129 g. per cubic centimeter when
the barometer is at 76 cm., what will it be when the barometer is at
72cm.?
29. When air is under a pressure of three atmospheres, what is its
specific gravity and its density ?

30. Why in the C.G.S. system of units are density and specific
gravity numerically equal, and why not in the English units?
31. If the density of air at 76 cm. pressure is 0.00129 g.per cubic
centimeter, what is its density at 68 cm. pressure?
32. If 0.094 g. of alcohol vapor would have a volume of 45.6 cc.

under standard conditions, what are the density and the specific
gravity of the vapor?
33. One hydrogen under standard conditions weighs
liter of
0.0896 g. How many
times denser is the vapor of alcohol if 42 cc. of
it under standard conditions would
weigh 0.087 g. ?
34. How many times denser than hydrogen is the vapor of chloro-
form if under standard conditions 0.117 g. of it occupies 21.9 cc.?
ADAMS'S PHYS. 11
CHAPTER II
WAVE MOTION AND SOUND

I. VIBRATORY MOTION
191. Vibratory motion. When a body traverses any

given path repeatedly and in regular intervals of time, its
motion is periodic. The hands of a watch as well as its
balance wheel, the pendulum of a clock, and the earth in
its motion around the sun afford illustrations of periodic
motion.
Vibratory motion is periodic motion in which the moving

body is continually reversing its direction, tracing and re-
tracing its path again and again. The motion of a clock
pendulum is the most familiar illustration of vibratory

motion.
Experiment. Clamp a slender ruler to a table or in a vise (Fig.
108) and set it in motion by bending and suddenly releasing it. Its
motion will be vibra-
tory, because it is peri-
-"" odic and because it
repeatedly reverses its

direction.
Such vibrations
are called transverse
FIG. 108. - Transverse vibrations of a ruler because the direc-
clamped to a table.
tion ot the motion
is across the length of the vibrating body.
Experiment. Suspend a weight by a spiral spring or an elastic

cord and set it in motion by pulling it down and releasing it. Its
motion will be vibratory. Why ?
162
VIBRATORY MOTION 163
Such vibrations are termed longitudinal because the

direction of the motion is along the length of the vibrating
body.
Experiment. Suspend a heavy weight by a long fine piano wire
(Fig. 109) and motion by twisting it and releasing it. Such
set it in
an apparatus is called a torsion pendulum.
Its motion is vibratory. Why?
Such vibrations are called torsional
,because the direction of the motion
is around the length of the vibrating
body.
192. Definitions. A complete
vibration consists of the motion of a
vibrating body from any given stage
it reaches that
of its vibration until
same stage of vibration again. A
pendulum, for instance, swinging in
the arc AB (Fig. 110) makes a com-
plete vibration in moving from A to B
and back to A again,
or in moving from
O to B, back to A, FIG. 109. Torsion
pendulum.
and then to again.
Avibratory period is the time required
for a complete vibration. The vibration
frequency of a. body is the number of vibra-
tious made by ;t in a unit of time - If
pendulum. a piano string, for instance, makes 200

vibrations per second, its frequency is
200 per second, and its period is 2 of a second. ^
Ampli-
tude of vibration is the distance from the position of a
vibrating body when at rest to its extreme point of

motion. It is one half the arc through which an ordinary
pendulum swings.
164 WAVE MOTION AND SOUND
193. Simple harmonic motion the most important form
is
of vibratory motion. were to move in a small

If a ship
circle with uniform velocity, it would appear to an observer

several miles away to be going back and forth in a straight
line across his field of view. At one extremity of its
apparent path it would seem to be stationary for a time
because moving directly toward or away from the observer ;
then it would seem to increase its speed until at the center

of the field of view it would be seen moving with its actual
velocity. Its speed would then apparently diminish until

at the other extremity of its apparent path it would seem
stationary again. The apparent motion of the ship illus-

trates simple harmonic motion. A body which actually
moves as the ship appears to move has simple harmonic
motion.
Experiment. Set the weight of the pendulum (Fig. 109) swinging

in a circle. When swinging in this way, it is called a conical pendulum
because its wire generates the surface of a cone. Place a lamp on a
levelwith the weight of the pendulum and some distance away from it
so that the shadow of the weight will "be projected on the wall of the
room. The shadow of the weight will
have simple harmonic motion.
The observer in viewing the
ship projects its motion on the

sky beyond. Let the circle ODE
(Fig. Ill) represent the actual
path of the ship, and the line
AB its apparent path, and sup-
it to traverse the circle once
FIG. 111. A circle of reference pose
J
for simple harmonic motion, every sixteen minutes. If the

circle is divided into sixteen
equal parts, 1, 2, 3, etc., and these points of division are

projected on the line AB by drawing perpendiculars from
them to AB, the points 1, 2, 3, etc., will represent the
VIBRATORY MOTION 165
actual position of the ship, and the points a, J, <?, etc.,

its apparent position at each sixteenth of its period, or at
each minute.
On the other hand, if a body is actually vibrating in the
straight line AB with
simple harmonic motion, this same
construction will enable one to locate it at each sixteenth
of its period. The circle used to locate the vibrating body
iscalled the circle of reference. Its radius must equal the
amplitude of vibration and its center must be in a line per-

pendicular to the line representing the path of the vibrat-
ing body at its middle point, that is, the center may be at e
(Fig. Ill) or any point in the line De or De produced.
If the vibrating body is to be located at any other fraction
of its period, as at each twelfth of its period, the circle must
be divided into twelve equal parts instead of sixteen.
194. A very important char-
Isochronous vibrations.
acteristic of simple harmonic motion is that the period of
vibration remains the same whether the amplitude is large
or small, that is, the period is independent of the ampli-
tude. Vibrations whose period remains constant while the
amplitude is changing are termed isochronous.

Simple harmonic motion is far from being uncommon or
unusual. Air particles in communicating sound have this
kind of motion the particles of piano strings, of the
;
prongs of a tuning fork, and in fact the vibrating parts of

allmusical instruments, vibrate in this way. Any body
vibrating under the action of Hooke's law has simple
harmonic motion.
Experiment. Set the torsion pendulum (Fig. 109) in vibration
with an amplitude of- a few degrees, and by means of a watch deter-
mine its period.
Again, set it vibrating through a large amplitude by twisting once
or more times around, and determine its period as before. Although
the amplitude may be several times greater than at first, yet the period
will be found to be the same. The vibrations are.isochronous.
WAVE MOTION AND SOUND
II. WAVES WAVE MOTION

195. Waveform. Suppose a series of particles which
when at rest lie in the line WX (Fig. 112) to be vibrating
each with simple harmonic motion, the first in the line
AA r
, the second
in the line f
BB
the third in the line (7(7',
,
^
V
\i \
A B'CIJJEFG'lffj KLMKO'P' tiRS
FIG. 112. Diagram of a wave form.
etc. Suppose also that each is ^

of a period behind the
preceding one, the second -^ of a period behind the first,

the third -^ of a period behind the second, etc., so that
the particles pass consecutively through corresponding
positions.
By means of the circle of reference which is divided
into twelve equal parts each particle can be located at
each twelfth of its period. Suppose the first particle is at
a going down, being opposite the point 3, then the second
will be at b opposite the point 2, the third at c opposite
point 1, the fourth at D

opposite point 12, the fifth at e
going up opposite point 11, etc. A smooth curve drawn
through these points gives a wave form or a wave (shown
by the heavy line). It is obvious that if the particles all
vibrated together instead of consecutively, or if they
vibrated in a haphazard manner, such a wave form would
not be produced. A wave form is a configuration of a
medium produced by the consecutive vibration of its parts.
Wave forms similar to this are made when a rope or a
carpet is shaken- at one end; the particles a, 5, <?, etc., in

WAVES WAVE MOTION 167
the figuremay be supposed to represent the parts of the

rope when such waves are formed in it.
Experiment. Lay a
soft cotton rope ten or twelve feet long on a
table or on the fastening one end of it to some firm object.
floor,
Take the free end of it in the hand and without pulling it very
taut move the hand up and down once and very quickly. wave A
form quite similar to those shown in Figure 112 will pass along the
rope.
Tie some pieces of colored twine on the rope at different places and
repeat the experiment. It will be observed that each piece of twine
makes an up and down motion as the wave form moves along.
Notice that this up and down motion starts at the hand and is passed
along from point to point in the rope, so that all the parts of it make
this motion in succession or consecutively.
Give to the hand a continuous vibratory motion, moving it up and
down rapidly and as regularly as possible. Aseries of wave forms or
waves will now pass along the rope one after another. If you watch
one of the pieces of twine, you will see that it is in continuous vibration.
Each part of the rope evidently possesses energy which came from
thehand and which it passes on to the next part of the rope.
196. Wave motion, as the last experiment shows, is the
progression or onward movement of a wave form. When

a wave passes over a field of grain, it is obvious that the
grain itself move across the field, but that the
does not
wave form moves onward while each head of grain merely
vibrates in the wind. When we watch water waves, we
are apt to think that masses of water are moving onward,
but it is no more true of the water than of the
grain.
One may convince himself of this by observing the motion
of some- floating object as thewaves pass by it.
Wave motion the result of a vibratory motion which
is
is handed on from particle to particle of the medium.

Thus energy may be transferred by wave motion from one
place to another without the transfer of the medium itself .
197. Wave length. When waves traverse a medium

in succession one after another, they constitute a train of
waves, and the distance from any point in one wave of a

train to the corresponding point in the next wave is called
a wave length. Thus, from a to (Fig. 112), or from m D
to P, or from / to r wave length while from a to g
is a ;
or f to I is half of a wave length because the particles are

in opposite stages of vibration ; #, for instance, is moving
down while g is moving up.
The points marked x show the positions that the par-
occupy -f% of a period later than at first, and the
ticles will
wave form at that instant will have passed toward the
right, occupying the position shown by the dotted line,
the crest which was at D
being at F. In ^f of a period
the particles will again be back in their original positions,
the crest meantime having passed on from to P. This D
illustrates a very important principle of wave motion ;
namely, A wave alivays travels a wave length in one vibra-

tion period or while each particle is making a complete vi-
bration.
198. wave length, and ve-
Relation between frequency,
locity. wave length in one
Since a wave travels "one
vibration period, it will travel ten wave lengths while ten
vibrations are taking place, or n wave lengths in the time
n vibrations occur. Hence, if n equals the number of vi-
brations per second or the frequency and I the wave length,
n x I will equal the distance passed over by the wave in
one second, or the velocity v. Hence, in all wave motion
(1) v =n x I, or (2) I = -, or (3) n = v-

n I
From these equations it is evident (1) that wave length

and frequency are inversely proportional when the veloc-
ity is constant, (2) that velocity and frequency are directly
proportional when wave length is constant, and (3) that
velocity and wave length are directly proportional when
the frequency is constant,
Problems
1. What is the length of the sound waves produced in air by a
piano string making 300 vibrations per second when sound travels
1140 ft. per second?
2. What must be the frequency of a string when the sound waves
are 2.25 ft. long, the velocity being the same as in problem 1 ? When
the waves are 1.9 ft. long? 7.6 ft. long?
3. In problem 1 if the frequency were 600 instead of 300 what

would the wave length be ? 900 ? 1200 ?
4. AVaves of light travel through the ether of space with a velocity
of about 300,000 Km. per second and some of the waves are 0.00006
cm. long. What is the frequency of the vibrations causing these
waves ?
5. When a tuning fork having a frequency of 256 produces sound
waves 1.36 m. long, what is the velocity of sound?
199. Two There are two kinds of

kinds of waves.
waves, transverse and longitudinal. The waves so far de-
scribed, such as waves in a rope, are called transverse be-
cause each vibrating particle moves to and fro across the
direction in which the wave is moving. Each one of such
waves is composed of an elevation and a depression, or a
crest and a trough.
The waves of the other kind are termed longitudinal be-
cause each particle of the medium vibrates to and fro along
the direction in which the wave is moving. Each one of
such waves is composed of a condensation and a rarefaction,
not of a crest and a trough.
If you should set up a row of bricks with small spaces
between them and tip over the first one, it would tip over
the second, and the second would tip over the third, and so
on to the end of the row. As each brick strikes its neigh-
bor there would be a crowding together or a sort of a con-
densation which would be passed along the row in much
the same way as the crest traveled along the rope, but
each brick would move longitudinally along the row, and
not transversely as the parts of the rope did in our experi-
ment.
Such an experiment with bricks would illustrate a longi-
tudinal wave but very imperfectly, because a medium to
transmit such waves must be elastic. If an elastic spiral
spring were placed between each brick, the row might then
transmit such waves quite well. Air is an elastic medium
in which longitudinal waves occur, but as we cannot see
them, the row of bricks may help us to form a mental
picture of the behavior of the air particles when transmit-
ting waves of condensations and rarefactions.
200. Longitudinal waves in air. Let the first row of
dots (Fig. 113) represent a series of air particles when
they are at rest, and suppose the first one a to be driven
a 6 c d o I
r
?'.
or r
FIG. 113. Relative positions of air particles in longitudinal waves.
toward x by a blow from some vibrating body, so that it

goes as far as a' as shown in the second row.
Because of the elasticity of the air, as soon as a begins
to move it will communicate motion to 5, driving it toward
<?,and c will in turn act on d, and d on e, and so on. So
that by the time a reaches the position #', the motion will
have been transmitted to some distant particle, as V. All
the particles between a and V will be closer together than
r
at first, thus forming a condensation which will continue

to move on toward x.
But the elasticity of the air will cause a to bound back
in the opposite direction and it will be followed in turn by
6, b by c, and so on. So that by the time a reaches the

WAVES WAVK MOTION 111
position a", as shown in the third row, this backward

motion will have reached as far as I" All the particles .
between a! and I" will then be farther apart than at first,

1
and thus a rarefaction will be caused which will follow the

condensation toward x.
blows are given continuously to a, so as to keep it

If
vibrating, a continuous train of waves, each composed of a

rarefaction and a condensation, will be sent through the
row of particles toward x and all the particles will be
;
continuously vibrating back and forth in the direction ax.

Such waves are very common about us, but we are not
familiar with them because we cannot see them.
Experiment. Support a tin tube in a horizontal position as shown
in Fig. 114. The tube should be about 3 m. long and 8 cm. in
diameter, the opening at one end being narrowed to about 2.5 cm.
FIG. 114. Tube for illustrating longitudinal waves in air.
Place a candle so that its flame shall be close to the small opening, and
by means of a toy-pistol fire a percussion cap very near the larger
opening. A quick forward and backward motion will be given to the
candle flame almost instantaneously and possibly it will be extinguished.
A condensation is transmitted by the air of the tube from one end to
the other, a vibratory motion being handed on from air particle to air
particle. That it is a vibratory motion, and not a current of air pass-
ing through the tube, is shown by the forward and backward motion
of the flame. Again the quickness with which the motion traverses
the tube proves that it cannot be a current of air causing it for it ;
would take about a tenth of a second for the disturbance to travel the
length of the tube at 60 miles per hour. This action goes through the
tube probably in less than one hundredth of a second or with a speed
perhaps ten times greater than that of a tornado.
Tyndall used for this experiment two blocks instead of the pistol,
clapping them together at the mouth of the tube ; and, to show that it
was not a current of air passing through the tube, he filled it with
smoke.
The action of the air in this experiment is analogous to the action
of the parts of the rope in the experiment ( 195) ; but in this ex-
periment the motion is longitudinal, in that transverse.
201. Wave interference. It often happens that two or

more trains of waves traverse the same medium at the
same time. If two trains of water waves, for example,
FIG. 115. Diagram of a resultant train of waves formed from two

trains of waves.
should meet so that the crests of one train coincide with

the crests of the other train and troughs coincide with
troughs, a new train of waves would be formed having
higher crests and deeper troughs ; but if the crests of one
train should coincide with the troughs of the other, then
the waves would tend to destroy one another. In like
manner waves of condensations and rarefactions may act
on each other so as to increase or diminish the amplitude
of vibration. This combining of two or more wave trains

in the same medium, whether the result is an increase or a
decrease of motion, is called interference.
We shall see later how two trains of sound waves may
interfere so as to cause silence and waves of light may
destroy one another so as to cause darkness. When inter-

ference occurs, each vibrating particle of the medium has a
motion which is the resultant of the several vibratory
motions imposed upon it, and the resulting wave form is
often very complex in character.
In Figure 115 the heavy line represents a wave pro-
duced by the interference of the two wave trains repre-
sented by the dotted lines. Distances above the axis AX
being considered positive and distances below it negative,
the position for each particle in the resultant wave form is
found by taking the algebraic sum of the distances of each
particle from the axis in the component waves.
202. Stationary transverse waves.
Experiment. Fasten one end of a rope 3 or 4 m. long to a

stationary object and hold the other end in the hand. Send a trough
along it by giving it near the hand a blow from above. Observe
that this trough 'travels to the other end of the rope and is reflected,
returning as a crest. Send a crest by giving a jerk upward and notice
that it is reflected as a trough. The heavier and slacker the rope the
more slowly the waves travel and the more readily are they observed.
Keep the hand in rapid vibration so as to send waves along the
rope in rapid succession. If the motions of the hand are timed cor-
rectly, the waves going one way will meet those going the other way
in such a manner as to cause the rope to be at rest at one or more
places and to vibrate with considerable amplitude between these

places of rest. All motion of the waves along the rope, although still
really existing, will be masked, and it will appear merely to vibrate
transversely between the points of no vibration.
NOTE. A long brass spiral is much better than a rope for this
experiment.
Such waves are called stationary waves. The places of

no vibration are called nodes and the places of greatest
vibration are called antinodes. The part of the rope
FIG. 116. Apparatus for showing stationary transverse waves

in a vibrating cord.
from one node to another forms

a loop or ventral segment.
If the rope is replaced by a
silk cord and the hand by the
vibrating prong of a tuning

fork or an electric vibrator,
the phenomenon may be shown
in a more beautiful manner
(Fig. 116).
203. Stationary longitudinal
waves.
Experiment. Support a light

brass spiral spring about 1 m. long
and 2.5 cm. in diameter in a vertical
position and attach the lower end of
it loosely to an electric vibrator (Fig.
117). The hammer of an electric

bell which has been weighted to
FIG. 117. for
veduce its frequency and provided
-Apparatus showing
stationary longitudinal waves with stops to control its amplitude,
in a spiral spring.
may be used for the purpose. It
SOUND ITS ORIGIN AND TRANSMISSION 175
may be necessary to adjust the spiral to the frequency of the vibrator

in a way analogous to the adjustment of a resonant air column to a
fork. This may be done, not by stretching the spring more or less,
but by changing the number of turns of wire of the spiral in use.
When adjusted, stationary longitudinal waves will be formed with
nodes and antinodes in the spiral. These are caused by condensations
and rarefactions traveling up and down the spiral as the troughs and
crests traveled along the rope.
III. SOUND. ITS ORIGIN AND TRANSMISSION

204. Sound is the form of vibratory motion capable of
being perceived by the auditory nerves.
NOTE. The definition of sound just given is that used in the

science of physics but sound may also be defined as a sensation which
;
is reported to the brain by the auditory nerve. The physiologist and

the psychologist who study the phenomena of sense perception would
use the latter definition. According to the first definition sound exists
independently of the ear, but according to the second one there is no
sound when there is no ear to hear; the vibrations which the physicist
callssound may exist, but the sensation which the physiologist calls
sound cannot exist under such circumstances.
205. The origin of sound. Sound originates in a vi-
brating body. It may be caused by the vibrations of a

solid,a liquid, or a gas.
By placing a light piece of paper upon a piano string or
on that of any stringed instrument, it is easy to see that
the string is always vibrating when it is sounding. In
wind instruments, such as a flute, a whistle, an organ pipe,
or a cornet, the sound is caused by vibrating air.
Experiment i. Suspend a small light ball such as a pith ball,

or best of all a small hollow glass ball, by a thread so that it just
touches the edge of a bell (an inverted bell jar or a glass bowl may be
used). Cause the bell to sound by bowing it with a violin bow or by
strikingit with a rubber mallet made by thrusting a wooden rod
through a rubber stopper. The motion of the ball will make the
vibrations of the bell evident.
Experiment 2. Repeat the last experiment, using a tuning fork
instead of the bell. Jf the fork suspend the ball
is sufficiently large,
by a short thread between its prongs.

Experiment 3. Clamp a large glass tube about 1.5 in. long exactly
at its center (Fig. 118) and suspend a hollow glass ball or a wooden
FIG. 118. Apparatus for showing longitudinal vibrations in a sounding tube.
one so that it rests lightly against the end of the tube. Stroke the
tube lengthwise with a damp woolen cloth. A loud tone will be
produced and the lâll will be thrown violently away from the tube.
This shows that the glass of the tube is in vibration while it is sound-
ing. If the tube is wet inside, the water will be gathered into little
ridges by the vibrations. (Read TyndalPs Sound, page 194.) A

metallic rod about a centimeter in diameter and 1 m. long may be
used in place of the glass
tube for this experiment,
but it must be stroked with
a cloth covered with resin
dust.
206. Chladni Plates and
Figures. Experiment. For
this experiment a square
brass plate of uniform thick-
ness is best, but a round plate
and one of glass may be used.
It should be about 2 mm.
FIG. 119. Chladni plate. thick and 30 cm. square and
SOUNI) ITS ORIGIN AND TRANSMISSION 177
clamped exactly at its center, or it may be fastened to an upright

standard by a screw through its center (Fig. 119). Scatter fine
sand over the plate and bow it on one edge. A clear musical tone
will be produced, and the dancing motion of the sand will show that
the plate is in vibration. The sand will drift away from the parts
of it in motion and collect along lines of no vibration, called nodes,
which divide the plate into an even number of symmetrical parts.
By applying the thumb and finger at the points a and b and bowing
the plate at the middle of an adjacent side, the figure shown here may
be produced. A great variety of beautiful figures may be produced by
touching the edge of the plate with the finger at different points while
the bow is applied at some other point.
207- Vibrations in Gases. Experiment x. Insert a whistle (Fig.
120) in one end of a glass tube containing a small amount of fine dry
FIG. 120. Apparatus for showing vibrations

in sounding air.
cork dust made by rubbing a baked cork on a piece

of sandpaper. When the whistle is held in a hori-
zontal position and blown, the cork dust will rise in

gauzy parallel partitions trans-
verse to the length of the tube.
When the sound ceases, the
dust falls, forming little paral-
lel ridges. The action of the
dust shows that the air of the
tube is in vibration
while it is sounding.
Experiment 2. The
Singing Flame. Place
some shot or sand in
~
the bottom of a wide-
mouthed bottle to give
it stability and close it
with a two-hole rubber

stopper. Through one
FIG. 121. Apparatus for showing the vibrations of hole pass a glass tube
a singing flame. a (Fig. 121) bent at
ADAMS'S PHYS. 12
right angles, to which a gas tube may be connected, and through the
other pass a jet tube c. Allow the gas to flow until the air has been
expelled from the bottle, and then light the jet at the tip of c and
support over it a glass tube b. When the flame is about J of the
way up, if the conditions are right, the jet and the air of the tube
will be thrown into vibration and a loud musical tone be produced.
The vibrations of the flame are made visible by viewing its image
in a revolving mirror m. When the flame is not vibrating, its reflec-
tion will be drawn out into a smooth band of light; but when
it is vibrating, this band will be broken up into separate tongues of
flame.
NOTE. Were it not that success in this experiment depends on the
relative lengths of jet tube and sounding tube the bottle would be un-
necessary. The jet tube from
its tip to its lower end inside the bottle
should be either than half the length of the sounding tube or

less
longer than the sounding tube. For small sounding tubes, 1 to 1.5
cm. in diameter and 30 to 50 cm. long, the opening of the jet tube
should be small enough to produce a flame about 2 cm. long when the
gas is turned on with full force. Larger tubes require somewhat
longer flames.
208. Transmission of Sound. Sound is always trans-

mitted from one place to another by waves in some me-
dium. The sounding body by its
vibrations sets up in the surround-
ing medium trains of waves which

carry the energy of the sounding
body away. These waves are
always longitudinal, being com-
posed of condensations and rarefac-
tions, never of troughs and crests.
Air is the ordinary medium for
the transmission of sound waves,
but other gases and solids and
liquids also transmit them.
FIG. 122. - Apparatus for Experiment. Suspend an electric bell
showing that sound is not in the receiver of an air pump (Fig. 122),
transmitted in a vacuum, and while it is ringing exhaust the air
SOUND ITS ORIGIN AND TRANSMISSION 179
from the receiver as thoroughly as possible. The sound will be less

and less audible as the exhaustion increases, but it can never become
entirely inaudible, partly because a perfect vacuum is unattainable,
but mainly because the supports of the bell will transmit some of
the sound to the outside air.
After exhausting the air, readmit it by small amounts at a time.

At each addition of air the sound will be distinctly louder.
This experiment shows that air or some material medium

is necessary to communicate sound.
Experiment. Insert the stem of a tuning fork in a small wooden
disk and rest this upon the surface of water in a tumbler. The
sound of the fork, which at first is inaudible at a distance, becomes so
when the disk touches the water. The experiment succeeds best
when the tumbler rests upon a resonance box of some sort, such as
that of a guitar or a violin. The vibrations are transmitted through
the water to the box and by the box to the air and thus to the ear.
with bathers that water can

It is a familiar experience
transmit sound, for when the ear is placed under water, a
light tapping under water at a distance can easily be
heard. It is said that the approach of a steamer can be
heard in this way when it is a mile or two distant.
Experiment. Place one end of a long pole against the panel of a

door and press the stem of a sounding tuning fork against the other
end. The vibratory motion will be transmitted by the pole to the
door and thence by the air to the ear. By touching the pole and also
the panel of the door lightly by the finger tips the vibrations may be
felt.
Waves of condensations and rarefactions pass along the

rod just as they do through air, but the amplitude of vibra-
tion of the wood particles is very small.
209. Form of sound waves in air. When a pebble is
dropped into still water, it starts a wave which travels out-
ward in all directions on the water surface so that it be-
comes an expanding circle. If pebbles could be dropped
at regular intervals at the same spot, a continuous succession
of expanding circular waves would travel outward from
the same center, forming a train of circular waves.
In a similar manner, when a body such as a tuning fork
vibrates, causes a train of expanding waves in air. These
it
waves, however, are not confined to a surface as the water

waves are, but they expand in all directions so that in-
stead of being circles they are spheres, and they are com-
posed of rarefactions and condensations instead of troughs
and crests.
Sound waves in air are therefore expanding spherical
shells,each shell of condensed air being followed by one
of rarefied air. The exterior surface of the shell may be
called the wave front. All the air particles about the
sounding body vibrate longitudinally along the radii of
the sphere or in lines perpendicular to the wave front, and
the waves enlarge on all sides one wave length during
each vibration period.
IV. VELOCITY .OF SOUND

210. Velocity of sound in air. A
little observation
will teach us that it takes time for sound to travel.

Thus, the flash of a gun, the fall of a hammer, or the
steam from a whistle at a distance may be seen before the
sound is heard likewise there is usually an interval of sev-
;
eral seconds between a flash of lightning and the thunder

which follows it.
Much careful experimentation has given 831.4 m. 1 or

1087 ft. per second as the velocity of sound in air at 0.
This is the velocity of all sounds of ordinary loudness.
Very loud sounds travel somewhat faster than this.
Roughly speaking, sound may be said to travel at the rate

of 1100 ft. per second, or about one mile in 5 seconds.
1 Violle and Vautier give 331.36 m. per sec.
VELOCITY OF SOUND 181
g
211. What
the velocity of sound depends on. The ve-
locity of in any medium depends on the
sound elasticity
and density of that medium.
It varies directly as the square root of the elasticity and
inversely as the square root of the density of the medium. It

follows from this that sound will travel four times as fast
inhydrogen as in oxygen because under the same pressure,
same elasticity, oxygen is 16 times as dense as
or with the
hydrogen. Temperature affects the velocity of sound be-

cause it may change either the elasticity or the density of
the medium. When
uninclosed air is heated, it expands,
becoming while the pressure and consequently
less dense,
the elasticity remains unchanged hence, as the tempera-
;
ture rises the velocity of sound increases. A rise in the

temperature of the air of 1 C. causes an increase in the
velocity of sound of 0.6 m. or nearly 2 ft. per second.
For example, the velocity of sound at 16 C. is 331.4 +
(0.6 x 16) = 341.0 m. per second.
Problems
1. What is the velocity of sound in air at 20 C.? At 22 C.?
At -9C.?
2. What is the velocity of sound in air at 11 C. ? At 25 C. ?
Carbon dioxide is 1.53 times as dense as air at the same tem-
3.
perature and pressure. What is the velocity of sound in it at C. ?

Ans. 267.9 m. per sec.
4. What is the velocity of sound in carbon dioxide at 22 C. ?
5. What the velocity of sound in hydrogen at

is C., the specific
gravity of air on a hydrogen basis being 14.43 ?
6. At what temperature does sound have a velocity in air of 1000
ft. per second?
7. At 18 C. what is the wave length produced by a sounding
body whose frequency is 435 per second ?
8. What change of frequency occurs in the sound of an organ
pipe whose wave length remains constant at 4 ft. when the temper-
ature changes from 5 to 21 C.? Ans. Increase of 8 per second.
9. At 18 C. the velocity of sound in a gas is 360 m. per second.
What is the specific gravity of the gas, air being the standard?
10. According to Boyle's law, when a gas is compressed, its elastic-
ity and density are increased at the same rate.

its What will be
the effect on the velocity of a sound if the gas through which it is
passing is compressed?
212. Velocity of sound in solids and liquids. Although

the greater density of solids and liquids would tend to
make the velocity of sound in them less than in air, it is
much greater. In water it is more than 4 times as great
as in air, while in some solids, as glass and steel, it is more
than 15 times as great. The greater elasticity of the
solids and liquids more than counteracts their greater
density.
213. Reflection of sound. When sound waves strike
the surface of another medium
differing in density from
the one in which they are traveling, they are reflected.
To reflect sound well, however, the reflecting surface must
be large and the irregularities of the surface must be
small in comparison with the wave lengths. The wall of
a building, a hillside, a bank of forest trees, and even
gases and clouds may reflect sound.
An echo is a reflected sound separated by an interval
of silencefrom the original sound. The nerves of the ear
do not recover from the effect of a sound instantaneously,
but the sensation of sound lasts about one tenth of a
second its cause ceases.
after Consequently if the
reflectedsound reaches the ear within one tenth of a sec-
ond after the original sound is heard, it will seem to be
a prolongation of that sound. Sound travels about 33
meters or 110 feet in a tenth of a second; hence, the
reflecting surface must be more than half that distance
away (since it travels the distance twice) to render the
reflected sound separate or distinct from the original
RESONANCE 183
sound. The walls of a vacant room or an auditorium

often reflect sound repeatedly from one wall to the other,
sometimes making it impossible for a speaker to be under-
stood. The presence of furniture or an audience may

interfere with the reflection or destroy it. The acoustic
properties of a hall are mainly determined by the way the

sounds are reflected from walls and ceiling.
its
Illustrations of the reflection of sound are seen in the

ear trumpet, the megaphone, and the curved surface of
the external ear which concentrates the sound waves to
the auditory canal by reflection. The laws of reflection,
which are the same for sound and light, are much more
easily studied under the latter subject.
V. RESONANCE
214. Vibrations communicated to other bodies. When
sound waves strike a body, some of the energy of vibration,
instead of being reflected, may be used in setting the body
against which the waves strike in vibration. Examples
of this are seen in the rattling of windows by the thunder,
and often in the vibration of some object of a room when-
ever some particular note is given by a piano or an organ.
The bodies set in vibration by the waves are said to absorb
the energy of vibration.
Sometimes vibrations are communicated from one body
to another more directly than by waves through the air.
For example, the vibrations of the strings of a piano or of
a violin are transmitted to the sounding-board of the in-
strument by means of the bridges upon which the strings
rest.
Experiment. Suspend two pendulums having heavy bobs from

the same support, making them of equal length, and set one of them
in vibration. The supporting frame, if not too rigid, will transmit the
vibratory motion from one pendulum to the other and
the second
pendulum will absorb nearly all the motion of the other. In a few
moments the first pendulum will possess the motion again and so
the energy of vibration will pass back and forth from one pendulum
to the other.
Next change the length of one of the pendulums and set one of
them in vibration. Motion will still be communicated from the first
pendulum to the second, but not so well as before. In either case the
vibrating pendulum applies force periodically to the other through the
medium of the supporting frame and sets it in vibration.
215. set up in a body by the

Forced vibrations are those
a
application of periodic force which is usually if not always
communicated to it from another vibrating body. In all the

cases mentioned in the preceding paragraph, force is
applied to one body at regular intervals of time, or periodi-
cally, by another, to set it in vibration, and each example
given illustrates forced vibrations.
To swing a person or to set a large church bell in mo-
tion easily, we know that the pushes or pulls must be
applied at certain regular intervals of time. If the inter-
vals agree with the natural period of the swing or the
bell, small forces may produce wide amplitude of vibration,
since the effect is cumulative. It is for this reason that
soldiers, when
crossing large bridges, break step, lest their
step, agreeing with the vibratory period of the bridge,
should cause such amplitude of vibration as to destroy it.
216. Resonance consists in the production of forced
vibrations in a body which has naturally the same vibra-
tory period as the force causing the vibration, or in the

communication of vibrations to one body from another
with which it agrees in period and frequency. The
experiment given in 214, when the two pendulums
are of the same length, illustrates mechanical resonance.
The examples given in the last paragraph also illustrate
resonance the pushes on the swing, the pulls on the
if
bell, or the tramp of the soldiers' feet agree respectively

RESONANCE 185
with the natural period of the swing, the bell, or the

bridge. The body which is set in vibration by the peri-
odic force is termed a resonator.
Experiment. Tune twostrings of a guitar, bass viol, or sonom-
eter to exact unison and pluck one of them. The other string will
be seen to be in vibration, and its sound may be heard if the vibra-
tions of the first one are stopped. The motion of one string is trans-
ferred to the other by the air and by the common supports of the
strings. The second string is a resonator for the first.
Experiment. Place two tunning forks mounted on resonance

boxes and having the same frequencies some distance apart (Fig. 123).
Bow one of
them vigor-
ously, allow ing
it to sound for
a few seconds,
and then stop
its vibrations.
The other fork
will be found F IG . 123. Tuning forks arranged for illustrating resonance,
to be vibrat-
ing, giving forth sound. Success in this experiment depends upon the
exactness with which the two forks agree in frequency. slight A
difference, even that caused by warming one of the forks, will prevent
resonance.
These two experiments illustrate resonance. Forced

vibrations in the case of resonance are sometimes termed
sympathetic vibrations.
The principle of resonance is of very great importance,
not only in sound, but also in other branches of physics,

especially in electricity and light.
217. Resonance in air. Bodies of inclosed or partially
inclosed air are most excellent resonators. This is shown
in the case of the steam whistle, the organ pipe, the flute,
and other wind instruments. In all such instruments
some small vibrating body, as a reed or a thin jet of air,
which of itself produces sound waves too small and indefi-
nite to be heard, sets the air of the resonator in vibration,
and the sound is greatly reenforced.
Experiment. Support a large tin tube, about 1.5 m. long and 8

cm. in diameter, in a vertical position and gradually raise a rose
burner which has been mounted on a long tube up into it. The jets
of burning gas will set the air of the tube in vibration by resonance,
and a very loud sound will result. The tube with its inclosed air is
a resonator.
Experiment. Hold a vibrating tuning fork over a deep cylin-

drical jar (Fig. 124) At first it is probable that little or no sound
.
will be heard, but if water is
poured carefully into the jar,

thus changing the length of the
air column, the sound will in-
crease in intensity until at a
certain depth it will burst forth
with considerable power. When
the air column is shortened still
more, the sound quickly dies
away and again becomes in-
audible.
In this experiment the

volume of inclosed air be-
comes a resonator. As
the column changes in
length the rate of vibra-
tion of the air particles
FIG. 124. Making an air resonator.
changes until it
finally
agrees with that of the fork, and thus resonance is
produced.
218. The air resonator explained. The prong a (Fig.
125) of the fork in moving from b to c produces a conden-
sation below it and a rarefaction above it or between the
two prongs. The condensation starts down the tube at
the instant the prong starts toward c and, if the air col-
RESONANCE 187
urn n of the proper length for resonance, it travels to the

is
water, is reflected, and returns to the mouth of the tube

by the time the prong reaches c. In the same manner
while the prong is moving back
to J a rarefaction travels down
the tube and back again. Thus
the prong applies force to the
aircolumn at exactly the right
intervals to keep it in vigorous
vibration and cause resonance.
Since a wave travels one
wave length in one vibration
period, and since the condensa-
tion travels down the tube and
back again while the fork
makes half of a vibration,
down the tube and back again
is equal to half of a wave
FIG. 125. Diagram showing how
length. Hence the length the resonance is produced.
air column AB is one fourth of
a wave length. In the experiment with the tin tube
( 217), which is open at both ends, the air* column is one
half of a wave length.
Resonance also occurs when the length of the air column is three
fourths of a wave length. In that case the distance down the tube
and back again is one and a half wave lengths and the reflected
condensation returns to the fork at the instant the prong reaches c a
second time.
Similarly there is reenforcement if the column is |, |, etc., wave
lengths long, but the resonance is best at \ of a wave length and
weakens as the column lengthens.
219. Velocity of sound by resonant air column. The length of a
resonant air column is affected by its diameter, so that it is only
approximately equal to one fourth of a wave length. According to
Lord Rayleigh about 0.7 of the radius of the tube should be added
to the length of the column to obtain the true quarter wave length*
When this and the frequency of the fork are known, the velocity of
sound may be determined as follows:
Problem
A fork having a frequency of 256 required at 16 C. an air column
31.8 cm. long for resonance, the diameter of the tube being 4 cm.
What was the velocity of sound ?
SOLUTION
2cm. x 0.7 = 1.4 cm., correction for diameter; 31.8cm. + 1.4cm. =
33.2 cm. quarter wave length; 33.2 cm. x 4 = 132.8 cm., whole wave
length 132.8 cm. x 256 = 33996.8 cm. = 340 m., the velocity of
;
sound ( 198).
The velocity of sound at 16 C. ( 211) is 341 m.
VI. INTERFERENCE OF SOUND

220. Interference of sound waves. It has been shown
( 201) how waves may cause interference. The subject
of interference of great im-
is
\ / portance in the study of sound,

f which affords many interest-
/ ing and beautiful illustrations
of it.
Ip
c |p The two prongs of a tuning
g \ fork always move in oppo-
/ \ site directions when vibrating,
/ \ going toward and then away

/ \ from each other. Let A and
FIG. 126. Diagram of interference B
(Fig. 126) represent the
waves around a tuning
endg Q the pr()ngg Qf a f()rk>
ofôund
When they are moving toward
each other, a condensation is produced between them at c
and a rarefaction on the outside at d and e. Thus a
condensation starts at expanding out into the spaces /
<?,
and #, while rarefactions at the same time expand outward

INTERFERENCE OF SOUND 189
in the spaces d and e. When the prongs move away from

each other, the opposite of this occurs. The dotted lines
represent the regions
about the fork where
condensations and
rarefactions border
upon and nearly, if not quite, de-
stroy each other. By twirling a
sounding fork near the ear these
four regions of interference may
be easily detected.
FIG. 127. Interference of

sound waves from
the
prongs of a tuning fork
prevented by a tube held
over one of them.
Experiment. Hold a
- tuning fork over a reso-
nant air column (Fig.
127) and turn it over
slowly. When the fork
is oblique so that both
prongs act at the same
*" ne n the air *
Fig. 128. -Experiment illustrating Interference . .
of two sets of sound waves from a Chladni tne J

ar a
' Potion wilJ
plate meeting in a resonance tube. be easily found where

the resonance will be
destroyed by the interference of the two sets of waves. If while the
fork is in this position a cylinder of paper is thrust over one prong
so as to keep the waves produced by it from entering the jar, the
resonance caused by the waves of the other prong will begin again.
Experiment. Procure a tin tube like that shown in Fig. 128. This
tube should be about 5 cm. in diameter and 30 cm. long to the point
where the branches are attached. Another tube should telescope into
the upper end of this tube so that its length may be adjustable.
Support the tube in a vertical position with the branches over
a Chladni plate, vibrating in four segments as shown in the figure,
and adjust the length of the tube so that resonance occurs. Turn
the tube so that its branches are over adjacent segments, those marked
+ and ,
and the resonance will be destroyed by interference. The
diagonal segments always vibrate in the same direction and hence
both send condensations up the tube at the same time; but adjacent
segments always vibrate in opposite directions so that one sends a con-
densation upward at the same time the other sends a rarefaction.
These meet in the larger part of the tube and destroy each other.
The same result may be obtained by using a tube of large diameter
without branches. If such a tube is held over one segment only,
resonance will occur; but if it is held so that half of it is over one
segment and half over the adjacent segment, the resonance is de-
stroyed. It may be restored by placing a card between one segment
and the opening of the tube, thus allowing waves from one segment
only to enter the tube.
221. Beats. Regular throbbing alternations in the inten-
sity of a sound are called beats.
Experiment. Cause two forks of the same frequency to sound to-

gether. The two sounds will blend into one smooth tone. Cut a hole
in a small rubber eraser so that it will fit snugly on one of the prongs
of one fork and slide it down to about the middle of the prong. This
will cause the fork to vibrate at a slower rate. Now when the two
forks are sounded together, they produce a throbbing or pulsating
note. If the eraser is moved toward the end of the prong, these
throbs or pulsations will be more frequent. If it is pushed down near
the base of the prong, the throbs may be so few as scarcely to be
heard. These regular throbbing pulsations of sound are beats.
222. Beats are caused by interference. At regular in-

tervals the two forks of the last experiment vibrate
together, both sending out a condensation or a rarefaction
at the same instant, so that like phases of the two wave
trains coincide and the intensity of the sound is increased.
INTERFERENCE OF SOUND 191
At other times the forks are in opposite stages of vibration,

so that when one sends out a condensation, the other is
producing a rarefaction ;and opposite phases of the two
wave trains coincide, and the intensity of the sound is
weakened.
Experiment. Prepare two singing flames (Fig. 129) as described

in 207, making one sounding tube ahout 5 cm. shorter than the other.
Fit to the shorter one a sliding
paper tnbe so that the sounding
tube may be lengthened at pleas-
ure. Adjust the tubes to the
same length, and the notes pro-
duced will unite into one smooth
tone. But when one tube is
shortened, beats will be produced.
The more the tubes differ in
length the more rapid the beats.
223. The number of beats
per second. Suppose that

two vibrating bodies which
have different frequencies
start together. Presently,
as one gains on the other,
they will be vibrating in

., T iii FIG. 129. Singing flames arranged to
opposite phases, and the produce beats.
two sounds will weaken
each other; but when one has gained a whole vibration,
they will be in like phase again and the two sounds
will strengthen each other. It is evident, therefore, that
a beat occurs as often as one body gains a vibration on the
other. The number of vibrations gained per second must
equal the difference between the frequencies of two
bodies, hence the number of beats per second must also
be equal to the difference between their frequencies of
vibration.
224. Discord or Dissonance. Two notes which are dis-
agreeable to the ear when soundedtogether are said to
be dissonant, and they form a discord. Two notes of dif-
ferent frequencies that are agreeable to the ear are said to
be consonant. Beats are the chief cause of dissonance. The
preceding experiments show that they may be very un-
pleasant. If the number of beats per second is very small,
the dissonance is not very marked but as the beats increase
;
in number more and more unpleasant,

the effect becomes
until a maximum is reached. From this point on the
unpleasantness decreases with an increase in the number
of beats until, with a large number of beats per second,
two notes become consonant.
VII. CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND INTENSITY

225. The characteristics of sound are (1) loudness, or
intensity, (2) pitch, and (3) quality or timbre.

Loudness refers to the degree or amount of the sen-
sation produced in the ear; while the term intensity, as
applied to sound, refers to the energy of the vibratory

motion producing the sensation. Since in physics sound
isdenned as a vibratory motion, and not as a sensation,
and since sensations cannot be measured with definiteness,
we shall discuss intensity of sound and not loudness.
Pitch is the characteristic of sound described by the
terms high and low or acute and grave. Thus, the voice of a
soprano singer has a high pitch and that of a bass singer a
low pitch, and the keys at the right end of a piano give
notes of high pitch, and those at the other end a low pitch.
Quality is the characteristic of sound by which we dis-
tinguish different notes from one another, even though
they be of the same pitch and intensity. Thus, we dis-
tinguish the voices of our friends or the notes of different
musical instruments by their quality, not by their loud-
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND INTENSITY 193
ness or their pitch. When we

describe a singer's voice
by such adjectives as pure, sweet, rich, thin, harsh, etc.,
we are describing its quality.
226. Intensity of sound depends on (1) the area of the
vibrating body, (2) the density of the medium in which

the sound is produced, (3) the amplitude of vibration,
and (4) the distance from the sounding body.
227. Effect of area. A
thin body, such as a violin
string, when it
vibrates, cannot set up well-defined and
strong waves in air because the air particles slip around it.
It is for this reason that a resonance box or a sounding-
board is necessary to many musical instruments. In the
example, the vibrations of the string are trans-
violin, for
mitted to the sonorous body of the instrument, which in
turn transmits the sound to the air. In like manner a
tuning fork when held in air is scarcely audible, but when
its stem is pressed against the table, the table itself is set
in vibration, and because of its greater area gives forth a
sound of greater intensity.
228. The experiment of an electric
Effect of density.
bell placed under the receiver of an air pump ( 208)
shows that the less dense the air about the bell the
less intense the sound produced by it. Observe that
in this experiment the change of density occurs in the
air about the bell, not in the -medium about the hearer
of the sound, nor, in the main, in the
transmitting medium.
If the receiver is filled with hydrogen or some other gas
lighter than air, the effect is the same as when the air is
rarefied. This effect of rarefied air on the intensity of
sound is strikingly illustrated upon the tops of high
mountains, where the report of a rifle sounds little louder
than the breaking of a twig.
The reason for this is that the mass of air or gas set in
motion at each vibration of the sounding body is less in a
ADAMS'S PHYS. 13
rare medium than in a dense one, and consequently less
energy is imparted to the medium at each vibration.

229. Effect of amplitude. The intensity of sound varies
as the square of the amplitude of vibration.
It has been shown ( 194) that the period of vibration
is independent of the amplitude. This means, for in-
stance, that if the amplitude is made twice as great as at
first, the body completes its vibration in the same time as

before, and consequently it must move twice as fast to do
it. In other words, the velocity of vibration must vary
directly as the amplitude. But we have learned ( 92)
that the energy of a moving body varies as the square of
its velocity. Therefore, since the velocity varies as the
amplitude and the energy varies as the square of the
velocity, the energy of vibration or intensity of sound
varies as the square of the amplitude of vibration.
230. Effect of distance. The intensity of sound varies
inversely as the square of the distance from its source.
This an example of the law of inverse squares. It
is
has been shown that sound waves are expanding spheri-

cal shells. As a this, the energy of
consequence of
sound which outward by the wave is dis-
is carried
tributed among more and more particles as the wave
advances, and the share of each particle decreases as
the number
of particles increases.
Geometry teaches that the surfaces of spheres vary as

the squares of their radii ; hence, the surface of a sound
wave increases, not at the same rate as its distance in-
creases, but as the square of its distance increases.
Obviously the number of particles composing the surface
of a sound wave must increase at the same rate. There-
fore, since the number of particles increases as the square
of the distance and the energy of each particle decreases
as the number of particles increases, the energy or
PITCH MUSICAL SCALE 195
intensity of sound varies inversely as the square of the

distance from its source.
^fe
This is the theoretical iS^r
In reality the energy of
sound is converted into the energy of heat as it is trans-
mitted outward, and consequently the intensity decreases
at a greater ratethan is stated in this law. Of course,
if the waves are prevented from expanding in the form
of spheres, as they are by speaking tubes and to some
extent by the megaphone, the intensity of the sound will
decrease at a less rate.
VHI. PITCH MUSICAL SCALE

231. The pitch of a sound depends on its vibration fre-
the greater the frequency the higher the pitch.
quency ;
With a given velocity the wave
length varies inversely as the fre-
quency ( 198), hence the higher the
pitch the shorter the wave length.
Experiment i. Let a circular disk hav-

ing in it eight concentric circles of holes, 24
holes in the inner circle and 27, 30, 32, 36,
40, 45,and 48 respectively in the remaining
be mounted on a whirling machine
circles,
(Fig. 130). While it is in rotation direct

a jet of air through the holes of each circle
in rapid succession. It will be found that
each circle gives a musical tone, and the
greater the number of holes in the circle
the higher the pitch. Such a disk is called
a siren.
FIG. 130. Siren.
Experiment 2. In place of the siren
disk use a toothed wheel, touching its edge while it is revolving with
the edge of a card. It will be found that the greater the rate of
rotation or the finer the teeth of the wheel the higher the pitch.
232. Noises and musical sounds distinguished. Many

sounds, such as the report of a gun or the roar of street
traffic, have no definite pitch and are for that reason called
noises. A noise generally consists of a mixture of unre-
lated sounds. An illustration of this occurs when a num-
ber of persons are talking in a room a by-stander hears
;
only a noise because, even though each voice may have a

definite pitch, the sound as a whole has none that the ear
can detect.
A musical sound, on the other hand, is one which has
a definite pitch and which is pleasing to the ear. It is
characterized by regularity and simplicity of vibration.
The ear is not equally sensitive to all rates of vibration, and when
the rate exceeds a certain limit, there seems to be no sound at all.
The limit at which this occurs has been placed at about 40,000 vibra-
tions per second, but it differs with the individual, being lower for
old people than for young people. It may happen, therefore, that
what is sound for one person is not sound for another. Most musical
sounds are comprised between 27 and 4,000 vibrations per second.
233. Musical intervals. When two notes are sounded

together, or one immediately after the other, the ear per-
ceives a certain relationship between them. This rela-
tionship, determined by the relative frequencies of the two
tones, is termed a musical interval. It is expressed as a
simple ratio of their vibration frequencies. For example,
the interval between two tones having frequencies of 240
and 360 is |> and the ear recognizes the same relationship
or the same interval between any two tones whose fre-
quencies are to each other as 3 to 2, as two tones having
respectively frequencies of 400 and 600, or 1000 and 1500.
The interval between two tones whose frequencies have
the ratio i is called in music unison ; |> an octave ; |> a fifth ;
|> a fourth; |,
a major third ; \ a minor third ; f, a major
,
sixth; |, a minor sixth. The interval expressed by the

ratio | is called a major tone ; -lg-, a minor tone ; ^|, a
major semitone ; |-|, a sharp ; and |-|, a flat.
234. The diatonic scale. Most of us are familiar with

the succession of eight notes often designated by the
names, do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si, do. This series of
eight notes is the diatonic scale. The firstone of the
series is the keynote. It may have any vibration fre-
quency at pleasure, but the other notes must have a certain

relationship to the keynote and to one another to form a
perfect diatonic scale; the same intervals must "occur and
always in the same order. The siren (
231) gives this
scale exactly. The intervals between the keynote and
each of the other notes of the scale in their order are
expressed by the following scale ratios :
do re mi fa sol la do
{ I I I I I *
Although the diatonic scale used among all civilized
peoples has a scientific basis, yet it is not the only possible

scale. In fact, music, like the other arts, is a product of
evolution, and the diatonic scale and the music based upon
it is of comparatively recent growth or development.
Other times and other peoples have used different scales.

The great fundamental law of music seems to be simplicity
of relation, or that notes when sounded together should
have relations which may be expressed by simple ratios.
235. Table for illustrating the diatonic scale.
240 x 7 = 1680, 6th harmonic.

The above table is based upon a keynote having a frequency of 240
per second, this number being chosen because fractions are avoided
by its use. The series of notes having frequencies of 240, 270, etc.,
up to 480, which are obtained by multiplying 240 by the scale ratios,

constitutes a perfect diatonic scale. The last note of one octave
forms the keynote of the succeeding one. This table explains some
of the names of the intervals ( 233). For example, the interval
called the fifth is so called because it is the interval between the first
and the fifth note of this scale, and the octave is so named because
it is the interval between the first and the eighth note of the scale.
The ratios in the last line express the intervals between the suc-
cessive notes of the scale. Observe that there are three major tones,
two minor tones, and two major semitones among them.
236. Basis of the diatonic scale. When three notes

whose frequencies are to one another as 4 5 6, are : :
sounded together, they produce a most pleasing effect.

Three notes having such a relationship are called a major
triad. We are, perhaps, familiar with them under the
names do, mi, and sol. When the octave of the first is
added, the major chord, do, mi, sol, do, is formed.
Ananalysis of the diatonic scale shows that it is a combination of
three related major triads. The major triad may, therefore, be said
to be the basis of the diatonic scale, and consequently of all modern
music. This may be illustrated by the numbers given in the table
(235).
1st major triad, C, E, G, 240 300 360
: : = 1 :
f :
f = 4 5
: : 6.
2d major triad, G, B, 1)', 360 450 540
: : = f :
'/ :
i_s = 4 5
. .
6.
3d major triad, F, A, C', 320 400 480

: : = f :
f : 2 =4:5: 6.
Observe that these three major triads include all the notes of the
first octave
except the second, but that 540, the octave of that, is used.
Also observe that the second triad is related to the first by having one
note, G, in common, and that the third is related to the first by the
fact that C is used in the first triad and its octave in the third.
237. Transposition. It is often desirable to change the keynote
from one letter to another. This
called transposition.
is Suppose D,
with a frequency of 270, is selected as the keynote instead of C.
Applying the scale ratios to this number and computing the frequen-
cies of the several notes, a new series is obtained as follows :
CDE do re
F
mi
GABC
fa sol la si
D
do
270 303J 337 360 405 450 506J 540
240 270 300 320 360 400 450 480 540
C* = 500
The lower when C was the keynote. E

line gives the frequencies
and A two keys, but F and C are much too
differ slightly for the
low. Sharping them by multiplying 320 and 480 each by ff, we ob-
tain 333$ and 500. Even then they do not quite agree with the fre-
quencies required for the key of D.

It is evident from the above comparison that an instrument with a
fixed keyboard, like the piano or organ, if tuned correctly for the key
of C, would be incorrect for the key of D
or any other key, the sharps
and not wholly overcoming the errors.
flats
238. The tempered scale. That a piece of music might be ren-

dered correctly in any key upon a piano would require the addition
of a large number of keys to each octave, so many, indeed, that it
would be practically impossible to manipulate them. To avoid this
difficulty the scale of equal temperament has been adopted for such
instruments. In this scale the whole tones are all equal and the
semitones are exactly half of the whole tones. Five notes are added
lo the octave in this scale, making thirteen notes and twelve intervals
which are all equal. The value of the interval is ^2, or 1.05946+,
which is a little smaller than a true major semitone. The only cor-
rect intervals on the piano and organ are the octaves, all others are
slightly false; hence with such instruments music of the highest

artistic excellence is impossible. With instruments like the violin,
however, in which the pitch is wholly under the control of the
musician, it is possible to render music correctly in any key.
239. Standard pitch. Any vibration frequency at pleasure may
be used for the keynote, but at present the A' fork having a frequency
of 435 vibrations per second is the (international) standard of pitch
"
most widely used. This gives 261 as the frequency of " middle C
in the diatonic scale, or 258.7 in the scale of equal temperament.
Using this standard, the frequencies for an octave in the two scales
are as follows
Diatonic
:
CDEF
261 293f 326 \ 348
GABC'
H
39 435 489f 522
Tempered 258.7 290.3 325.9 345.3 387.6 435 488.3 517-3
In 1751 Handel used an A' fork having a frequency of 422.5 a sec-
ond. For many years after this, however, there was a tendency
toward a higher standard of pitch. In 1857 a frequency of 448 was
in use at Paris, and at one time in London 455 was the standard for
" "
the A' fork. A highpitch adds to the brilliancy of instrumental
music, and this fact may have been the chief cause for the rise in
pitch a high pitch is objectionable, however, to the vocalist, and

;
hence a reaction against such a high pitch set in which led to the
adoption of the present standard.
"
The successive octaves above " middle C are designated by C',
C", C'", etc., and the successive octaves below it by C v C 2 C 3

, ,
etc.
IX. QUALITY OF SOUND

240. Fundamental tone. In general a large body
vibrates at a slower rate than a small one, and the
whole of a body vibrates slower than a part of it. This is
illustrated by the fact that the pitch of a small bell is

higher than that of a large one. Bodies usually vibrate in
parts, and the greater the number of parts or the smaller
the parts, the higher the pitch. The experiments with the
Chladni plate ( 206) furnish" excellent illustrations of
this principle.
The lowest tone that a body can give, usually that pro-
duced by it when vibrating as a whole, is called its funda-
mental. Those tones of a higher pitch produced by the
vibrations of the parts of a body are called overtones or
upper partials.
Those overtones whose frequencies are exact multiples
of the fundamental are called harmonics or harmonic partials.
If in the table ( 235), 240 be taken as the frequency of a
fundamental, the numbers in heavy type will be the fre-
quencies of its first seven harmonics. The first harmonic
has a frequency of twice that of the fundamental, or 480 ;
the second, three times that of the

fundamental, etc.
Observe carefully the relation of these harmonics to the
QUALITY OF SOUND 201
fundamental, and especially that the sixth has no place in

the table.
241 .
Quality. It rarely, or never,
happens that a sound-
ing body gives only one tone at a time, either its funda-
mental or a single overtone but it produces a note which is
;
a combination of several tones, usually its fundamental

with some of its harmonics. The ear ascribes to the note
the pitch of the most prominent tone, most often but not
always the fundamental.
Quality of sound depends upon what tones are combined
to produce it and upon their relative intensities. It is
possible that two notes may be composed of the same

tones and yet differ in quality because the component
tones differ in relative intensity. In one, for instance, the
third harmonic might be very prominent, while in the
other the fourth might be prominent and the third weak.
A
note composed of only one or two tones would be
described as thin, flat, or poor in quality. The lower
harmonics are often very prominent, and when the atten-
tion of a person lias once been called to them, he learns to
detect them, especially the second, fourth, and fifth, in the
sounds of bells, whistles, human voices, and even of some
animals, with astonishing facility. Fortunately the higher
overtones are generally weak and die out very quickly,
otherwise many sounds which are pleasant to the ear would
be very harsh and unmusical.
242. The composite character of sound may be made
eye by the mano metric flame. The apparatus
visible to the
for producing this flame (Fig. 131) consists of a chamber
or cavity A
closed on one side by a thin, flexible membrane,
of gold-beater's skin or of thin sheet rubber.
c<7, Two tubes
enter this cavity. Through one, Z>, illuminating gas is
admitted. The other, E* serves as an exit for the gas, its
outer end being drawn clown to form a jet.
The figure represents a manometric capsule made from a round
wooden pill box. An inch hole is bored through the top and the bot-
tom. A rubber stopper
carrying the two tubes
is placed through the
hole in the cover, and

the rubber membrane
is clamped between the
cover and the body of
the box. The sound
waves which enter B
through the funnel F
strike the membrane
and cause variations of
pressure in the gas in

A. A condensation in-
creases the pressure and
lengthens the gas flame,
and a rarefaction re-
lieves the pressure and
shortens the flame.
The variations of the
FIG. 131. Apparatus for producing the
manometric flame. flame are made visible
to theeye by being
observed in a revolving mirror ( 207). If the flame is steady, its
image forms a smooth band of light. If an organ pipe is blown near

the funnel so as to give only its fundamental, the band of light in the
mirror is changed into a series of equidistant tongues of flame shown
at 1 (Fig. 132). With a given rate of rotation of the mirror, the
higher the pitch the finer the tongues become. If two pipes of dif-
ferent pitch are sounded at the same time, or if one is blown harder so
as to give an overtone as well as its fundamental, the flame 3 or 4 will
show the composite character of the sound. Likewise the presence
of overtones in the human voice may be shown when different vowel
sounds are sung into the funnel of the instrument.
We have seen ( 224) that discords are due to beats. It often
happens, however, that the discordance is due, not to beats between

the fundamentals, but to those caused by the harmonics or overtones
of the two notes, or by the fundamental of one and an overtone of the
pther. For example, C and B of the piano are discordant because of the
QUALITY OF SOUND 203
beats formed by C and the first harmonic of B, and bells or chimes

whose fundamental tones are in perfect harmony produce discords when
sounded together because of
their overtones. These over-
tones are not harmonics, their
frequencies not being simple
multiples of their funda-
mentals.
243. Analysis of
sound. We have seen
that a resonator will re-
spond only to a tone of

some particular fre-
quency. Helmholtz first

made use of this principle
in analyzing sound. He
used a number of air
resonators of different
sizes and of a form shown
in Figure Each
133.
one had a small opening
a which was applied to
the ear, and a larger
FIG. 132. A manometric flame, show-
opening B at which the ing the composite character of sound.
sound waves entered.
The silence of a resonator indicated the absence of its
tone from the note being tested,
^ and resonance in any particular
,-'"" \
resonator indicated the presence
of a tone corresponding to that
of the resonator. After analyz-
ing a note, Helmholtz was able
to reproduce or imitate it by
FIG. 133. -A Helmholtz combining the tones found in it
resonator. by analysis.
Problems
1. The frequency of a fork is 435. What is the length of a
resonant air column reenforcing it at 20 C., the diameter of the tube
being 6 cm.? Ans. 17.6 cm.

2. A tuning fork having a frequency of 384 produces resonance in
a tube 19.1 cm. long and 5 cm. in diameter. What is the velocity of
sound ?
3. A fork held over a tube 5 cm. in diameter produces resonance
when the air column is 17 cm. deep. What is the frequency of the
fork, the temperature of the air being 15 C.?
4. The waves of one musical note are 120 cm. and those of another
114 cm. long. If the two notes are sounded at the same time in
air at 16 C., how many beats will be produced per second?
5. Using 256 as the vibration frequency of the keynote, calculate
the frequencies for the notes of one octave in the diatonic scale.
6. Three notes have respectively frequencies of 240, 360, and 540.
Compare the interval between the first and second with that between
the second and third.
7. The interval between re and sol in the diatonic scale is f.
How many more intervals of the same value are there in the scale ?
8. The interval between two notes is a "fifth" and the frequency
of the lower note is 256. What is the frequency of the other note?
9. What harmonics of two notes whose fundamentals are produced
respectively by frequencies of 256 and 400 would produce a maximum
discord if this maximum occurs at about 32 beats per second ?
X. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS STRINGS

244. Most musical instruments are included in the two
classes, stringed instruments and wind instruments. The
violin, the guitar, the harp, and the piano are illustrations
of the first class and the flute, the cornet, the trombone,
;
and the organ, of the second class.

The strings of musical instruments are made to vibrate
by means of a bow as in the violin, or by being plucked
with the fingers as in the guitar and harp, or by being
struck with a hammer as in the piano.
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS -STRINGS 205
245. Laws of vibrating strings. The laws of vibrating strings are

studied by the use of a sonometer, which consists of a long resonance
box (Fig. 134) with one or more strings or wires stretched over it
from end to end. These wires, which rest upon bridges, one at
each end, are made
taut, and the stretching force or tension is
regulated by passing: them over pulleys at one end of the sonometer
FIG. 134. Sonometer.
and attaching weights to them, or often a lever of some form is

used for the purpose. Perhaps the simplest method is to fasten the
sonometer in a vertical position against the wall, and to stretch the
wires by weights attached to their lower ends. With such an instru-
ment the following laws may be illustrated, but exact determinations
are better suited to the laboratory than to the classroom.
First Law. The tension being constant, the frequency of

a string varies inversely as its length.
Let I represent the length of a string and n its
frequency, and V another length of the string and n
1
its
frequency then this law may be expressed as follows :

;
n: n' =V : I.
Second Law. The length of a string being constant, its
frequency varies directly as the square root of its tension.

Let n represent the frequency of a string when its
tension is t,and n' its frequency when its tension is t'.-
Then this law may be expressed as follows:

n n = V* V?-
:
r
:
Third Law. The length, tension, and material of two

strings being the same, their frequencies vary inversely as
their diameters.
Let n represent the frequency of one string and d its

diameter, and n' the frequency of another string and d

1
its diameter. Then this law may be expressed as follows :
n : n '
= d '
: d.
Fourth Law. The length and tension of two strings

being the same, their frequencies vary inversely as the square
roots of their masses per unit length and are independent
otherwise of their material.
This law means, for example, that if two strings are
stretched equally and are made of equal length, and one

of them weighs four times as much as the other per foot
of its length, the lighter one will make twice as many
vibrations per second as the other even if
they are made
of different material.
Experiment i. Stretch a single wire upon a sonometer, and ob-

serve its pitch. Then place a movable bridge under it exactly mid-
way between the other bridges. Each half of the string will now be
found to give a note an octave higher than the whole string did that ;
is, half of the string has twice the frequency of the whole.
Make the string f as long as at first. Observe that its note is a

fifth above its original note; that is, f of a string makes f times as
many vibrations as the whole string does. These experiments illus-

trate the first law.
Experiment 2. Stretch two similar wires upon the sonometer, mak-

ing their lengths equal. Attach a 4-lb. mass to one and a 16-lb.
mass to the other. The latter string will be found to be an octave
higher than the other. That is, a string with 4 times the tension of
another has twice the frequency of the other. This illustrates the
second law.
Experiment 3. The diameter of No. 11 piano wire is f of that of

No. 16, and that of No. 10 is f of that of ô. 13. Place a No. 11 and
a No. 16 wire or a. No. 10 and a No. 13 wire upon a sonometer, mak-
ing their lengths and tensions equal. If the first pair is used, they
will give two notes corresponding to do and fa of the diatonic scale.
If the second pair is used, the notes will correspond to do and mi.
This illustrates the third law. If their masses per unit length are
compared, it will be found that it illustrates the fourth law also.
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS STRINGS 207
Since they are of the same material their masses per unit length will
be to each other as the squares of their diameters.
In a general way musical instruments illustrate these

laws. In the piano and the harp the short thin strings
give the notes of high pitch, and the long thick ones the
notes of low pitch. It is well known that stringed instru-
ments are tuned by changing the tension of the strings,
which is increased to raise the pitch and lessened to lower
it. The violinist illustrates the first law as he rapidly
changes the length of his strings by pressing upon them

with his fingers at different places.
246. Corollary to the First Law. The lengths of two
strings in unison are directly proportional to the frequencies
of the two strings when their lengths
are made equal.
&
Proof. Let CD and EF (Fig. 135) be
E~ ~~Q
F
two strings equal in length, and let EG, a v*. 135.
part of EF, be in unison with CD.
(1)
Frequency of
Frequency of
EG = Length of EF b the firgt
EF Length of EG
of gtri ^
(2) Frequency of CD = Frequency of EG by hypothesis.
(3) Length of CD = Length of EF by hypothesis.
Substituting these values in the proportion, we have
/^N Frequency of CD _
~ Length of CD Q g D
Frequency of EF Length of EG
This principle is of great use in proving the other laws of strings upon
the sonometer.
247. The harmonics of a string. When a string is
bowed or plucked middle point, it vibrates as a

at its
whole, giving its fundamental tone but if it is touched ;
"
or " damped at that point with a feather and is bowed
near one end, both of its halves will vibrate, giving the
octave of the fundamental, the feather causing a node at
the middle. When the string is damped at one third of
itslength from the end and the short portion bowed, it
divides itself into three equal parts, each part vibrating
with a frequency three times that of the fundamental, pro-
ducing a tone an octave and a fifth above it or its second
harmonic. In a similar manner a string may be made to
vibrate in four, five, or more equal segments, producing a
series ofharmonics of the fundamental tone.
These vibrations may be made visible to the eye by
placing light paper riders astride the wire. That at the
FIG. 13G. Apparatus for showing a string vibrating in segments.
nodal point a (Fig. 136) will remain stationary and those

on the ventral segments bb will be thrown off.
248. Notes of a string composite. In the last paragraph
itwas shown how a string may be made to vibrate as a
whole or in equal parts. Usually, however, when a string
vibrates as a whole it also vibrates in parts, at the same
time giving a note composed of a fundamental and several
harmonics or overtones. Its actual motion is a resultant
of all its vibratory motions and is very complex in charac-
ter. The parts in which a string vibrates and hence the
quality of its note depend very largely upon how and
where the string is bowed or struck.
Experiment i. Damp the wire of a sonometer at the middle by

touching it with a feather, and bow one of its halves. Remove the
WIND INSTRUMENTS PIPES 209
feather while bowing the string. It will begin to vibrate as a whole,

giving its fundamental, but the ear will be able to detect the con-
tinuation of the tone produced by the halves of the string. This will
show that a string may vibrate as a whole and in halves at the same
time.
Again, damp the wire at one third its length from the end and bow the
shortportion. Re move the feather while bowingthe string andpresently
the fundamental will be heard and with it the tone produced by the
vibrating thirds of the string. This shows that a string may vibrate
as awhole and in thirds at the same time. With long strings the
experiment maybe carried further, showing that a string may vibrate
in fourths, fifths, etc., at the same time that it is vibrating as a whole.
XI. WIND INSTRUMENTS PIPES
249. In wind instruments the air column which pro-

duces the sound is usually contained in tubes or pipes.
The French horn, for example, is a long coiled tube termi-

wide bell, while an organ pipe
nating in a
and a flute are straight tubes.
M
Pipes are of two kinds, reed pipes and flute
pipes. In a reed pipe the air is made to
vibrate by a thin flexible tongue or reed
which is itself set in vibration by a blast
of air. A clarionet and a ragman's horn are
illustrations of a reed pipe.
In flute pipes the air column is set in vibra-
tion by a thin ribbon of air blown across an
opening. The flute, fife, and a boy's willow
whistle,which is muchlike an organ pipe in
structure and action, are illustrations of a
flute pipe. Figure 137 shows such a pipe.
The through C passes through
air entering
the narrow slit a across the opening D, strik-
,, ,
, , FIG. 137. Sec-
ing the sharp edge b. tion of an
A pipe that is open at the upper end M organ pipe.
ADAMS'S PHYS. 14
is called an open pipe; one closed at the upper end is
called a closed or a stopped pipe. The former is open

at both ends, but the latter is open at one end only, that
is, at D.
Vibration of air in pipes.
250. When a pipe is sound-
it vibrate longitudinally and sound
ing, the air particles in
waves travel to and fro along the tube. An example of
by the resonant air column ( 218); it is
this is furnished
that of a stopped pipe sounding its fundamental.
There is always a node at the closed end of a pipe, be-
cause the air cannot vibrate there, and an antinode at the
open end. In an open pipe sounding its fundamental,
there is a node in the middle, and an antinode at each
end. In all pipes, as in the case of the resonant air col-
umn, the distance from node to antinode is always one

fourth of a wave length an open pipe sounding its fun-
;
damental is therefore a half wave length long. When the

harmonics are sounded by a pipe, there is more than one
node, but always one at the closed end and antinodes at
"the The experiment with the vibrating spiral
open ends.
spring (203) illustrates the action of the air in a pipe,
when several nodes and antinodes exist in it.
251. The laws of vibrating air columns.
1. The frequencies of air columns vary inversely as their
lengths.
2.The frequency of a closed pipe is half of that of an
open pipe of the same length.
3. In open pipes a complete series of harmonics is pos-
sible, but in closed pipes only those harmonics are possible

ivhose frequencies are odd multiples of that of the funda-
mental.
These laws are roughly illustrated by many wind instruments.

Thus, the fundamental note of a flute is obtained by closing all of the
openings by the fingers and blowing softly. By raising each finger
WIND INSTRUMENTS PIPES 211
in succession beginning at the lower end a series of notes of higher

and higher pitch is given. Uncovering an opening has the same
effect as cutting off the tube at that point. This illustrates the first
law.
Again, by closing allthe openings and blowing harder the har-
monics are obtained. Thus the third law is partially illustrated.
Experiment i. Close one end of a glass tube about 1 cm. in diam-
eter and 24 cm. long with the finger, and blow gently across the
open end to produce a musical note. Try the same again with a
tube half as long and with another two thirds as long. The second
will give a tone an octave higher than the first and the third a note a
fifth above the first. This illustrates the first law.
Experiment 2. Prepare a singing flame apparatus ( 207) using
a tube 48 cm. long. The tube constitutes an open pipe. Compare
its note with that of the 24-cm. tube used as described in the last ex-
periment. The two will have the same pitch. Also compare the
note of a 24-cm. tube when placed over the singing flame with that of
the 48 cm. tube used in the same manner.
Experiment 3. Hold a closed tube opposite the air jet of a siren

( 231) so that the jets of air may pass through the holes of the disk
into the tube. Sy trial, tubes of different lengths being used and the
jetbeing placed opposite different circles an intense sound may be
produced by resonance. A 4-in. or a 6-in. test tube often answers the
purpose admirably. When resonance has been established in this
way, substitute for the closed tube an open one twice as long. It
will give the same note as the closed tube.
Problems
1. A string vibrates as a whole and makes 300 vibrations per
second. If it also vibrates in thirds at the same time, how many
vibrations per second has each third of the string ? What harmonic
is produced ? If the fundamental is called do, what name should be
given to the harmonic?
2. To what note on the piano would the fifth harmonic of
" middle C " correspond ?
3. Two strings, one 80 cm. and the other 64 cm. long, are in
unison. The first one has a frequency of 280. What is the frequency
of the other when it is SO cm. long ?
4. If the note of a violin string 36 cm. long is taken as the key-
note, how long would it have to be to produce sol in the same octave?
How does the player alter the length of the string ?
5. What law of strings does the violin player illustrate by the
use of the fingers of his left hand?
6. If the vibration number of a string 60 cm. long and under
a tension of 100 Kg. is 480, what will its frequency be if its length is
changed to 40 cm. and its tension to 64 kg? Ans. 576.
7. What is the rate of vibration of a string 80 cm. long, 0.8 mm.
in diameter, and under a tension of 25 Kg., if the frequency of a
string of the same kind 96 cm. long, 1.2 mm. in diameter, and under
a tension of 36 Kg. is 256 ?
8. What is the length of a closed pipe whose fundamental is
produced by 435 vibrations per second when the velocity of sound in
air is 1125 ft. per second?
9. How long must an open organ, pipe be if its frequency is to be
64, the velocity of sound being 1120 ft. per second?

10. Calculate the lengths of a series of closed tubes which will
produce the diatonic scale, the one producing sol being 36 cm. long.
11. Will the pitch of a pipe organ be raised or lowered by a rise
in temperature ? Why ?
12. A
closed pipe is 12 ft. long. What must be the length of an
open pipe to give a note two octaves' higher?
CHAPTER III
LIGHT
I. NATURE OF LIGHT
252. The ether. It is the accepted belief among men

of science that all space is filled with something so rare
and subtle that it cannot be weighed or indeed perceived
by any of our senses, and to this all-pervading medium the
name ether has been given. It is believed to fill not only
theimmense spaces between the stars or between the earth
and the sun, but also to exist between the molecules of all
matter, whether solid, liquid, or gaseous.
This concept of the ether may strike the beginner in
science as fanciful, yet very many facts, especially in Light,
Heat, and Electricity, impel one to the belief that some-
thing, whatever its name or nature, by which energy is
transmitted through the enormous spaces of the universe,
fills all space.
253. Nature of light. Practically all the energy we
have comes to us from the sun and the question arises,
;
how is it transmitted across the millions of miles of inter-

vening space ? There are two ways in which we may con-
ceive of this being done. One consists in the transmission
of energy by the bodily transfer of matter itself, just as a
bullet carries energy when it is shot from a gun. The
other method of transferring energy is by wave motion in
some medium, as we have learned in the study of sound.
X^The corpuscular or emission theory of light accorded
/ with the first method of transferring energy. This theory,
213
\^
214 LIGHT
which was elaborated and advocated by Newton (1642-

1727), held that light consisted of very small corpuscles or
particles shot out by luminous bodies, like the sun or the
flame of a candle, in all directions. These particles, by
impinging on the retina of the eye, were supposed to cause
the sensation of sight. This theory was not entirely dis-
carded till well into the nineteenth century.
j,*
The undulatory or wave theory of light, first stated in
.(, definite form by Huygens in 1678 and now universally ac-
cepted, accords with the second method of transmitting
energy. This theory assumes that light is a form of
energy due to vibratory disturbances in the ether which

are transmitted through space by waves, the ether
vibrations being transverse to the line of propagation.
These vibratory disturbances are electromagnetic in their
nature.
Not all waves in the ether are light waves, but only those
which are of the proper length to affect the eye and cause
the sensation of sight. Some are too short and others are
much too long to be light waves, although differing from
them in no other respect except length.
All energy of wave motion in the ether is called radiant
energy ; hence, light is radiant energy, but not all radiant
.energy is light.
NOTE 1. The student should bear

in mind two important distinc-
tions between sound waves and light waves (1) Sound waves are
:
longitudinal light waves are transverse. (2) Sound waves are waves
;
in ordinary matter only, as in air, wood, water, etc. light waves are
;
in the ether only. Light waves exist in air or glass only because the
ether exists between the molecules of those substances but light is
;
propagated with the greatest facility through the best vacuum attain-
able. Sound, on the other hand, cannot pass through a vacuum.
NOTE 2. Just as there are two distinct and correct definitions
of sound, so also there are two of light. In addition to the one
given above, light may be defined as a sensation which is reported to
TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT 215
the brain by the optic nerve. This is the definition of the physiologist
and the psychologist; but the physicist also uses the term light with
this meaning at times in discussing the subject of color.
II. TRANSMISSION OF LIGHT

254. Radiation. If a tuning fork were set in vibration
and dropped from a height, it would have two kinds of
motion at the same time, its vibratory motion and its
downward motion toward the earth. Likewise mole-

cules are supposed to be in ceaseless vibration while at the
same time they may be moving from point to point within
the body. Now as the tuning fork by its vibrations may
set up waves in the air about and transmit its energy
it of
vibration to a distance by the waves in the air as
a medium, so the molecules or the parts of molecules
of a body by their vibrations set up, in the ether surround-
ing them, waves which transfer energy away from the body
outward into space in all directions.
This production of waves in the ether by the vibrations
of molecules or their parts and the transmission of energy
away from the body by the ether waves thus formed is

called radiation.
The waves emitted by most bodies at ordinary tempera-
tures are too long for light waves but if a body is heated
;
more and more, shorter and shorter waves are produced

until finally a point is reached (525 C.) where it begins to
give off waves short enough to be light. A body heated

to such a degree that it emits light is said to be incandes-
cent.
Some bodies, like the firefly, in a way not yet understood,

emit light when they are not heated.
255. Effect of matter on light waves. Light travels
most readily through space devoid of ordinary matter, and
the presence of air or other substances obstructs or modi-
216 LIGHT
fiesthe ether waves more or less. Many substances which,

unless extremely thin, entirely prevent the passage of light
waves are called opaque; others, like air, water, and glass,
which allow the waves to pass so that objects can be seen
through them distinctly, aretermed transparent. Bodies
like oiled paper, ground glass, and porcelain, which allow
light to pass but not so that objects can be seen distinctly

through them, are called translucent.
Some very long ether waves, many times too long to be
light waves, pass through a brick wall as readily as light
"
waves pass through glass.

256. Reflection and absorption. The question arises,
what becomes of the energy of light which strikes a body
and does not pass through it?
First, some of it bounds off again into space that is, it is
;
reflected. Evidence of this exists on every hand. We can

see an object only when light enters our eye from that
object, and hence most objects are seen by us simply

because they reflect light to our eyes.
Secondly, some of the waves of light in attempting to
penetrate and pass through a body set the molecules of
the body in more rapid vibration, and thus the waves,
losing their energy, are destroyed. This transference of

energy from the ether to the molecules of matter, the
radiant energy being transformed into kinetic energy of
molecular motion, is called absorption.
Absorption is the converse of radiation. In radiation
kinetic energy of molecular motion is transformed into
radiant energy, being at the same time transferred from
matter to the ether.
Bodies visible by the light which they radiate are termed
luminous; but those visible by the light which they reflect
are said to be illuminated.
In general, when light strikes a body, some of it is
always reflected, almost always some of it is absorbed, aud

sometimes some of it is transmitted.
257. Velocity of light. Roemer, a Danish astronomer,
tirst gave a definite proof (1676) that it takes time for
light to travel through space. He was engaged in
observing the eclipses of one of the moons of the planet
Jupiter at the Paris observatory. This moon, like our
own, is visible by the sunlight which it reflects, but it
disappears suddenly from sight at every revolution about
Jupiter, because it passes into the shadow of that planet
and is This enabled Roemer to determine the
eclipsed.
time required for to go around Jupiter once and, having
it
done this, to calculate the exact time of each eclipse for a

year or more in advance. He did this, but found as he
continued his observations that 'the observed time kept
falling behind the computed time, a few seconds at first,
but more and more at each succeeding eclipse, until at the
end of about six months the discrepancy amounted to
nearly 1000 seconds.
Let S (Fig. 138) represent the sun, and the circle EE'
the orbit of the earth, J
Jupiter, and the small circle the
FIG. 138. Diagram illustrating Roemer's method for determining the

velocity of light.
path of the moon M around that planet. When Roemer

made his first calculations, the earth was at E on thesame
side of the sun as Jupiter, but during the next six months
218 LIGHT
it passed halfway around the sun to E

1
He reasoned
.
that the eclipses occurred at the computed times, but that

he did not see them until later because the earth was
moving continually farther away from Jupiter. He
reasoned further that, if his explanation was correct,
during the next six months, while the earth was going
toward Jupiter, the observed times would gain on the com-
puted times and agree with them when the earth reached
E again. This he found to be true. He concluded, there-
fore, that it took about 1000 seconds longer for light to
travel from Mto E' than from M
to E.
If we assume that ES
equals 93,000,000 miles, which
is very nearly correct, then the distance EE 1
will be
186,000,000 miles and we have as the velocity of light

(186,000,000 1,000) 186,000 miles per second.
-f-
Roemer's actual result was about 192,000 miles per

second. His work, disregarded at the time, was confirmed
fiftyyears later by another astronomer who was working
out an entirely different problem.
Fizeau, in 1849, measured the velocity of light by find-
ing the time required for it to traverse a few kilometers,
and in 1850 Foucault was able to make the measurement
within the limits of a large room. Michelson, in 1878,
modified and improved Foucault's method. It is now
possible to show that light travels with different speeds

through different substances, its speed being less, for ex-
ample, in water or glass than it is in air. Modern research
gives the velocity of light as about 299,860 kilometers
(186,324 miles) per second. It may be stated in round
numbers as 186,000 miles or 300,000 kilometers per second.
258. A ray of light is a mere direction or line along
which a small piece of a wave front travels. It is perpen-
dicular to the wave front. When light spreads outward
from a point P
(Fig. 139), the wave fronts are convex.
FF and CrGr represent wave fronts and the lines Pa, PC,
and Pe the rays or paths along which the points a, c,
and e travel. These rays
are divergent, and the light
forms a diverging pencil.
When light is going toward
a point (Fig. 140), the wave
fronts are concave, the rays
FIG. 139. Diagram of a diverging

pencil of light.
are convergent, and the

light constitutes a converg-
ing pencil. In sunlight the
source of light is so far dis-
FIG. 140. Diagram of a converging tant that the wave fronts
pencil of light.
are practically plane (Fig.
141) and the rays being perpendicular to them are parallel
to one another. A
pencil of light in which the wave
fronts are plane and the rays are parallel
constitutes a learn of light.
FIG. 142. Diagram of a heam of light (A) transformed

FIG. 141. Diagram by a convex lens into a converging pencil (B) and
of a beam of light. a diverging pencil (C).
Experiment. Pass sunlight through a convex lens, such as a

reading lens (Fig. 142), and scatter chalk dust in the, path of the light
220 LIGHT
by striking two erasers together above it. The light A, before passing
through the lens, illustrates a beam of light; the light 7J, going
toward the point F. is a converging pencil and the light C\ going on
;
from the point F, is a diverging pencil.
259. Light travels in straight lines. in a medium alike

in all directions the rays of light are straight, and light is
said to be propagated in straight lines. This fact is
recognized by the surveyor and the artisan in sighting,
and by the marksman in taking aim.
260. Shadows. When an opaque object intercepts
light from a luminous body, the space behind the opaque
object from which the light is excluded is called a shadow.
Since the space has length, breadth, and thickness, a
shadow is a geometrical solid, not simply a surface.
Experiment. Hold a small ball or a disk like a silver dollar
between the a gas flame and a white screen so as to cast a
flat side of
shadow upon the screen. If the distances are right, the shadow will
have a dark central portion surrounded by a less dense border.
A shadow then may consist of two parts, the umbra and

the penumbra. The umbra is the dark part which receives
light from no part of the luminous body. The penumbra
is the lighter part of a shadow which receives light from
a portion, but not the whole, of the luminous body.

Let S (Fig. 143) be a luminous sphere, such as the sun, and E an
opaque body like the earth. The figure represents a section of the
H
1
"''"lllllll
FIG. 143. Diagram of the shadow cast by the earth.

INTENSITY OF LIGHT 221
bodies arid the shadow cast. It is evident that the space FABG can
receive no light from the point C; and that the space HABF, no light
from D. The space FAB is common to these two spaces, and hence
can receive no light from either C or D. It is evident, further, that
it can receive no light from points between C and D, and hence from
no part of S. The space FAB is therefore the umbra, and in this

case it is a cone.
The space HA F GBF evidently receives light from a portion of
S and hence constitutes the penumbra. In this case it is a frustum
of a cone containing the umbra within it, and having AB as its
upper base.
The earth, the moon, and the planets cast shadows of this form in
space, and in studying eclipses of the sun and moon it is well to

remember it.
Imagine E and S to be of the same size. In that case the lines

CAF and DBF would be parallel, and the umbra would be a cylinder.
If were smaller than E, the lines CAF and DBF would diverge,
.S'
and the umbra would be the frustum of a cone.

If S were to become a point, evidently the lines CAF and DAH
would coincide, also the lines DBF and CBG, so that there would be
no penumbra, the shadow being all umbra.
Observe the lack of distinctness in the outline of the shadows of
such objects as the leaves or limbs of a tree in sunlight ; and, if you
have opportunity, the distinctness of outline of the shadows of such
objects in the light of a single arc lamp when the latter is not sur-
rounded by a translucent globe. Can you explain the difference ?
III. INTENSITY OF LIGHT

261. Intensity of light. The word intensity, as applied
to light, lias two uses. First, we may speak of the in-
tensity of the source of the light itself, meaning the rate
at which it is radiating light. Secondly, we may speak of
the intensity of illumination, meaning the amount of light
received by an illuminated body per unit of area.
Common experience teaches us that different sources
of light vary greatly an electric arc
in their intensities ;
lamp, for instance, is much more intense than a candle

flame ; but we also know that the intensity of illumina-
222 LIGHT
tion upon the page of a book produced by a candle close

at hand may be greater than that caused by a very bril-
liant but distant arc lamp.
262. Laws of intensity of light. -
I. The intensities of illumination
of any given surface
are inversely proportional to the squares of the distances of
that surface from the source of light.
II. The intensities of two sources of light are directly

to the squares of the distances at which they
proportional
give equal illumination.
The first law is the same as that given for sound ( 230),
and follows from an exactly similar line of reasoning. It
may, however, be illustrated experimentally as follows :
Experiment. Place a card A (Fig. 144) or piece of tin having a

hole in it about 0.5 mm. in diameter close to a gas or candle flame so
that the light shall shine
through the hole in a hori-
zontal direction. Con-
sider this hole as the
source of light. Place a
second card B
having an
opening 5 cm. square
FIG. 144. Apparatus for showing how illumi- ( area 25 S <1- cm -) in a
nation on a surface decreases with the dis- vertical position 30 cm.
tance from the light. from thefirst card, and
receive the light shining

through it upon a third card C. Measure the side of the square of
light on C when it is respectively 60, 90, and 120 cm. from A. It
will be found that when the distance from the source of light to C
is 60 cm. or 2 times that to B, the light upon it is a square 10 cm. on
a area being 100 sq. cm. at 90 cm. or 3 times the distance,
side, its ;
15 cm. on a side, area 225 sq. cm. at 120 cm., 20 cm. on a side, area
;
400 sq. cm. That is, when the distances from A to C are respectively
2, 3, and 4 times the distance from A to B, the areas of the squares
of light are respectively 4, 9, and 16 times the area of the opening
in B. Obviously the light passing through the opening in is B
spread over a greater surface on (7, and as the area of this surface
INTENSITY OF LIGHT 223
increases as the square of the distance from the source of light, the
amount of light per square centimeter must decrease in like ratio.
263. Photometry treats of the measurement of the inten-

sity of sources of light, and a photometer is an instrument
for making the measurements. Many kinds of photom-
eters have been invented, but the Bunsen has perhaps
been more widely used than any other. It consists of a
card of thick white unglazed paper about 10 cm. square,
made translucent at its center by greasing a spot about
2.5 cm. in diameter. It is usuallymounted in a small car
rolling on a graduated bar, and two mirrors are so placed
that both surfaces of the card can be seen at the same
time.
Such an instrument, when used to compare the intensities of two

lights, isplaced between them (Fig. 145), and the distances from it to
FIG. 145. The Bunsen photometer.
the two lights so adjusted that both sides of the card are
equally illu-
minated. In theory this is accomplished when the translucent spot
cannot be distinguished from the rest of the card. In practise this
is never quite attained, but the adjustment is made by observing
when both sides of the card viewed in the two mirrors look exactly
alike.
The second law may be illustrated with such an instrument by
placing four candles on one side of it and a
at a distance of 100 cm.,
224 LIGHT
single candle on the other side at a -distance of 50 cm. The illumina-

tion on the two sides of the photometer will be found equal. That is
the intensity of 4 candles _ 100 2 _ 4
the intensity of 1 candle 50 2 1
264. The unit of intensity of source of light. No unit

of intensity or standard light thoroughly satisfactory has
yet been found, but the one in general us.e is the candle
power, or the light of a sperm candle which weighs one
sixth of a pound (for that reason called " sixes"), and
which burns at the rate of 120 grains an hour. When
the candle power of a light is to be measured, the light is
placed on one side of the photometer and the standard
candle, or usually two of them, on the other. The photom-
eter then adjusted for equal illumination. The candle
is
power of the light is then computed by the second law.

For example, suppose a gas light at 210 cm. gives the same
illumination as 2 standard candles at a distance of 70 cm.
What is its intensity in candle power? By the second
law we have
2 x : = 70 2 210 2
: .
Solving, x = 18 c. p.
Problems
1. What is the intensity of a lamp which at a distance of 15 ft.
gives the same illumination as a standard candle at a distance

of 2 ft.?
2. A 16 c. p. electric lamp is placed 240 cm. from the photometer

on one side. At what distance on the other side must 3 standard
candles be placed to balance it ?
3. A 5lamp was placed 400 cm. from one of 12 c. p. At

c. p.
what point between them must a photometer be placed to be equally

illuminated?
4. A
photometer is placed between two sets of candles which are
180 There are 3 candles on one side, and 2 on the other.
crn. apart.
At what point is the photometer when equally illuminated on both

sides?
REFLECTION OF LIGHT 225
5. When an arc light gives the same intensity of illumination at a
distance of 45 meters as a 16 c. p. incandescent lamp does at 100

cm., what is the candle power of the arc lamp ?
IV. REFLECTION OF LIGHT

265. Reflection of light is of two kinds, regular and
diffused. When a beam of light enters a darkened room
through a small opening and strikes a mirror, a reflected

beam will be seen traveling along some definite path.
This is called regular reflection. Should the light, how-
ever, fall upon a piece of white paper, it would be re-
flected and scattered in all directions. This is called
diffused reflection, and it is caused by the inequalities of
the reflecting surface.
A
mirror is any surface smooth enough to reflect light
regularly. To do this the inequalities of the surface must
be small in comparison with the wave-lengths of the light
incident upon it.
All objects, even the best of mirrors, to some extent,
reflect light diffusely, scattering it in all directions. It
is by such light that we see objects that are not self-
luminous; a perfect mirror would be invisible. It is by
diffuse reflection of light, not only by large objects, but
also by dust particles and moisture floating in the air,
that light is so generally diffused. If it were not so, it
would be dark everywhere except in the direct path of
light from some luminous body.
Experiment. Fill a glass jar with water which contains a little
sediment, or which is slightly roily. Shield the jar from the light by
placing near it a board having a hole through it about 2 cm. in diam-
eter, atsuch a height that a horizontal beam of light may be passed
through it into the lower part of the jar. If a beam of light from a
porte lumiere or a lantern is focused by a lens through the opening
into the water, the whole of the water will be illuminated by the
light diffused by the foreign particles in suspension in it. If the

ADAMS'S VHYS. 15
226 LIGHT
experiment is conducted in a darkened room, the jar may be made to

appear full of a red or green liquid by covering the hole in the board
with a piece of red or green glass.
266. Law of reflection. The light falling upon any

surface is called the incident light, and the point where it
strikes the point of incidence. The angle
between the direction of the incident
light and the perpendicular, or as it is
often called, the normal, to the reflecting
surface at the point of incidence, is
FIG. 146. Diagram

termed the angle of incidence. The light
of the angle of which is reflected is called the reflected
incidence and
angle of reflection.
the
j
.
y ^
d the '
le Between its direction
and the normal at the point of incidence

is named the angle of reflection. Law of reflection : The
angle of reflection is equal to the angle of incidence, and
the two angles are in
the same plane.
Let Ao (Fig. 146) be a
ray of light incident on the
mirror MN
at o, and let Po
be a perpendicular or nor-
mal to the mirror at the
point of incidence o. Then
the light will be reflected in
the direction oB, forming
the angle of reflection PoB
equal to the angle of inci-
dence PoA.
Experiment. The opti-
cal disk (Fig. 147) may be
used to illustrate the law of
reflection. It consists of a
disk about 40 cm. in diame-
ter, graduated around its
circumference in degrees, FlG 147< _ Har tl optical disk, for illustrating
and mounted so as to the law of reflection.
REFRACTIOX OF LIGHT 227
turn on a horizontal axis through its center. Let a plane mirror MN

be fastened to the disk, as shown in the figure, the zero line PC being
normal to the mirror at the center of the circle. Let a beam of light
Lc from a lamp pass through a slit in the shield D so as to strike the
mirror exactly at c. be reflected in the line cR, and the angle
It will
"of reflection PcR will be found equal to the angle of incidence PcL
The shows the reflected beam to be 60 from the incident
figure
beam. mirror and disk are turned 10, making the angle of
If the
incidence 40, the angle of reflection will be 40, and the two beams
will be 80 apart; that is, when the mirror turns 10 the reflected
beam moves 20.
This illustrates the following law :
When a mirror is revolving, the angular velocity of the re-
flected beam is twice the angular velocity of the reflecting

mirror.
NOTE. The Hartl optical disk is a most useful piece of apparatus

for illustrating in the classroom the laws of reflection and refraction,
and showing the action of mirrors, lenses, and prisms; and considering
all that can be done with it, is inexpensive.
V. REFRACTION OF LIGHT
267. Refraction is the bending of a ray of light when
it passes from one
medium to another.
Experiment. Place in
a cylindrical quart bottle
of clear white glass,
which has a smooth, flat
bottom, sufficient water
to make it exactly half
full, or so that the surface
of the water shall exactly
coincide with the hori-
zontal diameter of the
bottle (Fig. US) when it
lies on its side. FIG. 148. Diagram illustrating the refraction

Support the bottle in a of light in passing from air into water.
228 LIGHT
horizontal position, and place near it a cardboard screen -CD having

in it a horizontal slit s about 8 cm. long and 0.3 cm. wide. By a
mirror M reflect light from
a lantern or a porte lurniere
through the slit into the
water, as shown in the figure,
having it fall obliquely upon

the water exactly at the cen-
ter of the bottle. At o, where
itstrikes the water, the light
will be bent or refracted to-
ward the normal oL, taking
the path oA.
Again, place the mirror M
below the bottle, and arrange
the apparatus (Fig. 149) so
that the light shall pass
obliquely up through the water
and come ont into the air at
the point o. It will be re-
FIG. 149. Diagram illustrating the refracted ato, being bent away
fraction of light in passing from
water into air.
from the normal, taking the
path oA. If the water is
slightly clouded by a little soap or sulphate

of quinine, and the upper part of the bottle is
filledwith smoke before the stopper is inserted,
the path of the light through the bottle can be
more easily seen in these experiments.
The same experiments are more easily per-
formed by means of the optical disk which has
fastened upon it a semicylindrical block of
glass (Fig. 150).
The ray So in each case is the incident

FIG. 150. Optical
ray and oA is the refracted ray. The disk arranged to
angle between the incident ray and the show the refraction
of light hy glass.
normal at the point of incidence, SoP
(Fig. 148), or SoL (Fig. 149), is the angle of incidence.
The angle between the refracted ray and the normal, AoL
(Fig. 148), or AoP (Fig. 149), is the angle of refraction.

REFRACTION OF LIGHT 229
268. First law of refraction. Light on passing obliquely

from a vacuum into any medium, or from air into any
or solid, is bent toward the normal. In this case
liquid
the angle of refraction is always less than the angle of
incidence.
Conversely, light on passing obliquely from any medium

into a vacuum, or from a solid or liquid into air, is bent
from the normal. The angle of refraction is then greater
than the angle of incidence.
When the angle of incidence is zero, that is, when the
incident ray is not oblique to the surface, there is no re-
fraction. For example, the light is not bent at the point
r in either experiment, as the path ro, being a radius, is
normal to the circumference at that point. The greater
the angle of incidence, the more the light is bent in pass-
ing from one medium to another.
When light passes from one medium to another, it may
be bent toward the normal, or from the normal, or it may
not be bent at all. Generally, in passing from one medium
to another more dense, it is bent toward the normal,
but this is not always true. How it is bent depends
upon its relative speed in
the two media. If the
speed of
light in is less
the second medium than in
the bent toward
first, it is
the normal if
greater,
;
away from the normal if ;
the speed is the same in

the two media, it is not
bent at all.
269. Index of refraction.

Let Ao (Fig. 151) be a FIG. 151. Diagram illustrating the
index of refraction.
ray of light incident 011
230 LIGHT
the water WW
and let oE be the refracted ray, PD
being the normal at the point of incidence. With
the point of incidence as a center and with any con-
venient radius, as r, describe a circle. From the point
B, where the incident ray cuts the circle, draw BO per-

pendicular to the other side of the incident angle AoP.
In the same manner draw LF
in the angle of refraction.
The ratio of BO to the radius of the BC is denned

circle, ,
r
in trigonometry as the sine of the angle AoP. Likewise
the ratio
LF is the sine of the angle EoD.
T
The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the
sine of the angle of refraction is called the index of re-
Z>/~Y TV TIC* TIC 1
fraction of the two media. ; = . Hence

r r LF LF
is the index of refraction in this case.
Experiment. Cut from a piece of cardboard a ring about 2.5 cm.

wide, just large enough to slip over the bottle used in the last experi-
ment^ Graduate this ring in
degrees and place it in posi-
tion (Fig. 152). Paper pro-
tractors already graduated
can be obtained from instru-
ment dealers for this purpose.
Repeat the first

experiment
in refraction again,
measuring
the angles of incidence and
refraction. Find in trigono-
metrical tables the sines of
the angles measured and de-
FIQ. 152. of apparatus for
Diagram termine the index of refrac-
measuring the index of refraction. tion, or measure the distances
corresponding to BC and LF.
If the index is determined several times in this way, the size of
the incident angle being changed each time, it will be found to
be nearly the same each time ; great accuracy cannot be obtained

with such apparatus.
This illustrates a second law of refraction : Whatever

the angle of incidence, the index of refraction is constant for
the same two media.
When the light passes from water to air, the index is
the reciprocal of that when the light is passing in the
opposite direction.
The more a substance bends the light, the greater its
index of refraction. For example if Ao (Fig. 151) were
bent more at o, the angle EoD would be smaller and the
LF shorter
BC would
line ; consequently the quotient of
JjJl
be greater.
270. Absolute and relative indices of refraction. The absolute

index of refraction of a substance that obtained by passing light
is
into it from a vacuum. The relative index of refraction is that ob-

tained when
light passes from one substance into another. The index
of a substance relative to air differs so little from its absolute index
that usually no distinctionis made between them.
The following table gives the indices of refraction of a few sub-

stances when light passes into them from the air.
Water 1.33 Benzene 1.50

Carbon bisulphide 1.64 Crown glass 1.52
Turpentine 1.47 Flim\ glass (averages about) 1.62
Alcohol 1.36 .Diamond 2.47
Ordinarily the index of water is said to be f, crown glass f,

flint glass $, and diamond When
light passes
f".
from these sub-
stances into air, the reciprocals of these fractions must be used for
the indices.
271. Cause of refraction. The cause of refraction is

the fact that light travels with different velocities in dif-
ferent media. For instance, the velocity of light in water
is about three fourths of its velocity in air. In fact the
232 LIGHT
index of refraction indicates the relative velocities of light

in thetwo media.
Let the short parallel lines (Fig. 153) represent the
wave fronts of a beam of light passing obliquely from air
into water. Evidently when a wave front reaches the
water, one part of it, #, enters the water before the other
part and as it
i,
travels more slowly

than before, it can
g on ly as f ar as c
while i is going to e.
Thus all the waves
as they enter the
water are given a
new direction and
the beam is bent.
Conversely, if the
Fl. 153,-Diagram il.ustratiog the caê of
refraction. light IS going in
the opposite direc-
tion, e will emerge before c does and gain upon it so that
e goes to i in the time c goes to a. Thus the light is
refracted away from the normal on passing out of water
into air, just as much as it is refracted toward the normal
on passing into the water.
272. Total internal reflection. A study of Figures 149
and 152 shows that when light passes out from water into
air the angle of refraction is greater than the angle of
incidence. It is further evident that the angle of refrac-
tion cannot be greater than 90, or greater than PoA (Fig.
152), for if it were, the light would be bent back again

into the water and there would be no refraction. For
example, the ray Ko refracted along oC, but as the
is
angle of refraction increases more rapidly than the angle

of incidence, the ray so just grazes the surface, after re-
fraction, taking the For the ray Do refraction

path oA.
is therefore impossible and none of it' can pass out into the
air. It is all reflected at the point o along the path oB,
the angle of reflection BoL being equal to the angle of
incidence DoL. Such reflection is called total internal
reflection.
273. Critical angle. The angle of incidence that gives
an angle of refraction of 90 is called the critical angle,
soL (Fig. 152). Whenever the incident angle exceeds
the critical angle, as DoL, and the light is attempting
to pass into a less dense medium, total internal reflection
occurs. The critical angle of a substance depends on its
index of refraction. It is about 48J for water, 41 for
crown glass, 38 for flint glass, and 24 for the diamond.
It is the angle whose sine equals the reciprocal of the
index of refraction.
Repeat the experiment with the bottle (Fig. 149), trying various
10 Observe that angles slightly
angles of incidence greater than 48 .
smaller than that give partial internal reflection.
274. Illustrations of total internal reflection. Nature

furnishes many interesting phenomena caused by total
internal reflection. The leaves of some plants, for ex-
ample, glisten like silver when placed under water, because
a layer of air adheres to them and the light in trying
to pass into this layer of air from the water is totally
reflected. If a tumbler of water is held above the head
and the water surface viewed obliquely, it presents a
brilliant mirrorlike appearance, reflecting objects on the
other side of the glass, objects held just above the
surface being invisible through it. Because of total in-
ternal reflection it is impossible for a person to see
through, or for light to pass through, the square corner

of a cut-glass inkstand.
234 LIGHT
Figure 154 represents a cathetal prism, a piece of polished glass

having one 90 angle and two 45 angles. The incident angle for the
ray ro and others parallel to it
is 45, or greater than the critical
angle for glass; it is therefore

totally reflected along os, not a
trace of the light being able, to
pass through the polished surface

BC. Such prisms are often used
as reflectors in optical instruments
instead of silvered surfaces.
A beautiful illustration of total
FIG. 154. Diagram of total reflec- internal reflection is furnished by
tion in a cathetal prism. a stream of water flowing from an
opening in the side of a flask or
jar (Fig. 155). If light is passed through the flask so as to emerge
at the opening with the
water, it will not pass on
in a straight line, but
will follow the stream
down into a beaker held
to receive This hap-
it.
pens because the light

strikes the upper curved
surface of the stream at
an angle greater than
the critical angle, so
that it is repeatedly re-
flected along this sur-
face, being imprisoned
in the stream. The
effect is striking in
a darkened room, es-
pecially if the light is
passed through red or

green glass. The beaker FIG. 155. Apparatus for illustrating total
will appear to be filled internal reflection in a stream of water.
with a red or green
liquid. This principle is utilized in the illumination of electric
fountains.
DEVIATION AND DISPERSION 235
275. Refraction through a body with parallel faces. Let

AF (Fig. 156) represent a piece of thick plate glass whose
faces AB and DF are
parallel. The ray of
light so on entering
the glass obliquely is
bent toward the normal
oe along the path or,
and on passing into the
air at r, it is refracted
A ,!
. FIG. 156. Diagram of the path of light
from the normal re in /
through glas having parallel surface*.
the direction rt. Since
or makes equal angles with DF and AB, the ray is bent
from the normal on leaving the glass exactly the same
amount as it is bent toward the normal on entering it;
its path rt, after passing through the glass, is therefore
parallel to its original direction soa. Therefore there is
no change of direction in light passing through a body
when the surface where it enters is parallel to that where
it leaves the body.
Experiment. Pass a beam of light through a long narrow slit in a
piece of cardboard, the being horizontal, and place a piece of plate

slit
glass obliquely in this narrow ribbon of light. If some of the light

passes by the edge of the glass, it will be seen to be parallel to that
which has passed through the glass, but separate from it. To make
the two beams visible, darken the room and scatter chalk dust or
smoke in their paths.
VI. DEVIATION AND DISPERSION
276. Refraction through a prism. An optical prism is
a portion of a transparent substance bounded by two plane

surfaces that meet at an angle, that is, by two planes that
are not parallel. The angle between the two surfaces is

236 LIGHT
called the refracting angle of the prism. Let (Fig. ABO

157) represent a section of a glass prism. If a ray enters
the face AB
and emerges from the face C, the angle is A A
the refracting angle of the prism ; but if the light should
pass through the

two faces AB and
B C, then the angle
B would be con-
sidered the refract-
ing angle of the

prism. The ray
FIG. 157. Diagram of the refraction of light ri
tLoagh a prism.
G J_T_
on entering the
glass at o is re-
fracted toward the normal oH, in the direction oE. At
E again refracted, but away from the normal EF,
it is
in the direction EL. With reference to the face AB, Gro

is the incident ray and oE the refracted ray ; and i and r
are respectively angles of incidence and refraction ; with
reference to the face AC, oE is the incident and EL the
1
refracted ray, and i
1
and r respectively angles of incidence
and refraction.
277. The principal effects of prisms on light are two,
deviation and dispersion.
As it will be necessary in the study of these effects to make use of

many experiments with the prism, a description of the proper arrange-
ment of the apparatus for projecting spectra and light through a
prism will first be given. Figure 158 shows, in horizontal section,

the general plan. Light from a porte lumiere or a lantern is admitted
to a darkened room through a vertical slit s. This slit should be 2 or
3 cm. long and about 1 mm. wide, cut in a piece of tin or cardboard.
L is a convex lens, preferably of rather long focal length (about 60
cm.). A spectacle lens will answer the purpose. The distance from
slit to lens must be carefully adjusted so as to give a sharply denned
image of the slit on the screen at, T before the prism is in place, the
distance from L to T being the same as from L to R, the place where

the light will strike when the prism is in position. This adjustment
be made by reflecting the light by one face of the prism at A to
may
FIG. 158. Diagram of the projection of a spectrum.
the screenGF. The prism B stands on end next to the lens. It is to

be understood that in all the following experiments with prisms the
arrangement is that described here.
278.
Deviation. A
(Fig. 158) is the refracting angle
of the prism. When the prism is removed, the light
passes in a straight line to T; but when it is in position,
the light is bent away from the refracting angle toward the
thick part of the prism and goes to R. The angle ToR
or KDL (Fig. 157) is the angle of deviation. It is the angle
between the incident ray produced and the emergent ray,
and it measures the amount the light is turned aside, or
deviated, by the prism from its original path. By turning
the prism back and forth about a vertical axis, the size of
the angle of deviation ToR is changed, and by trial a
position for the prism may be found in which the ray oR
is turned aside from the line oT less than for any other
position. When this adjustment is made, the angle of
deviation is called the angle of least deviation. It occurs
when the ray of light through the prism makes equal
238 -LIGHT
angles with its two faces, that is, when the two angles
AoE and AEo (Fig. 157) are equal. In all
experiments
with the prism, it should be adjusted for the angle of
least deviation. The amount of deviation produced by
a prism varies with the material of the prism, with its
refracting angle, and with the color of the light passing
it.
through
Experiment. To show that the deviation depends on the mate-

rial ofthe prism, cover the slit with red glass and place in position
successively a 60 crown glass prism, a 60 flint glass prism, and a 60
carbon bisulphide prism. Observe and compare the deviations in the
different cases. It will be found that the deviation is almost the same
for the last two prisms but that it is about three fourths as great for
the crown glass as for either of the others, or 4 4 3. : :
Neutralization of deviation.
279. If two prisms are
placed with their refracting angles A

in opposite direc-
tions (Fig. 159), one will tend to counteract the other, B
deviating the
light to the
right, and O to
the left. If
the prisms are
of equal de viat-
FIG. 159. Diagram of prisms placed so that the second
no wer
neutralize the deviation of the first.
there will be
no deviation. This is the case with two prisms of the
same angle and material, also with a flint glass prism
combined with one of carbon bisulphide of equal angle.
280. Dispersion. When white light, such as sunlight,
is passed through the prism B
(Fig. 158), it is not only
deviated as before, but it is also spread out into a beautiful
band of colors from to V. R
The colors begin at with R
red and shade by imperceptible gradations from one color
into another, passing through orange, yellow, green, blue,
and ending with violet. The red is the least refrangi-

bleand the violet the most. This separation of light
by a prism into its various colors is called dispersion,
and the band of colors formed by the dispersion is called
a spectrum. A spectrum made of sunlight is called a solar
spectrum.
The angle between the extreme red and violet RoV
measures the amount of the dispersion it varies with the
;
material and the angle of the prism.

Dispersion is due to the fact that deviation varies with
the color of the light the violet, for instance, is bent or
;
deviated more than the blue, the blue more than the green,
etc. It enables us to analyze light, that
is, to separate any
light into its

component parts and determine its constitu-
ent colors. It shows that sunlight, for example, is not
one single color, or is not monochromatic, but is com-
posed of many colors and an infinite number of shades of
those colors.
Experiment. Arrange the apparatus as shown in Fig. 158, care-

fully adjusting the distance sL, and, using either sunlight or light from
a lantern, project a spectrum on the screen FG. Compare carefully
the lengths of the spectra produced by different prisms. Try in suc-
cession a 60 crown glass prism, a 60 flint glass prism, a 60 carbon
bisulphide prism, and a crown or flint glass prism of smaller angle.

It will be found that the spectrum formed by the 60 crown
glass
prism is about half as long as that formed by the flint glass prism of
60, while that formed by the carbon bisulphide is about twice as long
as that formed by the flint glass, or four times as
long as that formed
by the crown glass. It will also be found that the length of the spec-
trum is very nearly proportional to the angle of the prism. The
lengths of the spectra measure roughly the amount of the dispersion.
281. Neutralization of dispersion. If white light is
passed through two prisms of the same material and angle,

placed as shown in Figure 159, not only is the deviation
neutralized, but the dispersion of one is overcome by that
240 LIGHT
of the other. O tends to produce a spectrum equal in
length to that produced by B, but with its colors reversed.

The result is that the second prism recombines the colors,
separated by the first, into white light, which strikes the
screen (Fig. 158) at T. There is neither deviation nor
dispersion.
Experiment. With a single prism at B (Fig. 158) hold a concave

mirror in the path of the diverging rays so as to reflect them back to
one spot on a wall or screen. In this way the various colors may be
recombined to form white light.
Again, hold a convex lens in the path of the rays so as to converge
all the colors to one spot on the screen FG. White light will be
formed.
These experiments illustrate synthesis of white light

and show its composite nature.
282. Dispersion without deviation. It has been shown
that a 60 flint glass prism is equal to a 60 carbon bisul-
phide prism in its power of deviation, but that its power of
dispersion only about half as great. Hence, if two such

is
prisms are placed together (Fig. 159) and substituted for

B (Fig. 158) a spectrum is formed at T. There is no
deviation, because one prism neutralizes the other in that
respect, but is dispersion, because the flint glass
there
prism, having only half the dispersive power of the other,
cannot entirely overcome its dispersion. The spectrum of
the carbon bisulphide prism is shortened about one half.
A flint glass prism of about 52 combined with a 60 crown
glasswould produce the same result. This principle is
used in the construction of the direct vision spectroscope.
283. Deviation without dispersion. A carbon bisul-
phide prism of 30 would have a dispersive power about
equal to that of a 60 flint glass prism, but its power of
deviation would be much less than that of the flint glass.
Hence, if two such prisms are combined (Fig. 160), there

is deviation without dispersion. If a crown glass prism

iscombined with a flint glass prism of about half its angle,
the same result is pro-
duced. Such a combina-
tion, producing deviation
without dispersion, is
called an achromatic com-
bination. This principle
of achromatism is of very
great practical importance,
and is applied in the manu-
FIG. 160.
deviate the light ^^
Diagram of prisms which
dispersing it .
facture of lenses for telescopes, microscopes, cameras, and

other optical instruments.
Exercises
With three kinds of prisms three different combinations of two
each are possible (1) crown glass, with flint glass
:
(2) crown glass
;
with carbon bisulphide and (3) flint glass with carbon bisulphide.
;
(1) Draw diagrams for the three combinations in which the prisms
have equal angles, and indicate roughly the deviation and dispersion
for each combination.
(2) Draw diagrams for the three combinations, making the angles
of the prisms such that there shall be dispersion without deviation,
indicating the order of the colors. (The size of the angles can be
indicated only in a very general way). State the length of the spec-
trum relatively to that of either prism alone.
(3) Draw diagrams for three combinations, making the angles
such that there shall be deviation without dispersion. Indicate the
direction of the deviation, and state roughly its amount relatively to
what each prism would produce alone.
284. The action of a sphere of water on light. Let the

circle (Fig. 161) represent the section of a raindrop, and
og8 a line extending through the center of the drop
toward the sun. The sunlight will illumine half of the
drop egk. Let la be any ray of this light. Some of it
will be reflected and not enter the drop that which ;
ADAMS'S PHVS. 16
242 LIGHT
does enter will be refracted and dispersed at a, and fall

upon the back of the drop at c. Here some of it will pass
on through, but a portion
will be reflected to >, where
it will emerge, being again
refracted and still more
dispersed. In general the
various colors are so scat-
tered by this dispersion
that at a distance they are
too feeble to affect the eye.
There are certain ex-
FIQ. 161. Diagram illustrating how a ceptioilS, however, to this
Aspersion which are im-
portant, because to them
"
the rainbow is due. If the point a is 59 23' 30 from g,
the light emerges at b with the red non-divergent or not
dispersed, and hence it can affect the eye at a considerable
distance. This red light makes an angle with (7, which D
is parallel to So, of about 42
a
. To an observer at D
looking in the direction Db the drop would appear red.
Light entering the drop at some other point will traverse

it and emerge with its violet non-divergent, and so with
the other colors. The non-divergent violet light crosses
DO at about 40, the other colors falling between 40
and 42. This explains why dewdrops sparkling in the
sunlight appear of different colors, some one color and
some another, according to the angle at which they are
viewed.
If an air thermometer bulb 4 or 5 cm. in diameter is filled

with water, and held in a beam of light in a darkened room, this
action of a sphere of water upon light may be easily illustrated. Let
the light enter the room through a hole in a large cardboard, and the
sphere be held about 50 cm. back from the card. A miniature rain-
bow will be thrown back upon the cardboard, forming a circle around
the opening; or if the wall of the room is white, the bow may be
thrown upon that. The red of the bow will be found upon the out-
side and the violet toward the center.
285. The rainbow is a solar spectrum produced by the

refraction and dispersion of sunlight by raindrops. The
axis of the bow DC (Fig. 162) is a straight line from
the sun through the eye
of the observer to the
center of the circle of
which the bow is a part.
Each line from the
drops forming the red ,
part of the bow to the

eye of the observer - Diagram illustrating ho w a
FIG. 162.
rnalcp* an ancrlp nf
rainbow is produced.
about 42 with this axis,
according to the explanation in the last paragraph while ;
linesfrom the drops forming the violet part of the bow

make angles of about 40 with this axis. The red is
therefore on the outside of this primary bow, which is
about 2 wide.
The ordinary conditions for seeing a rainbow are
(1) that the sun should be shining in one part of the
heavens ; (2) that it should be raining in the opposite
part of the heavens ; and (3) that the sun should not be
more than about 40 above the horizon for example, we ;
may look for one toward evening, if the sun is shining in

the west and it is raining east of us. If the earth were a
plane and the sun just on the horizon, the bow would be a
half circle and the top of it 42 high. A person in a bal-
loon might possibly see a rainbow forming a complete
circle.
The secondary bow which is sometimes seen outside the

244 LIGHT
primary is wider and fainter. It is formed by light which

is twice inside of the raindrop, and the colors
reflected
are reversed, the violet being outside.
VII. COLOR
286. Color of light. Ether waves capable of affecting
the human eye, and hence called light waves, vary in
length from about 0.00081 to 0.00033 mm.
1
Color of
light depends on its wave length; it bears the same rela-

tion to light that pitch does to sound. The longest waves
constitute red and the shortest violet light. Waves
longer than the red which cannot be seen are sometimes
called infra-red (infra, below), and those too short to be
visible, ultra-violet (ultra, beyond).
Newton named seven distinct colors as existing in the
spectrum of white light, namely red, orange, yellow,

:
green, blue, indigo, and violet; but since there is an in-

finite number of wave lengths between the longest red
and the shortest violet waves, there is an infinite number
of colors. The solar spectrum, for instance, beginning
with the dark red, passes by imperceptible gradations
into lighter red and orange, and so on through the other
colors as the wave lengths shorten there are no sharp
;
lines of deinarkation between the various colors.

The short waves, such as the violet and the ultra-violet,
are specially active chemically, producing the chemical
changes of photography and those that occur in the leaves
ofgrowing plants.
Measurement of light waves.
287. The lengths of the
waves of light, although exceedingly minute, have been
measured with great accuracy. As we have seen, there
are many different wave lengths for each hue, so we can-
1
Drude.
COLQR 245
not state definitely the lengths of the waves for any one
hue as a whole, but only for some particular part of it.
The wave lengths of light are so very short that it is in-
convenient to express them in meters or centimeters. For
instance, certain waves of yellow light are 0.0000005896
m. long. To avoid such inconvenient numbers as this, a
unit called a tenth meter has been adopted for expressing
wave lengths of light. A tenth meter is

y^ of a meter.
o
This unit sometimes called the Angstrom unit. To
is
express the wave length given above in tenth meters the

decimal point is moved ten places to the right, thus, 5896.
Certain dark lines have been discovered ( 298) crossing the various
colors of the solar spectrum, always occupying the same relative posi-
tions these lines have been designated by the letters
;
to H. The A
following table gives the wave lengths for the lines of the solar
spectrum from A to in tenth meters H :
A in the dark red 7621. E^ in the green 5270.495

B in the red x 6870.186 E a
in the green 5269.723
C in the orange 6563.054 F in the greenish blue 4861.527
Z>! in the yellow 5896.357 G in the deep blue 4340.634
D 2
in the yellow 5890.186 H in the extreme violet 3968.625
288. The color of a body. The color of light must be

distinguished from the color of a body. The color of
light, as we have seen, depends upon its wave length ;
but the color of a body depends upon the light it reflects,
or if it is
upon the light which passes through
transparent,
it. An opaque body is red, for example, because it
reflects red light and absorbs the light of other colors in-
cident upon it ; or a piece of glass is green, not because it
colors the light green, but because green light passes

through it, most of the other colors being absorbed.
Experiment. Project a solar or an electric spectrum upon a white

screen, making the room as dark as possible. Place a narrow strip of
246 LJGHT
red cardboard in the various colors it will appear black everywhere
;
except in the red, where it will appear red. If a black strip is placed
by the side of the red one and both held lengthwise in the spectrum,
it will be impossible to distinguish one from the other
except in the
red light of the spectrum. Red objects are about the only ones that
illustrate this principle well in a simple way, although a dark blue
card does nearly as well in a spectrum projected by a diffraction
grating ( 303).
An object seldom reflects light of a single hue only,

but the reflected light is a mixture of two or more colors
in which one color may predominate, and generally some
white light is mixed with the reflected light. A color is
said to be saturated when wholly free from white light. An
object may appear yellow because it reflects yellow light

only, or because
yellow predominates in the reflected
light, or might appear yellow and not reflect any yellow
it
light at all, its color being due to a mixture of red and
green light ( 289). An object is white when it reflects all

the colors in the same proportion as they exist in sunlight.
Some artificial lights are deficient in certain colors, and
hence objects which would reflect those colors, if present,
do not appear of the same color in them as when viewed
by sunlight. This explains why it is difficult to match
certain colors by lamplight or gaslight.
Experiment. Let a strip of asbestos paper be soaked in a saturated

solution of sodium nitrate and bound around a Bunsen burner so that
it projects a little above
its top. This will give a bright yellow
sodium flame. Ifnot available, salt placed on a plate and
gas is
saturated with alcohol may be used in its place. With this flame in
a room from which all other light is excluded, let articles of various
colors be examined. Nearly all of them, except the white and yellow
ones, will appear black or a dark slate color. White and yellow
objects appear yellow because they can reflect yellow light, but a dark
red card is black because it cannot.
Experiment. To illustrate the color of transparent bodies, cover
the slit (Fig. 158) with a piece of red glass. Nearly all of the light
COLOR 247
will be cut out of the spectrum except the red. A

piece of blue glass
will transmit blue light mainly, but some green, and a small
very
amount of red, while a yellow glass will transmit yellow and some
green. Consequently, when a yellow and a blue glass are used to-
gether, only green can pass through. The same effects may be
obtained by using, instead of the pieces of glass, a solution of picric
acid and a blue liquid made by adding an excess of ammonia to a
solution of copper sulphate.
289. Mixing light of different colors. We have seen

that when the colors of the solar spectrum are com-
all
bined, white light results; but it is possible to produce the

sensation of white by other combinations. For example,
any two colors which are opposite
each other (Fig. 163) produce this
effect when combined. Any two
colors so related are termed com-
plementary. When any other two

colors are combined, the inter-
mediate color sensation is produced.
Green and red, for instance, give
yellow. The sensation of white
may also be produced by a combina-
tion of three colors, as red, green, and dark blue. In
fact, all color sensations may be formed by combinations
of these three colors in various proportions.
These facts may be illustrated by Maxwell's color disks. These

disks are made
of colored cardboard, and are slit from center to cir-
cumference so that two or more of them of different colors may be
placed together in such a manner as to expose any desired portion of
the surface of each to view. They are then mounted on a
whirling
machine, an electric motor, or a large top and rotated rapidly. The
effect of combinations of various colors in different
proportions may
thus be studied.
290. Mixing pigments. We have seen that a mixture

of blue and yellow light produces white. If, however,
248 LIGHT
blue and yellow pigments are mixed, the result is green.

Every child accustomed to the use of water colors is
familiar with this fact. Cloth may be dyed green by be-
ing dipped first in a yellow dye and then into a blue one,
or the blackboard may be made green by marking upon it
first with a yellow crayon, and then with a blue one. A
little moisture will intensify the color. These phenomena
are explained by the fact that the blue pigment reflects
some green light as well as blue, and the yellow pigment
also reflects some green as well as yellow but the blue
;
pigment absorbs the yellow, and the yellow absorbs the

blue, hence, when they are mixed, only the green remains
unabsorbed.
The Young-Helmholtz theory of color sensation. -
291.
According to this theory, proposed by Young in 1802,

and further developed by Helmholtz later, the nerve ends
of the eye are of three sorts, viz. (1) those which are
stimulated by red light, (2) those stimulated by green
light,and (3) those stimulated by blue light. may We
for convenience call them the red nerves, the green nerves,
and the blue nerves. When all three are stimulated
equally, we have the sensation of white ; and the other
color sensations are produced by the stimulation of the
different sets of nerves in varions degrees. Thus, if the
red nerves only are stimulated by the ether waves, we
say the light, or the body from which it comes, is red if ;
the red and green nerves are acted upon, we have a sensa-
tion which we describe by the term yellow or by the name
of some hue between red and green.
This theory, while not fully confirmed, affords a very
good explanation of color blindness. Some persons are
red blind. Such persons cannot distinguish red from
green, a red cherry from the green leaves of the tree ex-
cept by its form, or they cannot distinguish between the
KINDS OF SPECTRA 249
red danger signal and the green safety signal. To them

all colors are varieties of blue and green. This form of
color blindness is supposed to be due to the fact that the
red nerves are either lacking or are inactive. It is the
most common form of color blindness ; but there are those
who are green blind or blue blind.
VIII. KINDS OF SPECTRA

292. The spectroscope. The methods so far described
for forming spectra, while adapted for producing them oh
a large scale, are not suitable for a refined and accurate
study of them. The spectroscope is an instrument for
that purpose. Its essential parts are a collimator G (Fig.
164), a prism P, and a telescope T. The collimator is a

tube which has an adjust-
able slit at one end and a
lens at the other. The slit
S (Fig. 158) and the lens

L constitute a crude colli-
mator except that they are
not mounted in a tube.
The light to be examined
by the spectroscope, enter-
ing the slit, passes through
the collimator to the prism FIG. 164. Spectroscope,
and then directly into the

telescope. The observer views the spectrum by looking
through the telescope toward the prism. Many such
instruments are provided with a circle graduated in
degrees for the purpose measuring deviation, dis-
of
persion, etc., and in that case they are called spectrom-

eters instead of spectroscopes.
293. Kinds of spectra. Spectra are classified as con-
tinuous and discontinuous. In a continuous spectrum
250 LIGHT
there are no wave lengths or colors lacking from the long-

est red at one end to the shortest violet at the other end
of the spectrum.
A discontinuous spectrum, on the other hand, is char-
acterized by the absence of particular waves so that there
isnot a continuous band of light from one end of the
spectrum to the other, but blank or dark spaces without
light occur.
Discontinuous spectra are of two kinds, absorption and
bright-line spectra.
294. Continuous spectra. The lightfrom incandescent
solids and liquids forms continuous spectra. When any
body is heated to about 525 C., it begins to glow with red
light, and it is said to be red-hot as ; its temperature rises,
the intensity of the shorter waves increases, until at about
1200C. the body is white-hot.
The light of an arc lamp, as well as that from molten
iron, forms a continuous spectrum, in one case because
the source of light is a solid, in the other, because it is a
liquid. The
light of a candle flame or a gas flame is due
to small solid particles of incandescent carbon within the
flame, and hence its spectrum is also continuous.
295. Bright-line spectra. When light from an incan-
descent gas or vapor is passed through a prism, its spec-
trum is seen to consist of a number of bright lines. It is
discontinuous. Thus the spectrum
of sodium vapor con-
sists of a pair of yellow lines and hydrogen gives four
;
lines, one red, one blue, and two violet. These lines fall
in their proper places or colors as if all the other colors
were present.
Each element in the gaseous state has its own charac-
teristic spectrum. This fact is of inestimable service to
science; it enables the chemist to detect and test new ele-
ments, and the astronomer to solve many problems about

the composition, conditions, and motions of the heavenly

bodies. Incredibly small amounts of elements may be
detected by the chemist with great certainty by means
of their spectra.
Experiment i. Project a spectrum ( 277), using an electric lamp

as the source of light, and observe the spectrum formed. It will be
found to extend continuously from the red through to the violet, with
no dark spaces or with no colors lacking. The spectrum is continuous
because the source of light is an incandescent solid.
Experiment 2. Let a sheet of tin with a narrow slit in it be placed
in front of an electric lamp, an ordinary gas flame, or a candle flame.
If this slit is viewed through a prism held near the eye with its
refracting edge parallel to the slit, it will be seen spread out or

widened into a spectrum which is continuous, all the colors being
present.
Experiment 3. Let a strip of asbestos paper which has been soaked
in a strong solution of sodium nitrate be bound around a Bunsen
burner so that its edge projects a little above the top of the burner.
This will give a bright yellow sodium flame. If this light is viewed
as before through a prism and slit, the slit will not be spread out or
widened into a band of different colors. The spectrum formed will be
yellow only
"
and consist of a narrow band or line about as wide as the
slit itself.
This is a bright-line or discontinuous spectrum, the light coming

from the vapor of sodium in the flame.
If light from these same sources is viewed through a spectroscope,
the same result will be obtained.
Experiment 4. Let a carbon which has been saturated with sodium

nitrate by being soaked in a saturated solution of that salt be made
the upper or positive carbon of the arc lamp of a lantern, and let -a
spectrum be projected by the light of this lamp on a screen. The

spectrum will be a continuous one produced by the light from the
ends of the carbons, but superimposed upon this continuous spectrum
will be another one consisting of several bright lines. The brightest
of these will be the one in the yellow one or more may also be seen
;
in the green, one in the red, and one in the

violet. These bright lines
are produced by the light from the vaporized sodium, and if it were
not for the light from the ends of the carbons, would constitute the
only light on the screen.
252 LIGHT
296. Absorption spectra. When light from an incan-

descent solid or liquid passes through any transparent
medium, light waves of some lengths are absorbed and not
permitted to pass through. If the spectrum of the light
which has thus been deprived or robbed of some of its
wave lengths examined either by a spectroscope or by
is
being projected on a screen, some of the colors are found

to be greatly weakened or they are wanting altogether.
Dark spaces are thus produced in the spectrum which
correspond to the color of the light that is lacking. If the
absorption is due to a solid or liquid, the dark spaces may

be dark bands or they may cover the greater part of the
spectrum but if it is due to gases, the dark places consist
;
of narrow lines across the spectrum.

Such a spectrum, from which a portion of the light has
been abstracted by absorption, is called an absorption
spectrum of the body through which the light passes.
The spectra described in the last experiment of 288 are
of this kind.
297. Absorption spectra of gases. In our study of
resonance in Sound (214) we have seen how a tuning
fork can take up or absorb motion from sound waves in
air, provided the waves are of the same length as the fork
itself can produce. Gases behave in a similar way toward
light waves in ether. A gas absorbs light of the same
wave length or of the same color as it radiates when it is
heated to Hot sodium vapor, for example,

incandescence.
radiates yellow light of a definite wave length it also ;
absorbs yellow light of the same wave length.

The absorption of yellow light by sodium vapor may be
shown by experiment, if the vapor is at a lower tempera-
ture than the source of the light passing through it.
Experiment i. Remove the objective from the lantern and in its

stead place a screen provided with a narrow slit. This screen may
be of wood with a hole through it about 3 cm. in diameter, the hole

being covered with two pieces of tin which do not quite meet at its
center. Project the spectrum of the light of the lantern, which
passes through this slit, by means of a lens and a prism in the usual
way. This will be a continuous spectrum. Place a Bunsen burner
between the condensing lenses of the lantern and the slit, about 6 cm.
from the latter. Prepare a compact ball of asbestos wicking about a
centimeter in diameter and place it in a loop at the end of an iron
wire. This wicking can be obtained from a plumber. Heat the
ball in the flame of the Bunsen burner and plunge it while hot into
a saturated solution of sodium nitrate, which should stand near by.
Now hold the ball in the flame of the burner. This will produce
a bright yellow light which, passing through the slit and prism, will
give a spectrum of a bright yellow line, provided the light of the
lantern is cut off by the interposition of the sheet of tin. This
spectrum is due to the sodium of the sodium nitrate. Metallic
sodium may be burned in the flame and the same results obtained,
but it is not so easily manipulated If the tin is removed while
the yellow line is visible, the yellow line immediately changes to a
dark line across the otherwise continuous spectrum of the lantern.
The ball should be plunged now and then into the solution of sodium
nitrate. This reduces its temperature and keeps it saturated. The
results will be better after it has been in use a few minutes.
2.
Experiment The absorption spectrum of sodium is more easily
shown as follows: Let the negative or vertical carbon of a right-
angled arc lamp be saturated with sodium nitrate, the horizontal

carbon being unsaturated. Project a spectrum with this lamp in the
usual way, keeping the negative carbon rather high and drawing the
positive well back. The spectrum which in a previous experiment
( 295) had a bright yellow line will now have a heavy dark line
in exactly the same place. At times the other lines seen in the other
experiment are also reversed.
This dark line is formed because the light from the very hot posi-
tive carbon has to pass through the sodium vapor rising from the
negative one, which has a lower temperature.
298.The Fraunhofer lines. When a solar spectrum

is projected and great care is taken in focusing,
it is found to be crossed by many dark absorption
lines, some of them more prominent than others. These
254 LIGHT
lines were discovered in 1802 by

first
Wollastoii, but were rediscovered in

1817 by Fraunhofer, who mapped a
very large number of them and first
noticed that many them exactly

of
coincide in position with the bright
lines of the spectra of certain ele-
ments of the earth. He designated
the more prominent lines by letters,
the A
line being in the edge of the
red and the H line at the limit of the
violet. The D
line exactly coincides
with the bright yellow line of the
sodium spectrum. This fact is taken
as proving the existence of sodium
1
'
in the sun, because just as we can
produce this dark sodium line arti-

by passing light from a very
ficially
<D
3
"-
1
hot body through cooler sodium
vapor, so the light from the hot
.a .4
central body of the sun has to pass
through the sodium vapor contained

in the sun's atmosphere to reach the
earth.
Kirchhoff showed that over four
hundred bright lines of the iron
vapor spectrum are exactly matched
by dark lines in the sun's spectrum
(Fig. 165). Thus the presence of
sodium, iron, and many other ele-
ments familiar have been proved

to us
to exist in the sun, and thus the stars
are made to tell of what they are
composed.
INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION 255
IX. INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION

299. Interference of light. We
have already ( 201)
studied interference of wave motion and found in Sound
some excellent examples of it. In light also there are
many exceedingly interesting and beautiful illustrations
of interference which are of great scientific importance
and afford the very best proof of the truth of the wave
theory of light.
Experiment. Let two strips of thoroughly clean plate glass be
tightly clamped together. When the reflection of sodium light ( 288)
in the plate glass is observed in a darkened room, it will be seen to
consist of a series of black and yellow lines or bands. The dark lines
occur because at those places the light is destroyed by interference ;
and the bright bands occur because the light is intensified by inter-
ference.
If the glass is viewed obliquely in sunlight, a series of bands of
different colors will be observed. These bands, which are sometimes
circular, are known as Newton's rings.
300. by thin films.

Interference Let ab (Fig. 166)
represent the very thin film of air between the two pieces
of glass, its thickness being greatly exaggerated in the
figure, and let US

be a ray of light
Destructive
passing through interference
toward S. At each
of the surfaces i, c, e^
Constructive
and o some of the Interference
light will be re-

flected back toward
R but we are here
; Destructive
Interference
concerned only with
that reflected at c
and e on the two FIG. 166. Diagram illustrating the interference
surfaces of the air by a thin film of air.
of light
256 LIGHT
film. is evident that the part reflected at e goes

It
through the film twice and travels that much farther than
the part reflected at <?; the light reflected at the back
surface of the air film will be behind that reflected from
the front surface because it travels farther. These waves
reflected from the two surfaces of the film interfere, some-
times destroying and sometimes intensifying each other.
For example, if one is a half wave length behind the
other, as at A, or a wave and a half as at B, destructive
interference occurs but if the difference is one or more
;
whole wave lengths, as at (7, constructive interference

occurs and the light is intensified. The thickness of
the film and the length of the waves determine which will
occur. If the thickness is such that the red is intensified
in white light, other colors, because differing in wave
length from the red, will be wholly or partially destroyed ;
and if the film varies in thickness, it will appear of differ-

ent colors at different places.
The colors of a soap bubble are caused in this way, the
interfering rays being reflected from the two surfaces of
the soap film. Oil upon water, films of oxide on steel,
and air films in cracks in ice furnish further examples
of this phenomenon.
Destructive interference occurs when the thickness of the film is
f, |, f , etc., of a and constructive interference, when it is

wave length,
J, f, f, etc., of length. One might think that it would be just
a wave
the reverse of this, but there is a loss of a half wave length at the
reflection on the surface c, which causes the interference to be the
reverse of what one would expect.
301. Diffraction. Newton objected to the wave theory

of light because he thought that light consisted of if waves
it would bend around the edges of sound
opaque objects as
waves do, making shadows impossible. There are many
proofs that this bending does occur. It is shown best
INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION 257
when light passes through a very narrow slit, for it bends

around the edges of the slit and spreads out in all direc-
tions. This bending of
as it passes the edge ^^--^..
light
of an object or goes '
^(r -
through a narrow open- v--""* Ji
& is
ing- known as diifrac-
.
FIG. 167. Diagram illustrating
twn. diffraction.
Diffractionmay be observed in the following manner The flame :
of a lamp surrounded by a tin chimney in which there is a vertical

is
siit nearly a millimeter wide and two or three centimeters long. The
observer standing at a distance of two or three meters then views this
slit through another slit whicli is close to the eye and parallel to the
first slit.
NOTE. It is essential that the slit before the eye shall be clean-
cut and very narrow. A single cut through a thin card by a sharp
knife often makes a suitable slit, or two visiting cards held with their
edges nearly touching answer admirably for the purpose, especially
because the effect of changing the width of the slit can be easily ob-
"
served. A cut in the film of a " slow photographic plate or a scratch
by a sharp instrument in the silvering of a piece of German looking-

glass also makes an excellent slit for the purpose.
When viewed in this way the slit before the lamp appears very
much wider than to the naked eye, and on either side of it there is seen
a series of bands of light culled fringes, separated from each other by
intervals of darkness. The appearance changes with the width of
the slit before the eye. When the slit is widened, the bands become
narrower and crowd more closely together; when it is narrowed,
the bands widen and become more widely separated from each
other.
To understand this phenomenon let us study Figure 167,

in which tr represents the slit before the eye and S the
one in the chimney. The light from s on passing through
the second slit bends around its edges, t and r, and
spreads out into a wedge-shaped body of light bounded by
the rays tp and rv. These rays entering the eye just
ADAMS'S PHYS. 17
258 LIGHT
back of rt appear to come from the points and D and

the slit 8 appears to have the width CD.
The bands are caused by interference, but for an explanation of
them the student is referred to more advanced works on physics.
(See Tyndall, On Light, pp. .80-90.)
Diffraction furnishes an exception to the statement that

"
light travels in straight lines," and it disposes of Newton's
objection to the wave
theory. It is in itself
one of the best proofs
of the truth of that
theory.
302. Interference by
FIG. 168. Diagram illustrating interference diffraction. If in-
by diffraction.
stead of a single slit,
as rt (Fig. 167), two or more slits are placed side by side,
as at o and </ (Fig. 168), the light from one slit
spreading
out overlaps that from the other and the two sets of
waves interfere with each other, the
light at some points being destroyed
and at others being intensified.
In Figure 169 it is evident that
the point a isequally distant from
both slits o and o , hence the waves
f
from the two slits will meet at a in

the same phase and intensify each
other; but to points on either side of
#, as e, the paths from o and o' are
unequal, o'c is longer than oc.

FIG. 109. -Diagram
The difference is exceedingly small iiius-
. . tra ting the production of
when c is very near #, but increases spectra by diffraction.
as c is moved away from a toward B.
When o'c is one whole wave length longer than oc, as it
must be at some point between a and J5, then constructive
IMAGES FORMED BY PLANE MIRRORS 259
interference occurs, forming a bright line. The same

result happens at other points when the ray from one slit
is two or three or more whole wave lengths longer than
that from the other. When the difference is a half wave
length, or 1J, 2j, etc., wave lengths, then the waves
destroy each other. If the light is of one color only, as
red, then a series of red bands is formed on each side of

a with dark spaces between them but when white light
;
isused, each color is intensified at different places so that

several complete spectra are formed on each side of a.
Diffraction gratings are made by ruling upon glass
303.
by diamond
a point thousands of parallel lines per inch.
The spaces between these lines form very narrow slits
for the light to pass through. If such a grating (or a
photograph of one) is substituted for the prism (Fig.

158), spectra may be projected on the screen which in
several respects are Superior to those produced by a prism.
Beautiful diffraction spectra may be seen by holding a
fine bird's feather close to the eye and looking at the
sun through an opening among the leaves of a tree. The
feather forms the grating.
X. IMAGES FORMED BY PLANE MIRRORS
Formation of images.
304. An image is an apparent
object formed by light. If the light actually passes
through the points of the image to form it, the image is
real; but if the light only seems to pass through it but
does not, it is virtual. Real images may be caught upon
the hand or projected on a screen; virtual images cannot.
When a room is darkened and there is a small opening
through the window shade, real inverted images of objects
outside may often be seen on the walls and ceiling of the
room. Figure 170 shows how such images are formed.
260 LIGHT
The ray co, passing through the aperture o in the screen
6r,forms an image of the point c at s on the screen If.

In the same way images of e and r are formed at a and i,
FIG. 170. Diagram of the formation of an image through a small aperture.
and so of all other points of the candle. The image is

inverted because the rays all cross at the aperture.
If there were another aperture at B, the ray cB would
form another image of c on H, and for each new opening
made in 6r, a new image of c would appear. In fact, if
the screen 6r were removed entirely, would be covered H
with a multitude of images of and not only of
,
but <?,
also of all other points of the candle, and hence of the

whole candle. These images would not be visible, how-
ever, because, there being so many of them, they would
overlap and obliterate one another.
Experiment. Procure a box large enough to place within it
with safety a lighted candle. It should be ventilated at top and bot-
tom in such a way as not to allow much light to escape from it. Bore
a hole about 2.5 cm. in diameter in one side of the box on a level with
the candle flame, and cover the hole with tin foil. Place a white
screen a meter or so from the box and darken the room. Prick a
hole in the tin foil with a hat pin. An inverted image of the candle
will appear on the screen. Prick another hole and a second image
will be formed. After forming several images in this way, hold a
convex lens near the foil, and by moving it back and forth gather all
the images formed into one image.

IMAGES FORMED BY PLANE MIRRORS
Remove the lens and multiply the images by pricking holes in the
foil until it is allcut away. As more and more images are formed,
they overlap and obliterate one another, and finally nothing will ap-
pear but a patch of light of the same shape as the hole in the foil.
The experiment shows, however, that this patch of light is composed
of a multitude of images of the candle.
NOTE. This experiment may be performed much more satisfac-
torily by the use of the electric lamp and the lantern. Remove all
the lenses, and cover the opening with a metallic cap having an open-
ing in it about 2.5 cm. in diameter. Cover this opening with tin
foil and proceed as above.
From the above discussion and experiment, we learn

that each ray of light from a point in an object forms an
image of the point from which it comes, and that to form
a 'perfect image there must be but one image of each
point, so that there shall be no overlapping of images. A
very small aperture gives an image distinct in outline
but dim. Increasing the size of the aperture makes the
image brighter but less perfect in outline. Very good
photographs can be taken by "pin hole" cameras, which
make use of this method of forming images.
We shall learn later how many rays from each point of
an object can be concentrated at one point, and thus
images be formed which are both bright and distinct.
305. Mirrors classified. Mirrors may be divided into
two classes, plane and curved ; and curved mirrors may
be classified as spherical, cylindrical, parabolic, etc.
Again, curved mirrors may be either concave or convex.
Only plane and spherical mirrors will be considered in
this book. A plane mirror is one whose reflecting surface
is a plane. A spherical mirror is one whose reflecting
surface is a portion of a sphere. It is concave if it reflects
light toward the center of the sphere, and convex if it

reflects light away from the center of the sphere.
306. Image of a point in a plane mirror. Let MN
262 LIGHT
(Fig. 171) be a plane mirror, and a point whose image

formed by the mirror is to be located. In general the posi-
tion of the image of a point is located by finding the intersec-
tion of any two rays that form the image. Let OF and OE
be any two rays
from incident
on the mirror.
OF is reflected in
the direction FO,
making the angle
of reflection BFC
equal to the angle
of incidence
BFO. Therefore
the image of
FIG. 171. Diagram of the image of a point formed
lies in the line
by a plane mirror.
FO, or FO pro-
duced. Likewise the ray OE is reflected in the line ED,
making the angle AED equal to the angle AEO, and the
image of 0, therefore, lies in the line ED, or ED produced.
Since it lies FO, or FO produced, and ED, or
in the line
ED produced, must be at their intersection, 0'.
it
An observer at O or D would receive the light as if it

came from 0' but since the light does not actually pass
',
through 0', the image is virtual.

Starting with the fact that the angles OFB and OEA
are respectively equal to the angles BFO
and AED, it is
easy to prove by geometry that the two triangles OEF
and O f
EF
are equal, and consequently that the two lines
OF and OE are equal, respectively, to the two lines O'F
and 0' E. Hence MN
is perpendicular to 00' at its mid-
dle point, and the points and 0' are equally distant
from any point in the mirror MN. Therefore, the image
of a point in a plane mirror lies in a line drawn from that
point perpendicular to the mirror, and is as far back of the

mirror as the point is in front of it.
307. Image of an object formed by a plane mirror. The
image of a straight object like AB (Fig. 172), formed by
a plane mirror, may be located by locating the images
of its extreme points and B. A The image of A is at C,
its position being
found by drawing
AC perpendicular
to the mirror MN,
and making o C
equal to oA. The
image of B is
found to be at D
in the same man-
ner, and the im-
age of the whole
object is found by
connecting the
points C and D.
To trace the
path of the ray

by which an ob-
FIG. 172. Diagram of the image of
formed by a plane mirror.
aii object
Server at H^ SCCS
the image of -A,
draw a line from the image to the eye, as OR. From E,
the intersection of this line with the mirror MN, draw a
line to the object, as EA. AER is the path of the ray by
which the eye at R sees the image of A. In like manner
the paths of the rays by which an observer at sees the
images of andA B
may be drawn. This construction is the
converse of that demonstrated in the preceding section.
Query. What must be the length of a mirror which, in a verti-

cal position, permits a person to see his whole figure ?
264 LIGHT
308. Multiple reflection. When two mirrors are placed

so that light may be reflected back and forth from one to
the other, several images of an object placed between
them may be formed, the number of images depending
upon the angle which the mirrors make with each other.
When the angle is a right angle, there are three images ;
and when it is 60, there are five.

Let A and BO (Fig. 173) represent two mirrors whose
planes intersect at (7, the angle AOB being 60. The
image of the point
in A is located at I'
by drawing 01' per-

pendicular to AC and
making rl equal to
1
rO. In the image

is
of the image /' located

in the mirror EG as /'
was in AC. Im is the
image of I" in AC.

Again, starting with
0, an image is formed
FIG. 173. Diagram of multiple images
formed by two mirrors.
in BC at _Z~
r J2 is the
image of Iv and /3 of
I2 . The image I'" of the first series exactly coincides
with J3 of the second series, the two uniting to form
one image. For that reason there are five images instead
of sixwhen the angle between the mirrors is exactly 60.
There can be no image of this last image, since it is back
of both mirrors.
It has been shown ( 306) that a point and its
image
are equally distant from any point in the mirror. It fol-
lows therefore that and I' are equally distant from any
point as C in the. mirror A
C and I and I" are equally dis-
;
1
tant from any point as C in the mirror BC. Likewise /"

arid F", and Iv 1^ and J2 , and J2 and J3 can be shown to be

equally distant from C. Therefore, the point and all of
its images lie in the circumference of a circle whose center
lies in the intersection of the planes of the two mirrors.

The path of the light by which an observer sees V
the image /3
from is to
i, , to V.
s to e, e to and i
This path is found by the continued application of the

method given in 307. First, draw a line from the
image J3 to the eye from the intersection of this line

;
with the mirror at i a line is drawn to the preceding image

I2 and from the intersection of this line with the mirror at
,
e a line is drawn to the next preceding image Iv and finally
from s to 0.
The kaleidoscope furnishes an interesting illustration of multiple
reflection. It consists of a tube in which three mirrors of equal
width make angles of 60 with one another so that five images of
broken bits of colored glass are symmetrically placed around the inter-
sections of the mirrors. These five images with the objects them-
selves form a regular six-sided figure.
Experiment. Join two thin boards (10 x 20 cm.) together with

hinges and fasten upon the face of each of them a mirror. The
angle between these mirrors can be adjusted to any size at pleasure.
Place a lighted candle between the mirrors and observe the position
and number of its images for different angles.
Multiple reflection by a single mirror is very com-

309.
mon. On
looking into a plate-glass window one can see
that the images of the gilt letters of the signs on the
opposite side of the street are double. This is due
to the reflection from the front and back surfaces of
the glass. If a small gas flame is viewed very obliquely
in a thick glass mirror, several images will be seen.
These images are formed by repeated reflections of the
light back and forth between the two surfaces of the
glass, some of the light passing out from the front surface
at each reflection on that surface,
266 LIGHT
XL IMAGES FORMED BY SPHERICAL MIRRORS

310. Spherical mirrors are either concave or convex.
A concave spherical mirror consists of a portion of the
inside surface of a hollow sphere, and a convex mirror is
a portion of the outside surface of a sphere.
Let MN
(Fig. 174) be a section of a concave mirror.
(7, the center of the sphere of which it forms a part,
is called the center of curvature
of the mirror, and V, which is

the center of the mirror sur-
face, is called the vertex. Any
straight line passing through
the center of curvature to the
mirror is termed an axis, and
the one passing through the
FIG. 174.
vertex is named the principal
Diagram illustrating
the spherical mirror. axis. All others are termed
secondary axes. The angle be-
tween two opposite axes that touch the edge of the mirror
is the aperture of the mirror. The lineDCVis the prin-
cipal axis, HCM,
and ECB, G-CA, and KCNure secondary
axes. The angle MCNis
the aperture of the mirror.
311. A focus is a point to which rays of light converge
or from which they diverge. The principal focus of a
spherical mirror is the point at which rays originally paral-
lel to the principal axis meet after reflection. With con-
cave mirrors but with convex mirrors it is virtual.
it is real,
It is situated on the principal axi^, halfway between the

center of curvature and the vertex of the mirror, as at F
(Fig. 174). The distance from the vertex to the princi-
pal focus is called the focal length of the mirror.
312. To locate the principal focus of a spherical mirror.
Let MR (Fig. 175) be a concave mirror and AB and DE
IMAGES FORMED BY SPHERICAL MIRRORS 267
be any two rays parallel to the principal axis Cv. The

point of their intersection after reflection is by definition
the principal ^~
focus. CB,
being a radius,
is normal to
the reflecting
surface at B,
hence ABO is
the angle of
incidence. FIG. 175. Diagram showing the position of the
principal focus of a concave mirror.
Construct the
angle of reflection CBH
equal to ABO. AB is reflected
in the line BH
and the principal focus must lie in BH
or BH produced. In like manner DE can be shown to
be reflected in the line EK, and the principal focus must
lie in EKor
EK produced.
Since it lies in
each of them,
it must lie at
their intersec-
tion, or at F.
In Figure
176, which rep-
resents a con-
vex mirror, the
FIG. 176. Diagram showing the position of the
reflected rays
principal focus of a convex mirror.
BH and EK
are found by constructing the angles of reflection LBH
and KEP respectively equal to the angles of incidence
ABL and DEP. The principal focus must lie at the
intersection of BH and EK
or these lines produced,
or at F. In this case the rays themselves do not meet
2G8 LIGHT
at F. Hence, with convex mirrors the principal focns is
virtual.
In either case the triangle OFB is isosceles because the
angles i, r, and o are .all

equal equals (Why?) and OF
FB. When
the point B
is very near v, Fv and are FB
practically equal therefore OF
; and Fv are equal and the
principal focus of a spherical mirror lies on the principal

axis, halfway between the center of curvature and vertex
of the mirror.
(Let the pupil prove that rays diverging from the point
F are reflected parallel to the principal axis.)
313. To locate the image of a point in a spherical mirror.
As in plane mirrors, the image of a point in a spherical
mirror is located by the intersection of any two rays from
the point after they are reflected.

Let A
(Fig. 177) be a point whose image is to be formed
by the mirror, and let be any ray from AB incident A
on the mirror. Draw the
normal OB and construct
the angle of reflection
OBE equal to the incident
angle OBA. The ray
AB is reflected in the line
E J
u BE, and the image of A
FIG. 177. Diagram for locating the must lie in that line or
image of a point formed by a concave that Hne xpro duced. Ill
mirror.
like manner find the line
Dff, in which AD, another ray from A, is reflected. The
image of A must also lie in DR or Dff produced. Since
it lies in both BE and DH, or these lines produced, it must
be at their intersection the image of
o. Therefore o is
the point A. (Let the pupil prove by the same figure
that A
may be the image of o.)
It is possible, however, to locate the image of a point
without constructing the angles of incidence and reflection.

If the ray AB
(Fig. 178) be taken parallel to the principal
axis, we know without constructing the angles that it will
be reflected through F.
If the ray AD
passing
through F
be taken, we
know that it will be re-
flected parallel to the
principal axis ;
and if the
ray AE
passing through
the center of curvature
be taken, we know that
178. -Diagram of simple method of
it will be reflected back
locating the image of a point formed
along the same path by a concave mirror.
through C because
it is
normal to the mirror. Hence, by taking any two of these

rays from a point, the image of the point may be easily and
quickly located without constructing any angles of inci-
dence or reflection.
314. Conjugate foci. A careful study of the preceding
paragraph will show that the point source and its
image are interchangeable. Two points so related that
each is the image of the other are called conjugate foci.
Rays diverging from either one of them toward the mirror
will converge after reflection at the other. A and o
(Fig. 177) are conjugate foci. Conjugate foci always
lieon the same axis. This may be shown by drawing
a straight line through the two points it will pass ;
through the center of curvature and be normal to the

mirror.
315. Spherical aberration. In the formation of images
of points in spherical mirrors, it has been assumed that
because two rays from one point are reflected to another
point, all other rays from the first point meet after re-
270 LIGHT
flection exactly at the second or conjugate point. For

example, because and AB AD
(Fig. 177) are reflected to
the point 0, it is assumed that all other rays from J., inci-
dent on the mirror, are also reflected to o. This is not
strictly true, especially when the aperture of the mirror

is large. If the student should construct these figures
accurately, from each point

using three or four rays
instead of two, he would find that do not meet all
exactly at a common point after reflection. This causes

images formed by spherical mirrors to be more or less
blurred or indistinct. This inability of a spherical mirror
to reflect all the rays coming from a point exactly to its
conjugate point is called spherical aberration. The greater

the aperture of the mirror, the greater the spherical
aberration.
In 312 we assumed that Fv = FB to prove that F
is halfway between and v. This assumption, however,
is not true when the aperture of the mirror is large,
and in that case all rays parallel to the principal axis
are not reflected through the
^^ B principal focus. This is a

special case of spherical aber-
ration.
Figure 179 shows how rays parallel

to the principal axis are reflected when
the aperture is large. Very few of
them actually pass through F. The
crossing reflected rays form a pe-
culiar curve from to Band F F to
7), called the caustic curve. It may

FIG. 179. -Diagram illustrating
be obseryed at the tea table on a g l ass .
spherical aberration.
of milk when the light striking the
inside of the rim of the glass is reflected on the surface of the milk.
It may also be formed by a plain gold finger ring on a sheet of
paper, or by bending a strip of bright tin into a semicircle and

placing it so as to reflect light from a window upon a sheet of paper.
316. Images of objects formed by spherical mirrors.

The image of an object is found by finding the images of
points in that object.

Let AB (Fig. 180) be an object whose image formed by
the mirror MR is to be located. First find the image or
conjugate focus of
A. The ray AD v
A ' *
will be reflected
through.F(Why?)
in the line DL,
and the image of
A must lie in DL
or DL produced ;
the ray A 6r, being

FIG. 180. illustrating the formation of
normal to the Diagram
the image of an object by a concave mirror.
mirror, will be re-
flected back through O and the image of A must lie in
the line GrC or CrC produced. Since it lies in these two
lines, it must lie at their intersection o. In like manner
the image of B can be shown to be at i, and io is the
image of the
arrow A B.
.
(Let the pupil

show that if io
is taken as ob-
ject, AB is its
image.)
The fixed
points, center
FIG. 181 .
Diagram of in front o f curvature,
t&eêNôYtions
of a mil
principal focus,
and vertex, or planes pa through these points perpen-
dicular to the principal axis, serve to divide the space
before the mirror into three parts, as A, B, and (Fig. D
272 LIGHT
181). Space A
extends from the plane ab for an infinite
distance in the direction of /.
These points and spaces give rise to four cases in the
formation of images by concave mirrors.
CASE I. The object may be between the center of cur-
vature and an infinite distance, space A. The image is
then real, inverted, smaller than the object, and situated
between the center of curvature and the focus, space B.
CASE II. The object may be at the center of curvature,
in the plane ab. The image is then real, inverted, of the
same size as the object, and in the same plane ab.
CASE III. The object may be between the center of cur-
vature and the focus, space B. The image is then real,
inverted, enlarged, and beyond the center of curvature,
space A. This is the converse of Case I (Fig. 180).
CASE IV. The object may be between the focus and the
mirror, space D. The image is then virtual, erect, enlarged,
and behind the mirror.
There no image of an object in the plane of the prin-
is
cipal focus because the rays from any point of it are

reflected parallel to one another and do not meet.
There is only one case with the convex mirror. An
image formed by a convex mirror is always virtual, erect,
diminished in size, and back of the mirror, between (7 and V.
The pupil can prove these cases by constructing the
all
figures for them. They can also be easily verified by
experiment by means of a candle or lamp placed in the

different positions before a mirror in a darkened room.
*In the first and second cases the image of the candle may
be received on a small card, and in the third case it may
be projected on the wall of the room. In the fourth case
one must look into the mirror to see the image ; it cannot
be projected because it is virtual.
IMAUES FORMED BY SPHERICAL MIRRORS -J73
Experiment. Let a piece of crayon be supported in a box as at a

(Fig. 182). This may be done with glue. Let a concave mirror M
be placed so that the distance from it to the crayon equals its radius.
By careful adjustment the
image of the crayon may be
formed in the air at b on top
of the box and will be visible
to a person standing several
feet away, if he is in line
with b and M. The image
at b is realand appears like
a real object. The illusion
may be made almost perfect,
FIG. 182. Diagram of an apparatus for
by placing the apparatus so showing a real image.
that light strikes the crayon
from back of M
and the mirror is partially hidden so that its
presence is not suspected. This may be done by placing it in a

black shallow box with a round
opening to permit the reflection.
317. Focal length of a spheri-
cal mirror. The focal length
of a mirror can be calculated
if the distances of a pair of con-
J
u ^ ate foci frora the mirror are
FIQ. 183.- Diagram for calculating the
focal length of a spherical mirror. g lven or lf the positions of an
object and its image are known.
Let A and o (Fig. 183) be two conjugate foci, o being the image of A.
Letv = the distance Av, or object distance let u = the image dis- ;
tance, ov let/= the focal distance, Fv and let r = Cv = 2/. By

; ;
= When B A B may
geometry DO ^ '-^T-
\~sO
is very near v, be considered
equal to Av or r, and Bo to ov or u. AC = v r and Co = r u.
Substituting these values in the above proportion, we have

v v r
or rv uv = uv ru and rv + ru = 2uv.
u r M,
Dividing the last expression by ruv gives - - - -, the for- 1121

+ = =
u v r f
mula used in calculation.' With convex mirrors u and / are nega-
tive, and with concave mirrors u is negative or back of the mirror
when the image is virtual.
ADAMS'S PHTS. 18
274 LIGHT
Problems
1. An object is 10 cm. from a mirror, and its image is 30 cm. from
the mirror on the same side. Is the mirror concave or convex?
What is the focal length of the mirror ?
2. A concave mirror has a focal length of 15 cm.Find the position

of the image an of
object 40 cm. from the mirror.
3. An object and its image are both 20 cm. from a concave mirror.
What is its focal length ?
4. A
concave mirror has a focal length of 3 cm. An object is
placed 9 cm. in front of it. Find the position of its image by con-
struction, and verify the result by the formula.
5. When the object distance for a concave mirror is 48 cm. and
the image distance is 24 cm., what is the focal length of the mirror ?
6. When the focal length of a concave mirror is 8 cm. and the
object is 4 cm. from it, what is the object distance? What kind of
an image is it ?
7. A concave mirror has a focal length of 12 cm. How much does

its image distance differ from its focal length, when the object distance
is 96 meters ?
Could the focal length of such a mirror be determined by measuring

the image distance for a distant object?
8. The radius of curvature of a- concave mirror is 40 cm. Find
the conjugate focus of a point 90 cm. from the mirror.
9. When the image distance for a concave mirror is half of the
object distance, how does the focal length compare with the object
distance ?
10. What is the sign of the image distance for a concave mirror,
when o is less than/? What does it signify?
11. The object distance of a spherical mirror is 10 cm. and the
image distance is 60 cm. Find the value of /. What
can you say
of the size of the image, when/ is positive? When /is negative?
XII. LENSES AND IMAGES FORMED BY LENSES

318. A lens is a portion of a transparent substance
bounded by two curved surfaces or by one curved and
one plane surface. Lenses depend for their action upon
refraction.
LENSES AND IMAGES FORMED BY LENSES 275
In this book only spherical lenses will be considered, although

those with cylindrical surfaces are not uncommon and other forms
occur.
319. Lenses classified. There are two general classes

of lenses: (1) convex lenses, which are thicker at the
center than at the edges and (2) concave lenses, which
;
are thinner at the center than at the edges. Convex

lenses are termed converging lenses because, like concave
mirrors, they tend to converge light to a focus while con- ;
FIG. 184. Diagram of sections of six forms of lenses.
cave lenses are called diverging because, like convex mir-

rors, they diverge light. There are three kinds of each
class of lenses. Figure 184 represents sections through
the centers of the different kinds.
f (1) double-convex, both faces convex.

J
(2) plano-convex, one surface convex, one plane.
(3) concavo-convex, one surface convex, one concave.
[
The double-convex may be taken as a type of these.
{ (4) double-concave, both surfaces concave.

Concave )-( , ,
< (o) plano-concave, one surface concave, one plane.

I
(6) convexo-concave, one surface concave, one convex.
The double-concave may be taken as the type of these.

Lenses, like prisms, tend to bend the light passing
through them toward the thicker part.
320. Terms relating to lenses. The centers of the
spherical surfaces of the lens, as c and c (Fig. 185), are
r
called the centers of curvature. For every lens there is

a point through which light may pass without having its
276 LIGHT
direction changed by the lens ; this point is called the
optical center. In double-convex and double-concave

lenses whose surfaces have
equal curvature the optical

center is at the center of
^~ volume of the lens, as o
(Figs. 186 and 187). In

piano lenses it is on the
FIG. 185. - Diagram of the parts of d gurf ace Q the leng<
a lens.
The principal axis of a lens
isa straight line through its optical center and its centers
of curvature, as AP. Any other straight line through
its optical center, as SD, is a
ct is a normal to
secondary axis,
the surface lm at the point r, cr
being a radius. V
321.
Principal focus. The prin- FlG 186.- Diagram show- -
, ing the principal focus of

cipal focus of a lens is the common a convex lens.
point for all rays parallel to its
principal axis after they are refracted by the lens, as F
(Figs. 186 and 187). It is real for convex lenses, but
virtual for concave lenses. This
point may lie on either side of the
lens, according to the direction in
which the light passes through it.
FIG. 187. Diagram show- The focal length of a lens is the
ing the principal focus digtance from its optical center to
of a concave lens.
its principal focus, as oF. Observe
(Fig. 186) that the ray is bent towardLBthe normal
cB on entering the lens at B, and away from the normal
rt on leaving it at r; also in Figure 187 it is bent toward
the normal Bt at B, and away from the normal cr at r.
When rays diverge from the principal focus of a convex
lens, or pass through it, and then pass through the lens,
LEXSES AND IMAGES FORMED BY LEXSES 277
they are parallel to the principal axis after refraction.

Figure 186 illustrates this if the rays are considered as
going in the opposite direction.
NOTE. The focal length of a double-convex lens whose two sur-
faces have the same curvature may be calculated by the formula
/= in which r is the radius of curvature, /n the index of re-

2(>-l)
fraction of the glasscomposing the lens, and /the focal length to be
found. For example, lenses are commonly made of crown glaas
which has an index of refraction of f Substituting this value for /A in
.
the formula we find that/= r. This places the principal focus of a

double-convex lens made of crown glass half the thickness of ^the lens
beyond its center of curvature.
Experiment. Hold a convex lens, such as a reading lens, in direct
sunlight and bring the light and heat of the sun to a point upon a
piece of paper. The distance from the lens to the paper is the focal
length of the lens, since the sun's rays are parallel. Or, standing in
the darker part of a room, allow the light coming through the win-
dow from a distant object to pass through the lens and fall upon a
card. When the card is placed at the right distance, a distinct
inverted image of the object will be formed upon it, and the distance
from card to lens is the focal length of the lens.
Theoretically the distance from the lens to the image

is greater than the focal length, but the angles between
the rays entering the lens from any one point in a distant
object are so small that the rays are practically parallel
and the image formed is in the focal plane of the lens.
322. Images formed by lenses. Experiment. Having deter-

mined the focal length of a convex lens, let a candle or a lamp
be placed a little farther from the lens than the focal length. If
the room darkened, a real, enlarged, inverted image of the candle

is
will be seen on the wall several feet distant.

Move the candle slowly away from the lens and receive its image
on a large card. As the distance from the lens to the candle increases,
the image becomes smaller and approaches the lens. To a person
standing back of the image it may be visible suspended in air.

When the distance from candle to lens becomes exactly twice the
278 LIGHT
focal length, the image will be found to be the same distance from
the lens on the other side, and the same size as the candle itself.
Let the candle be moved still farther from the lens. The image
becomes smaller and comes nearer the lens; but it will never ap-
proach nearer than the principal focus, no matter how far distant
the object may be.
Again, the candle be placed between the lens and the principal
let
focus. No image will be formed on the opposite side of the lens ;
but on looking through the lens toward the candle, the observer will
see a virtual, erect, magnified image of it.
323. The points of reference for a lens. When rays di-

verge from a point on the principal axis of a convex lens
which is twice the
focal length from
its optical center,
- Diagram showing the image formed they converge,

FIG. 188.
after re f ract i O n, at
by a convex lens.
a point similarly
placed on the other side of the lens. Thus (Fig. 188)
oS and oS' are twice oF, and rays diverging from either
of these will converge at the other.
The points S
and S' are called secondary foci. These
five points, 8, F, 0, F', and /S", are used as points of ref-
erence in locating images formed by lenses. know We
in regard to them that (1) rays parallel to the principal
axis will pass, after refraction, through .For 1
(2) con- F ;
versely, rays passing through or 1

F F
will be parallel to
the principal axis after refraction (3) rays passing
;
through o suffer no change of direction ; and (4) rays

passing through S
will pass after refraction through /S",
the converse of this also being true.
324. To construct an image formed by a lens. First,

draw the principal axis and locate the points of reference.
.Fmay be placed any convenient distance, or

at its position
may be determined by formula ( 321).
LetAB (Fig. 188) be the object. Two rays from the

point A will determine its image. Draw from A the ray
Ar parallel to the principal axis ; it will pass through the
focus F
after refraction, and the image of A must lie in
the line rF, or rF produced. (The bending of the ray is
represented as taking place at r. This, of course, is not
correct, but little error is introduced by so doing.) Draw
another ray from A, as Ao. Since this ray passes through
the optical center, its direction will not be changed, and
the image of A
must lie in ok or ok produced. Since it
lies on rF and ok, or these lines produced, it must be at
their intersection, a. In like manner the image of can B
be found to be at 5, and ab is the image of AB.
Let the pupil take ab as the object and AB as the image,
and explain the construction of the figure.
325. Conjugate two points so related that rays
foci are
diverging from either one will meet at the other after re-
fraction, each being the image of the other. A and a
(Fig. 189), B and 5, and S and S' are conjugate foci.
Two conjugate foci always lie on the same axis.
326. Four cases exist in the formation of images by a
convex lens, which correspond to those of the concave
mirror. They are illustrated by the experiment ( 322),
and they can be verified by construction.
I. Theobject may be at a distance from the lens
greater than twice the focal length. Its image is real,
inverted, smaller than the object, and situated between

the focus and twice the focal length on the other side of
the lens (Fig. 188). The eye and the camera illustrate
this case.
II. The object may be at twice the focal length from
the lens. Its image i* then real, inverted, of the same
size asthe object, and at the same distance from the lens
on the other side.
280 LIGHT
III. The object may be between the focus and twice

the focal length of the lens. Its image is real, inverted,
larger than the object, and at a distance greater than

twice the focal length on the other side of the lens
(Fig. 188). This is the converse of Case I. The magic
lantern illustrates this case.
When the object is at the principal focus, there is no
image, since the rays from each point are parallel on leav-
ing the lens.
IV. The object may be between the lens and its prin-
cipal focus. Its image is then virtual, erect, magnified,
and on the same
side of the lens,
but farther back
from it than the
object (Fig. 189).
--"..-'
The " reading
"
lens illustrates
FIG. 189. Diagram of a virtual image formed by . .
a convex lens. tnis Case '

With concave
lenses there is one case only, the images are always virtual,
FIG, 190, Diagram of the image formed by a concave lens.
erect, smaller than the object, and between the focus and
the lens on the same side as the object (Fig. 190).
327. The formula for lenses is the same as that for mirrors,
- + - = - . In Figure 188 let u = the image distance, od\ v, the

u v f
object distance, oc ;
and /, the focal distance, oF. By the similar
triangles, AoB and aob,

*- = \ and by the similar triangles, rFt
ab od
and aFb, = Since rt = AB, the first members of these two

ab Fd
proportions are equal ; hence, =- Substituting in this propor-
od Fd
tion the values given above, we have - = -^J- Simplifying and
u u f
dividing it by uy/, we obtain - + - = -.
u v f
For concave lenses u and f are negative.
From the proportion - = the following law is derived :
ab od
The size of the object is to the size of the image as the distance of the
object to the lens is to the distance of the image to the lens.
328. Spherical aberration. It has been assumed, so far,

that two rays from any point locate exactly the image of
that point ; but
not true with spherical lenses that
it is
all rays from a given point meet exactly at another point
after refraction, because two of them do. For example

(Fig. 188), it is assumed that all rays from passing A
through the lens meet at a, because Ao and Ar do. Those
rays passing through a lens near its edge focus at a point
nearer the lens than those passing through its central
part. The result is that the image of each point, and
consequently of the whole object, is more or less blurred.
This blurring of an image, due to the failure of different
[Hirta of a lens to focus all rays from a point exactly

at its
Conjugate point, is called spherical aberration. It is less

with piano than with double lenses, and may be more or
K-SS avoided by changing the curvature of the lens, or by
covering the outer part of the lens by a diaphragm.

282 LIGHT
329.Chromatic aberration. It has been shown ( 280)

that when white light is bent or deviated by refraction,
different colors are bent to different degrees and dispersion
is produced; dispersion accompanies deviation. This is
true light passes through a lens as well as when it
when
passes through a prism. As a consequence of this, red
light is not focused to the same point as blue light or light
of other colors, and images formed by lenses are more or
less colored or fringed with color. This fringing of an
image with color, due to dispersion by a lens, is called chro-
matic aberration.
Newton thought it was impossible to have deviation
without dispersion. Deviation absolutely necessary in
is
a lens, dispersion is not desirable. In 1757 Dolland in-

vented the achromatic lens, that is, a lens in which the
dispersion is neutralized without completely destroying
the deviation, so that chromatic aberration
is more or less completely eliminated.
It has been shown ( 280) that flint
glass has about twice the dispersive power

of crown glass, while its deviating power
is only a very little greater. Hence, by
I
FIG. 191. Section
combining a double-convex lens of crown
f a naChr0matiC
lass with a Plano-concave lens of flint
le n s
glass as shown in Figure 191, the disper-

sion of the convex lens is neutralized by the concave lens,
while its deviation is not. All good telescopes, micro-
scopes, cameras, opera glasses, and many other optical
instruments are provided with achromatic lenses.
XIII. OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

330. The camera. The camera consists of a dark box
with an opening or tube in front in which a convex lens is
placed. The camera lens is seldom a simple convex lens,
OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS 283
but is usually a combination of lenses equivalent to one.

Several lenses are combined into a system of lenses to cor-
rect chromatic* and spherical aberration and other defects.
The lens of a camera generally has a focal length of a few
inches at most, hence the object to be photographed is at a
distance greater than twice the focal length of the lens,
and an image is formed according to Case I, or as shown in
Figure 188. This image is projected upon the film or plate

at the back of the box. The light forming the image
produces chemical changes in the compounds of silver with
which the plate is covered, these changes being due, how-
ever, to the light of the shorter wave lengths such as the
blue and violet, the red and orange having little effect.
Focusing consists in adjusting the distance between the
lens and the plate so that the image formed upon the latter
is distinct.A "pin hole" camera has no lens, but the
image is formed through a small aperture ( 304).
331. The eye, optically considered, may be called a small
camera, since it consists of a small dark chamber with an

opening at the front at which
a convex lens is placed, and
a screen or network of nerves
at the back upon which the
image is formed. The

human T
192) is a
e} e (Fig.
ball about an inch in diame-
ter, the outer shell of which,
constituting the white of
the eye, is called the sclerotic
rr,, FIG. 192. Diagram of a section of the
coat. he front transparent
1
human eye.
part of this outer coat is
called the cornea, and it fits into the main body of the eye
much watch crystal fits its case. The iris is that which
as a
gives color to the eye. It is a diaphragm or curtain just

284 LIGHT
back of the cornea, and the circular opening or hole through

itscenter is the pupil of the eye. The iris may expand and
contract, changing the size of the pupil so as to adapt the
eye to different intensities of light. The crystalline lens is
immediately back of the iris, covering the pupil. The
main body of the eye back of the lens is filled with a trans-
parent, jellylike substance called the vitreous humor, and
the space between the lens and cornea with a fluid called
the aqueous humor. The optic nerve, consisting of a large
bundle of nerve filaments, connects the eye with the brain.
This nerve enters the eye at the back, and the filaments,
spreading out, form a network of nerves called the retina.
332. Vision. When we see an object, light from that
object enters the eye, and the crystalline lens projects a
real inverted image of it upon the retina, just as the
camera lens forms an
image on the photo-
graphic plate. The eye
resembles the camera
further, in that there
is in the retina a sort
of coloring matter
called the visual purple,
B B which is affected chemi-

FIG. 193. Diagram of the visual angle. cally by light, The
apparent size of an
object depends upon the size of the image on the retina,
which in turn depends on the size of the visual a mile
ACB (Fig. 193). If the object comes nearer the eye, the
visual angle A' CB' and the image on the retina become
larger. If the eye were a mere machine, not backed by

the reason and experience of the observer, a man at a dis-
tance of 10 feet would be taken to be ten times as large
as one at 100 feet.
OPTICAL LN8TBUMENT8 285
The distance between the lens and the retina cannot be

changed in the eye as in the camera, but the eye adapts
itself for seeing objects at different distances by a change
in the form of the lens. When we wish to see an object
near the eye, a muscle within the eye contracts, allowing
the lens to bulge out at the center and become more
convex ; thus the image is focused on the retina. This
ability of the eye to change its focus is called the power
of accommodation. The eye at rest, or viewing distant
objects, or looking through an optical instrument such
as a microscope, is adjusted for parallel rays.
In order to secure very distinct vision, the object is
brought as near to the eye as possible. For a normal
eye the distance may be as short as four or five inches,
but the distance of 10 inches or 25 cm. has been taken as
the standard distance of distinct vision. In estimating the
power of optical instruments, the apparent size or the
visual angle of an object at 25 cm. is compared with the ap-
parent size or visual angle as seen through the instrument.

333. Defective vision. In the normal eye in youth the
power accommodation is very strong, but with advanc-
of
ing age the lens of the eye loses its elasticity and in time
ceases to change form when the muscle acts, and as a
consequence objects near by are seen indistinctly. Eyes

having this defect are termed presbyopie or farsighted.
This defect is remedied by convex glasses.
Defective vision often occurs because the eyeball is not
perfect in shape ; it be too long or too short from
may
front to back or its curvaturemay not be equal in all
directions. When the eyeball is too long, the person is
said to be nearsightedand the eye is myopic. This defect
is remedied by concave glasses. When the eye is too
short from front to back, the person is farsighted and the
eye is Jiypermetropic and requires convex glasses. When
286 LIGHT
the curvature of the eye is imperfect, the figures on one

diameter of a clock dial, for instance, are distinct, while
those on another diameter are indistinct. This defect is
known as astigmatism and is corrected by cylindrical lenses.

334. The lantern, or stereopticon, is an apparatus for
projecting large images or pictures upon a screen or cur-
tain. The fundamental principle of the lantern is the
forming of a real,
inverted, magnified
image of an object
by a convex lens ac-
cording to Case III
(326), the object
*
FIG. 194. Diagram of a section of the lantern . . ,
or stereopticon. bem g between the

focus and twice the
focal length of the lens. The lens (Fig. 194), which
projects the image, is called an objective. It is contained
in a tube and is a system of lenses equivalent to a single
convex lens.
The D to be shown is usually a photograph upon
object
glass. Such photographs prepared for use in a lantern are
called slides. A photographic negative is black where the
object photographed is white and vice versa, but a lantern
slide being a negative of a negative, as it were, is a posi-
tive.
The slide or object to be projected must be strongly
illuminated. The source of light most often used is an
electric arc lamp or the calcium light. This light should
be as small in area as possible, hence the flame of an oil
lamp which is sometimes used is not satisfactory. The
light from the lamp is concentrated upon the slide by the
condenser C, which consists of two large plano-convex lenses
cc placed with their convex faces toward each other.
Sometimes direct sunlight is used for projecting and in
that case the condenser is unnecessary. If the object to

be shown an opaque picture, a very strong light is
is
thrown upon it from in front, and the light reflected from

the picture passes through the objective and is projected
on the curtain.
The simple microscope.
335. When an object is looked
at through a convex lens (Fig. 189), the object being
placed between the lens and its principal focus, the lens
constitutes a simple microscope. This is an illustration of
Case V ( 826). A magnified, erect, virtual image of the
object formed.
is The rays, which really diverge from A,
appear to the eye to come from a. But since the eye
should be adapted for parallel rays in using the lens, the
object is placed at its focus. This increases the visual
angle over what it would be at 25 cm. as many times as
the focal length of the lens is contained
in 25, or the magnifying power of the
. 25
lens is .
336.The compound microscope con-

sists of two lenses or systems of convex
lenses, the eyepiece and the objective,
mounted at the extremities of a tube.
The larger lens, to which the eye is ap-
plied, is the eyepiece and the smaller
;
lens, near the object, is the objective.

The latter is the most important and
expensive part of the instrument. The

smaller it is and the shorter its focal
length the higher its magnifying power.
The principle of the compound micro-
scope may be explained by reference to
Figure 195. Let be the objective
and F its principal focus. The object scope.
288 LimiT
is placed just beyond .Fand hence a real, magnified, inverted

image of it is formed at cd, Case III. The eyepiece E is
so placed that this image ab falls between it and its princi-
pal focus/. The eyepiece acts upon the real image ab just
as a simple microscope acts upon a real object, forming a
magnified virtual image of this real image, Case IV.

Often only a small portion of this image ab can be seen
by the eyepiece. If / is the focal length of the objective,
/' that of the eyepiece, and I the
length of the tube, the
25
magnifying power of the microscope = -^-^ I
I, / and /'
being expressed in centimeters.

337. The astronomical telescope. This instrument, like
the compound microscope, consists of an eyepiece and an
objective mounted at the ends of a tube. The eyepiece has
the same function in both instruments ;
but while the
objective of the microscope is small and of short focal
length, that of the telescope is large and of long focal
length. Since objects seen through a telescope are at a
distance, they are of course always beyond twice the focal
length of the objective, and a real, inverted image smaller
than the object is formed according to Case I. This falls
practically at the principal focus of the objective, just

within or at the focus/ of the eyepiece. The tube of the
telescope must therefore be as long as the sum of the focal
lengths of the eye-

piece and the objec-
tive. The objective
of the telescope is
FIG. 196. Diagram of the astronomical .. . ,
telescope.
made ver J Wlde so
as to gather in a
large amount of light to form a very bright image of the

object and to give a high resolving power. Figure 196
shows the relative positions of object, lenses, and images.
The image seen by the eye is inverted. For terrestrial

telescopes, which are used for viewing objects on the
earth's surface, inversion would not be permissible, and two
more lenses, called erecting lenses, are placed in the tube.
These invert the image again before it is formed at the
eyepiece.
Let/ and /' represent respectively the focal length of
objective and eyepiece. The objective increases the visual
angle of the object ô times, and the eyepiece increases it
25 f 25
-^j times ; hence the two lenses increase it -^ x = ^f
/ &> J J
The magnifying power of an astronomical telescope there-
fore equals the quotient of the focal length of the objec-
tive divided by that of the eyepiece.
338. Galileo's telescope has a concave lens ior an eye-
piece, which is placed between the objective and the real
FIG. 197. Diagram of Galileo's telescope or opera glass.
image ab (Fig. 197) that would be formed by the objec-

tive if the eyepiecewere not there. The focus of the
eyepiece F is nearly at the place where the real image ab
would be formed, but the eyepiece, intercepting the rays
which are converging to form the image ab, causes them
to diverge, making a virtual upright image A'B' The '.
length of the tube is the difference of the focal lengths

of the two lenses, instead of their sum as with the
ADAMS'S PHYS. 19
290 LIGHT
astronomical telescope. Opera glasses and field glasses

consist of a pair of such telescopes placed side by side.
The advantages of this telescope are its convenient length,
simple construction, and the fact that it does not invert
the image. Its magnifying power is the same as that
of the astronomical telescope,

J
339. The Zeiss binocular glass (Fig. 198) com-
field
bines the advantages both of the Galilean and of the

terrestrial telescope. It is short
and compact like the former and
has the wide field of view of the
latter. The objective and the eye-
piece are the same as in the astro-
nomical telescope, but the necessary
distance between them is obtained
by causing the light to travel the
length of the tube three times in
passing from objective to eyepiece.

This is accomplished by the total
internal reflection of the light by
two prisms as shown in the figure.
These reflections also reinvert the
image formed by the objective at
the focus of the eyepiece,
J r making
FIG. 198. Diagram of the
Zeiss binocular field glass. it erect.
Another advantage of this instrument is the greater stereoscopic

effectsecured by having the two objectives farther apart than the
two eyes of the observer. When we look at an object with two eyes,
the images on the two retinas are not exactly alike because the
two eyes see the object from slightly different positions. This gives
the appearance of depth or solidity to the object. It is this effect
which is enhanced by the greater distance between the objectives of
the Zeiss instrument.
Problems
1. The focal length of a convex lens is 15 cm. and an
object is
placed 60 cm. from it. Find the position of the image.
Ans. 20 cm. from lens.
2. An
object is 12 cm. from a convex lens whose focal length
is 3 cm.Find the image distance. How much larger is the object
than the image? Verify the results by construction.
3. An object is 30 ft. from a camera whose focal
length is 6 in.
If the object is 15 ft. high and 20 ft. long, how large will its picture
be?
4. If the camera lens of the last problem has a focal length of
4 in., what is the size of the picture ?
5. If in the last problem the object is 15 ft. from the lens of the
camera instead of 30 ft., what is the size of the picture ?
6. A
convex lens has a focal length of 6 cm. If a distinct image
of an object 48 meters from the lens is formed on a white card and the
distance from the card to the lens is measured accurately, how much
would it differ from the focal length of the lens ? If it were called
the focal length, what would be the percentage of error?
7. If a lantern slide is 4 in. long and the focal length of the
lantern objective is 6 in., what must be the width of the curtain to

receive the picture at a distance of 30 ft. from the objective ?
[First find the distance from the slide to the objective, or object
distance, and then apply the principle of 327. Compare your
answer with one obtained as follows:
Size of image : size of slide = curtain distance : focal length.]
8. In a certain school it was desired to project pictures by a lan-

tern on a screen 18 square at a distance of 80 ft.
ft. If the slides are
4 in. wide, what focal length was required for the objective?
9. Name which virtual images are formed and seven
five cases in
cases in which
images are formed.
real
10. What two effects may be noted when light passes through a
prism and what explanation may be given of them ?
11. Define the focal length of a lens and of a curved mirror.
12. In what direction is an oar in water apparently bent ? Ex-
plain by a diagram.
CHAPTER IV
BEAT
I. TEMPERATURE AND THERMOMETERS
340. Temperature. We may be said to possess a
sense of heat as well as a sense of touch or of sight. By
this sense we distinguish between the hotness or coldness
of different bodies which we touch or by it we perceive
the warmth of the sun or of a fire. The words hot and

cold with which we are all familiar refer to the state of a
body when judged by this sense.

To estimate the hotness of a body we necessarily refer
to some standard, and in doing this scientifically, \ve use
the word temperature, rather than the word hotness.
Temperature may be defined as the degree of hotness
of a body measured according to some arbitrarily chosen
scale; or, it is the thermal condition of a body which
determines the flow of heat between it and other bodies
in contact with it.
341. Measurement of temperature. The sense of
heat is not at all for measuring temperature.
reliable
To show this, place hand in warm water and
one
the other in ice water for a few moments and then
place both hands in tepid water. This tepid water will
seem warm to the hand taken from the ice water, but cold
to the other hand. Again, the unreliability of the sense
of heat for estimating temperature is shown when we
touch various objects in a cold room some of them will ;
seem cold and others warm, while in fact all are of the
same temperature.
TEMPERATURE AND THERMOMETERS 293
The well-known fact that bodies expand or increase in

volume as they become warmer is the basis of most
methods of measuring temperature. The common instru-
ment for measuring temperature is called a thermometer.
As usually constructed it depends on the fact that the
liquid or gas in it expands more than the glass of which it
is made.
342. The mercurial thermometer. The thermometer

best suited for most practical purposes consists of a glass
tube with a capillary bore ending in a
bulb filled with mercury. A form called
a chemical thermometer is shown in
Figure 199. 100

The mercury is introduced into the
thermometer by first heating the bulb to
expel some of the air by its expansion
and then dipping the open end of the
stem into mercury. As the bulb cools
and the air in it contracts, a small amount
of mercury is forced into it by the pres-
sure of the outside air. The bulb is
again heated the mercury boils,

until 12*
the air being expelled by the vapor of
mercury, and then the open end is again

dipped into mercury. As it cools and
the vapor condenses, more mercury is
forced in by atmospheric pressure, and
in this way the bulb and the stem are
completely filled.The instrument is FlG 199.- Diagram -
,v i ,1
, i i of chemical ther-
then raised to the highest temperature mome ters.
it is
designed to register and sealed by
melting the open end of the glass tube in a hot flame.
On cooling the mercury contracts, leaving a vacuum in
the top of the tube.
294 HEAT
343. The fixed points of a thermometer. Since the

temperatures of melting ice and of steam rising from boil-
ing water are invariable under a constant pressure of 76
cm., these two temperatures are taken as standard tem-
peratures and are called the fixed points of a thermometer.
They are known as the freezing point and the boiling point.
To determine the freezing point, the bulb and stem as
far up as the top of the mercury column are packed in
moist pulverized ice. When the mercury becomes sta-
tionary in the tube, the top of the column is marked by a
scratch on the glass.
To determine the boiling point, the bulb and stem are
immersed in steam issuing from water boiling under a
pressure of 76 cm., and the top of the column marked as
before. Since the barometer seldom reads exactly 76 cm.,
it isgenerally necessary to find a correction for the boil-
ing point on account of this variation in pressure. A
variation of 1 cm. from 76 makes a difference of .37 C. in
the boiling point. The boiling point of water when the
pressure is 73.5 cm. is found as follows: 76.0 73.5 2.5;
=
2.5 x .37 =.925; 100 .925 -
99.075 C. =
When the
pressure is above 76, the correction is added instead of
subtracted.
344. Graduation of thermometers. The space between
the fixed points of a thermometer is divided into equal
parts called degrees, and the scale thus formed is extended
beyond these points as far as desirable. Of course, if the
bore of the tube is not uniform, the degrees will not be
accurately equal. The errors in common thermometers
from this cause and also because the fixed points are
not accurately placed are often considerable indeed, for ;
accurate work it is always necessary to test the instru-

ment and correct the readings for errors due to these
causes.
TEMPERATURE AND THERMOMETERS 295
The number of divisions between the fixed points may

be chosen at pleasure, but three scales are in use the :
Fahrenheit, the Centigrade, and the Reaumur. In the

Fahrenheit, which was introduced early in the eighteenth
century and is in common use among all English-speaking
people, there are 180 divisions between the fixed points,
which are marked 32 and 212.
In the Centigrade scale, first constructed by Celsius in
1742, the freezing point is marked and the boiling
point 100, thus making 100 spaces between them. This
scale is almost universally used for scientific purposes.
The Reaumur scale has 80 divisions between the fixed
points, the lower one being marked and the upper one
80. This thermometer is used in some countries in
Europe for household purposes.
In all these scales, readings below zero are designated
by the negative sign. Thus, 15 C. means 15 degrees
below Centigrade.
345. Conversion from one scale to another. Since the
same space divided into 180 equal parts in the Fahren-
is
heit scale, and 100 in the Centigrade, 180 Fahrenheit
degrees are equal to 100 Centigrade degrees; or 9 F.

degrees = 5 C. degrees, or 1 F. degree = f C.
To obtain the number of degrees from any point on the
Fahrenheit scale to the freezing point, 32 must always be
subtracted from the reading. For example, 40 F. is
only 8 above the freezing point, and 10 F. is ( 10

32 = 42) 42 below the freezing point. The following
formula may be used to convert readings in one scale to
the other :
^-32^~ C
180 100'
in which C and F represent the readings on their respec-
tive scales.
296 HEAT
346. The air thermometer. Mercury is the most suit-

able liquid for ordinary thermometers for many reasons,
but when extreme scientific accuracy is re-
quired, or when very high

or very low tem-
peratures are to be measured, a thermometer

is used which is filled with air or hydrogen.
Figure 200 illustrates a simple form of the

air thermometer. It consists of a glass bulb
or flask with a long tube of small bore which
dips into a colored liquid. If the bulb is
slightly warmed, some of the air is expelled ;
but when it cools again, the pressure of the

air outside forces the liquid up the stem.
Such an arrangement is very sensitive and
is useful as a thermoscope, that is, an instru-
ment for detecting small changes of tempera-

ture ; but not as a thermometer which
measures temperature. Its construction
FIG 200 Air

nee(^ s ^ ^ e modified considerably to adapt
thermometer, it to the latter purpose.
Problems
1. To how many Centigrade degrees are 54 Fahrenheit degrees
equivalent? 63? 72? 27? 108? ,
2. To how many Fahrenheit degrees are 15 Centigrade degrees
equivalent? 20? 25? 30? 35? 45? 60?

3. What temperature on the Centigrade scaje is 54 on the
Fahrenheit scale?
4. To what temperature Centigrade is 40 F. equal?
5. Convert the following readings on the Fahrenheit scale to
Centigrade readings 41, 50, 59, 68, 77, and 95.
:
6. Convert the following readings on the Centigrade thermometer to
Fahrenheit readings - 10, - 20, - 25, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, and 60.
:
7. Drawa figure of a thermometer tube, select two points on the

stem for the fixed points, and graduate it, on one side, in the Fahren-
heit scale, and on the other, in the Centigrade scale,
EXPANSION BY HEAT 297
8. What should be the temperature, Centigrade, of a sitting room

in winter?
9. What temperature, Centigrade, would be considered a very

warm day in summer time? Of a very cold day in winter?
10. Express as nearly as you can in both Centigrade and Fahrenheit
degrees the extreme range in temperature during the year of the

locality in which you live.
II. EXPANSION BY HEAT

347. Expansion. When a body is heated, it expands,
or becomes larger ; and when it is cooled, it contracts, or
becomes smaller. Increase of length of a body is called
linear expansion ; increase in area, superficial expansion ;
and increase of volume, cubical expansion. All three of
these terms apply to solids, but cubical expansion only
applies to liquids and gases.

Different solids and liquids expand unequally for like
changes of temperature, and expand so little that
solids
some magnifying device is usually necessary to make the
expansion apparent.
Experiment. To show
the linear expansion of a solid, place an
iron or brass rodupon two blocks about 25 cm. high. Fix one end of
the rod by placing a weight upon it (Fig. 201) and let the other end
FIG. 201. Apparatus for illustrating linear expansion of a rod by heat.

298 HEAT
rest upon a needle which has been thrust through a straw or long light
splinter. Heat the rod by passing a Bunsen flame along it. The ex-
pansion will roll the needle over, the movement of the pointer making
this movement evident. Allow the rod to cool and the contraction
will be apparent from the movement of the pointer in the opposite
direction.
Experiment. Figure 202 represents a fine iron wire AB about a

meter long, fastened at A to a binding post and at B to a long light
lever of the third class. Let the wire be heated by passing an electric
FIG. '202. Apparatus for illustrating the expansion of a wire heated by an

electric current.
current through it. The movement of the pointer C toward r shows

the lengthening of the wire by the heat when the wire is cooled by
;
fanning it or by cutting off the current, C

moves back toward o.
Experiment. To show the unequal expansion

of solids, let a compound bar (Fig. 203) of two
Hot
metal strips of the same size riveted together,
FIG. 203. Compound one of iron, the other of brass, be heated gently
bar of two metal ,
strips for illustrat-

anc* umf rm ly throughout its
,,
whole length by
ing the unequal ex- passing a Bunsen flame to and fro along it. It
pansion of solids. will become curved, the brass side being convex.
.
This shows that the brass expands more than
the iron. is made very cold, the iron side becomes convex,
If the bar
showing that the brass contracts more than the iron on cooling. The
bending of such a bar may be made evident by clamping it in a vise
and making it a part of an electric circuit in which an incandescent
lamp is placed. A needle is placed near the end of the bar so that
when the bar is heated it touches the needle and completes the
circuit. When the bar cools it bends away from the needle and the
lamp goes out.
348. Applications of the unequal expansion of metals

are found in the balance wheel of a watch, in thermostats,
and in some thermometers.
The rim of a balance wheel (Fig. 204) is double, being brass on
the outside and iron on the inside, and it is cut through in two places.
If it were not so constructed, warming it
would enlarge the wheel so that a greater
force would be neces-
sary to make it vi-

brate as fast as before;
but the rise in tem-
perature weakens the
hairspring which
controls the wheel
instead of strengthen-
ing it, conse- FlG 204. -Diagram of the
and -
balance wheel of a watch

quently the watch
;
the inner part of the rim

would lose time. By is iron, the outer part is
this arrangement, brass.
however, since the
brass expands more than the iron, each half
of the rim becomes more curved when it is
wanned, so that the wheel becomes smaller
rather than larger. Thus the effects of temper-
ature changes on the watch are counteracted.
Figure 205 represents a thermostat in which
r isa piece composed of two metals. When
the room
in which the instrument is placed
becomes too warm, r bends toward the left
and touches the screw s. This closes an
electric circuit and starts a motor which closes
the drafts of the furnace. When the room
FIG 205. -A thermo-
becomes too cold r bends to the right and
stat for
regulating .
the temperature of a touches the screw t. This causes the motor to

room. open the drafts.
300 HEAT
In dial thermometers a compound metal spring coils and uncoils
with changes of temperature, and this motion of the spring is com-
municated to the pointer of the instrument.
349. Cubical expansion. Experiment. To illustrate cubical ex-
pansion of a solid, use is madeof a metallic ring and ball which just
passes through the ring at ordinary temperatures. When the ball is
heated, it becomes too large to pass through the ring.
Liquids expand much more than solids on being heated.

The rise of the mercury in a thermometer shows this.
Experiment. To illustrate the

expansion of liquids, place several
different liquids, such as water, kerosene, glycerine, etc., in narrow
glass tubes closed at one end by fusion. Color the liquids with aniline
and fill the tubes to the same depth. Support these tubes in a vessel
of hot water. The expansion will be found to differ for the different
liquids.
350. Exceptions to the general rule that a body expands

on being heated and contracts when cooled exist. Rubber
and iodide of silver are examples, but the most important of
all is water between the temperatures of C. and 4 C.
When water is cooled, it contracts until 4 C. is reached.
At this point, as the cooling goes on, it begins to expand and
continues to do so until it reaches C. Water is therefore
densest at 4 C. at C. its density is almost the same as
;
at 8 C.
This fact is of the utmost importance in the economy of
nature. Were it otherwise, the waters of our lakes would
freeze at the bottom first and probably freeze solid from

bottom to top, and never perhaps completely thaw out in
summer. As it is, the water at the bottom of deep lakes
never becomes colder than 4 C. and in some very deep lakes
never warmer than that temperature.
Experiment. To illustrate the abnormal expansion of water, a

glass balloon (Fig. 206) can be made with care which
little air-tight
will sink in water at ordinary temperatures, but rise as the water
approaches 4 C. Place such a balloon in a bottle full of water and

close the bottle with a stopperthrough which a thermometer extends.

Place the bottle in ice water. During the cooling of the water down
to C. the balloon will rise and sink again,
showing that the water first contracts and then
expands on cooling. If the bottle is now placed
in a warm room, the balloon will rise as the
temperature approaches 4 C. and sink again as

it becomes warmer.
351. Coefficient of linear expansion.

The which a body
fraction of its length
expands on being heated one degree is

called its coefficient of linear expansion.
Suppose a bar of metal is heated. If

its first length is subtracted from its
length after it is heated, the total ex-

pansion is obtained. Dividing this total
expansion by the number of degrees the
bar is heated gives the expansion per
degree. To find what fraction of the
original length this expansion for one
degree is, we divide itby the original
length ; the result is by definition the
coefficient of linear expansion of the FIG. 206. Diagram of
bar. a glass balloon that
The coefficient is numerically equal rises in water at 4 C.
but sinks as C. is
to the expansion of a unit length for a
approached.
rise in temperature of one degree.
352. The coefficient of cubical expansion of a body is the
fraction of its volume which it expands on being heated
one degree. The cubical coefficient of a body is three
times its linear coefficient of expansion.
The coefficient of cubical expansion is calculated in the
same way as that for linear expansion. Subtract the
volume of the body when cold from its volume after it is
heated to obtain the whole amount of expansion. Divid-
302 HEAT
ing the total expansion by the number of degrees the body

is heated gives the expansion per degree, and this last
result divided by the original volume equals the fraction

of its volume it expands on being heated one degree, or
the coefficient of cubical expansion.
Strictly speaking, all coefficients of expansion should
be reckoned on the size of a body at C., but only in
the case of gases is this rigidly adhered to.
For gases the above process may be expressed by the

formula,
in which v , v2 , ,and a represent respectively the volume

of the gas at C., its volume after being heated, the
change of temperature, and the coefficient
of expansion.
Problems
1. A brass rod 80 cm. long at 9.7 C. expanded
.136 cm. on being heated to 99.2 C. What is the
coefficient of expansion of brass ?
2. A rod of op per at 15 C. is 64 cm. long and
at 99 C. it is 64.092 cm. long. What is the
coefficient of expansion of copper?
3. If the coefficient of linear expansion of iron
is .000012, what will be the length of a railroad
rail at 35 C. which is 90 ft. long at -10 C.?
4. A carriage wheel is 7 ft. 6f in. in circum-

ference. An iron tire is 7.5 ft. around its inner
circumference at 15 C. To what temperature
must the tire be heated to just slip on the wheel ?
Figure 207 represents a gridiron pendulum,

5.
FIG. 207. Diagram the five heavy lines representing steel rods and
of a gridiron pen-
u ht oneg zinc pod
the the length from the
dulum.
center ot suspension A to center of oscillation
B is 99.3 cm. What must be the total length of the two zinc rods
1 and 2 and the steel rods 3 and 4 so that the length from A to
B shall remain the same at all temperatures? Ans. 70.1 cm.
(NOTE. The length of 1 + 2 = 3 + 4, 4 extending to C. Co-

efficient of zinc is .000029.)
6. A glass flask holds when full 100 cc. at 16 C. How much would
it hold at 96 C., coefficient of linear expansion of glass being .0000083 ?
Ans. 100.2 cc.
7. What should be the correction for temperature for a barometer
reading of 74 cm., the temperature of the mercury being 21 C. ? (The

coefficient of cubical expansion for mercury is .000181.)
Why is this correction subtracted from the reading ?

Ans. 0.281 cm.
8. What should be the correction in the above case for the expan-
sion of the brass scale, coefficient for brass being .000019 ?
This correction is added. ?Why
Calculate the temperature correction for a barometer reading of
9.
738 mm. taken at 19 C., considering both the expansion of the mer-
cury and the brass scale.
353. Law of Charles. Gases expand very much more

than solids or liquids for a given change of temperature,
but especially differ from them in obeying the following
laws:
(1) All gases expand equally for equal increases of tem-
perature, if the pressure remains constant.
This means that the coefficient of expansion is the same
for all gases, being ^YS r .00367; that is, any gas ex-
pands gY^ of its volume at C. for every rise of 1 C. in

temperature.
If a gas is inclosed in a vessel so that it cannot expand
when heated, then the pressure it exerts on the interior of
the vessel increases.
(2) All gases increase the pressure which they exert on
the interior of a vessel equally for equal increases of temper-
ature, if the volume remains constant.

Thepressure of a gas increases ^f^ of its pressure at
C. for every increase of 1 C. in temperature, the pres-
sure coefficient of a gas being practically the same as its
304 HEAT
volume coefficient. The name of Gay-Lussac instead of

Charles is sometimes given to these laws.
Experiment. To illustrate the equal expansion of gases, prepare

two air thermometers of equal size and with tubes of the same bore
(about 8 mm.), the tubes

being bent and connected to
the flasks by rubber stoppers
having two holes (Fig. 208).
Mount the thermometers side
by side. Each flask should
contain about 3 cc. of sul-
phuric acid to dry the gases,

and the ends of the tubes
should dip into a dish of
such acid. Fill one flask
with hydrogen, passing it
through the hole in the stop-
per. The other will be full
of air. Close the holes in
the stoppers with glass plugs.
Set the flasks first in a dish
of water at 50 C. to expel
FIG. 208. Apparatus for showing the
excess of gases in them and
equal expansion of air and hydrogen.
then the apparatus is ready
for use. First, then, place the flasks in water at about 20 C. and
observe the height of the acid in the tubes and then in water at
40 C. and note the expansion. It should be equal for both gases.
Absolute temperature.
354.
of itsvolume at
Since a gas expands
C. when warmed 1 C., it will contract
^
2^ of its volume at C. when cooled 1 C. Suppose
a gas under constant pressure could be cooled 273 below
C. and continue to obey this law then it would lose ;
!| of its volume at C., that is, lose its whole volume.

Again, suppose the volume is constant and that it is
cooled 273 below C. According to the second law
it would f{| of its pressure at
lose C., that is, its
pressure would become zero at 273 C. Since the

EXPANSION P>Y HEAT 305
pressure due to molecular motion ( 134), no pressure

is
would mean no motion, hence no heat.

Neither of these conditions is possible, for one reason,
because the gases would cease to be gases before such a
low temperature, even if it were attainable, could be
reached but such considerations have led men to believe
;
that 273 0. is a true or absolute zero of temperature.

Temperatures reckoned from this zero are called absolute
temperatures. Centigrade readings are converted to ab-
solute temperatures by adding 273 to them.
355. Other forms of the gas laws. When temperatures
are expressed in the absolute scale, the laws of Charles or Gay-
Lussac may be expressed in very useful forms as follows :
(1) The volumes of a given mass of gas are proportional

to its absolute temperatures, if the pressure is constant.
v
-J =
T v1 and T^ and vz and T2
V ^, being corresponding
2 2
volumes and temperatures.
(2) The pressures exerted by a given mass of gas are
proportional to its absolute temperatures, if the volume is
constant, o= T p
v 1
1
and 2^ and p z and Tz being corre-
Pz *2
spending pressures and temperatures.
These two laws may be combined into one law if both
pressure and volume vary, namely:
(3) The products of the volumes and pressures of a given
mass of gas are proportional to its absolute temperatures.
Problems
1. 100 cc. of gas at C. was warmed to 30 C. What was its
volume at the latter temperature, pressure being unchanged ?
2. What is the volume of a quantity of air at 77 C. which has a

volume of 300 cc. at 27 C., pressure being constant?
ADAMS'S PHYS. 20
306 HEAT
3. What is the volume of a given mass of air at 0C. which is
300 cc. at 27 C., pressure being unchanged ?
4. A gas was heated under constant pressure until its volume
became 390 cc. If itsvolume and temperature were at first respec-

tively 250 cc. and 23 C., to what temperature was it heated?
5. At what temperature will the elastic tension of a gas be 45
Ib. per square inch, if it is 20 Ib. at C., the volume being un-
changed ?
6. A gas which at 15 C. was under a pressure of 76 cm. was
kept at constant volume and heated to 60 C. What did the pressure

become ?
7. What will be the volume of a quantity of hydrogen under
standard conditions, which has a volume of 32 cc. at 22 C. and 74
cm.?
8. Reduce the volume of a gas which is 28.6 cc. at 19 C. and
75.4 cm. pressure to standard conditions.
A chemist collected 21 cc. of a gas in a tube over mercury.
9.
At the time the barometer reading corrected for temperature was

73.8 cm. and the temperature of the gas was 24 C. The mercury in
the tube stood 13.8 cm. above the mercury in the dish. Reduce the
volume of the gas to standard conditions.
A quantity of air at 7C. has a volume of 14 cc. and at 28 C.
10.
its volume is 15 cc. Calculate its coefficient of expansion by means
of the two equations, v\ = v (l + at^) and v 2 = yo(l + 0/2).
11. A mass of air at C. has a volume of 34.125 cc. and at 63 C.

its volume is 42 cc. What is its coefficient of expansion ?
12. Calculate the coefficient of expansion of air from the following
data : volume at 7 C. = 24 cc. and at 37 C. its volume = 25.4 cc.
III. HEAT AND ENERGY

356. Nature of heat. Until about the beginning of the
nineteenth century the material theory of heat was most
generally accepted. This theory held that heat is a kind
of matter, a subtle, weightless fluid, which, entering into
bodies and uniting with them, makes them warmer. This
substance was called caloric.
HEAT AND ENERGY 307
The progress of science during the first half o'f the

nineteenth century was marked by the overthrow of this
theory and the adoption of the mechanical or dynamic
theory of heat.
According to this theory the molecules of a body are in
a state of rapid vibration and when this motion is increased,
the body becomes warmer and when it is decreased, the
body becomes colder. Heat, therefore, may be defined as

the energy of molecular motion. Since it is energy of
motion, it is one of the forms of kinetic energy.
357. Development of heat. Since heat is a form of
energy, it can be produced, according to the doctrine
of conservation of energy, only from some other form of
energy ; and when heat is transformed, some other form of

energy must be produced. All other forms of energy may
be either directly or indirectly transformed into heat, and
conversely, heat may be transformed into any other form
of energy.
358. Development of heat from mechanical energy.
-
Instances of the transformation of mechanical energy into
heat are so numerous in everyday life that experiments to
illustrate it are scarcely necessary. It is done in various
ways.
First) by friction. It is well known that savages were
accustomed to kindle fire by heat obtained by rubbing two
sticks together. A saw, or a bit, or a gimlet becomes
warm when in use, and metal when cut or drilled often
becomes too hot to be handled. Illustrations such as
these, to which the student can easily add from his own
experience, show that by destroying mechanical
friction
motion transforms the energy of that motion into heat.
Experiment. Attach a brass tube about 1.5 cm. in diameter and

12 cm. long to a whirling machine. Fill the tube with water or
alcohol and close it with a cork. Clasp the tube with a wooden clamp
308 HEAT
having two grooves in it to fit the tube, and then revolve the tube
rapidly. In a few moments the water will be made to boil by the
friction, and the steam will expel the stopper.
Second, by percussion or collision. By hammering a

nail upon an anvil, one can soon make it so hot that it
cannot be handled with the fingers. In this case the

downward motion of the hammer
suddenly stopped as
is
it hits the nail, but the energy of it reappears in the form

of heat, the motion of the molecules in the
nail, the anvil, the hammer, and the sur-

rounding atmosphere being quickened by
the collision.
Third, by compression. When one
pumps air into a bicycle tire, the air is
very much compressed arid work is done

upon it. The energy of mechanical
motion which the operator supplies is
transferred to the air and changed into
heat. This heat is in part transferred
to the pump and the tube leading to the
tire and is evident to the touch. If the
open end of the tube of the pump placed

is
close to the bulb of an air thermometer,

and air blown against the bulb by work-
ing the pump rapidly, the heat may be
made evident by the thermometer.
In many modern machine shops much
use is made of compressed air, and the
heat produced in the air pumps is always
considerable, and often it is necessary
J to
FIG. 209. Fire syr-
inge, the air in have special arrangements to convey this
which may be heat away.
heated by com-
pression so as to Experiment. The fire syringe (Fig. 209) con-
ignite tinder. sists ofa tube either of brass or glass closed at
HEAT AND ENERGY 309
one end and having a closely fitting piston. Place a small piece of
dry tinder in the cavity in the end of the piston, insert the piston
in the end of the tube, and quickly force it in so as to compress
the air in the tube. Withdraw the piston as quickly as possible;
the heat produced in compressing the air will set the tinder on fire.
Care must be taken on repeating the experiment to see that the
tube is filled with pure air,and the piston must be removed very
quickly or the fire will be quenched by the gases arising from
combustion.
When the tribe is made of glass, place a drop of carbon bisulphide
in the tube to fill it with a mixture of its vapor and air. The heat of
compression is made evident by the flash of light which is observed
when the piston is forced in. Only a very small quantity of the
bisulphide should be used, as there is danger of exploding the tube
with too much of it.
359. Development of heat from electrical energy. Both

the electric arc lamp and the incandescent lamp illustrate
the transformation of the kinetic energy of the electric
current into heat.
Experiment. Pass an electric current from a battery through a

short piece of fine platinum wire. The wire will be heated white-hot;
or using the lighting circuit of the building and a bank of lamps in
parallel for resistance, pass a current through a piece of fine iron wire.
In this way it is
easy to melt a piece of wire two or three feet long.
A flash of lightning and the fires that sometimes result

from one are evidences of heat obtained by the transfor-
mation of electrical potential energy into heat.
360. The transformation of potential energy of chemical
separation into heat is a familiar process to us all. Coal

and wood possess this form of energy, and when they are
burned, heat is produced. Many other chemical actions
cause this same transformation of energy. Sometimes,
however, chemical changes consume heat, changing it into
potential energy.
Can you suggest how the potential energy of a lifted weight may
be changed into heat?
BIO HEAT
361. Radiant energy transformed into heat. We have

seen that radiant energy consists of wave motion in the
ether. We
say that heat comes to the earth from the
sun, but strictly speaking it is not heat that comes from
the sun, because on the way it is radiant energy. It may
have been heat before it started, and after it reaches us
becomes heat again, because the waves impart their energy
to the molecules of the matter which they penetrate.
This transformation of radiant energy into heat we have
learned to call absorption ( 256).
IV. THE STEAM ENGINE

Transformation of heat into other forms of energy.
362.
The changing of heat into other forms of energy, the
converse of what we have been studying, is not only
possible,but is of very common occurrence. However, it
isnot possible to reverse the process completely. Other
forms of energy are easily transformed entirely into heat ;
but not possible to convert all of a given quantity of

it is
heat back again into the other forms of energy. We say,

for example, that the sun or a stove emits heat. In reality
its molecules set up waves in the ether, sending them out-
ward. This is a transformation of heat into radiant
energy, and such bodies do not emit heat, but radiant
energy which becomes heat again by absorption.
Again, the steam engine, the gasoline engine, the gas
engine, and the hot-air engine are machines for converting
the energy of heat into mechanical energy. The proof of
this is that we furnish such machines with heat energy and
they give us in return mechanical energy, running auto-

mobiles, railway trains, and all kinds of machinery for us.
363. The heat engine or hot-air engine transforms heat
into mechanical energy by the alternate heating and cool-
THE STEAM ENGINE 311
ing of an inclosed body of air. Figure 210 represents one

form of such an engine. O is a hollow cylinder in which
there are two pistons, A and B. A isthe working piston
and fits the cylinder closely. It is attached to the lever
D, and by moving
back and forth in
the cylinder turns
the fly wheel E.
The piston B,
called the displacer
piston, fits loosely

in the cylinder,
and by moving
back and forth
crowds the air
alternatelyfrom
one end of the
cylinder to the
other. The
cylin-
der is
kept cool at
the top either by FIG. 210. Diagram of a hot-air engine.
air or water cir-
culating around it, and at the bottom it is kept hot by

a fire placed beneath it. The piston B is one quarter
stroke ahead of J., so that when it is at the end of its
stroke, A is at the middle of its stroke. The heat at

the lower end expands the air in the cylinder and the
piston A
is pushed up, and B
moves down, crowding the
upper end, where it cools and contracts. This
air into the
reduces the pressure in the cylinder, and is pushed A
down by the pressure of the outside atmosphere. then B
moves up, crowding the air again into the lower end of the
cylinder, where it is heated arid the operations are re-
peated. Such engines are used where small power is
312 HEAT
required and little attention can be given to an engine in

operation.
364. The steam engine is a machine for converting the
heat energy in steam into the energy of mechanical motion.
FIG. 211. Diagram of a steam engine seen from the side.
The boiler,although necessary to the operation of the

engine, isnot a part of it. Its most essential parts are the
cylinder (Figs. 211, 212), in which a tight-fitting piston
FIG. 212. Diagram of a steam engine seen from above.
P moves back and forth, and a steam chest or valve chest

B, from which the steam enters the cylinder through the
openings (7 and E
called ports-, which are closed and
opened by the slide valve V-

The
steam, which enters the steam chest from the boiler
through A, is represented as going through the port C
between the piston head D and the piston and pushing the
piston toward the right, and the steam used in the pre-
ceding stroke is going out through the port E
and escaping
through the exhaust pipe F, either into the air or into a
vacuum chamber called a condenser.
Before the piston reaches the end of its stroke, the valve
V begins to move toward the left and closes the port G\
and by the time P
completes its stroke toward the right,
the valve has moved so far to the left that the portE is
open to the steam chest B, and the port is in communi-
cation with the exhaust F. Steam now enters through E,

pushing P
back toward the left, and the exhaust steam
through 0. The piston is thus driven back and forth in

the cylinder by the steam which is admitted alternately to
its opposite sides.
The motionof the piston P is communicated to the
main shaft S by the piston rod R and the connecting rod
which is attached to the crank M, and is changed into
rotary motion in the same way as is the motion of the
treadle of a sewing machine. The valve Fîs moved back
and forth by the eccentric rod r and the eccentric which is
mounted on the main shaft S. On the shaft are one or two
heavy fly ivheels the momentum of which serves to give
steadiness of motion to the main shaft, and also to carry
the crank past the dead points or the positions the crank
isin when the piston is at the end of either stroke.
365. The compound engine. In some engines the
steam, after leaving the cylinder, enters a second larger
cylinder, where it acts on another piston in the same way
as before and does more work by expanding into a larger
volume. Such an engine with two or more cylinders is
called a compound engine. Those with three cylinders
314 HEAT
are called triple expansion engines and those with four

cylinders quadruple expansion engines. In such engines
each successive cylinder must be larger in diameter than
the preceding one.
366. Efficiency of an engine. In 399 we shall learn
that when a gas expands and
does work, it cools it-
self, the energy for doing the work being furnished by
its own heat. It is on this principle that the steam
engine operates. The steam as it leaves the engine is

cooler than when it entered because it has done work.
To get the greatest possible amount of work from steam
itmust enter the engine as hot as possible and leave it as
cold as possible. The practical limits for these two tem-
peratures set the limit for the efficiency of an ideally
perfect engine. Such an engine could utilize scarcely

more than 30 % energy contained in the coal used.
of the
The very best engines utilize hardly more than 15% of
the coal consumed, and many engines have an efficiency
of only 5 % or even less. The steam engine at its best is
very wasteful of energy.

367. The gas engine. A mixture of air and coal gas,
or air and gasoline vapor, is explosive. In gas engines
and gasoline engines such a mixture is introduced into
the cylinder and exploded by an electric spark. The
explosion generates heat which raises the resulting gases
to a high temperature, and they expand and force the
piston along. The return stroke of the piston expels the

exploded gases, the second stroke allows a new charge of
mixed gases to enter the cylinder, the second return
stroke compresses them, and then they are exploded by
another spark. Only one side of the piston rs acted
upon. Thus in an engine with a single cylinder the
piston is acted on only once in two revolutions of the
shaft,
Turbine engines.
368. En-
gines which have a piston mov-
ing backhand forth are called
reciprocating engines. In such
engines much energy is wasted
in stopping and starting the
piston, which often weighs
several hundred pounds, at the
end of each stroke. At the
present day the steam turbine,
in which the steam produces
rotary motion directly, is being

introduced. In December, 1905, FIG. 213. Diagram illustrating
the Carmania, the first Atlantic the action of steam in a tur-
liner to be fitted with turbine

bine engine. M, blades on
revolving drum ; S, stationary
engines, began to make regular blades.
trips across the ocean.

The turbine
consists of a
drum (Figs. 213,
214) whose outer
surface is covered
with a large num-

ber of curved
blades or paddles.
Jets of steam,
striking these
blades, cause the
drum or shaft to
revolve. In one
form of the steam
turbine the inte-
FIG. 214.
rior surface of the
Simple turbine engine, showing a jet of
steam striking the blades. inclosing case is
316 HEAT
also covered with blades, which alternate with those on

the drum,and the steam, rebounding between these
stationary blades on the casing and the blades on the
revolving drum, is used over and over again in its passage
from one end of the drum to the other. At the end of
the drum where the steam enters the blades are smaller
than at the other end, and the steam expands on its way
through, doing work at the expense of its own heat.
Steam turbines are as efficient as the best reciprocating
engines, occupy less space, and run more quietly and
with less jarring.
V. MEASUREMENT OF HEAT
369. Measurement of heat. Heat is a thing that can
be measured as definitely as a length or an area. We
have learned how to measure temperature and know that
it is measured in degrees, but temperature and heat are
two very different things this is proved by the fact that

;
a pound of water, for example, contains much more heat

than a pound of mercury, although both are at exactly the
same temperature.
To measure heat a unit of heat is necessary. Different
units are in use, but for scientific purposes the calorie is
selected. A
calorie is the amount of heat necessary ,to
warm one gram of water 1 C. This, sometimes called the
gram calorie, is the unit that will be used in this book.
In engineering in this country and Great Britain the
unit used is t he amount of heat necessary to warm one pound
of water 1 F. This unit is known as the British Thermal
Unit and is designated by the letters B.T.U. Sometimes
the kilogram calorie is used in engineering ;
it is the
quantity of heat necessary to warm 1 kg. of water 1 C.

Tt is one thousand times as great as the gram calorie.
MEASUREMENT OF HEAT 317
370. The mechanical equivalent of heat. Since heat is
energy and since it is transformable into mechanical

energy and mechanical energy is transformable into heat,
it follows that a definite quantity of one must be equal to a
definite quantity of the other. The amount of mechanical

energy to which a unit of heat is equal, is called the
mechanical equivalent of heat. James Prescott Joule of
Manchester, England, after a memorable series of experi-
ments extending over several years, concluded, in 1849, that
one B.T.U. of heat was equivalent to 772 foot pounds of
mechanical energy. In later years the subject was
reviewed by Professor Rowland and others with the result
that the mechanical equivalent of heat is now given as
4.187 joules one gram calorie of heat. 4.187
of^workfor
joulds
= 41,870,000 ergs or .427 kilogramme ter of work.
This value makes one kilogram calorie equivalent to
427 kilogrammeters and one B.T.U. to 778 foot pounds
of work.
Problems
1. If the energy of a 10-lb. mass moving at the rate of 100 ft. per
second is all converted into heat, how much heat is produced ?
Ans. 2 B.T.U.
2. How much produced when a bullet weighing 15 g. and
heat is
"
having a velocity of 600 m. per second strikes a target?

Ans. 6^5 calories, nearly.
3. When a street car weighing 4 tons and going at the rate of 1'2
mi. per hour is stopped by the brakes, how much heat is produced?
4. A pound when burned produces about 14,500
of pure carbon
B.T.U's. of heat. How much
water could be pumped from a river
into a reservoir 100 ft. above it by a steam engine if all the heat
energy of half a ton of coal could be used to do the work without

any waste whatever, siipposing the coal to be pure carbon?
5. If the amount of water pumped were 1,400,000 gallons, an
engineer would consider that the work had been done quite satisfac-
torily. How efficiently has the energy of the coal been converted into
the work desired to be done ?
318 HEAT
6. If the food you eat at one meal would, when burned, produce
500 B.T.U.'s of heat, and if the body were able to convert all of the
chemical potential energy of this food into mechanical energy and use
it all in climbing the stairs of Washington monument (500 ft.), how
many times could you climb the stairs, your weight being 125 lb.?
Am. Over 6 times.
7. What transformations of energy occur when a bullet is fired
from a gun ?
8. At Niagara the water falls 160 ft. How much warmer should
the water at the foot of the cataract be than at the top ?
371. The specific heat of a substance is the ratio of the

amount of heat necessary to warm any mass of that sub-
stance one degree to the amount required to warm an
equal mass of water one degree.
For example, it requires 0.113 times as much heat to
warm a pound of iron 1C. as it does to warm a pound of
water 1C. or 0.113 times as much heat to warm a ton of
;
iron 1F. as it does to warm a ton of water 1F. or 0.113 ;
times as much heat to warm a gram of iron 1C. as it does

to warm a gram of water 1 C. Hence, by the definition,
0.113 is the specific heat of iron.
The specific heat of a substance is numerically equal to
the number of gram calories necessary to warm a gram of that
substance 1 C. The specific heat of water, which is 1, is
much larger than that of most substances. Because of its
comparatively large specific heat water requires a relatively
large amount of heat to warm it, and in cooling it gives
out a relatively large amount of heat. This fact explains
the great influence of large bodies of water upon the cli-
mate of a country, also why a hot- water bag is better than
a hot brick in sickness. The amount of heat that will
warm one pound of water one degree will warm over thirty
pounds of either lead, gold, or mercury one degree.
372. Thermal capacity. Experience teaches us that it
requires more heat to warm a large mass than a small one,
and we have seen that some substances require more heat

to warm them than others.
The amount of heat necessary to warm any body one
degree called the thermal capacity of that body.
is The
thermal capacity of a body is obtained by multiplying its
mass by its specific heat. For example, the thermal capac-
ity of a mass of iron weighing 1500 g. is 1500 x 0.113 =
169.5 calories.
The quantity of heat lost by a body in cooling, or gained
by it in being warmed, equals its mass x its specific heat x

its change of temperature.
Problems
1. If it requires 18 calories to warm a stone 3 C., what is the
thermal capacity of the stone ?
2. How many degrees will 450 calories warm a body whose ther-
mal capacity is 15 calories ?
3. How much heat will a body whose thermal capacity is 180
calories lose in cooling from 36 C. to 20 C. ?
4. The thermal capacity of a mass of lead of 80 g. is 2.40 calories.
What is the specific heat of lead ? Solve by using definition of specific
heat.
5. It requires 10.7 B.T.U's of heat to warm 25 Ib. of aluminum

2 F. What is the specific heat of aluminum ?
6. It requires 10.7 calories to warm 5 g. of aluminum 10 C. What

is the specific heat of aluminum ?
7. How much heat is needed to warm 80 g. of mercury 4 C., the
specific heat of mercury being 0.033?
8. A mass of lead of 480 g. was cooled from 96 C. to 16 C. How
much heat did it give out, its specific heat being 0.03 ?
9. The mass of abody x its specific heat is sometimes called its
water equivalent. Explain why.

10. A copper ball weighing 300 g. and having a temperature of
99 C. in a liquid which it warmed to 20 C., the ball itself
was placed
being cooled to 20 C. How
much heat did the ball impart to the
liquid, the specific heat of copper being 0.093?
820 HKAT
11. In the last problem, what was the temperature of the liquid
before the ball was placed in it, if its mass was 400 g. and its specific
heat was 0.60?

12. The thermal capacity of a mass of lead is 408 calories and its
mass is 13.6 kg. What is the specific heat of lead?
373. How to determine specific heat. If a known mass

of copper, for example, at a known temperature, as 100 C.,
is placed in a known mass of cold water at a given temper-
ature, the water will be warmed up to a certain temperature

and the copper cooled down to the same temperature. The
copper gives heat to the water and, provided no heat is ;
lost to outside bodies, the amount the water receives is equal

to the amount the copper loses. The amount the water
receives = its mass x its specific heat x its change of temper-
ature; the quantity of heat lost by the copper = its mass x
its specific heat x its
change of temperature. These two
quantities are placed equal to each other, and the value of
the specific heat of the copper, the unknown quantity, is
determined from the equation formed. This method of
procedure is called the method of mixtures.
In practice, the cup holding the water, called a calorim-
eter,receives some of the heat from the copper, and this
must be considered. The cup is warmed the same number
of degrees as the water it holds, and the amount of heat it
receives = its mass x its specific heat x its change of temper-
ature. The quantity of heat the copper loses is then
placed equal to the sum of the amounts of heat gained by
the water and the cup.
The mass of the cup x its specific heat is its thermal
capacity, and represents its water equivalent. Thus, sup-
pose the cup is an iron one weighing 120 g. Its thermal
capacity is 120 x 0.113, which equals 13.56 calories; i.e.,
it requires 13.56 calories to warm the cup 1 C. ;

but 13.56
calories would warm 13.56 g. of water 1 C. Therefore,
13.56 grams is the water equivalent of the cup because

itrequires just as much heat to warm the cup 1 C. as it
does to warm 13.56 grams of water 1 C.
TABLE OF SPECIFIC HEATS

Aluminum 22 Iron . . . 113
Brass 094 Lead . .' . . . . . . .031
Copper . . . . -. . * .093 Mercury . . . . . . . .033

Gold ... . . . . . .032 Silver . . . . . . . . .056
Ice . . . .5 Zinc .... . '. . . .094
Air at constant pressure 24

Hydrogen at constant pressure 3.40
Steam at constant pressure ....... .5 nearly
Problems
1. A mass of copper s weighing 200 g. was heated to 99 C. and
dropped into a copper cup holding 400 g. of water at 19.5 C. The

cup and water were warmed to 23 C. and the copper mass cooled to
the same temperature. The cup weighed 100 g. Find the specific
heat of copper and the water equivalent of the cup.
Let s the specific heat of copper.
The heat lost by the copper = 200 x s x (99 - 23).
The heat gained by the water = 400 x 1 x (23 - 19.5).
The heat gained by the cup = 100 x s x (23 - 19.5).
200 x s= 400 x
(99-23) 1 x (23 - 19.5) + 100 x s x (23 - 19.5).
= .094. s
Water equivalent = 100 x .094 = 9.4 g.

2. 80 g. of iron at 99 C. placed in 300 g. of water at 21.8 C. raised
its temperature to 24 C. The cup used was the one mentioned in the
last problem. Find the specific heat of iron.
The water equivalent of the cup is 9.4 g., hence the water and the
cup together are equivalent to 300 + 9.4 = 309.4 g. of water.
Heat gained by water and cup = 309.4 x 2.2.
Heat lost by the iron = 80 x s x 75.
80 x s x 75 = 309.4 x 2.2.
s = .113.
3. A weighed 240 g. Its temperature was 99.2 C. A

copper ball
copper cup weighing 150 g. contained 480 g. of water at 18 C. The
ADAMS'S PHTS. 21
322 HEAT
ball was placed in the cup of water, and the resulting temperature of
cup, water, and ball was found to be 21.5 C. What is the specific
heat of copper ? A ns. 0.0927.
4. 4 oz. of iron tacks at 99 C. were placed in 1 Ib. of water at
16 C. with a resulting temperature of 18.2 C. Neglecting the calo-
rimeter, calculate the specific heat of iron.
5. 120 g. of shot at 100 C. were placed in 486
g. of water at 18 C.,
the water being in the calorimeter mentioned in problem No. 3. The
resulting temperature was 18.6 C. Calculate the specific heat of lead
of which the shot are made.
VI. TRANSMISSION OF HEAT

374. Three methods of transmitting heat. Heat is
transmitted from one place to another in three different
ways: by conduction, convection, and radiation. In general
there is bodies to become of equal
a tendency for all
temperature. In any room all bodies are receiving heat
from one another, but the warmer ones give heat faster
than they receive it, and the cooler ones receive more than
they give, until the equalization of temperature is complete.
When this equality is reached, the exchange of heat
continues, but each receives the same amount it gives out.

375. Conduction is the transmission of heat in matter
by invisible molecular motion, the molecules passing their
motion along from one to another within the body thus, ;
if one end of an iron rod is heated in the fire, the heat

passes through the rod to the other end by conduction.
Conduction is a slow process. In general, solids are better
conductors than liquids, and liquids than gases.
376. Conduction in solids. Solids differ among them-
selves in their conductivity of heat. Metals are the best
conductors ;
and organic substances, such as wood, paper,
and cloth, are
poor conductors. Of the
metals, silver is
the best and copper ranks next. A
short piece of glass
tubing may be held in the fingers without discomfort while
TRANSMISSION OF HEAT 323
one end of it is being melted in a flame, but a metal rod
under similar conditions soon becomes too hot to hold.

Experiment. Twist the ends of a copper and an iron wire of the
same and support them with the junction of the two
size together
wires in a Bunseri flame (Fig. 215). After a few moments move a sul-
phur match along each
wire toward the flame
until a point is reached
where the wire is hot
enough to
ignite it.
This point will be found
on the copper wire
farther from the flame
than on the iron wire.
This shows that copper
FIG. 21o.
is a
than iron.
better conductor in conductivity of iron copper^
Apparatus for showing the difference
.
Experiment. Prepare a cylinder, half brass and half wood, and

wrap a sheet of paper around it
(Fig. 216). Hold this in a Bunsen
flame. The paper next to the wood
will soon char, while that in contact
with the metal will not be injured.
This is explained by the fact that the
metal conducts the heat away so
rapidly that the paper is kept com-
paratively cool, whereas the paper
covering the wood soon becomes hot
because the wood is a poor conductor.
377.Conduction in liquids. -
Liquids, with the exception of
FIG.
G. zio.
21t>. for snow-
Apparatus lor i -i. .
i
ing the difference in conduc- mercury and molten metals, are

tivity of brass and wood. very poor conductors of heat.
Experiment. full of water and hold it obliquely by
Fill a test tube
the lower end in the Bunsen flame. The water in the top of the tube
may be boiled, while that at the bottom is not perceptibly warmed.
The tube should be constantly turned in the fingers during the process
to prevent the breaking of that part of the tube not in contact with
the water.
324 HEAT
Experiment. Surround the bulb of an air thermometer with a

funnel (Fig. 217) or a bottle whose bottom has been removed, and fill
the funnel with water so the bulb
of the thermometer is covered to
the depth of about 0.5 cm. Pour
a spoonful or two of ether upon
the water and set fire to it. The
water such a poor conductor
is
that it transmit very little

will
heat of the burning ether to the
thermometer. If the finger is
pressed upon the bulb as soon as

the ether ceases to burn, it will
probably have more effect upon
the motion of the liquid in the
stem of the thermometer than
the burning ether did.
378. Conduction in gases.

Gases are such poor con-
ductors of heat that it has
been stated that they do
FIG. 217.
water is
Apparatus for showing that
a poor conductor of heat. & , ,,
n Conduct it at all. This, m .
however, is not true but it ;
is not easy to prove it because convection and radiation

interfere with the experiment. That they are extremely
poor conductors is made evident in many interesting ways.
Drops of water rolling about upon a red-hot stove cover
are said to be in the spheroidal state. The reason why
the water is not evaporated almost instantly by the intense
heat is because the drop is supported on a cushion of its
own vapor which is such a poor conductor that the heat of
the stove does not readily reach it.
Experiment. Heat a copper ball red-hot and plunge it into a basin

of warm water. The disturbance and spluttering will not be violent,
not nearly so great as when the ball is not so hot. The hot ball is in-
stantly surrounded by a layer of steam, and it is not cooled very quickly
because the steam is a poor conductor of heat.
Tyndall, in his Heat as a Mode of Motion, speaks of

freezing water and also mercury in a red-hot crucible. A
hot flatiron is often tested by touching it with a moistened
finger without burning the finger. Such things are possi-
ble because a gas or vapor is a very poor conductor of heat.
The finger is protected from the heat of the iron by the
vapor developed, and the water and mercury are protected
from the heat of the crucible by the vapor of the solid
carbon dioxide used in freezing them.
Powdered substances and porous materials, such as saw-
dust and charcoal, and such substances as wool, fur, down,
and feathers, are poor conductors of heat largely because
of the presence in them of interstices filled with air.
379. Convection. The transfer of heat from one place
to another by the movement of heated masses of matter is
called convection. According to this definition, heat is
transferredby convection when one carries a pail of hot
water from one room to another but this is not the most
;
common meaning of the term. When any portion of a

fluid is heated, it expands and becomes less dense than the
cooler parts, which, acted on by gravity, sink and crowd the
warmer parts upward. Currents of air or water established
in this way are called convection currents. They may be
observed in a beaker of water having solid particles in
suspension w^hen it is being heated over a flame. It is in
this largely that the heat of a stove is distributed
way
through a room, and convection currents are depended
upon to carry the air up the flues of houses warmed by hot-
air furnaces and to cause the draft of a stove or chimney.
Experiment. Remove the bottom from a bottle and fit it with a

glass tube bent in the form shown in Figure 218. Fill
stopper and a the
bottle and tube with water and support it on a stand. The tube may
be filled by placing a rubber tube over one end of it and drawing the
water into it by suction. Place some fine shreds of asbestos paperm
326 HEAT
the water and then apply heat to the tube as shown in the figure. The
convection current in the tube going in the direction of the arrow heads
will at once be evident from the movement of the asbestos shreds
carried along by the water, and the
water in the bottle, beginning at the
top, will soon become hot. This ex-
periment illustrates how the water in
the kitchen water tank heated, a
is
pipe extending from the bottom of the

tank to the stove or furnace and re-
turning to it again at the top or side.
The heating of houses by hot watei
is an illustration of convection. The
cold water, because of its greater
density, falls through the pipes to
the heater in the basement, and the
hot water is thus forced up into the
radiators of the rooms above.
Nature furnishes many illus-
trations of convection on a
FIG. 218. Apparatus to show
convection in water. large scale. Winds, such as
land and sea breezes and the
trade winds, are true convection currents and such ocean ;.
currents as the Gulf Stream carry enormous quantities of

heat from the equatorial regions to colder latitudes.
380. Ventilation. Convection currents are largely de-
pended upon for the ventilation of houses. The strength
of a draft up a flue depends on the difference in weight
between the heated gases within it and that of an equal
column of air outside. The force with which such currents
move, however, is never very great, and they are easily
interfered with in many ways. The higher the chimney
and the hotter the gases within it, the stronger the draft.
Many large buildings are now heated and ventilated by

currents of air forced through the flues by blowers or fans
driven mechanically.
Experiment. Fit a wide-mouthed glass jar with a cork through

which two glass tubes about 20 cm. long and 2 cm. in diameter
extend. These tubes should terminate at the same level within the
jar. Pass a stiff wire through the cork at such a place that by turn-
ing it about it can support a candle underneath either tube. First
light the candle and place it away from the mouths of the tubes, and
insert the cork in the jar. The candle will soon go out although
both tubes are open. Again, clear the jar of impure air, turn the
candle so that it shall be at the mouth of one of the tubes and place
it in the jar, closing the jar with the cork. It will continue to burn
brightly. To make the convection currents apparent, hold a piece

of burning touch paper over the tubes. 1
381. Radiation, or the transmission of energy by waves

in the ether, has already been discussed ( 254). When
we speak of radiation as one of the methods of trans-
ferring heat, we must remember that the energy is
transmitted as radiant energy and not as heat. As has

already been said, the energy before it starts from the
heated body is in the form of heat, and becomes heat again
on being absorbed by another body, but on the way it is
not heat. Waves emitted by a dark object, such as a hot
flatiron for example, although too long to affect the eye,
are of the same nature as those we call light and obey the
same laws such waves were formerly called "radiant heat."
;
382. Laws
of radiation. (1) Radiation travels in
straight lines with a velocity of about 186,000 miles per
second.
(2) The intensity of heat received from a body by radi-

ation varies inversely as the square of the distance from the
source.
"(3) Radiation is reflected from a

surface so that the
angle of reflection equal isangle of incidence.
to the
(4) The rate at which a body radiates heat varies with its
This paper is made by soaking blotting paper in a strong solution of
1
sodium or potassium nitrate, and drying it. It burns without a flame,

giving off a dense smoke.
328 HEAT
temperature, and depends upon the polish of its surface and

the nature of its material. The body emitting radiant
energy is called a radiator. In general, polished metallic

surfaces are poor radiators and rough surfaces are good
radiators. Lampblack is the best radiator.
(5) The rate at which a body cools by radiation is roughly
to the excess of its temperature above the sur-
proportional
rounding medium. This is known as Newton's law of
cooling.
Experiment. Place two large concave mirrors several feet apart

and facing each other. Place a candle at the principal focus of one of
them, and then adjust them so that the light from the candle being
reflected in a parallel beam from the first mirror will strike the second
mirror and be reflected upon a card at its principal focus. After the
of an air
position of the mirrors has been adjusted, place the bulb
thermometer at the focus of one of them, and a hot iron ball at the
focus of the other. The thermometer will at once give evidence of
being heated. This experiment illustrates both the first and the third
law of radiation, and shows that the long invisible waves from the
dark iron travel in the same way as the short ones of the candle.
Experiment. Prepare two air thermometers of the same size,
smoking the bulbs of each, and place them about 15 cm. apart.
Smoke one side of a nickel-plated cup or a bright tin can and fill it
with hot water. Place the cup on a stand between the two thermom-
eters with its bright side toward one of them and the smoked side
toward the other. The action of the thermometers will show that the
side of the cup covered with lampblack radiates heat much more
rapidly than the bright polished side.
383. Absorption. As we have seen ( 256), ether

waves which penetrate a body may pass through it with
little interference, or they may be destroyed within the
body. In the latter case the molecules of the body, which

are as itwere entangled in the ether, take the energy from
the waves and are made to move more rapidly, the body
becoming warmer ; thus radiant energy is transformed into
heat, the process being called absorption.
Different substances differ very greatly in their capacity

for absorption, but the absorbing power of a body equals
its radiating power, so that good radiators are good absorb-
ers. Good reflectors, however, are poor radiators and poor

absorbers. These
facts are expressed by KirchhojjFs law :
Every body radiates those waves which it is
capable of ab-
sorbing, and inr the same proportion.
Experiment. Make two parallel saw cuts in a board about 15 cm.

apart and support in them two pieces of bright tin about 12 cm. square.
Cover the inner surface of one of the pieces with'lampblack by smoking
it in a candle flame and attach by wax a bullet to the center of the
outer surface of each square. Place a hot iron ball midway between
the two squares. The wax on the outer surface of the blackened tin
will soon melt bullet drop, but the other bullet will remain
and the
unaffected. On
touching the tins with the finger, the blackened one
will be found hot enough to burn the finger, while the other will still
be cool. This experiment shows that the lampblack is a good ab-
sorber, but that the bright tin surface, while a
good reflector, isa poor absorber.
384. The radiometer is an instrument

invented by Sir William Crookes in 1875.
It consists of a glass bulb (Fig. 219)
from which all but a small part of the
air has been exhausted. Within the
bulb there a little wheel having four
is
arms or spokes, which revolves on a ver-

tical axis. At the end of each arm is a
small square vane of mica blackened on
one side and silvered or polished on the
other, the vanes being so arranged that
the blackened side of one faces the bright
J ^
side of the next one. When the instru-
ment placed in sunlight or near a hot body, the wheel
is
revolves, the blackened sides of the vanes moving

away from the source of radiation. When it is placed
330 HEAT
near a cold body, the rotation is in the opposite

direction.
The action of this instrument
is explained by the fact
that the blackened surface of the vane absorbs more

energy than the bright one and becomes warmer hence, ;
the molecules coming in contact with the blackened surface

bound off from it with a greater velocity than those from
the bright side. As each molecule bounds away from the
surface it gives the vane a push in the opposite direction
(third law of motion). This would not cause motion, how-

ever, if much air were present, because the rebounding
molecules would come into collision almost instantly with
other molecules and communicate a pressure through them
around to the polished side of the vane but when rela- ;
tively few molecules are present, they bound off from the
vanes in straight lines with comparatively little interference
from one another. When the radiometer is placed near
a cold body, the blackened surface of the vane becomes
cooler than the bright side because it radiates faster;
hence the rotation is in the opposite direction.
In recent years the radiometer, as modified by Professor
Nichols of Columbia University, has become one of the
most sensitive of instruments for detecting and measuring
radiation.
385. Selective absorption. Bodies which absorb waves
of lengths while permitting others which are
certain
longer or shorter to pass through them are said to have

the power of selective absorptio^. Lampblack, which ab-
sorbs waves of all lengths at all comparable with light
waves about equally, does not exhibit this power but ;
water and common glass do, because they are more or less
opaque to long waves coming from bodies of comparatively
low temperature, while they transmit or are transparent
to shorter waves such as those contained in sunlight. This
CHANGE OF STATE 331
fact explains why the glass of a greenhouse retains the heat

radiated by steam pipes or the earth, while at the same
time it allows the heat of the sun almost free passage.
Experiment. Bring the light of the sun or of the lantern to a

focus by a large lens. Test the heat at the focus by the hand, also by
an air thermometer or a radiometer. Then place a flat bottle full of
clear water between' the lens and the focus and again test the heat at
the focus. In the place the heat at the focus will be quite intense,
first
but in the second case very little heat will be perceived. Again, fill a
bottle with a dark solution of iodine in carbon bisulphide and place it
between the lens and the focus. The heat at the focus will be found
nearly as intense as in the first case, although little light passes
through. The water transmits the light waves but not the longer so-
called " heat waves" and the iodine solution does the reverse of this.
Itis thought
by some that the water will be made more opaque to the
heat waves by dissolving alum in it but this is erroneous.
;
Although the color of a body is closely related to its power of ab-

sorption, yet contrary to the prevalent belief, the color of clothing has
little to do with its warmth.
VII. CHANGE OF STATE

386. Changes of state, as from a solid to a liquid or
liquid to a gas, are always associated with thermal changes

which cause many interesting phenomena, and the prin-
ciples involved find many practical applications in the
daily life of all.
387.
Melting or fusion. The change of a solid to a
liquid by means of heat is called melting or fusion, and
the temperature at which it occurs is termed the melting
point of a substance.
Many substances do not have a well-defined melting
point because they begin to soften as they approach the
liquid form and pass gradually into that state. It is this
plastic condition preceding liquefaction which permits

sealing wax and
glass to be molded and wrought iron to
be welded.
382 HEAT
A crystalline substance, like ice, has a sharply defined

melting point and does not soften upon approaching it.
It is for this reason that cast iron, which is crystalline,
cannot be worked and welded by a blacksmith.
Freezing, the converse of melting, is the changing of a
liquid to a solid by the abstraction of heat. By custom
we term with water and liquids that solidify
associate the
at low temperatures, but it also properly applies to solidi-
fication at high temperatures. For instance, iron freezes
at about 1500 C.
The temperature at which a substance freezes is the
same as that at which it melts. A mixture of ice and
water has a temperature of C. Some of the ice may
be melted by the addition of heat to the mixture, or
some of the water may be frozen by the withdrawal of heat
from it but the temperature of the mixture remains at
;
during either process. Water freezes and ice melts at C.

388. Change of volume at freezing. It is well known
that water when it freezes expands with great force. The
bursting of water pipes in winter -is sufficient proof of this.

Such metals bismuth and antimony, which are markedly
as
expand on solidifying.
crystalline, also
Usually, however, a substance contracts when it solidi-
fies and expands when it melts. This may be illustrated
by melting paraffin in a test tube. After it is partly
melted, the unmelted portion sinks to the bottom instead
of rising to the surface as ice does. This shows that the
solid paraffin is denser than the liquid and that it expands
on melting.
A change of pressure has a slight influence on the melt-
ing point of a substance. If a substance expands on
freezing, increased pressure lowers the melting point

because it hinders the expansion; otherwise the melting
point is raised by increase of pressure.
CHANGE OF STATE 333
Experiment. Let a fine wire be passed over a cake of ice and a

heavy weight be attached to it (Fig. 220). In an hour or so the wire
will melt its way through the
ice, but the cake will be un-

broken. This happens be-
cause the ice melts under the
wire on account of the in-
creased pressure; but it im-
mediately freezes again above
the wire where the pressure is
restored to its normal amount.
389. Heat of fusion.

A large amount of heat
= Experiment showing that ice
always disappears when
FIG. 220.
melted by pressure freezes again when
a solid is melted. We the pressure is removed.
know, for example, that
heat must be given to ice to melt it and yet, as it melts,
;
it changes from ice at to water at 0. The heat that

is added to it does not make it any warmer.
The same amount of heat, however, is always produced

when a liquid freezes as disappears when the solid melts.
The heat that disappears when a
solid melts, or reappears
when theliquid solidifies, is catted heat of fusion. It is
commonly called latent heat, but it is really not heat at all
after it becomes
latent, because the heat energy in melting
a body used in doing interior work among its molecules
is
in pulling them apart in opposition to molecular forces,
being transformed thereby into potential energy within

the body. The kinetic energy of heat is changed into a
form of potential energy.
The common method of freezing cream is a proof of this.
When ice and salt are placed together, a mixture is formed
which is naturally a liquid at C. The ice accordingly
melts and the salt dissolves and the solution becomes very
cold, because the ice and the salt use up their own heat
334 HEAT
energy in the change of state. A mixture of 33 parts by

weight of salt and 100 parts of ice produces a temperature
of -21.3C.
Water is sometimes placed in cellars to keep the vege-
tables from freezing; it does this because, as it itself
gives out heat, potential energy in the water

freezes, it
becoming heat energy when the water solidifies.
390. The undercooling of water. If a bottle of boiled
water is placed outside on a still cold night, it may be
found in the morning unfrozen although several degrees
below freezing point. When it is disturbed, it suddenly
freezes and its temperature rises at once to C.
The phenomenon may be illustrated by placing a test tube which

contains some pure water free from air in a free/ing mixture,
such as salt and ice. The test tube should be closed with a stopper
through which a thermometer extends into the water. The water
may be cooled to 5 C. without freezing it, but when the tube is
shaken vigorously, the water suddenly turns to ice and its temperature
at once rises to 0. This shows that freezing is a warming process.
A similar experiment may be made with acetic acid.
Experiment. Fill a six-inch ignition tube (a test tube is not quite
safe) about half full with pure glacial acetic acid, and close the tube
with a stopper through which a thermometer extends into the acid.
Melt the acid, if it is not already a liquid, by setting the tube in some
water, at about 30 its melting point is about 15.
;
Then place the
tube in some water and cool the acid down nearly to 0. If now
ice
the inside of the tube is gently tapped with the lower end of the
thermometer, a crystal will form and the whole mass solidify, the tem-
perature rising quickly to the melting point of the acid.
391. Measurement of heat of fusion of ice. This may

be done by the "method of mixtures." A quantity of
warm water is weighed and its temperature taken. Then
small lumps of ice are added to the water and the mixture
stirred till the ice is all melted, when the temperature is
again taken. The mass of the ice added is found by

CHANGE OF STATE 335
weighing the mixture and subtracting from this the mass

of the water previously determined.
The warm water is cooled by the ice and the amount of
heat it gives out equals its mass x its change of temper-
ature. All of the heat, however, taken from the water is
not used in melting the ice some of it is used in raising
;
the temperature of the ice water made from the melted ice
from C. up to the final temperature of the mixture.
The latter amount, which equals the mass of the ice x the
change of temperature, is subtracted from the heat given
out by the warm water and the remainder is the amount
of heat used in melting the ice. Dividing this remainder
by the number of grams of ice melted gives the number
of calories of heat required to melt one gram of ice.
The heatof fusion of ice, called the latent heat of water,
is 80 calories per gram. This means that it requires 80
times as much heat to melt a gram of ice as it does to
warm a gram of water 1 C., or eighty times as much heat to
melt a ton of ice as it does to warm a ton of water 1 C.
The fact that the heat of fusion of ice is so large explains
why the freezing of large bodies of water retards the

coming of winter and the thawing of large quantities of
ice and snow retards warm weather in spring. If it were
not large, the snows on the hills and mountains would
melt so rapidly on a warm spring day that enormously de-
structive freshets would result.
Problems
1. 50 were added to 400 g. of water at 20 C. When the

g. of ice
ice was all melted the temperature of the water was 8.9 C. What is
the heat of fusion of the ice ?
2. 40 g. of ice were added to 487 g. of water contained in an alumi-
num cup (specific heat .215) weighing 60 g. The temperature of the
water and the cup was at first 24 C. and after the ice was all melted,
;
it was 16.3 C. What is the latent heat of water ?

336 HEAT
3. If 10 Ib. of water at C. should freeze in a cellar which con-
tains 3000 cu. ft. of air, how much would the air be warmed, the
specific heat of air being .24 and the weight of 1 cu.
ft. of air being
.OSlbs.? Ans. Nearly 14 C.

4. How much would the air of a room 12' x 20' x 8' be cooled by
the melting of 5 Ib. of ice in it? Ans. 10.8 C.
5. How much heat is required to change 60 g. of ice at 20 C. to

water at 70 C., the specific heat of ice being .5 ?
Ans. 9600 calories.
6. A
refrigerator contained 40 cu. ft. of air.
- When the ice was
placed in it, the temperature was 85 F. After three hours 1 Ib. of

water had collected in the drip-pan underneath. What was the tem-
perature in the refrigerator, provided the walls of the refrigerator and
the outside air had contributed to it in this time 105.6 B.T.U's of
heat? Ans. 35 F.
No TE . The heat of fusion of ice on the basis of the Fahrenheit
degree is f of 80, or 144.
7. 20 g. of ice were placed in 360 g. of water at 30 C. What was

the temperature of the water after the ice was all melted ?
8. ISOg.of ice were placed in 1200 g. of water at 19 C. What was
the temperature of the water after the ice had melted, provided the
water equivalent of the pitcher containing it was 75 calories and the
water took up from the air while the ice was melting 96 calories of
heat ?
9. How many cubic feet of air would be cooled 1 C. by the melting

of 10 tons of snow ? Ans. 83,333,333 } cu. ft.
10. What is the thermal capacity of 1 cu. ft. of air in B.T.U's ?
in calories ?
392.Cold by solution. Another method of changing a

solid into a liquid is that of dissolving it in a liquid. Heat
is also usually transformed in this process as well as in the
process of fusion and for the same reason, because heat

energy is changed into potential energy. When sugar
or common salt, for example, is dissolved in water, the
water is cooled by the operation.
Experiment. Make a mixture of pulverized ammonium nitrate

and ammonium chloride, about 3 parts by weight of the former to 1 of
CHANGE OF STATE 337
the latter. Place about half a tumbler full of this mixture in a tumbler
two thirds full of ice water. Stir the solution with a small test tube
full of water; the water in the tube will soon be frozen. Test the
solution with a thermometer. Its temperature will be found to be
about 10 C. Observe the outside of the tumbler and account for
the frost found upon it.
393. Vaporization, or the change from the liquid to the

gaseous state, comprises evaporation and ebullition or boil-
ing. Evaporation is vaporization that occurs at the surface
of the liquid, slowly, quietly, and through a wide range of
temperature. Ebullition, or boiling,
is vaporization that
occurs within a liquid, rapidly, with disturbance, and at

some definite temperature. The disturbance is caused by
the forming of bubbles of vapor within the liquid and their
rising to the surface. Boiling cannot begin until a temper-
ature is reached which will give to the vapor formed an
elastic tension equal to the pressure upon the liquid.
A sometimes evaporates, passing directly from the
solid
solid state to the gaseous state. Such vaporization is
called sublimation. Ice, for instance, evaporates or sub-
limes even in the coldest weather, and camphor and iodine
sublime quite rapidly at ordinary temperatures.
394. Laws of ebullition. -
(1) Every liquid has its own boiling point, which is in-
variable for that liquid under the same conditions.
(2) The boiling point of a liquid is raised by salts and

lowered by gases dissolved in it.
The presence of some foreign particles in a liquid seems
to be necessary as a starting point for the formation of a
bubble of vapor. The presence of dissolved air greatly
aids the beginning of ebullition. When the liquid is very
pure and all air particles are removed, it may be heated
above its ordinary boiling point, and when the bubbles do
form, they form explosively, and the liquid is said to bump.
ADAMS'S PHYS. 22
338 HEAT
Rough points on the surface of the containing vessel have

the same influence as the foreign particles.
(3) An increase of pressure raises the boiling point of
a liquid and a decrease of pressure lowers it.
395. Pressure and the boiling point. Water boils at
100 C. when the barometric pressure is 7(3 cm., but it may
be boiled at any temperature between 100 and 0, if the
pressure is sufficiently reduced. Water boils under a
pressure of two atmospheres at 120.6 C. For pressures
not differing greatly from 76 cm., the boiling point of
water may be calculated by the method given in 343.
Since atmospheric pressure decreases with elevation
above sea level, the boiling point is lowered as the elevation
increases. Mr. Tyndall, at one time, found the boiling
point of water on the summit of Mt. Blanc to be 184.95 F.
or about 85 C. The change in the boiling point is roughly
1 C. for a change in elevation of 295 meters or 968 feet.
On this basis, the calculated boiling point at the summit of
Mt. Blanc (15,779 ft.) would be 182.7 F., and at the
summit of Pike's Peak (14,147* ft.) 185.7 F. or 85.4 C.
At such elevations many cooking operations are impossible
in open vessels.
An application of the principle that boiling occurs at
lower temperatures under diminished pressure is found in
the vacuum pan which sugar syrup is evaporated at

in
temperatures below that at which it chars or burns. Milk

is also boiled down or condensed in a vacuum chamber at
a temperature of about 90 F.
Experiment. Fill a round-bottomed flask half full of water and

boil vigorously upon a sand bath. While the water is boiling, close
it
the flask air-tight with a solid rubber stopper, removing it at once from
the sand bath. If closed in this way, the space above the water in the
flask will contain very little air, the steam having expelled it; but it
will be filled with invisible water vapor. Invert the flask and support
CHANGE OF STATE 339
it in a triangle of wire placed over a battery jar (Fig. 221). pour Xow
ice water over the flask or rub the bottom of it with a lump of ice, and
the water will begin to boil again vigorously. The boiling may be
continued in this \vay for
several minutes or until
the temperature of the
water in the flask is as low
as 10 C. Take the tem-
perature of the water after
the boiling has been con-
tinued as long as possible.
The water boils because
the cold water or ice
diminishes the elastic ten-
sion of the water vapor in
the flask, the pressure on
the water being thereby
diminished. It is the
heat still left in the
water, however, that boils FIG. 221. Franklin's experiment. Warm
yk water in the flask boils when the pressure
is reduced by means of ice water.
396. Heat of vapor-

ization. Whenever a liquid changes into the gaseous
state, a large amount of heat disappears and conversely, ;
when a vapor is condensed into a liquid, a large amount

of heat is produced. The heat that disappears when a
liquid vaporizes, or reappears when a gas liquefies, is
called the heat of vaporization. It was formerly and is
still called latent heat; but although called heat, it is
really not heat after it becomes latent, because the heat
energy in vaporizing the liquid is used in doing interior

work among its molecules and is transformed into a form
of potential energy. This same potential energy is changed
back again into heat when the vapor liquefies.
The latent heat of steam is very large, 536 calories being
required to change one gram of water at 100 C. to steam

at 100 C.; that is, 536 times as much heat is required to
340 HEAT
vaporize any mass of water as is required to warm the

same mass of water 1 C.
Problem. 10 g. ofsteam at 100 were added to 500 g. of water at

20, increasing its temperature to 32.1. What is the latent heat
of steam?
SOLUTION. The heat produced by the condensation of the steam

plus the heat given up by it after condensation in cooling from 100 to
32.1 equals the heat the water receives. Let L = the latent heat of
1 g. of steam. Then, 10 L + 10 x (100 - 32.1) = 500 x (32.1 - 20).
Ans. L = 537.1.
Cold by vaporization.
397. There are many interesting
phenomena illustrating the fact that vaporization is a cool-
ing or heat-destroying process. few drops of ether on A

the bulb of an air thermometer evaporate rapidly and
quickly cool the thermometer.
If a few drops of cold water are placed on a board under
a watch crystal which is filled with ether, and the ether
evaporated rapidly by fanning it, the water under the
crystal may be frozen.
Experiment. Place side by side a porous battery cup and a tin cup
of the same shape and size and fill them with water of the same
temperature. After a time the water in the porous jar will be found
to be a few degrees colder than that in the tin cup. This is caused by
the rapid evaporation of the water which passes through the pores of
the cup to its outer surface.
The evaporation of perspiration keeps the temperature

of the body down, and the temperature of a person suffer-
ing with fever is often reduced by sponging the patient
with alcohol and allowing it to evaporate.
398. Boiling a cooling process. Since vaporization is a
cooling process, boiling, which is rapid vaporization, is a
rapid cooling process. This is shown by the fact that

after water begins to boil, its temperature ceases to rise, no
matter how hot the fire may be. Heat is continually added
CHANGE OF STATE 841
to the water, but the boiling destroys it, transforming it
into another form of energy as fast as it is added.
Experiment. Fill two beakers of the same size with water at about
50 C. Place one of the beakers under a small receiver of an air pump
and exhaust the air. The w ater will soon boil. Boil it in this way
r
two or three minutes and then compare the temperature of the water
in the two beakers. The water that
has been boiling will be found perhaps
10 or 15 cooler than that which has
not boiled.
Experiment. Place a shallow dish
S (Fig. 222) containing concentrated
sulphuric acid upon the air-pump
plate, and over this a wire frame
supporting a tiny shallow dish D
holding about 5 cc. of ice-cold water.
Cover this with a small receiver and
FIG. 222. Experiment in which
exhaust the air. The water will boil water freezes as it boils.
and soon freeze, the water often boil-
ing under the ice formed. The acid absorbs the aqueous vapor and
the rapid vaporization of the water causes it to freeze.
NOTE. The interior of the pump must be dry or this experiment
will not succeed. The same air pump cannot be used for this experi-
ment immediately after being used for the preceding one.
399. Cold by expansion. We have learned that heat is

transformed or cold produced by melting, by solution, and
by vaporization. Cold may also be produced by the ex-
pansion of a gas. When a gas expands, it has to do work
in pushing aside the surrounding air. The energy neces-
sary to do this work is found in the gas itself in the form
of heat. This heat energy in the gas, when this work is
done, is transformed into mechanical energy, and thus the
gas is cooled.
There are many interesting examples of this action.
This principle is used in making liquid air, which requires
a very low temperature. The air is first very greatly com-
342 HEAT
pressed. Daring the compression the air becomes very

warm because work is done upon it. After it is again
cooled, it is allowed to
escape through a small
opening, and it is cooled
so much by its own
expansion that some of
it is liquefied (Fig.
223).
Air under a pressure
of nearly 300 pounds
per square inch is used
to operate the brakes of
street cars. jet of A
this air striking a motor-
FIG. 223. Apparatus of Dewa.r for liquefy- man's wet glove will
ing gases. A is a cylinder containing freeze it almost in-
the gas under high pressure B is a ;
Dewar flask containing a freezing mix- Stantly.

ture such as solid carbonic dioxide and At the first stroke of
ether; C is a second flask containing
an air pump, a slight
some liquid which is made to evaporate
rapidly, e.g. ethylene or liquid air; D is cloud is often seen in

a third flask. Coils bring the
gas the this is
receiver;
through B, C, and D, aud it is allowed
to escape through a fine opening, G,
caused by the cold pro-
whose size is regulated by the rod F. duced by the sudden
As the gas escapes, it is draw.n out
expansion of the air.
through the opening E, so that as it
rises it cools the coils in the tube D. A cloud of condensed
vapor is the same
for
reason often seen at the mouth of a pop bottle when it is
opened.
Experiment. Place a few cubic centimeters of alcohol in a large

bottle of clear glass and close the bottle with a rubber stopper having
two holes through it. Connect the bottle by a rubber tube to a bicycle
pump. Close the other hole in the stopper with the finger and then
force some air into the bottle with the pump.
CHANGE OF STATE 343
When the air is allowed to escape suddenly from the bottle, it is

cooled by its own expansion to such a degree that the vapor of alcohol
in the bottle is condensed to a fog or mist.
The heat produced by compression is also made evident by forcing
air again into the bottle. The fog at once disappears.
One can compress the air in the bottle by the lungs sufficiently to
produce the same effects.
400. The manufacture of ice depends on the principles

just explained. Ammonia gas or carbon dioxide gas is
condensed into a liquid by means of a powerful pump

(Fig. 224) driven by steam or other power. The ammonia,
which is heated by this compression (Why?), is cooled by
Brine Pump
FIG. 224. Diagram of an ice-making plant.
passing through pipes over which cold water flows. This

liquid ammonia is now allowed to vaporize and expand
by passing through an expansion valve R. V. into A in
which there is a lower pressure. Intense cold' is thus
produced in this pipe, which is surrounded with brine,
the latter being cooled below the freezing point of water.
The water to be frozen is placed in vessels which are set
in this cold brine. This brine is also used for refrigerat-
ing purposes in cold-storage buildings by being circulated
through pipes in the building. The ammonia gas after
expansion passes again through the condensing purnp and
is thus used over and over again. The pump serves not
344 HEAT
only to condense the ammonia in the condensing coils,

but also to exhaust the gas from the evaporating coils.
A pressure of about 10 atmospheres is required to liquefy
the ammonia.
401. Saturated vapor. A small amount of water or
other liquid may be introduced into the Torricellian vac-
uum of a barometer tube by means of a medicine dropper
placed under the end of it. By tapping the tube the
liquid works its way up through to the top of the mercury
column, where some
of the liquid evapo-
rates and fills the
space above the mer-

cury with its invisible
vapor. This vapor
exerts an elastic teii-
sion or pressure
which forces the mer-
cury down the tube
a short distance.
The amount of this
pressure is measured
by the difference be-
tween the height of
the mercury in the
FIG. 225. Experiments illustrating the laws of tube before the liquid
pressure of saturated vapor; a small amount
of water is introduced above the mercury in
introduced and
a barometer tube. the height after it is
introduced (Fig.
225). At 20
C. this pressure is 17.5 mm. of mercury for
water vapor and 44 mm. for alcohol.
We know that when a true gas is crowded into a
smaller and smaller volume, it exerts a greater and
greater elastic tension or pressure outward with a vapor ;
CHANGE OF STATE 345
it quite different.
is When a vapor is compressed its
pressure may increase for a time, but for a given tem-
perature a limit is soon reached beyond which the pressure

cannot increase. If the vapor is further compressed,
some of it condenses into a liquid. Such a vapor is called
a saturated vapor and its pressure the saturation pressure
or vapor tension, because no more of the vapor can exist
in a given "space at the given temperature. When a
saturated vapor is either cooled or compressed, some of
it must change to a liquid.
Thespace above the mercury in the tube contains
saturated water vapor; if this space is made smaller by
thrusting the tube deeper into the cistern or by inclining
it, the pressure does not change but the vapor condenses.
At 10 the saturation pressure for water or aqueous vapor

is 9.2 mm..; at 30, 31.5 ; and at 100, 760.
402. Aqueous vapor in air. A cubic meter of space can
contain 12.7 g. of saturated water vapor at 15 C. The
presence of air in the space does not change the amount of
vapor that can exist in that space. A cubic meter of space

can hold 12.7 g. of aqueous vapor at 15 whether it is filled
with air at the same time or not. It is customary to say
that the air contains the vapor ; really the space contains
both the air and the vapor mixed together. The air does
have, however, a great influence upon the rapidity with
which a liquid may vaporize and fill a given space. The
presence of air greatly retards the evaporation.
Humidity and dew-point.
403. Humidity is a term re-
lating to the quantity of aqueous vapor in the air. Abso-
lute humidity means the actual quantity of aqueous vapor
present in a unit volume of space relative humidity is the

;
ratio of the amount of vapor present to the amount that

would be present if it were saturated. For example, sup-
pose a cubic meter of which at 20 C. can hold 17.1 g.
air,
346 HEAT
of water vapor, contains only 4.3 g ; the relative humidity

is 4.3-f- 17.1 =
.25 or 25%. If the air contains 4 g. of
vapor humidity high or low ? is the air

per cu. m., is the
dry or not That depends on the relative humidity, which,
?
in turn, depends on the temperature. If the temperature
is35 C., the air is very dry, because at that temperature

itcould contain about 40 g., the relative humidity being
(4 -f- 40) 10% but if the temperature is 3 the air is
;
moist, the relative humidity being (4 -f- 6) 66 J%, since a

cubic meter of air at 3 C. can hold 6 g. of aqueous vapor.
The dew-point that temperature at which the relative
is
humidity 100%,is or
it is the temperature of saturation.
If the temperature falls below that point, some of the vapor

in the air must condense. If this condensation occurs in
the air above the ground, a fog or cloud is formed ;
if upon the surface of the ground, dew is formed ;

and if
the condensation takes place below the freezing point of
water frost is formed.
A hot day becomes oppressive if the relative humidity
is high, because the vapor tension, being near the satura-
tion point, prevents free evaporation from our bodies.
Problems
1. If 15 g. of steam at 100 are added to 400 g. of water at 12,

what is the resulting temperature ? Ans. 34.6 C.
2. How much heat will be required to change 2 Kg. of water at 10

to steam at 100 ?
3. An aluminum cup (sp. heat .21) weighing 80 g. contained

483.2 g. of water at 18. 16 g. of steam at 100 being added to this,
its temperature became 37. Calculate the latent heat of steam.
4. HOW much steam is necessary to melt 7.95 g. of ice ?
5. steam condenses in a radiator and imparts its heat to

If 2 Ib. of
the air of a room 15 x 12 x 7 ft., how many degrees C. will the air be
warmed? (l,cu. ft. of air weighs .08 Ib. Sp. heat of air is .24.)
CHANGE OF STATE 347
6. How much heat is necessary to change 50 g. of ice at to

steam at 100 V Ans. 35,800 calories.
7. What is the boiling point of water when the barometer stands
at 74.5 cm.? 73.8 cm.? 76.5cm.? 70.7 cm.? 68.2 cm.? 73.3 cm.?
8. water boils at 98.1, what is the barometric pressure?
If
9.Water boiled in a closed vessel at 103. What was the pressure

of the steam formed?
10. Find the error of a thermometer which gives the boiling point
of water as 98.5 when the barometer stands at 75 cm.
11. IfKg. of coal in burning yields 7500 kilogram calories of heat,
1
how many kilograms of ice at can be melted and raised to a tem-

perature of 15 by burning 5 Kg. of coal ?
12. How many Kg. of water at 15 can be changed to steam at 100
by the heat produced by burning 10 Kg. of coal ?
13. g. of steam at 100 were passed into a 500-g. mixture of ice

100
and water at 0. The final temperature of the mixture was 60.
How much ice was there in the mixture at first ?
14. How much water at 16 could be boiled away, pressure being

70 cm., by the heat of 100 Kg. of coal, if no heat were wasted ?
Saturated air at 5, 8, 14, 18, 23, 26, and 28 contains re-

15.
spectively 6.8, 8.2, 12.0, 15.2, 20.4, 24.1, and 27.0 g. of water vapor per
cu. m. Find the relative humidity for each of the above temperatures
except 5 when the absolute humidity is 8.2 g. per cu. m. What is
the dew-point? What would be the state of affairs if the tempera-
ture of the air fell to 5?
16. How much heat is evolved in changing 10 g. of steam at 125
C. to ice at -15C.?
17. What is the volume of a gas at 77 C. and pressure of 74 cm.
which has a volume of 370 cc. at 7 C. and pressure of 70 cm. ?
18. How much heat is developed by stopping a mass of 20.95 Kg.
having a velocity of 2 Km. per second?

19. If 14 Ib. of water are warmed 50 F; by 1 oz. of coal, what is
the value of 1 Ib. of coal in B.T.U.'s ?
20. What is the thermal capacity of 5 Ib. of iron in B.T.U.'s?

What is the thermal capacity of 5 g. of iron in gram calories?
21. If 5 kilogram calories are changed into mechanical energy,
how far could a man weighing 61 Kg. be lifted by it? *%
35 meters.
348 HEAT
22. How many B.T.U's of heat would be generated by stopping a
cannon ball weighing 100 Ib. and having a velocity of 2000 ft. per
second ?
23. If the volume of a gas at 87 C. and pressure of 72 cm. is 150
cc., at what temperature will its volume be 180 cc., the pressure being
50 cm. ?
24. An aluminum cup weighing 50 g. held 421.5 g. of water at

36 C. 90 g. of ice were melted in it and cooled it to 16 C. What is
the heat of fusion of ice ?
25. A block of copper weighing 15 Kg. was placed upon a block of
iron weighing 21 Kg. The temperature of the copper was GO and
that of the iron 10 at first. What was the resulting temperature if
no heat was lost to other bodies ?

26. 15 g. of steam at 100 were added to 444 g. of water at 10 C.
and warmed it to 30 C. The water was in an aluminum cup weigh-
ing 50 g. Find latent heat of steam.
27. At what pressure does water boil at 97 C. ?
28. What is the boiling point of water when the barometer stands
at 80 cm. ?
29. If a 500-g. ball of copper at a temperature of 300 C. is dropped

into 800 g. of water at 15 C., what is the resulting temperature ?
30. How much snow at 10 C. could be melted by the heat pro-

duced by burning 50 Ib. of such coal as that mentioned in problem 4,
page 317 ?
"
31. Why can you " see your breath on a cold day?
32. How many pounds of water at 15 C. will be required to con-
dense 20 pounds of steam into water at 100 C. ?
33. Explain the statement, "the relative humidity is 75%."

34. If the of water actually present in the air remains
amount
constant but the temperature is raised, how is the relative humidity
altered, if at all?
CHAPTER V
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
404. Electricity is a word familiar to all; but what

electricity really is, is unknown. Yet much is known about
electricity ; electrical quantities can be measured with
great exactness, there are many laws and principles relat-
ing to it definitely established, and it can be controlled
and used to a great degree.
For convenience we may divide this branch of science
into three parts Electrostatics, which treats of electricity
:
at rest Magnetism and Current Electricity.

; ;
PART I. ELECTROSTATICS
I. ELECTRICAL CHARGES
405. Electrical force. Experiment. Suspend a pith ball by a silk
thread from a glass tube and
rub a diy glass rod with silk
and bring it near the pith
ball. The rod will at first
attract the ball, but after the
latter has been in contact
with the rod it will be re-
pelled (Fig. 226). The glass

rod will act in the same way
upon bits of paper and other
light objects placed upon the
table.
The force which the FIG. 226. elec-

Apparatus for illustrating
rod exerts is called an trical force.
349
350 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
electrical force and the body exerting the force is said to

be electrified.
406. Electricity. A
metal ball or cylinder, as (Fig. B
227), supported upon a glass stem S will be found to be
electrified after it has been in contact with the electrified
glass rod, and it will repel the pith ball

after the latter has been in contact with
the rod.
The opinion prevails that the electrical
force acts between the particles of an agent,
either in or upon the body, known as elec-
tricity. In accordance with this belief we

FIG. 227.- An in-
mav sav that the electrified body is loaded
ductor. or charged with electricity, and that the
glass rod imparted some of its charge to the
body B and to the pith ball when it touched them.

407. Conductors and insulators. If a charged body B
(Fig. 227) touched

is with a rod of sealing wax or with
paraffin, it still remains electrified or charged; but if it
is touched with a metal rod held in the hand, it loses its
charge. ^The former bodies are called non-conductors or

good insulators because the charge does not pass from the
electrified body through them, but the metal rod is called
a good conductor. Metals, carbon, and solutions of some
salts and acids are good conductors. Moist earth and the
human body are also conductors. Among the best insu-
lators are paraffin, silk, sealing wax, dry glass, porcelain,
mica, shellac, hard rubber, gutta-percha, and air either dry
or moist.
A
metallic body, as B
(Fig. 227), upon an insulating
support such as glass or hard rubber is called an insulated
conductor. A conductor can be electrified only when it is
insulated or surrounded on all sides by a non-conductor.
408. Two kinds of electricity. A rod of sealing wax

ELECTRICAL CHARGES 351
rubbed with dry flannel will serve for the preceding ex-
periments as well as the glass rod and silk, for it will act
in the same way; but a pith ball which has been charged
by being in contact with the glass rod and is repelled by

it is attracted by the electrified sealing wax.
Experiment. Tie a silk cord around the center of a glass rod so

that it will balance horizontally when suspended and cement the cord
to the glass so that it will

not slip out of place. Sus-
pend the rod by the cord (Fig.
228) and electrify one end of
it
by rubbing it with silk.
Bring near to this another
rod and also
electrified glass
FlG **- Gla <*
"
by a silk
a rod of sealing wax rubbed
rodûspended
with flannel. There will be
repulsion between the two glass rods, but attraction between the
glass rod and the sealing wax.
Experiments show that all electrified bodies will behave

toward the electrified glass rod either as the second glass
rod does or as the rod of sealing wax does. Hence, there
are two kinds of electricity, called positive and negative.
Electricity like that on glass when rubbed with silk is

termed positive; and electricity like that on sealing wax
when rubbed with flannel, negative.
The above experiment illustrates the following funda-
mental law Êlectricities of the same kind repel each other,
:
and those of the opposite kind attract each other.

409. Two small metal balls are
Electrical influence.
charged equally, one positively and the other negatively,

if they act with equal and contrary electric force
upon
a small electrified body at the same distance from each of
them. Two such bodies, one charged with + e and the
other with e, are found to be unelectrified after being
brought in contact with each other; that is, equal positive

and negative quantities of electricity neutralize each other.

Likewise we may regard the atoms of a body which is un-
electrified as charged equally with + e, and e. If an atom

loses some of its negative electricity, it is then positively
electrified ; or if it loses some of its positive electricity, it is
negatively electrified. Thus the electrical condition of a
body determined by that of the atoms which compose it.

is
Let a negatively electrified rod of sealing wax C (Fig.

229) be brought near to an insulated conductor AB. Ac-
cording to the above discussion we may
think of eacli point of the conductor as
having both + e and e at the same
time. The + e will be attracted by the

sealing wax and the e will be repelled
by it. The positive electricity of the

conductor will therefore move toward
FIG. 229. Diagram A and the negative toward B, and AB
illustrating eiectri- will be electrified positively at A and
cal influence. .
W
If the sealing wax is
,' .. , i
negatively at B.
removed, the separated electricities reunite and the con-
ductor is again unelectrified. It is said to have been elec-
trified by influence or induction under the action of the
electrified sealing wax placed near it, and the two elec-
tricities are sometimes called influence-
electricities. Electrical influence is often
called electrostatic induction.
410. The electroscope is an instrument for
detecting electrical charges and for determin-
ing the kind of charge upon a body. The
most common form, the gold-leaf electroscope,
consists of a metal rod (Fig. 280) which has
Electroscope.
a ball or a disk at the top and which extends
through an insulating cap or stopper into a flask. The
rod has suspended from its lower end two leaves of gold
ELECTRICAL CHARGES 353
or aluminum foil which ordinarily hang down side by

side by their own
weight. If a charge, either positive
or negative, is given to the electroscope, the leaves stand

apart as shown in the figure. This divergence of the
leaves is caused by repulsion between them because
both are charged with the same kind of electricity.
A proof plane (Fig. 231) is often used to convey small
amounts of electricity from a charged body to an electro-
scope. It consists of a small metal disk with
a handle of sealing wax or other insulating
material.
411. To test the kind of a charge upon a body.
charge the electroscope with some of
First,
the unknown electricity. This may be done
by touching the electrified body with the disk
of the proof plane and then placing the disk
upon the knob of the electroscope. Then trans-

'
fer the electroscope by the proof plane a
to
charge of a known kind, either from a glass plane.

rod or a rod of sealing wax. If the unknown
charge is like the known charge

used, the leaves will
diverge farther than at first, but if they are of opposite
kinds the leaves will collapse. Or, first give the electro-
scope a charge of a known kind and then bring the body
to be tested near the electroscope. As it approaches it
will act by electrical influence, repelling the charge in
the electroscope, if it is like itself, into the leaves and
causing greater divergence ; but

if the charges are oppo-
site in
kind, charge the the electroscope will be
in
attracted from the leaves to the knob and the leaves
will collapse. To illustrate this, transfer a small charge
from an electrified glass rod to the electroscope and then
bring near it in turn the electrified glass rod and a rod
of sealing wax rubbed with flannel.
ADAMS'S PHYS. 23
II. INDUCED CHARGES

412. Charging a body by influence. Experiment. Place the in-
sulated conductors A and B (Fig. 232) in contact or connect
them by
laying a wire across them. (Two
eggshells covered with aluminum
paint and supported on blocks of
paraffin may be used, for this and
similar experiments.) Bring near
to one of them an electrified glass
rod which will act upon them Uy
influence or induction as described
in 409. While the rod is still
FIG. 232. Charging by induction
or influence. present, separate the two conductors
or remove the wire by means of an
insulating handle (the wire and conductors must not

be touched by
the fingers) and then remove the rod.
Since A and B are disconnected while under the influence of the
rod, there is no opportunity for the two electricities to unite after
thejod is removed, and hence both

A
arid B remain charged as represented
in Figure 233. If the rod is of sealing
wax and negative, A will be positive

and B negative.
The charges on A and B may be
testedby the electroscope. If A and
B are brought together veryJ carefully, _
FIG. 233. Conductors with op-
. .
/ .
a spark which may be heard by the

poslte cnarges .
whole class will pass between them
just before they touch. The charges on A and B are evidently equal
because they exactly neutralize each other. When two opposite
charges are neutralized in this way, the bodies holding the charges
are said to be discharged.
413. To charge the by influence, place an

electroscope
electrified glass rod near the knob and while it is there
touch the knob with the finger. Remove first the finger
and then the glass rod. The electroscope will then be
negatively charged. In this case the electroscope answers
to A in the preceding experiment, the arm and body play
INDUCED CHARGES 355
the part of the wire, the positive electricity being repelled

through the body to the floor or the earth, which takes the
part of B.
414. The dielectric. The charged body which exerts
the electrical influence must be separated from the con-
ductor upon which it acts by an insulating substance,
the air in the above experiments. The name dielectric is
given to an insulator which, while preventing the passage
of electricity to the conductor, permits electrical influence
to act through itself. Substances differ in their dielectric
properties, paraffin, for example, being 2.3 times as good
a dielectric as air.
415. Opposite charges always produced. If the silk used
to electrify a glass rod is tested, it will be found to be
negatively charged and the flannel used upon sealing wax,

;
positively charged. In fact experiments have proved that

one kind of charge is never produced tvithout the production
of the opposite kind at the same time, and further that the
two charges are always equal.
The following experiment will illustrate the above law,
the charges being produced by friction :
Experiment. Cement a stick of sealing wax for an insulating

handle to the center of a piece of plate glass about 10 cm. across
(Fig. 234), and attach a similar handle
to a plate of hard rubber of the same
size.
First make sure that neither plate is
charged. If they are charged, the charge

can be removed by passing them rapidly FIG. 234. Apparatus for show-
in S that charges are opposite
through a Bunsen flame. Place the two
plates together, face to face, and rub
one with the other, and then test each separately by bringing it near
the electroscope which has a small charge of positive electricity. One
will be found charged positively, the other negatively. Place the plates
together again and bring them near the electroscope no effect will be
;
produced. Thus the two charges are shown to be equal. They may
also be shown to be equal by placing the plates one on each side of

the knob of the electroscope, opposite to each other, and equally dis-
tant from it, when they will not change the divergence of the leaves.
416. Faraday's ice-pail experiment. Place a tall,
narrow metallic cup upon an insulating support and

connect it by a wire
(Fig. 235) to an elec-
troscope. Charge a
metal ball suspended
by a silk thread posi-
tively and lower it
into the cup, not al-
lowing it to touch the

FIG. 235. Faraday's ice-pail experiment.
cup. It will act by
electrical influence on the cup as shown in the figure.
Remove the ball, and the leaves of the electroscope col-
lapse because the two influence-electricities are equal.
Place the ball again in the cup, note the divergence of the
leaves, and then allow the ball to touch the cup. No change
in the divergence occurs. This shows that the negative
influence-electricity on the inside of the cup is just equal
to the positive on the ball, and consequently that on the
ball was equal to the positive charge on the outside of the
cup. The ball when taken from the cup is now found to
be without a charge.
Again, discharge the electroscope and cup, and lower the
ball, charged positively, into the cup touch the cup with
;
the finger, and the leaves collapse. Remove first the finger
and then the ball, and the leaves diverge again just as
much cup and electroscope now being nega-
as before, the
tive. If the ball now touches
the cup, the change upon it
will exactly neutralize this charge, again showing the in-
duced negative charge to be equal to the inducing positive
charge on the ball.
INDUCED CHARGES 357
417. The electrophorus is an instrument for obtaining

electrical charges by electrical influence. It consists of a
smooth disk of resin or vul-
canite, the cake A (Fig. 236)
upon a metal base, or sole, C,
and a metal disk, or cover, B,
with an insulating handle H.
To use the instrument, the A,
cake is first electrified nega-
tively
J by
J rubbing it with cat's
. FIG. 236. Electrophorus.
fur ; the cover
then placedis
upon it and touched for an instant with the finger, when

on being lifted by the handle it will be found positively
charged. If the knuckle is presented to it, a spark may
be drawn from it possibly a centimeter long, and the cover
is discharged. The cover may in this way be charged
and discharged an indefinite number of times without any
renewal of the charge on the cake.
Its action may be explained thus since the cover :
touches the cake, which is non-conducting, in a few points

only, the charge of the cake is not removed by it. The
two are separated by a very thin layer of air, a dielectric,
and the cover is electrified by influence, -f- on the lower
face and on the upper. When it is touched by the
finger, the negative influence-electricity passes to the
earth, while the positive is held or bound by the attraction
of the negative charge on the cake. When the cover is
lifted,the charge becomes free. This charge on the cover
represents a definite quantity of potential energy, which at
the discharge appears as heat. This energy is derived
from the work done in lifting the cover from the cake in
opposition to the electric attraction between them. Thus
mechanical energy is transformed into electrical potential
energy.
418. Electrical influence machines. The methods so

far described for obtaining electrical charges produce
FIG. 237. Toepler-Holtz machine.
only very small charges and do it very slowly. At first

friction machines were used to produce larger charges.
These consisted of a glass cylinder or a glass disk mounted
on an axle and turned
by a crank. Pads or
rubbers pressed upon
the disk so that when
the latter revolved it
became electrified posi-
tively by friction. This

+ e passed to a large
insulated conductor,
FIG. 238. -Diagram of the Toepler-Holtz
f orme(i a pal t o f
.
whi(jh
machine. .
the machine, by sharp

pointed combs placed very close to the revolving disk.
Such machines were not at all satisfactory, and have given
ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION 359
place to those which depend on electrical influence for

their action, doing very rapidly what is done by an
electrophorus slowly and awkwardly. The best-known

influence machines are the Holtz (1865) and the Wims-
hurst (1883). Figures 237 and 238 illustrate a modified
form of the Holtz machine. 1
III. ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION

419. An electric charge is
Electrical surface density.
not usually distributed evenly over the surface of a con-
ductor. The distribution is affected by the influence of
neighboring bodies and by the shape of the conductor
itself. Electrical density means the quantity of electricity per
unit of area of the conductor. On an egg-shaped conductor
more is found at the small end than else-
of the charge
where, and on a conductor with sharp edges or angles
the density is very much greater at those edges and
angles than on other parts of the conductor. This is

easily shown a
by touching charged conductor at different
places with the proof plane and testing the charge taken
away by it with the electroscope. It will always carry away
a larger charge from a sharp edge or point than from a
surface of less curvature. In making such tests place the
proof plane disk fla^t against the surface to be tested.
420. Action of points. At sharp points of a charged
conductor the density becomes so great and the forces
so strong that the electrical particles escape in a stream
from the point with such velocity that they impart motion
to the air about them. This gives rise to currents of
air directed from the points, which are known as the
"electrical wind."
Experiment. Cement to the middle of a needle a stick of sealing

wax for a handle. Place a positively charged body near the electro-
1
See Appendix, page 477.
scope, and hold the needle against the knob of the latter with its point
toward the charged conductor. The negative influence-electricity will
pass off at the point of the
needle to the conductor. Re-
move the needle and con-
ductor ;
the electroscope will
be found positively charged.
Repeat the experiment, hold-
ing the needle so that it
points away from the con-

ductor ;
the positive in-
fluence-electricity will now

pass off, leaving the electro-
scope negative.
FIG. 239. Flame blown by electrical wind. Experiment. Attach a
sharp-pointed wire to the
conductor of an electric machine, and while the machine is working,
hold a lighted candle in front of the point (Fig. 239). The electrical
wind will be shown by its action on the candle flame.
Experiment. Support the electrical whirl (Fig. 240) on an in-
sulated stand and connect it with the electrical machine. It rests
on a pivot at its center and will re-
volve rapidly when the machine is in
action. This is due to the reaction
(Newton's third law of motion) of
the electrical wind passing off from
the points.
421. The charge resides on the

outside of conductor. Faraday
constructed a cage large enough
for him to enter and take his in-
struments inside with him. Al- FIG. 240. Electrical whirl il-
lustrating the
discharge of
though the cage was strongly electricity from sharp points.
electrified, there was no effect on
the electroscope within, even when it was connected to
the cage by a wire. In the ice-pail experiment, after the
ball touches the cup there is no charge within the cup, and
the ball, if tested, will be found to be without any charge.
ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION 361
Experiment. Place a long brass chain in the cup, arranged as in

the ice-pail experiment ( 416), and electrify the cup. By means of a
bent pin, having a stick of sealing wax for a handle, lift some of the
chain out of the cup. As the chain is raised, the leaves of the electro-
scope gradually fall. This happens because the chain while inside
the cup has no charge upon it but when it is lifted out, it becomes a
;
part of the exterior of the conductor and shares in its charge. Lower
the chain into the cup again and the leaves diverge again as before.
422. Quantity of electricity. In order to measure elec-

tricity it is necessary to have a unit. The unit of quantity
that has been adopted is the charge which at the distance
of one centimeter in air repels an equal charge of the same
kind with the force of one dyne.
Coulomb proved (1777) that the force exerted between
two charges varies directly as their product and inversely
as the square of the distance between them, that is,
/ being the force in dynes, d the distance between them

in centimeters, and q and q the two charges.
1
Problems
1. Two equal charges of 6 units each are 3 cm. apart. What is
the force acting between them V .4ns. 4 dynes.
2. Two equal charges repel each other at a distance of 10 cm.

with a force of 64 dynes. How great are the charges ?
An*. 80 units each.
3. A charge of 20 units repels another at a distance of 8 cm. with a
force of 60 dynes. How large is the other charge ? A ns. 192 units.
IV. POTENTIAL
423. Electrical potential. A very full and exact dis-
cussion of the term potential would be out of place here,
but as we shall need to use the term, let us attempt to get
some notion of its meaning.
If a charged conductor touches another not charged,

some electricity will pass from the former to the latter;
or if two charged conductors are brought together or are
connected by a wire, electricity may pass from one to the
other. It may pass from the one having the greater
quantity of electricity upon it to the one having the less,

but often it passes from the one having the less to the one
having the greater quantity. Evidently the quantity of
electricity alone does not determine or regulate the flow
of electricity from one body to another. What does
determine it? Some comparisons will help us in answer-
ing this question.
Suppose two tanks, A and B (Fig. 241), to contain
water and to be connected by a pipe (7, the level being
higher in A than in B. When
the stopcock is opened, water
will flow from Ato B, although
A contains the greater quantity
of water. It is the difference of
what amounts to the
level or,
FIG. 241. Diagram illustrating
difference of potential by
same thing, the difference of
difference of level -or pres- pressure at the ends of the pipe
sure in water. C that determines the flow.
Again, if two gas bags are filled with compressed air
and are connected by a tube, air will flow from the bag of
higher pressure to the one of lower pressure, but if the
pressure is the same in each there will be no flow. It is
difference of pressure that determines the flow.
Or, again, when two hot bodies are in thermal connec-
tion, heat will pass from the body of higher. temperature
to the one of lower temperature, the temperature, not di-
rectly the quantity of heat in the bodies, determining

the flow of the heat.
Corresponding to pressure in the case of the water and
POTENTIAL 368
also in the case of the compressed air, and to temperature

in the case of heat, we have in electricity electric pressure,
or electric potential, to which the flow of electricity along a
conductor is ascribed.
Just as water or compressed air flows from points of
higher pressure to points of lower pressure, so we say
electricity flowsfrom points of higher to points of lower
potential; or, just as heat flows from a body of higher
temperature to one of lower temperature, so electricity
flows from a body of higher to one of lower potential.
Electric potential measures the condition of a body which
determines its power of communicating electricity to or
receiving it from other bodies.

424. Difference of potential. As in the case of water,
it isnot simply pressure, but difference of pressure, that
causes it to flow from one tank to the other, so with elec-
not potential but difference of potential (usu-
tricity, it is
ally denoted by the letters P.D.), that causes the flow.
If we wish to maintain a continuous flow of water through
(Fig. 241), we must maintain the difference of pressure

in A and B by adding water to A and taking it out of B.
Likewise, if we wish to have a continuous flow of electric-
ity through a conductor, the P.D. betweea its ends

must
be maintained; if there is no P.D., there is 110 flow. It
follows from this that all points of a conductor containing
a static charge are at the same potential.

425. Zero potential. Just as the level of the sea is
taken as the zero from which the height of mountains is
measured, so the potential of the earth is taken as the
zero from which the potential of other bodies is measured.
This can be done because the earth is so large that any
charge we can give it does not perceptibly affect its po-
tential, just as the level of the ocean is not sensibly
changed by the rain or the water from the rivers. If

364 ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.
positive electricity flows from a body to the earth, the

body is said to have a positive potential ; but if the flow
is from the earth to the body, its potential is
negative.
426. In general we say
Unit of potential difference.
that electricity flows from a higher to a lower potential ;
but just as water or air can be made to flow from a place

of lower pressure to one of higher pressure when work is
done upon it, so electricity is caused to flow

from lower to
higher potential, if energy is expended and work done upon
it. We have an illustration of this in an electric railway
system. At the power house large steam engines are
constantly at work causing the electricity to flow from
the earth to the trolley wires, maintaining them at a po-
tential about 600 units higher than that of the earth ;
when the electricity flows back again to the earth through

the car motor, it expends the energy gained at the power
house and does work in moving the car.
Difference of potential between two bodies is measured by

the work done in transferring a unit quantity of electricity
from one to the other. If the work done is one erg, then
the P.D. is one electrostatic unit of P.D. This unit is
inconveniently large, and for practical purposes a unit ^^

as large has been taken. This practical unit is called a
voltfrom Volta, an Italian physicist (1745-1827). volt A
is the P.D. existing between two bodies when -3^ of an
erg of work must be done to transfer a unit quantity of
electricity from one to the other.
427. Electrical capacity. When heat is added to a
body, temperature rises

its but, because bodies differ in
;
their thermal capacity, it takes different quantities of heat

to raise their temperature 1. So also when +e is added
to a body, its potential is raised, the potential rising as
long as the charge is increased. Different conductors,

however, vary in the quantity of electricity required to
ELECTRICAL CONDENSERS 365
raise their potential one unit. The quantity of electricity

necessary to raise the potential of a body from zero to unit
potential is termed its electrical capacity. The electrical
capacity of a body depends in part on its size ; the larger

the surface of a body, the greater its capacity.
If q is the charge on a body, v its potential, and c its
q = q
capacity, then c
= - ,
or q = <w, or v --
Problems
1. If 200 units of -f e are added to a conductor whose capacity is
25 units, how is its potential affected?

2. How much electricity will be required to raise the potential of
a body 75 units, if the capacity of the body is 30 units?
3. What is the electrical capacity of a conductor which requires 2
units of + e to raise its potential 100 units?
V. ELECTRICAL CONDENSERS
428. Condensers. Experiment. Let a metal plate, such as a sheet
of tin, .4 (Fig. 242), be suspended in a vertical position by a silk cord
and joined to an electroscope.
Charge it strongly with +e so
that the leaves of the electro-
scope diverge widely. Then let
a second metal plate B of the

same size and having a metal
handle be brought nefir A. The
plate B being held by the hand
is connected with the earth ;
it
should not be allowed to touch

FlG>242 ._ A simp i e eoudeuser.
A. As B approaches A, the di-
vergence of the electroscope leaves decreases; but when B is re-
moved, the leaves separate again as at first. This shows that the
potential ofA is lowered by the nearness of B. However, no electricity
is removed from A by the operation. Plates of glass with sheets of tin
foil pasted on them serve as well for this experiment as metal plates.
The tin foil should be a little smaller than the glass plate.
Evidently the capacity of A is greatly increased by the presence of
B because when
;
B
is near A, a much larger charge must be given
to the latter to cause the leaves to diverge as much as at first and to
give it the same potential as before. The two metal plates and the
air between them form a condenser which is defined as two conductors
separated by a dielectric.
We
have shown that the capacity of a body depends on its size,
but this experiment shows that it also depends upon the presence of
other bodies near it.
429. Action of the condenser explained. Suppose A to

have a positive charge. When B is brought near, this
+ e acts by influence through the dielectric, attracting e
to the nearer surface of B and repelling + e to the earth.
The e on B in turn attracts the + e from the leaves of
the electroscope to that surface of A nearest to B, as it

were, making more room for additional charges. The two
opposite charges attract each other through the air or
glass and are called bound charges.
430. The Leyden jar is perhaps the oldest form of con-
denser. It is a glass jar (Fig. 243), coated inside and out
about two thirds of the way up with
tin foil. A brass rod with a ball at
itstop extends through the cover of
the jar and has a brass chain hang-
ing from its lower end to connect it
with the inside coating.

Condensers used for electrical
measurements are made of many
alternate layers of tin foil and mica
or paraffined paper. Half of the
tin-foil sheets, or every other one of
them, are connected together on one
side to form one conductor, and half
FIG. 243. Leyden jar.
on the other side for the other con-
ductor. Thus two conductors of large area are formed
which are separated by a very thin dielectric.
ELECTRICAL CONDENSERS 367
Two
thunder clouds, or a cloud and the earth beneath,
with the air between them as the dielectric, often form a
condenser of huge dimensions.
431. Charging a condenser. A condenser is charged
by connecting one of its conductors with the earth and
the other with some source of electricity, as the con-
ductor of an electric machine or by connecting its two
;
conductors to the opposite terminals of an influence

machine. In this way large and even dangerous charges
may be obtained.
The discharge of a condenser is brought about by
432.
connecting its two metal surfaces by a conductor. To

discharge a Leyden jar a ,
discharger is used which

consists of a V-shaped
wire terminating in metal
balls k 1 and k2 (Fig. 244),
and having an insulated
handle H. The ball k2 is
first placed against the
outside coating, and then
the other ball k l is brought
near the ball of the jar jfiT;
FIG. 244. Discharger.
as they approach each
other, a spark will pass between them which almost
entirely discharges the jar and which is loud and bright
in proportion as the quantity of the electricity discharged
is great.
Hold a card between the two balls, and the spark will
pierce it. The jar may be discharged through the human
body or through a long row of persons, but great care
must be observed in doing this, for the shock of too large
a charge is very dangerous.
A Leyden jar may be charged so heavily that it will
discharge itself, either up over the edge of the glass, or

through the glass itself, breaking the jar.
433. Lightning and lightning rods. Franklin first
proved the identity of lightning with the electric spark by

his famous kite experiment in 1752. The kite, which had a
pointed wire at its top, was raised during a thunderstorm.

As soon as the hempen kite string became wet, electric
sparks were drawn from a key attached to it, Leyden jars

were charged, and other electric effects produced.
The lightning flash is due to the discharge of a cloud con-
denser in this case the potential of the cloud becomes so
;
enormous -that the air can no longer withstand the strain,

and a charge passes through it to the earth or to another
cloud, a spark of great length and power being produced.
Franklin also invented the lightning rod, a metallic
conductor which should terminate in sharp bright points
above the building to which it is attached and extend
down into the ground until earth always moist is reached.
Heavily charged clouds acting by induction sometimes
cause large charges to collect in the earth beneath them.
Lightning rods afford protection because they permit a
rapid and quiet discharge of electricity from their points,
and thus prevent the accumulation of a large charge in
the neighborhood of the building.
434. Heat
of the discharge. If the discharge of a
Leyden jar takes place through a very fine platinum wire,

it may heat the wire red-hot. The spark itself is due to
the high temperature to which the small quantity of air
along its path is raised. Spectrum analysis shows that
even minute particles of the metal terminals between
which the spark passes are vaporized.
The noise of the spark is caused by the sudden expansion
produced by the heat of the spark, and thunder is only the
report from a very large electrical discharge or spark.
MAGNETS 369
Experiment. Connect the outer coating of a charged Leyden jar

with a Bun sen burner. Turn on the gas and then place one ball of a
discharger, having an insulating handle, on the ball of the jar and
bring the other down near the top of the burner so that the spark
will pass through the escaping gas. The heat of the spark will ignite
the gas.
Ether may also be ignited by
passing the spark through some
of it placed in a spoon, and pow-
der may be exploded by the
spark if
placed in a hole in a
block of paraffin.
435- Magnetic effect of the dis-

charge. Experiment. Let a
piece of flexible lamp cord be
wound several times around a
piece of small glass tubing (Fig.

245), and a large sewing needle
be placed within the tube so that FlG 245 ._
Apparatus for iii ustrating
it shall be surrounded by wire. the magnetizing effect of the dis-
If the discharge of a Leyden jar charge of a Leyden jar.
is now passed through the coil,
the needle will be magnetized. Thus the discharge is proved to have

magnetic properties similar to those of current electricity, which we
shall study later.
PART II. MAGNETISM
I. MAGNETS
436. Magnetism and electricity are so intimately related
that it is probable when the true nature of one becomes
known the nature of the other will also be understood.
Magnets are especially characterized by their power of
attracting iron, and the unknown cause of this power is
called magnetism.
437. Natural magnets. It was known to the ancients
that certain black stones possessed the power of attracting
ADAMS'S PHTS. 24
to themselves small pieces of iron. These stones an iron

ore called magnetite are composed of an oxide of iron,
having the chemical composition Fe 3 O 4 They were com- .
monly found in Magnesia in Asia Minor, from the name

of which the terms magnet and magnetism are derived.
They are now found in many parts of the world.

"At a later period it was discovered that these stones
when freely suspended by a thread always placed themselves
lengthwise in a north and south and for this reason
line,
the name loadstone, or leading stone, was given to them.
438. Artificial magnets. Permanent artificial magnets
are made of hardened steel. If a piece of such steel is
stroked from end to end, always in

the same direction, by one end of
a magnet, it becomes a permanent
FIG. 246. Horse-shoe magnet. There are other methods

magnet. of stroking a of steel with
piece
magnets to magnetize it, but it can be done better by the
aid of an electric cur-
rent in a way which
we shall study later.
Artificial magnets may
be made in any desired
shape, but the two most
Common forms are the FIG. 247. - Bar magnets with armatures.
horseshoe (Fig. 246) and the bar magnets (Fig. 247). A
TV _^-^_ s thin strip of steel, usually in the
form of an elongated lozenge
(Fig. 248), supported so as to
turn freely about an axis, is
called a magnetic needle, or com-
FIG. 248. Magnet needle pass needle.
or compass. 439. Magnetic poles. The
power to attract is not distributed uniformly in a magnet,
MAGNETS 371
largely concentrated in certain parts

but it is of it, usually
in two places at opposite ends of the magnet. This con-

centration of the magnetic attraction at particular places
hi the magnetis called polarity, and these places of
greatest attraction are called poles.

A
straight line join-
of the magnet. Be-
ing the two poles is the magnetic axis
tween the two poles there is a place where the magnet has
no power of attraction at all.
Experiment. To illustrate polarity roll a piece of loadstone and

also a magnetized darning needle or any bar magnet in iron filings.
These (Fig. 249) will cling to the
magnets in bunches largest at the
poles, but diminishing in size to
zero a short distance away.
440. Polesnamed-There
are two kinds of poles in a
magnet. The following experiment will enable one to

show this and to designate the poles :
Experiment. Magnetize a darning needle and float it upon a flat

cork in a common saucer filled with water. It will come to rest
pointing north and south, and if turned out of this line will return to
it again, the same end always toward the north.
The pole of the magnet toward the north is named the

north- seeking pole, and the one toward the south, the south-
seeking pole, of the magnet, although it is customary to

speak of them simply as north and south poles.
441. Law of magnets. Like magnetic poles repel and
unlike attract. The following experiment will enable one
to prove this law :
Experiment. Magnetize two darning needles by stroking each of

them from eye to point with the same pole of a bar magnet, and then
determine the poles of each of them as in the preceding experiment.
Place one of them on the cork in the saucer, and taking the other in
the hand, present its north pole first to the north and then to the
south pole of the floating magnet. Repeat the operation, presenting

the south pole of the needle in the hand to the two poles of the float-
ing needle. It will be found that two north or two south poles will
repel each other, but that a north and a south pole will attract each
other. By means of this law the poles of a magnet are always easily
determined.
Substances classified with reference to magnetism.

442.
A
magnetic substance is one that is attracted by a
magnet and can be magnetized. Iron with its compounds
is preeminently the magnetic substance ; the metals
cobalt and nickel and a few other substances are
somewhat magnetic. Substances that are repelled by a
magnet are called diamagnetic. The two metals antimony
and bismuth are the chief diamagnetic substances, but
even with them the force of repulsion is small.
Strictly speaking, it is probable that all substances
belong to one or other of these two classes, but for all
practical purposes the vast majority of substances may
be classed as nonmagnetic, that is, neither magnetic nor
diamagnetic, because the influence of a magnet upon them,
being extremely small, is not easily detected.
443. Magnetic transparency. A magnet placed inside
of a thick shell of soft iron exerts no force outside the
shell, and is unaffected by external magnets but if it 5
is surrounded by a substance that is not magnetic, there'
is no interference with the magnetic forces, which act
through such substances with perfect freedom.

Experiment. Support a bar magnet with its south pole near the
north pole of a large compass needle. Turn the needle aside for a
moment; it will vibrate for some time, finally coming to rest. If the
bar magnet isplaced closer, the rate of vibration is faster because the
attraction is greater. Make the distance about 3 cm. Set the needle
vibrating and place a book or a board between the needle and the
magnet. The rate of vibration of the needle will not be changed by
the presence of the book. This shows that the magnetic force acts
through the book without hindrance. Try also glass, copper, and
TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 373
lastly a piece of sheet iron. Only the iron will affect the force, which
will be shown by the slower vibration of the needle as soon as the
iron is interposed.
II. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

444. The earth's
magnetism. The earth itself is a
great magnet and has magnetic poles as well as geographic
poles. These poles, however, do not coincide, the north
magnetic pole being more than a thousand miles south of
the geographic pole, in latitude about 70 and longitude
97 W. It was discovered in 1831 by Sir James Ross, and
again, 1904-05, by Dr. Amundsen itf King William Land,
not far from the earlier location.
Since unlike poles attract each other, the north
magnetic pole of the earth must be unlike the north-
seeking pole of a magnet in reality the north magnetic
;
pole of the earth is a south-seeking pole. This leads to

confusion sometimes, and for this reason the word seeking
is added to the names of the
magnetic poles.
445. Decimation. We say that a compass needle
always points north and south, but this is not true.
Indeed, the variation is often considerable. This variation
of a compass needle from a true north and south line
is and the angle between the direction
called declination,
in which the needle points at any place and the true
north and south line is the angle of declination for that
place. The direction in which the needle points
determines the magnetic meridian of the place.
446. Isogonic lines. Lines upon the earth through
places having the same angle of declination are called
isogonic lines. The agonic line is that particular isogonic
line which passes through places where the angle of
declination is zero. Along this line the compass points
exactly north and south.
In 1800 the agonic line passed near Cape Hatteras and

near the cities of Washington and Buffalo in 1900 it ;
passed near Charleston, S.C., through eastern Kentucky,

and a little west of Columbus, O., and Lansing, Mich. At
places east of this line the decimation is west, and at
places west of it the declination is east. The declination
increases with the distance from the agonic line.
The declination at any place varies slowly. At London
it has varied from 11 17' east in 1580 to 24 30' west in
1816, and it is now about 16 west.
447.
Inclination or dip. The magnetic needle (Fig.
248) turns about a vertical axis in a horizontal plane,
and is a declination needle ; but
one turning on a horizontal axis
in a vertical plane (Fig. 250) is
called a dipping needle. Such a
needle, if perfectly balanced at
itscenter of gravity, would rest

in any position before it is mag-
netize'd, but after it is magnetized
north-seeking end dips down-
its
ward in the northern hemi-

sphere and its south-seeking end
in the southern hemisphere.
The axis of a dipping needle
FIG. 250. Dipping needle. ,, , , ,
should be east and west.

The angle a dipping needle makes with the horizontal
is called the angle of inclination or dip. At the magnetic
equator of the earth the needle is horizontal, but north of
that line the angle of dip increases until at the magnetic
pole it is 90, that is, the needle is vertical.
Experiment. Pass a knitting-needle through a cork, and at

angles to this place two stout sewing needles.
rigl it Support the
needles on the edges bf two wine glasses, with the short needles east
MAGNETIC INDUCTION 375
and west. Adjust the long needle so that it will balance horizontally.
After it balanced, magnetize it, being careful not to change the
is
position of the cork. It will now rest with its north pole inclined
downward. If it is remagnetized so as to reverse the poles, the other
end of the needle will point downward.
448. Isoclinic lines are lines on the earth extending

through places of equal dip. They form magnetic lines
of latitude, but are quite irregular. The isoclinic line
of 72 runs north of the city of New York south of
Cleveland, through Chicago, and near the cities of Sioux
City, Butte, Spokane, and Vancouver.
Isometric charts of the United States, showing the isogonic,
isoclinic, and isodynamic lines, may be obtained from the United
States Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D.C.
III. MAGNETIC INDUCTION

449. Magnetic induction. When a piece of iron, such
as a nail or a tack, is placed near or against a magnet, it
becomes a magnet. This development of magnetism in a
magnetic substance by the influence of
a neighboring magnet is called magnetic
induction.
Experiment. Dip one end of a short rod of

soft iron into some iron filings. Very few, if
any, filings will cling to it. 'Again, hold one

end of the rod against a pole of a strong bar
magnet and dip the other end into the filings.
The filings will now cling to the rod, for it has '
'c
become a magnet by induction. Remove the
bar magnet and the rod loses most of its mag-
netism, and the filings drop off.
Experiment. Suspend a small nail from
one pole of a strong magnet (Fig. 251). This
nail becomes a magnet by induction, and it
will support a second nail, which in turn be-
FlG 251. _ Nails made
.
comes a magnet and may support a third nail,

magnets by induc-
and that possibly a fourth. tion.
450. Temporary and permanent magnets. If in the

first experiment of the preceding article, a rod of hard
steel, not previously magnetized, is used instead of soft
iron, it will attract less filings than the soft iron ; but
after the barmagnet is removed, it will retain some mag-
netism and attract more filings than the iron. The iron
is more susceptible to the inductive influence of the bar
magnet than the hard steel, but the purer and softer the
iron, the less magnetism will it retain. The soft iron forms
a temporary magnet, the hard steel a permanent magnet.
The iron has greater magnetic susceptibility than the
steel, but the latter has the greater retentivity, or power to
retain magnetism.
451. Magnetic induction of the earth. Experiment. Procure a

rod of very soft iron .(Swedish iron) about 50 cm. long and 2 cm.
in diameter. Hold this rod with one end pointing northward but
dipping downward about 70. While it is in this position, bring the
lower end of near a compass needle; it will repel the north end and
it
attract the south. Test the upper end of the rod and it will be
found to repel the south pole and attract the north. This will show
that the rod is magnetized, its upper end being a south pole and its
lower end a north pole. Reverse the rod and the poles in it will be
reversed, the lower end again being north and the upper end south.
The rod becomes a magnet because it is under the inductive influ-
ence of the earth's magnetism.
It may be, if the iron is not very
soft, or if it has been near a strong
magnet, that its poles will not change when it is reversed. In that
case a blow or two by a hammer will help to bring about the change.
Experiment. Test by a compass the iron end of a school desk or

seat. It will be found to be magnetized by induction by the earth,
the top being a south pole and the bottom a north pole. stove or an A
iron post will be found to be magnetized in the same way.
If we remember that the pole of the earth acting on the rod in the
northern hemisphere is a south-seeking pole, we can see that these
experiments illustrate the following principle :
The inducing pole develops a pole unlike itself in the part of the iron
nearest it and a like pole in the part most remote.
MAGNETIC FIELD 377
IV. MAGNETIC FIELD

452. Magnetic field. We have seen that a magnet
exerts a magnetic force on other magnetic bodies in its
yr - "-
a&.v .
FIG. 252. Field of a bar magnet.
neighborhood the space around the magnet, throughout

;
which this force is exerted, is called a magnetic field. At
FIG. 253. Field of two bar magnets, unlike poles adjacent,

every point in this the magnetic force has a definite

field,
magnitude and a definite direction. The direction of the

forces at the various points in the field may be represented
by lines, and hence it is thought of as pervaded by lines

called magnetic lines of force or lines of magnetic induction.
The magnitude of the force is not here represented by the
length of the lines, but rather by the number of lines in a
FIG. 254. Field of two bar magnets, like poles adjacent.
given space. An accurate and beautiful map of a mag-

netic field may be made in the following manner :
Experiment. Place a sheet of paper over a bar magnet and sift iron
filingsevenly and thinly upon the paper from a muslin bag. Then
tap the paper gently. Each filing as it falls becomes a magnet by
induction, and when the paper is tapped they arrange themselves
along the magnetic lines of force or induction. By means of blue-
print paper or other photographic paper, permanent maps of magnetic
fields are easily made. Figures 252, 253, 254, and 256 are reproduc-
tions of maps made by the blue-print process.
453. Direction of lines of force. Lines of force are to

be regarded as extending in the direction in which a free
MAGNETIC FIELD 379
north-seeking pole is urged. For example, if the north

pole of a small compass needle were at the point a
(Fig. 255), it would be repelled by N
with a force repre-
sented by the line ai
and attracted by S by
a force represented by
ae. The resultant of /
these two forces, ac, /
would be the direction /
of the line of force in jy
|
the field of the magnet

at the point a. Lines
of force leave a mag-
net at its north pole FIG. 255. Diagram illustrating the direction
of lines of force.
and, passing through
the air, enter it at its south pole, going through the magnet
from south to north.
Every line of supposed to form a complete
force is
circuit without ends always returns to itself. In

; it
Figure 253 the lines of force extend from the north

pole of one magnet to the south pole of the other.
Wherever lines of force leave a piece of iron, north
polarity manifests itself and where they enter, south
;
polarity is shown.
454. Permeability. Lines of force seem to prefer
an iron path to an air path, or it is easier for lines of
force to exist in iron than in air or any other sub-
stance. The propert}^ of iron, especially of soft iron
when placed in a magnetic field, of concentrating
and increasing the lines of force, is called permeability.
In Figure 256 observe how the lines are turned aside
-
to enterand pass through the piece of soft iron placed

between the poles of the magnets. A knowledge of the
magnetic circuit and the permeability of iron is of very
great importance in the designing and building of

electrical machinery.
JK
^mlî^^^
Sltel;
m ^^
/^Sîte^
Sgs^
FIG. 256. Field showing the permeability of soft iron, unlike poles
adjacent with a piece of soft iron between.
455. Properties of lines of force. Magnetic phenomena

are explained by supposing a tension to exist along the lines
of force combined with a force of mutual repulsion be-
tween them and at right angles to them. Whenever lines
of force in a magnetic field are distorted, they tend to
regain their original form ; hence, they are said to be

elastic. They do not cross each other nor pass each other
in opposite directions, but they tend to become parallel
and extend in the same direction.
PART III. CURRENT ELECTRICITY

I. THE VOLTAIC CELL
456. The current.
electric We
speak of a flow of
electricity along a conductor from one body to another.
For example, when a Leyden jar is discharged, the two
THE VOLTAIC CELL 381
coats are connected by a wire so that the electricities

can pass or flow from one to the other. While this is
occurring we say an electric current is flowing through the
conductor.
In all cases so far considered this current has existed
only for an instant, because the P.D., which causes the
flow, is almost instantly destroyed by the discharge. To
produce a continuous current, a P.D. must be constantly
maintained.
The agencies used to produce continuous currents
are the voltaic cell, often called a battery, and the
dynamo.
457. Current strength. This term has reference to the
quantity of electricity flowing through a conductor per
unit of time. The strength of the current, or simply the
current, is measured by a unit called the ampere. A cur-
rent has a strength of one ampere when one coulomb or
unit quantity of electricity traverses the conductor per
second. A ten-ampere current is one in which ten cou-
lombs are transferred along the conductor every second.
We express the size or strength of a stream of water in an
analogous way by saying that it carries so many cubic
feet of water per minute, but we have no special name for
one cubic foot of water per minute as we have for one
coulomb of electricity per second. Current strength will
be represented in this book by the letter I.
458. The simple voltaic cell. During the closing years
of the eighteenth century, the work of Galvani and Volta,
two Italian scientists, led to the discovery of the voltaic
cell, first described by Volta in 1800. The action of the
cellcan best be studied by the student in the laboratory,
but will be described here.
it
If two plates, one of copper and another of zinc, are
placed in dilute sulphuric acid (Fig. 257), a P.D. exists

between them and if the two plates are connected by a

;
wire, a continuous current of electricity flows through it

from the copper to the zinc. The
P.D. between the plates may be made
evident in the following manner:
The metal plates B and C (Fig. 258), about
10 cm. in diameter, being coated with shellac,
form an electrophorus. Let the zinc plate be
joined by a wii3 to C and the copper to B.
After the connecting wires are removed and
B lifted by its insulating handle, C will be
shown to be charged, and the charge may be
FIG. 257. Simple proved to be negative. The plates must be

voltaic cell. perfectly flat. If the divergence of the leaves
is too small to be observed at a distance, it
may be increased by the use of five or six dry cells in series.
When a strip of zinc is placed in the liquid, the acid
acts upon it
chemically, forming hydrogen gas, which
collects in bubbles on
the zinc and rises to
the surface of the
liquid. strip of A
copper placed in the
acid does not change
the action at all until
the two metals are
united by a wire or
are allowed to touch
each other. As soon,
however as the FiG.258. Experiment illustrating the difference
.
TI . of potential of two plates of a voltaic cell.
metallic connection
is made between them, the gas bubbles form on the copper
as well as on the zinc. The current along the wire con-
necting the plates is made evident by its effect on a
magnetic needle placed near it.
If the zinc is now amalgamated by rubbing a little
mercury over the bubbles of gas cease to form

its surface,
on its surface but they form on the copper, and the cur-
;
rent flows in 'the wire as before. The chemical action is

now apparently all on the copper but in reality it is all
;
on the zinc. This is evident, because by continued use the

zinc strip is consumed by the acid, while the copper re-
mains unchanged.
459. The any voltaic cell are illustrated by
essentials of
the one just described. Every such cell consists of two
dissimilar conducting plates in a liquid which acts chemi-
cally on one of them, some element, not necessarily

hydrogen, being deposited at the other. Two fillings, for
example, in the teeth may with the saliva form a voltaic
element and cause injurious galvanic action. Theoretically
almost any two metals may be used for the plates of a cell,
but practically zinc is invariably used for one of them and
generally carbon or copper for the other. The liquid is a
solution of some acid, salt, or base whose molecules are
capable of dissociating or dividing into two parts called
ions, which travel through the liquid, carrying electrical
charges from one plate to the other.

460. Definitions. The plates of a cell are called poles
or electrodes. The one destro} ed by the liquid (the zinc)
r
isthe negative electrode, receiving negative charges from

the liquid ; and the other is the positive electrode, receiving
positive charges from the liquid.
The direction of the flow of the positive electricity is
taken as the direction of the current, although the whole
current is the sum of the two kinds
of charges traversing
the cell and the wire. The current
flows from the positive
pole or electrode along the wire to the negative pole and
on through the liquid to the positive pole again. The
entire path of the current is called the circuit. That part
of the path within the liquid is termed the internal and the
remainder the external circuit. Interrupting the flow of
the current in any way, as by lifting the plate out of the
or opening
liquid or by cutting the wire, is called breaking
the circuit. Making the path complete by bringing the
conductors together where the circuit is broken, is termed
making or dosing the circuit.
461. Theory of the voltaic cell. According to the ac-
cepted theory, the liquid or electrolyte of the cell consists

of a substance some of whose molecules on solution divide
into two charged parts called ions, one being
electrically
positively, the other negatively charged. Let us suppose
the electrolyte to be sulphuric acid. The chemist repre-
sents a molecule of by the formula H 2 SO 4 which means
it ,
that each molecule of the acid is composed of two atoms of

hydrogen, one of sulphur, and four of oxygen. When this
acid is dissolved in water, some of its molecules separate or
dissociate into ions, the two hydrogen atoms with their
positive charges constituting positive ions, and the sulphur

and oxygen atoms together (SO 4 ) with their negative
charge a negative ion. The SO 4 ion is given the name
sulphion.
When the cell is in operation, the zinc atoms from the
zinc plate pass into the solution and form with the sul-
phions a new compound, zinc sulphate (ZnSO 4 ). In this

action the zinc atoms or ions bring positive charges into
the solution and the sulphions surrender their negative
charges to the zinc plate. In this way the zinc plate
becomes negatively charged and the solution around it
becomes positive. The -f- hydrogen ions are driven by
this positive liquid toward the copper plate, to which they
surrender their charges, at the same time forming bubbles
of gas. Thus the copper plate becomes positive.
The chemist expresses the chemical action of such a cell
by the expression Zn+H 2 SO 4 ^ZnSO 4 + H 2 reading it ,
thus, "Zinc and sulphuric acid combine and produce zinc

sulphate and hydrogen."
With other electrolytes the actions are similar. Metal
and hydrogen atoms, some unknown reason, always
for
carry positive charges into solution and form positive ions ;
while such atoms as oxygen and chlorine carry negative

charges and form negative ions.
462. Electro -motive force. The P.D. between the
plates of a cell when the circuit is broken is the electro-mo-
tive force of the cell. It is some-
times called electric pressure.
Electro-motive force usually de-
noted by the letters E.M.F. -
may in general be defined as the
power of an agent to
produce
electric pressure or BothP.D. 8
P.D. and E.M.F. are measured
by a unit called a volt, a name de-
rived from Volta. The seat of
the E.M.F. of a cell is at the
contact surfaces between the FIG. 259. -The arrows show the
metals and the acid where the direct and the opposing
E.M.F. of a voltaic ceil.
chemical action occurs. The
P.D. between zinc and sulphuric acid is about 1.8 volts and
between copper and sulphuric acid 0.8 volt (Fig. 259).
This latter P.D. is in opposition to that of the zinc and
acid and tends to send the current in the opposite direc-
tion. The E.M.F. of such a cell is accordingly about one
volt, or the difference between the E.M.F. of the zinc arid
acid and the opposing E.M.F. of the copper and acid.
The E.M.F. of a cell does not depend upon the size
or shape of its plates nor upon their distance apart; but
it does depend upon the kind of materials of which the
ADAMS'S PHYS. 25
cell iscomposed. For example, the E.M.F. of the cell

would be increased by substituting a carbon plate for the
copper, but it would be diminished if a solution of
common salt were used instead of sulphuric acid. Usually
the E.M.F. of a cell decreases with a rise of temperature.
463. Local action. We have seen that the chemical
action on the zinc of a cell produces hydrogen, some of
which appears at the copper or positive
plate and some at the zinc plate. Only
that part of the electro-chemical action
which produces the hydrogen appearing
at the positive plate is useful and contrib-
utes to the current flowing through the
circuit; that part of the electro-chemical
FIG. 260. Diagram action producing the hydrogen which ap-
iiiustrating local
p ears a t the zinc plate, and which con-
tributes no current to the main circuit of
the cell, is called local action. Local action wastes the
materials and energy of the cell and continues even when
the circuit is broken. It is due to particles of impurities
in the zinc, such as iron, carbon, and other elements.
These impurities (Fig. 260), acting as positive poles, and
the adjacent zinc particles, acting as negative poles, form,
with the liquid, multitudes of little voltaic cells on the
zinc. Since pure zinc is too expensive to be used in bat-
teries, local action is prevented by amalgamating the zinc.
The mercury dissolves some of the zinc but not the im-
purities. This forms an amalgam of zinc and mercury
which covers up the impurities and presents a bright, clean
surface to the liquid.
464. Polarization of cells. The E.M.F. of the simple
celland of many other cells runs down when the current
flows through the circuit, and the current becomes weaker.
For instance if an electric door bell is rung continuously
for several minutes, the battery may become too weak to
ring it longer. If the battery is allowed to rest, it

may
recover its original E.M.F. after a time. This weaken-
ing of the E.M.F. of a cell by the passage of a current
through itcalled polarization.

is It is caused chiefly
by the coating of hydrogen on the positive plate. This

hydrogen in effect converts the copper plate into a hydro-
gen plate and the opposing E.M.F. between the hydrogen
and the acid is almost as great as that between the
zinc and the acid, and consequently the E.M.F. of the
cell is reduced.
Experiment. Make a simple cell out of a piece of zinc, an arc
light carbon and dilute sulphuric acid, placing the carbon rod in a
small cup of porous earthenware which sits
in the jar (Fig. 261). The porous cup
should contain sulphuric acid as well as the
tumbler. Join this cell to an electric bell of
low resistance. It will ring the bell for a
littlewhile only, because it becomes polar-
ized. Now add about 5 cc. of strong nitric
acid to the acid in the porous cup. The cell
will now be able to ring the bell for some
time without polarizing.
The nitric acid, being present around the
carbon, oxidizes the hydrogen as fast as it
appears there, the oxygen of the nitric acid
and the hydrogen uniting to form water.
Polarization is thus prevented. Many cells
cup around the positive
contain an extra chemical agent to act as the
plate.
nitric acid does in this case, i.e. to prevent
the accumulation of hydrogen at the positive plate. Such a chemical
is called the depolarizing agent.
465. Cells classified. Many modifications of the simple

voltaic cell have been devised, and the great variety is
largely due to the methods adopted to prevent polariza-

tion. Cells may be classified as single-fluid and two-fluid
cells. In single fluid cells the depolarization agent is
mixed with the electrolyte of the cell, or, if it is a solid,

it is placed in or against the positive plate. Two-fluid
cells, as the name implies, have two different liquids, one
the electrolyte which acts on the zinc, and the other the
depolarizing agent, which is placed about the positive plate
to dispose of the hydrogen. The two liquids are separated
from each other by the walls of a porous earthenware cup,
which allow the ions to pass through while preventing the
mixing of the liquids.
466. The bichromate cell, a single-fluid cell, consists of two plates

of carbon joined together to form the positive pole of the cell with a
plate of zinc between them. The fluid used is dilute

sulphuric acid in which the depolarizing agent, bi-
chromate of sodium or potassium, is dissolved. The
chromic acid, formed by the action of the sulphuric
acid on the bichromate, furnishes oxygen which dis-
poses of the hydrogen by uniting with it to form water.
This cell has an E.M.F. of about 2 volts and gives a
strong current for a long time. Since the chromic
acid attacks the zinc when the cell is not in use, the
cell is so made that the zinc,
or all of the plates, may be
withdrawn from the liquid.
In the Grenet form of this cell (Fig.
262) the zinc is attached to a sliding
rod by which it can be lifted. Several

bichromate cells are sometimes so arranged
that all the plates can be raised and lowered
by turning a crank; it is then called a
plunge battery. The fluid contains by
weight 180 parts of water, 25 of sulphuric
acid, and 12 parts of sodium bichromate.
467. The Leclanch^ cell. This single
fluid cell (Fig. 2G3) consists of a zinc rod FIG. 203. Leclanche cell.
in a solution of the salt, ammonium

chloride (sal ammoniac), and a carbon plate placed in a porous cup
which is packed full of manganese dioxide and graphite. The
manganese dioxide, a solid, is the depolarizer. Many modified forms
of this cell have been in the market under various trade names.
Usually the porous cup is dispensed with and the carbon is made in
the form of a hollow cylinder, to give a large surface for the hydrogen
to collect upon, and the manganese dioxide is embedded in the carbon
or omitted altogether. The cell has an E.M.F. of about 1.3 volts.
It" is an excellent cell for intermittent work such as the ringing of
a door bell, but it is not adapted to continuous work, as it quickly

polarizes. The manganese dioxide does not furnish oxygen so*
rapidly as the hydrogen accumulates.

468. The dry cell is a modification of the Leclanche cell. The cup
itself is made of zinc and forms the negative It is not really
pole.
dry, as its name implies, but the solution of ammonium chloride is
held by porous material packed about the carbon plate. The cup is
closed by a resinous cement. The moist paste of the cell usually
consists of one part of ammonium chloride, one part of zinc oxide,
one part of zinc chloride, three parts of plaster of Paris, and two parts
of water. It is a cheap, portable, and very convenient cell.
The Daniell cell (Fig. 264) is a two-fluid cell hav-

469.
ing copper and zinc plates and either a solution of zinc

sulphate or sulphuric acid for
the active liquid, and a sat-
urated solution of copper sul-
phate (CuSO 4 ) for the depol-
arizing agent. The zinc prism

is placed with the zinc sul-
phate in a porous cup which

stands in the center of a glass
jar. A
sheet of copper bent
into the form of a cylinder
nearly surrounds the porous FIG. 12W. Daniell cell.
cup and stands in the copper

sulphate' solution, which nearly fills the jar. To keep
the solution of copper sulphate saturated, a pocket with
perforated bottom is attached to the copper cylinder and
is kept full of crystals of copper sulphate.
When sulphuric acid is used, the hydrogen ions travel
toward the copper as in the simple cell, but at the porous

cup they meet the copper sulphate. From this point the
copper ions travel on in their stead, and copper, not hydro-
gen, is deposited on the copper plate. Copper added to
the copper plate of course does not polarize it.
When zinc sulphate is used instead of sulphuric acid,
'the zinc atoms are the positive ions, and
they act in the
same way as that just described for the hydrogen ions.
In either case the SO 4 ions carry negative charges to the
zinc and form zinc sulphate as in the simple cell. In this
cellthe copper plate becomes heavier and the zinc plate is
consumed; the zinc sulphate increases in quantity and
the copper sulphate is consumed.
This cell cannot furnish a large current because of its
high internal resistance but it is an excellent cell for
;
closed circuit work, since its E.M.F. is very constant,
being about 1.08 volts. It is often used as a standard of

E.M.F. by which the E.M.F. of other cells is measured.
The cell should not be left on open circuit when not in use,
as the copper sulphate diffuses
through the porous cup and

makes a muddy deposit of
copper oxide on the zinc, and

copper is deposited in the
pores of the cup. When the
circuit is closed, the copper
ions are kept moving toward
the copper plate and this
damage is prevented.
470. The gravity cell (Fig. 265)

FIG. 2(55. cell.
has the same materials and chemical
Gravity
action as the Daniell cell. The
copper electrode is placed at the bottom of the jar and is surrounded
by a saturated solution of copper sulphate and undissolved crystals
MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF THE CURRENT 391
of copper sulphate. The zinc electrode is suspended near the top

of the jar in a weak solution of zinc sulphate. There is no porous
partition between the two liquids, but the greater density of the
copper sulphate solution and the action of the current tend to keep
them separate. The cell is not suitable for open circuit work since,
when the circuit is broken, the copper sulphate diffuses to the upper
part of the cell and objectionable chemical action occurs between it
and the zinc plate. Many thousands of gravity cells are used in this
country to operate the electric
telegraph. Its E.M.F. is about
0.98 VOlts.
471. Symbol of a cell. -

In diagrams representing
electric circuits it is
customary to represent a
cell by the symbol shown in Figure 266 (a). The long
thin line represents the positive pole and the short thick
line the negative pole of a cell. Figure 266 (5) repre-
sents several cells joined to form a battery.
II. MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF THE CURRENT
_ _472. Deflection.
t
Experiment.
^~-
*J
Let one end of a wire be
fastened to one of the poles of a voltaic cell. Stretch the middle of
this wire above a compass needle (Fig. 267), holding it in a north and
>
FIG. 267. -Diagram illustrating deflection pro-

south line parallel to the
needle. When the circuit
is completed by joining
the free end of the wire

to the other pole of the
cell > the needle wil1 be
duced by an electric current. turned aside or deflected
by the current in the
wire. The current strives to place the needle east and west, or at
right angles with the wire, but the attraction of the earth opposes it,
and it takes up an intermediate position between east and west and
north and south.
The turning of a magnetic needle by an electric current

is called deflection. The deflection is said to be east or

west according as the north pole turns toward the east or
west. This phenomenon,
which was discovered by
Oersted in 1819, shows
that an electric current
has magnetic properties
and is surrounded by a
FIG. 208. Diagram of a needle within a ,
. ~ , ,
coil of wire. magnetic field.
When the current is
below the needle instead of above, the deflection is re-

versed; it is also reversed when the current in the wire
is reversed. The deflection is increased by bending the
wire so that the current passes above
the needle and back underneath it,
and it is still more increased by
passing the wire about the needle
a number of times (Fig. 268).
Deflection affords a simple means
for detecting and measuring electric
currents, and also for determining
the direction of a current. The
following rule will assist the memory
in determining either, the deflection
or direction of the current:
Grasp
the wire with the right hand with the
thumb outstretched; if the thumb
points in the direction of the current,
the fingers on the side of the wire
nearest the needle indicate the direc-
tion of the deflection.
Conversely, if
the fingers correspond with the
deflec- FIG. 269. Flexible con-
tion. the thumb indicates the direction ductor coiling around a
magnet under the influ-
Of the current. ence of a current.
Experiment. The tendency of the current and the magnet to

assume positions at right angles to each other is beautifully illustrated
as follows Let a long slender bar magnet be supported in a vertical
:
position (Fig. 269), and let a light flexible conductor, made of about
three strands of copper tinsel, be suspended by the side of it. Let
a battery of about three dry cells be connected to the tinsel. When
the circuit is closed, the tinsel will coil itself around the magnet, as
shown in the figure ;
if the current is reversed by a commutator, it
will uncoil and rewind itself about the magnet in the opposite direc-
tion.
473. Magnetic field about a current. Experiment. Support a

piece of cardboard in a horizontal position and pass a thick wire
ver-
tically up through its center (Fig. 270).

Connect the wire to a battery of bichromate
or dry cells so as to send a strong current
through it and then sift iron filings on the
cardboard about the wire. Tap the card-
board with a pencil, and the filings will
arrange themselves about the wire in con-
centric circles, as shown in the figure. The
direction of the lines of force about the wire
may be determined by placing a small com-

pass on the card near the wire. They
will be found to agree with the following'
magnetic field about a
~ 7 . 7 , 7 7^7 7 conductor when a current
G-rasp the wire with the right hand is passing througn it .
*
with the outstretched thumb in the
direction of the .current; the fingers will indicate the direc-
tion of the lines of force. This field exists all along the
wire and often extends many feet in all directions
from it.
474. The magnetic field about two parallel currents. Experi-

ment. Let two wires be passed through a piece of cardboard,
as in the last experiment, the wires being parallel and about
2 cm. apart. Connect these wires to a battery, so that the
current shall flow up one and down the other. Then sift iron
filingsabout them. Figure 271 represents a magnetic field mapped
in this way.
Experiment. Connect the two wires of the last experiment in

such a way that the current shall flow in the same direction in both
FIG. 271. Magnetic field about two parallel currents flowing in

opposite directions.
of them, either up or down both of them. Let the field be mapped

as before. Figure 272 represents such a field.
'.'" -;; :\ ''V-'--^ ;
WJij$l$ ?.'.'-
FIG. 272. Magnetic field about two parallel currents flowing in the same
direction.
This field be explained by Figure 273, in which a

may
and b are sections of the two wires. Suppose the current
is away from the observer
in both of them. Then if
either of the wires were

present alone, lines of force
would extend around it, as
shown by the dotted lines ;
but when both currents are

present, the lines of force
273. -Diagram of the magnetic field
Of Wire a meet those Of b FIG.
about two parallel currents flowing
between the two wires away f rom the observer,
coming in the
opposite
direction. For this reason very few, if any, lines pass be-
tween the wires, but the two sets of lines unite and extend
around both of them.
In fact, the field about a bundle of wires in all of which
the current is in the same direction has the same general
form as that about a single wire, for the lines of force en-
^
circle all of them. When, however, the
site
currents are oppo-
in two
the lines of force pass
between the wires
wires,
and about each sepa-

rately.
475. The magnetic
field of a coil of wire.
Let a coil of wire

FIG. 274. Diagram of the magnetic field of a of about 30 turns be
current flowing in a circle, in a plane passing
p] aC6 (J half above
through the center of the circle, and at right
angles to it. an d halt below a
sheet of cardboard,
as shown in
Figure 274. While a strong current is
passing through the coil let its field be mapped with

filings as before. The figure shows the field as mapped

out in this way. This is the field in a horizontal plane ;
but the field would be the same in a vertical or any

oblique plane perpendicular to the coil. This field indi-
when traversed by a current, is a mag-
cates that the coil,
net. The magnetic lines of force go through such a coil
or ring and return on the outside of it, each line of force
forming a complete circuit. The face of the coil from
which the lines come is the north pole of a magnet and
the face which they enter is the south pole.
A careful study of these magnetic fields about currents
will greatly aid the student in his further
study of elec-
tricity.
476. "Apparatus M." R (Fig. 275) represents a light rectaii-
gular frame of wood about 12 x 24 cm., around which about 250 turns
of No. 26 copper wire are
wound. One end of the wire
issoldered to an iron rod d
and the other end to a rod c.
These two rods act as axles
upon which the rectangle
revolves. The lower one is
pointed and rests in an iron

cup o in the square brass rod
B, the upper one d passing-
throuh a hole in the brass
rod A. The wires from a
battery are joined to the
FIG. 275. of
" rods A and B by the binding
Diagram Apparatus M.'
posts and P, and the cur- P
rent can pass along the rod A to d, thence around the coil to
c, and
then to the rod B and back to the
battery y. In order to make the
electrical contact perfect between A and d the latter carries a little
circular iron cup fwith mercury and an iron latch from A dips
filled
into the mercury. The is also filled with
cavity o mercury to connect
c with B. The coil is thus connected to the battery while it is
free to revolve. As we wish to use this apparatus frequently in the
future, we will designate it as " Apparatus M."
*
477. To prove that a coil is a magnet if a current is
passing through it, pass a current through coil R of Ap-
paratus Mand present the north pole of a bar magnet to
it. One face of it will be repelled by the magnet and
thus be shown to be a north pole, and the other face will
be attracted by the magnet, and thus be shown to be a
south pole. The coil will behave toward the magnet just
as a compass needle does, and in fact, if it turns easily, and
the current is very strong, it will face north and south in
obedience to the earth's attraction. If a map of the mag-
netic field in a horizontal plane at the dotted line (Fig. 275)
were made, it would be exactly similar to that shown in
Figure 274.
478. The magnetic field of a spiral. Let a cylindrical
spiral of wire be so placed that half of it isabove and half
3*>:>
FIG. 276. Magnetic field ina plane through the axis of a spiral current
without an iron core.
below the surface of a horizontal cardboard, as shown in

Figure 276. Let a current be passed through the spiral
and the magnetic field be mapped with iron filings. If
this experiment is repeated with a rod of soft iron in the
spiralunder the cardboard, the increase in the strength of

the magnetic field will be made evident by the greater
FIG. 277. Magnetic field in a plane through the axis of a spiral current with
an iron core.
definiteness of the lines formed by the filings on the out-

side of the spiral (Fig. 277).
In this experiment the lines of force are seen to extend
through the interior of the spiral. The exterior field
resembles that of a bar magnet.
479. The electro-magnet. Let four or five layers of
No. 16 insulated copper wire be wound closely upon a
paper tube about
1 cm. in diameter.
To fix the wire in
position it may be
covered with hot
Sealing wax. When FlG . 278. -Electro-magnet formed of a soft iron
a Current is passed roti in a paper tube around which are wound
layers of insulated copper wire '
through this coil,

its ends will attract and
repel a compass needle exactly as
a bar magnet does. If one end of this coil is
placed in a
box of small nails, it will pick them up. A rod of soft iron
ifpresented to the coil will be drawn into it. This rod,
with the coil around it (Fig. 278), will now be found to
be a strong magnet, and it will support quite heavy pieces
of iron which will fall as soon as the current in the coil
ceases. The iron rod increases the lines of force through
the coil enormously.
Such a coil of wire is called a helix and the rod of iron
within it is called the core. The two together constitute
an electro-magnet.
480. Polarity of the helix. If the direction of the cur-
rent in the helix just described is traced, and its polarity
determined, the relation between the two will be found to
conform to the following rule Grasp the helix with the
:
right hand so that the fingers point in the direction of the

current around thz core; then the extended thumb will point
toward the north pole of the magnet.
481. The magnetic circuit. The student should observe
that the lines of force are in general at fight angles with
the direction of the current, also that in the electro-magnet
the current does not pass into the iron core, but goes
around it, being carefully insulated from it. As the
entire path of the current is called the electric circuit, so
the path of the lines of force is called the magnetic circuit.
Every magnetic line of force is a closed
circuit,returning on itself, so that it is

continuous. In the magnet described, the
lines of force extend through the iron
core, at the north pole and re-
coming out
turning through the air to the south pole.
The magnetic path or circuit is partly FlG 979^. Diagram
through iron and partly through air. The showing a bar eiec-
core and helix of a magnet may be bent

into^
into the horseshoe form (Fig. 279), in form.
which the air path is greatly shortened. Usually, how-

ever, horseshoe electro-magnets are made as shown in
Figure 280, the iron being in three

pieces, and the wire on two spools
and joined together. The two cores
are joined by the bar ^, called a yoke.
FIG. 280. Common form ^ âr ^ i ron -*

N
of horseshoe electro- on or near the
maS net "
is called
poles
an armature. Figure 281 shows the
magnetic circuit of a horseshoe
magnet.
482. The strength of an electro-
magnet depends mainly upon two

things, its magnetic circuit and the
!!
iiii
ampere turns encircling it.

For a strong magnet the air gap FIG. 2,si. Diagram of the
11
iagnetic cireuit of a"
of the magnetic circuit should be as 1
electro-magnet.
short as possible even the joints in
;
the iron lessen the lines of force and weaken the magnet ;
and the iron should be pure and soft, and short and thick,
rather than long and thin.
With a good magneticcircuit, the strength of the magnet
depends mainly upon the number of ampere turns, a term
denoting the product of the current strength in amperes
by the number of turns of wire around the core. Thus,
a current of 1 ampere flowing 100 times around the
core, or one of -^ ampere flowing 1000 times around
the core, constitutes 100 ampere turns, and each will pro-
duce a magnet of the same strength.
A magnet (Fig. 282) composed of two thick half rings
of soft iron and a comparatively small helix may easily be
made so strong that two boys cannot pull the ring apart.
The magnet is strong because the magnetic circuit is
almost wholly iron. Even the thin layers of air between

the halves of the ring weaken the magnetism somewhat ;
and if the ends of the half rings are rough,
or do not lit
closely together, the air gap
will lessen the magnetism very much in-
deed. This apparatus illustrates espe-
cially the permeability of soft iron.
The electro-magnet is put to many
practical uses. It forms an essential
part of the dynamo, the electric motor,

telegraph instru-
ments, the electric

F. -JS2. Ring elec-
bell, and many other tromagnet with
instruments. In magnetic circuit in
an iron ring.
some machine shops
large masses of iron are picked up and
moved about by means of powerful
electro-magnets (Fig. 283).

483. The electric bell. The ar-
range men t of the parts of an electric

bell is shown in Figure 284. It con-
sists of a
gong an electro-magnet
(7,
FIG. 283. Electro-mag- witll its arma ture ending in a ham-
net lifting bars of iron.
mer H,r and swinging on a spring A,
which presses against an adjusting screw C. When the
push button P (shown in section at the right) is pressed,
the current from the battery B flows through the binding
post D, the electro-magnet E, the spring A, the screw (7,
and back to the battery. As the current passes, the elec-
tro-magnet attracts the armature, causing the hammer to
strike the gong and also breaking the circuit between A
and O. Then A
springs back against (7, completing the
circuit again. This operation is rapidly repeated, causing
a succession of blows on the gong.
ADAMS'S PHYS. 26
FIG. 284. Electric bell.
484. The electrictelegraph is essentially an electro-

magnet operated at a distance by means of a battery
and a long wire. The wire extending from one station
to another, joining the instruments, and carrying the
current, is called the line. It' is not necessary that the
circuit be completed by a return wire, but each end of

the line is connected to the earth by being attached to
a water or gas pipe or a
metallic plate buried in
the ground. The earth
then forms the return
circuit.
FIG. 285.
Telegraph key.
-
Messages are Sent by
a key, which is simply a lever (Fig.
285) used to make
and break the circuit. When it is pressed down, the
circuit is made by the contact of two platinum points.
A spring raises the lever and breaks the circuit when
the pressure is removed. When the key is not in use,
the circuit is closed permanently by a switch L.
485. The sounder, or the instrument used for receiving

messages, consists of an electro-magnet (Fig. 286) with
a lever carrying an iron
armature and held just
above the poles of the
magnet by a spring.
The line is attached to
this magnet. When the
circuit is closed at the
distant station by a key, FIG. 2St>. Telegraph sounder.
the current energizes
the magnet and the armature
is attracted. This pulls the
lever down until on an adjusting screw and makes
it strikes
a click or sound. When the circuit is broken at the key,
the armature is released and the lever, actuated by the
spring, strikes an adjusting screw above, making another
sound. If the interval between the two sounds is very
short, it is called a dot; if longer, it is called a dash.

These terms, dot and dash, are used because at first a stylus
on the end of the lever made dots and dashes on a ribbon
of paper drawn along by clockwork. Nowadays operators
read by sound, not by sight. A
dot and a dash, for ex-
ample, make the letter A, and a dash and three dots, the
letter B. (See Appendix.)
Several sounders and as many keys may all be on the
same line, all of the sounders working at the same time.
All the keys, however, but the one in use must be
closed.
486. The relay. On
a long line between distant cities
the current is not strong enough to operate the sounders
at the way stations and at the terminal stations, and hence
a relay is used at each station, which brings into action
a local battery to operate the sounder at that station.
The relay is in reality an electrically operated key. It
consists of an electro-magnet (Fig. 287) which is in the

main line circuit. When the current flows through
thismagnet, it attracts
the armature and thus
brings in contact two

platinum points. This
contact makes the cir-
cuit of another battery

and a sounder. The
lever to which the
FIG. 287.
armature is attached is
Telegraph relay.
so small and so nicely
adjusted that it moves very easily. The relay is often
used to repeat a message and to send it on to a more
distant point. A
diagram showing the general arrange-
ment of the parts of the telegraph is shown in Figure 288.
FIG. 288. Diagram showing the arrangement of a telegraph system.
487. Influence of one electric current on another. -

Since electric currents are surrounded by magnetic fields,
MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF THE CURREXT 405
we should expect them to react upon each other, and

they do.
(1) Parallel cur r< at* flowing in the same direction attract
each other.
(2) Parallel curt-rut* fl<r!n : / in the opposite direction
repel each oth> /.
(3) Currents u<>t

y////WA7 tt-nd to become parallel and
to flow in the santr direction.
The following experiments will illustrate these laws :
Experiment. Having a wooden rectangular frame a little broader

aud longer than R
(Fig. 275), with about 250 turns of wire about it,
let it be connected to a battery. We
will designate this frame as
coil A. Let the coil also of Apparatus M
be joined to a battery. (Two
batteries are not necessary for this, as the same current may be passed
through both coils.) Determine the direction of the current in each

coilby means of a compass needle, and mark each coil in some way,
as by tying a string to some part of it, so that the direction of the
current can be remembered. Hold one side of coil A near and parallel
to one side of coil ^f. If the currents are both up or both down in
these adjacent sides, coil J/ will follow A as it is moved to and fro ;
but if the current is up

one of them and down
the other, they will
repel each other.

Experiment. Let
coil A be placed around
coil M, and let the
latter be turned until
the planes of the two
coils are perpendicular
to each other (Fig.
289). As soon as J/ is
released, it will turn so

as to be parallel to A,
with the currents in
the two coils in the FIG. 289. Apparatus for showing that currents
same direction. Again, not parallel tend to become parallel.
if one side of A is placed across the top of M and above it, the latter
will turn so as to become parallel to A.
Maxwell summed up these laws in one law, viz. :
The two circuits tend to place themselves with reference

to each other so that as many as possible of their lines of
force shall be common to the two.

A
careful study of the magnetic fields of the two coils
in the above experiments will show that when they are in
equilibrium the lines of force that thread one coil also

pass through the other, the two sets of lines of force being
in the same direction.
III. GALVANOMETERS
488. Galvanometers are instruments used to measure
strength of currents by means of their magnetic effect ;
but often they are used to

detect and not to measure
currents, and in that case
they are more properly called
gulvanoscopes. Many differ-
ent forms of galvanometers
are in use.
489. The tangent galva-
nometer (Fig. 290) is very
simple in construction. It
consists of a ring of brass or
wood, perhaps 30 cm. in
diameter, around which a
coil of wire is wound. This
ring is attached to a base so
FIG. 290. Tangent galvanometer, as to stand in a vertical posi-
tion, and at its center there
is a compass box having a magnetic needle about 2 cm.
long. Since this needle is so short, a long light pointer is
GALVANOMETERS 407
attached to which passes over a circular scale graduated

it
in degrees. The
coil of the instrument stands north and
south, and the current to be measured is sent through the

coil. The current, however, is not proportional to the angle
of deflection, as one might think, but to the tangent of the
angle of deflection. For example, a current giving a deflec-
tion of 30 not half as strong as one giving 60.
is The
tangent of 30 is .577 (see Appendix) ; and of 60, 1.732.
Hence a current giving a deflection of 60 is three times

as strong as one giving a deflection of 30 (1.732-r- 3 =
.577). In order to measure a current by this galva-

nometer, the constant of the instrument, i.e. the current
that will cause a deflection of 45, must be known.
490. The D'Arsonval galvanometer is the most useful
and common type of galvanometer. In it the coil moves
and the magnet is stationary. The
principle of its construction is shown in
Figure 291. It consists of a small coil
of many turns of very fine wire placed
between the poles of a strong permanent
horseshoe magnet. This coil is sus-
pended by a fine wire (a) which also
serves to carry the current to the coil.
The current leaves the coil by another
finewire (7>), and the two wires, a and &,
form the axis about which the coil turns; FIG. 201. Diagram
of a
When a current flows through the coil,
s* galvanometer.
becomes a magnet like coil R ( 477)
-4ITTTN
it
with lines of force threading it, and it tends to turn so as

to face the poles of the large magnet. The torsion of the
wires a and b opposes this turning, and when the current
back to its first or zero position.
ceases, brings the coil
Often the magnet, or several magnets fastened together,
are placed in a horizontal position.
A pointer attached to the coil and extending over a

circular scale may be used to indicate* the amount of the
deflection ; but usually a tiny mirror is fastened to the
coil, and the reflection of a straight centimeter scale is
viewed in this mirror by a telescope. When the coil and
mirror turn, the scale appears to move, and the distance it
moves is read in centimeters by the telescope. With such
an arrangement, the current is proportional to the deflec-
tion. Very minute fractions of an ampere are detected
and measured by such instruments. The receiving instru-
ments for ocean cables are of this type.
491. Ammeters and voltmeters. The galvanometers so
far described have scales graduated either in degrees or in
FIG. 292. Portable ammeter.
centimeters but a galvanometer, after being tested or

;
calibrated, may have a scale graduated in amperes. It

is then called an ammeter. If it is adapted to measur-
ing very small currents and has a scale graduated for
thousandths of an ampere, it is called a mil ammeter.
Ammeters are galvanometers of very small resistance.
Galvanometers having a high resistance are often used
GALVANOMETERS 409
to measure E.M.F. or P.D., and when a scale is

attached graduated in volts, they are called voltmeters.
The best portable
voltmeters and amme-
ters are of the D'Arson-
val type; but since a
wire suspension is easily
broken, the coil is sup-
ported on jeweled bear-
ings like the balance
wheel of a watch. Coiled
springs, like the hair-
spring of a watch, react
against the current and
bring the COll back - Interior of an ammeter.
to its zero
position ;
they also serve to carry the current to and from the

coil. Such instruments have a pointer and not a mirror.
Figure 292 represents the exterior of such an instrument.
It has a horseshoe mag-
net (Fig. 293) within,
with curved pole
pieces. Within the
circular space between
these pole pieces the
coil, shown in detail in
Figure 249, is mounted.

FIG. 294. Coil of an ammeter; it is wound
about a cylinder of soft iron.
Figure 295 represents the conventional sym-

bol of a galvanometer used in diagrams of electrical FIG. oc, 5 _ gy m bol for
apparatus. a galvanometer.
IV. RESISTANCE
492. Conductivity and resistance. When the terminals

of a cell of a given E.M.F. are connected by different
wires, it is found that some of the wires will carry or con-
duct more electricity than others. Conductors are there-
fore said to differ in their ability to conduct electricity,
that is, in their conductivity. For example, if one con-
ductor conveys twice as great a current as another with a
given P.D. between its ends, then the conductivity of the
first is twice that of the second. No conductor, however,
has perfect conductivity, but it always obstructs the cur-
rent more or less. This obstruction which a conductor
offers to the flow of an electric current is called resistance.
In the example just given, the second wire has half the
conductivity of the first, or it obstructs the current twice
as much as the first ; its resistance is therefore twice as
great as the first. This illustration shows that the resist-
ance of a conductor is the reciprocal

of conductivity. its
Different metals differ in their conductivity. Silver has

the highest conductivity of all substances, and copper ranks
next to it, the latter being more than six times as good a
conductor as iron.
493. Unit of resistance. The name of the unit in which
resistance is expressed and measured is called the ohm,
from Georg S. Ohm, a German who first established the
laws of resistance. A column of mercury 106.3 cm. long
and 1 sq. mm. in cross section has a resistance of one ohm
at C., and been taken as the legal definition of
this has
the ohm by the United States and other governments.
Ten feet of No. 30 or 100 feet of No. 20 copper wire have
a resistance of about 1 ohm.
The
purity of a substance or anything affecting its
molecular structure affects its resistance. The resistance
RESISTANCE 411
of metals increases with a rise of temperature, but the

reverse true with carbon, most electrolytes, and
is some
other substances.
494. Laws of resistance. The resistance of a con-
ductor depends in general on its length and size according
to the following laws :
I.The resistance of a conductor is proportional to its

length ; that is, r r'
= I I', r and I being the resistance
: :
and length of one conductor, and r' and I', the resistance
and length of another conductor of the same kind.
II. The resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional
to the area of its cross section, or to the square of its diame-
ter if it is round ; that is, r r = d' 2 d2 r being the :
r
:
,
resistance of a wire whose diameter is d, and r that of

r
another wire of the same kind and length whose diameter

is d'. If both length and diameter vary at the same time,
the two laws may be expressed by the proportion, r r = :
f
2
I x d' : l
f
x d*.
Sizes of wire are designated by number, just as thread is,

the larger the number the smaller the wire. No. 40 is so
fine that it is rarely used. No. is about as large as an
ordinary lead pencil, and No. 18, 0.0403 in. in diameter, is
a very common size and is about as large as a hat pin. In

wire a thousandth of an inch is called a "
measuring mil,"
and the square of the diameter of a wire expressed in mils
u circular mils."
is called Thus, the diameter of No. 18
wire is 40.3 mils and its circular mils = 1624. (See table
in the Appendix.)
Problems
1. If long has a resistance of 3.2 ohms, what
one wire 80 ft. is the
resistance of a wire of the same kind 175 ft. long ?
2. How long must a wire be to have a resistance of 100 ohms, if
7.2 ft. of it have a resistance of 0.45 ohms?

3. Calculate from Table II in the Appendix the resistance of

150 ft. of No. 16 copper wire.
4. wire 32 mils in diameter has a resistance of 10 ohms, what
If a
is same kind and length having a diam-
the resistance of a wire of the
eter of 72 mils ?
5. If a wire 500 ft. long and 18 mils in diameter has a resistance
of 17 ohms, what is the resistance of a wire of the same kind 125 ft.
long and 9 mils in diameter ?
6. Calculate from data given in Table II in the Appendix the
resistance of a wire 1 ft. long and 0.001 in. in diameter.
7. A wire 10 ft. long is 1 mil in diameter. What must be the di-

ameter of a wire 40 ft. long to have the same resistance ?
8. What length of wire 25 mils in diameter will have the same re-
sistance as 153 ft. of wire 75 mils in diameter?
9. A wire 25 m. long and .75 mm. in diameter has a resistance of

80 ohms. What must be the diameter of the same kind of wire 10 m.
long to have a resistance of 8 ohms?
10. What is the diameter of a wire which
is 60.5 m.
long and which
has a resistance of 10 ohms, if a wire of the same kind 40 m. long and
5 mm. in diameter has a resistance of 8 ohms?
11. If 100 ft. of wire weighs 5 Ib. and has a resistance of .07 ohms,
what will be the resistance of one mile of the same kind of wire
weighing 100 Ib. ?
12. Two
wires of the same length and material have respectively
resistances of 12 and 20 ohms. If the diameter of the first is 24 mils,
what is the diameter of the second ?
13. If the length of a wire is increased 4 times and the diameter
also is increased 4 times, what is the effect on its resistance ?
14. A long and 10 mils in diameter has a resist-

copper wire 10 ft.
ance of very nearly 1 ohm. Assuming it to be exactly 1 ohm, what

is the resistance of a
copper wire 1 m. long and 1 mm. in diameter?
V. OHM'S LAW
Ohm's law, which is perhaps the most important law
495.
was established by him in 1827, and ex-
of electrical science,
presses the relation between the three quantities, current

strength, E.M.F. or P.D., arid resistance. It may be
expressed as follows:
OHM'S LAW 413
The strength of a current equals the electro-motive force

or potential difference divided by the resistance, or in
symbols, ~^ =
~7?'
/being the current strength in amperes, the E.M.F. E

or P.D. in volts, and the resistance in ohms. R These
three units, the ampere, the volt, and the ohm, have been
so chosen and denned that when the current strength is 1
ampere, and the E.M.F. or P.D. is 1 volt, the resistance

is 1 ohm ; that is,
volt volts
1 ampere =1 , or in general, amperes
i
=
1 ohm ohms
When the law is applied to the whole circuit,
_
~~ E.M.F.. '
7?
but when it is applied to part of a circuit,

T ~~
-L 1
P.D. representing the fall of potential in the part of the

circuitunder consideration
^N
and r the resistance of that V
part.
pi
I may be reduced to
R
tyOOOOOO'Oo'O'ÔOOO'OOO'OOO
two other useful forms,
E= RI, and R=j .
496. Measurement of re-
sistance by Ohm's law. It

isevident that by Ohm's law
any one of the three quan-
FIG. 296. Diagram of the measure-
ment of the resistance of a conductor
tities, current strength
by means of a voltmeter and amme-
E.M.F. or P.D., and resist- ter and Ohm's law.
ance, may be determined if two of them are known.

For
instance, suppose we wish to measure the resistance of a con-
ductor from D to B (Fig. 296). It is joined to a battery
with an ammeter A in the circuit, then a voltmeter V is
connected to the ends of the conductor whose resistance is
to be measured. The ammeter gives the current through
DB\ and the voltmeter, the P.D. between and B, f rom D
which the resistance is easily calculated by Ohm's law.
Thus, if 7= .2 ampere, and P.D. = .6 volt, the resistance
r = '
= '
= 3 ohms. Conversely, if the resistance
j
of a conductor is known, the current

flowing through it
may be determined by applying a voltmeter to its terminals
and measuring the P.D.
497. Fall of potential along a conductor. Figure 297
represents a voltaic cell, whose poles are joined by a con-
.48 volts B .64 volts
FIG. 297. Diagram of the fall of potential in different parts of a circuit.
ductor OADZ. Let the E.M.F. of the cell, which is the

P.D. between C and Z when the circuit is broken, be
2 volts, and the internal resistance of the cell be 4 ohms.
Let the resistance from C to A be 3 ohms A to B, 6 ohms ; ;
B to D, 8 ohms and D to Z, 4 ohms. The resistance of

;
the whole circuit is therefore 25 ohms, and by Ohm's law

2\
= )
the current is .08 ampere. This is the strength
of the current in every part of the circuit.

OHMS LA\V 415
By applying Ohm's law to the different portions of the

circuit, the fall of potential in each portion may be ob-
tained for example, the resistance from A to B is 6 ohms,
;
and the current is .08 ampere. The P.D. between A

and B is therefore (E or P.D. = RI, 495) 6 x .08 or
.48 volt. In like manner, the falls of potential between
O and A, B and J), and D and Z can be found to be, respec-
tively, .24, .64, and .32 volt,
The current flows around the circuit from points of
higher to those of lower potential, for C is higher than A,
A than B, B
than D, and Dthan Z; but in the cell the
current flows from lower to higher potential because the
cell is
expending energy upon it. The cell expends
enough energy to maintain an E.M.F. of 2 volts; but,
like other machines, it uses a part of this energy on itself,
the loss caused by the resistance of the cell being .32 volt
(P.D. = 4 x .08). The P.D. between C and Z when the
circuit is closed is therefore (2 .32) 1.68 volts. If we
compare the P.D. and the resistance between A and B
with the same quantities from B to D (48 : 64 = 6 :
8), we
see that they are proportional. Ilîice the law :
With a given current the fall of potential along a conductor

is to the resistance passed over.
proportional
This in reality is only another way of stating Ohm's law.
498. The Wheatstone bridge is an instrument for meas-
uring resistance. Its action and use are based upon Ohm's
law as just stated, namely, the fall of potential along a
conductor is
proportional to its resistance. It consists
of four resistances, called arms, and a galvanometer. The
method of connecting the parts of the instrument is shown
diagrammatically in Figure 298. CA, OB, AD, and ED
represent the four resistances or arms. Cr is a galvanome-
ter connected to the points A and B, and E is a battery
joined to the bridge at and D.
The current from E divides at Q into two parts, not

necessarily equal, one part going through CAD and the
other by the path
CBD, the two parts
uniting at D. Some
of the current may
pass from A to B
or from B to A ;
but the resistances

can be adjusted so
that no current will
between the flow
FIG. 298. Diagram of the Wheatstone bridge.
points A and B.
When this adjustment is accomplished, the points A and B
are at the same potential and the four resistances are pro-
portional to one another and if three of them are known,

;
the fourth can be determined. The proof is as follows :
Let R, R', R", and R'" be respectively the resistances of CA, AD,
CB, and BD. The fall of potential from C to A and that from C to
B are equal, because the fall from -a point
is of common potential to
points of equal potential. (A and B are at the same potential,
because no current flows through the galvanometer from one point
to the other.) The falls of potential between A and D and B and D
must also be equal, because the fall is from points of equal to a point
of commonpotential. Let p represent the P.D. between C and A,
also between C and B and let p' represent the P.D. between A
;
and D, and between B and D.

The current through CA is .the same as that through AD] hence,
applying Ohm's law as stated in 497, - = . For a like reason,

p' R
ft 7?" 7? 7?"
= Therefore = --.
or, the resistances of the four arms
-j ^7- ;
of a Wheatstone bridge are proportional, if no current flows through the
galvanometer of the bridge.
499. There are two methods of joining instruments or

conductors in an electric circuit, series and parallel. If
OHM'S LAW 41'
they are joined so that the current which passes through

one passes through all in succession, they are said to be
joined in series. Figure 299 represents three bells con-
nected in series in the circuit
of a cell. If a circuit branches
off so that the current divides,
a part going through one con-
ductor and a part through
another, then the instruments
in the various branches are
FlG 299 -
Diagram of three belis
connected in parallel.Figure
-
joined in series.
300 shows three bells thus
connected. Figures 302 and 303 represent cells joined
in series and in parallel. All the street cars of a city
line are in parallel, because the
current branches off where each
trolley touches
the trolley wire,
passing into the ground and back
to the power house. The arc lamps
along the street are usually joined
in series, but the incandescent lamps
in a house are in parallel.
500. Shunts. When a wire is
connected in parallel with another

wire, it is called a shunt to that
wire, or each may be said to be a
shunt to the other. The wire DB
(Fig. 296) is a shunt to the volt-
meter V. The joint resistance of
two or more shunts equals
^ the re-
FIG. 300. Diagram of three .
bells joined in parallel. Ciprocal of the SUH1 ot
ciprocals ; thus, the joint resistance

of two shunts of 6 and 12 ohms each is
(i + iV = i)
4 ohms.
ADAMS'S PHYS. 27
The currents in the two shunts are inversely propor-

tional to their resistances. If, for instance, we wish to
reduce the sensitiveness of a
galvanometer Cr (Fig. 301) we
may arrange so that only T ^

part of the current shall pass
through it by placing a shunt
FIG. 301. of a shunt
8 between its terminals with a
Diagram
to a galvanometer. resistance ^ of that of the
galvanometer. Then -
of
the current will pass through the shunt and T J -
through
the galvanometer.
501. Joining cells. When several cells are joined to-
gether, they form a battery. There are two methods of join-

ing cells, series and parallel. Under some conditions the
series method is the better because it gives the stronger
current under other conditions the parallel method is
;
to be preferred. By means of Ohm's law we may deter-

mine which method should be used for any given condi-
tions.
502. Joining cells in series consists in connecting the
positive plate of the first cell to the negative of the second,
the positive of the second to the negative of the third,
and so on to the last cell, as shown in Figure 302. The
FIG. 302. Diagram of cells joined in series.

OHM'S LAW 419
negative pole of the first cell and the positive of the last
form the two terminals of the battery. The current that
passes through the first cell passes through all the others
in succession. Experiment proves that when cells are
joined in series the E.M.F. of the lattery is equal to the
sum of the E M.F.'s of the several cells; or if each cell has
the same E.M.F. , the E.M.F. of the lattery equals the
E.M.F. of one cell number of cells. The
multiplied by the
reason for this is that the current flows from lower to
higher potential in each cell, work being done upon it,
and each cell adds its E.M.F. to that of the preceding.
The internal resistance of a lattery, when the cells are
joined in series, is equal to the sum of the resistances of the
several cells; or if they are all alike, to the resistance of one
cell multiplied ly the number of cells. The reason for this
is that the length of the liquid traversedby the current
increases as the number of cells.
In applying Ohm's law to a battery joined in series, we
find the current strength by the formula, I-H + nr

, in
which Jîs the E.M.F. of each cell, r the internal resist-

ance of each cell, R the external resistance of the circuit,
and n is the number of cells. nE is the E.M.F. of the
battery, and R
-+- nr is the resistance of the whole circuit.
503. Joining cells in parallel consists in joining all of

the positive plates of the several cells together, and also
allof the negative ones. This may be done as shown in
Figure 303. and P D
may be regarded as the terminals of
the battery. The current
divides at P, part of it passing
through each and the several parts uniting again atD.

cell
The effect of this method of joining the cells is the same
as enlarging the plates of a single cell. Since the E.M.F.
of a cell is not affected by the size ofits plates ( 462),
the E.M.F. of a battery with its cells joined parallel is

the same as that of a single cell. The internal resistance,

however, is less than that of one cell; it is
equal to the inter-
nal resistance of one cell divided
by the number of cells.
FIG. 303. Diagram of cells joined in parallel.
The reason for this is that the cross-sectional area of the

liquid conductor is increased.
Applying Ohm's law to a battery having its cells
joined
parallel, we have the formula for the current
strength,
j= E
504. How cells should be joined depends upon the rela-

tive values of the external and internal resistances. When
the external resistance is
large compared with the internal
resistance of one cell, the series method is the
better; but
when the external resistance is relatively small, the
parallel
method should be used. The following problems illustrate
this principle :
Let E, the E.M.F. of one cell, be 2 volts.

Let r, the internal resistance of one cell, be 1 ohm.
Let n, the number of cells, be 10.
OHM'S LAW 421
Let R, the external resistance of the circuit, be 1000

ohms for the first three problems and 0.001 ohm for the
last three.
Comparing the first three problems, we see that under

the given conditions ten cells in series give practically ten
times as strong a current as one cell; whereas ten cells
in parallel give practically the same current as one cell.
Comparing the last three problems, we see that ten cells

in parallel give under the stated conditions practically ten
times as strong a current as one cell, but ten in series
give the same current as one cell.
Can you see why in problem 3 even a million cells could not give a
current of quite .002 ampere ? Why in problem 5 with any number
of cells could the current never quite equal 2 amperes?
The resistance of a Daniell cell is comparatively large, being from
about 1 to 5 ohms. If its E.M.F. is 1.1 volts, what is the largest
possible current to be obtained from a single cell?
Problems based on Ohm's Law

1. The E.M.F. of a Daniell cell is 1.1 volts. If it sends a
current of .4 ampere through a wire having a resistance of 2 ohms,
what is the internal resistance of the cell?
2. The P.D. between the terminals of an electric lamp is 60 volts
and the current through the lamp is 8 amperes. What is the resist-
ance of the lamp ?
3. A current of 24 amperes is flowing through a wire. certain A
portion of the wire has a resistance of 8 ohms. What is the fall of
potential in that portion ?
4. A trolley wire has a resistance of .001 ohm per foot. What
current the wire carrying
is when the fall of potential along the wire
is .1 volt per foot?
5. A cell sent a current of 0.4 ampere through an

bichromate
electric bellhaving a resistance of 4.8 ohms, when it was connected
directly to the bell but when the bell was so far away from the cell
;
that wires having a resistance of 3 ohms had to be used to join them,

the current fell to 0.25 ampere. What were the E.M.F. of the cell
and the resistance of the cell ?
6. The E.M.F. of a battery is 6 volts and the total resistance of
the circuit is 12 ohms. The external circuit is composed of two
wires, A and B, joined end to end. If the fall of potential along A is
2.5 volts and the resistance of B is 2 ohms, what is the resistance of
A and the fall of potential along 5?
7. The E.M.F. of a battery is 10 volts. When producing a
current of 5 amperes the P.D. between the poles of the battery is
8 volts. What is the resistance of the 'battery? A ns. 0.4 ohms.

8. A cell having an E.M.F. of 1 volt sends a current of 0.5
ampere through a galvanometer whose resistance is 1 ohm. What

current would 3 such cells give if joined in series to the galva-
nometer ?
9. The P.D. of a cell on open circuit is 1.32 volts. How much is
it if the circuit is closed by a wire having a resistance of 2 ohms, the
resistance of the cell being 0.2 ohm ? Ans. 1.20 volts.
10. In problem 9, what is the loss of potential in the cell ?
Ans. 0.12 volt.
11. Solve problems 9 and 10 under the supposition that the wire
has a resistance of 3.1 ohms instead of 2 ohms.
12. The E.M.F. of a cell is 1.8 volts and its resistance is 0.5 ohm.
How much the P.D. between the plates of the cell
is when connected
by a conductor having a resistance of 179.5 ohms? What is the loss
of potential in the cell itself ?
OHM'S LAW 423
13. In problem 12, substitute 89.5 ohms for 179.5 ohms and
solve it.
14. What does joining the plates of a cell or battery by a con-

ductor of small resistance do to their difference of potential? What
is the effect of increasing this resistance on the P.D. between the
plates?
15. Could the E.M.F. of a cell or battery be measured 'accurately by
connecting it to a voltmeter of small resistance ? (Small relatively
to that of the cell itself.)
16. How much

change is caused in the P.D. between the plates
whose E.M.F. is 1.5 volts by connecting them to a galva-
of a cell
nometer of 1500 ohms' resistance, the resistance of the cell being
0.5 ohm ? A ns. A little less than .0005 volt.
17. The E.M.F. of a Daniell cell is 1.1 volts, but the P.D. between
its poles when joined by a resistance of 10 ohms is 0.8 volt; What
is the resistance of the cell ?
18. A
battery of 4 cells joined in series is joined to a sounder of
15 ohms' resistance. Each cell has a resistance of 0.8 ohm and an
E.M.F. of 2 volts. What is the current strength ?
19. In the last problem, how much would the strength of the
current be changed by introducing into the circuit a galvanometer
having a resistance of 18.2 ohms?
Could the current under the conditions like those given in problem
18 be accurately measured by introducing such a galvanometer ?
20. Show that it could be measured quite accurately by a galva-
nometer or ammeter having a resistance of only 0.1 ohm.
This can be shown by adding the resistance of the galvanometer
to external resistance given, working out the problem, and noting
what difference is caused in the current by the added resistance of the
galvanometer.
21. 10 cells joined in parallel, each having a resistance of 4 ohms,
produce a current of 0.75 ampere, when the external resistance is

2 ohms. What is the E.M.F. of each cell?
22. 10 cells joined in series produce a current of 0.2 ampere when
the external resistance is 60 ohms, and the internal resistance of each
cell is 2 ohms. AVhat is the E.M.F. of each cell ?
23. How many cells in series, each of E.M.F. and 1.1 ohms'
1.8 volts
resistance, will be required to send a 0.5 ampere current through an

external resistance of 50 ohms?
24. Compare the current produced by 8 cells joined in series with

that produced when they are joined in parallel, the external resistance
being 2 ohms, the resistance o each cell being 2 ohms, and the
E.M.F. of each cell being 1 volt.
Compare the current obtained from 200 cells joined in parallel

25.
with that obtained from one cell, if the external resistance is 12,000
ohms, and the resistance and E.M.F. of each cell are
respectively
0.1 ohrn and 1.6 volts.
VI. CURRENT INDUCTION

505. So far in our study of electric currents we have
considered the voltaic cell as their source but the cell
;
plays an insignificant part in producing electric currents

in the world of to-day. The E.M.F.'s for the production
of currents for power and electric lighting, on a scale
altogether impossible by the cell, are generated by means
of the
dynamo through the agency of induction, the
study of which we are about to begin.
506. Faraday's law of induction. The principles of
current induction were discovered by Faraday in 1831-32,
and he stated the law of induction somewhat as follows :
If a conducting circuit is placed in a magnetic field, and

if by any means whatever the number of lines of force
threading that circuit is
changed, then an E.M.F. is

caused in the circuit which
is
proportional to the rate at
which the change occurs.
nr TF-" Let the horizontal lines
(Fig. 304) represent the
o
FIG. 304. of* a coil
-i
of* wire
lines of force of a magnetic
Diagram
in a magnetic field. field and let the ring A
represent single either a
loop of wire or a coil of wire with its ends joined together.

If Ais moved to position B, no change is made in the
CTUUKNT INDUCTION 425
number of lines of force threading it and no E.M.F. is
produced by the motion ;

but if it is turned over into
position C or is moved
into a weaker field, as at D, the
number is changed, and an E.M.F. is produced which
causes a current in the wire of the ring.
Current induction may be illustrated by a variety of
interesting experiments, but all of them in one way or

another involve the increase or decrease of the lines of
force threading a circuit.
507. Current induction by the earth's magnetic field. -
Let a coil of 300 or 400 turns of Xo. 25 wire about 30 cm.
in diameter be joined by flexible wires to a sensitive gal-
vanometer. (The 'coil A
described in 487 may be
,/ //////
//^' /'/////',
used, or the wire may be 1 ^
H 'i I '! ll I1 l'l jl
/
i!
wound upon a barrel hoop. ) n
'Ij^^^Jljl^
Let this coil be held with 14
itsplane perpendicular to
the lines of force of the
earth (Fig. 305), as shown
by the dipping needle.
wire in
m, ,. ., ,. .. .,, FIG. 305. Diagram of a coil of
The lines threading it Will the earth's magnetic field.
then be at a maximum. If
the coil is now turned over quickly, a half revolution
being made about an axis lying in its plane, the galva-
nometer will show that a current is produced in it by
the motion. If the revolution is completed, a current
flows an opposite direction in the coil during the
in
motion. While the coil is turning through the first
90, the lines of force threading it are decreasing, and
during the next 90 they are increasing; but the current
in the coil is in the same direction because it presents
its opposite side toward the lines of force. Figure
306 illustrates' the principle of this experiment, except
that the field there shown is not due to the earth's

magnetism.
FIG. 306. Diagram of currents produced by the revolution of a coil of wire

in a magnetic field.
Experiment. Connect a large spool of wire (Fig. 307) by flexible

wire to the galvanometer, and repeat the last experiment. Very small
deflections will be produced. Let a thick
rod of soft Swedish iron be introduced into
the spool, and the experiment be repeated.
A large deflection of the galvanometer will
now be produced. This is because the iron
core concentrates and greatly increases the
lines of force threading the spool.
508. Current induction by the

field of
permanent magnets. Let
Apparatus M
be connected to the
galvanometer, and let some bar
magnets be placed close to the coil,
the nOrth P les f SOlne f them
FIG.3o7- Spool of insulated
wire with soft iron core, being on one side of the coil and
CURRENT INDUCTION 427
the south poles of the remainder being on the opposite

side. With this arrangement the lines of force will pass
from the north poles of one set of magnets to the south
poles of the others, and the coil can revolve in this field.
Let the coil be placed with its plane perpendicular to
the lines of force, and let it be turned quickly through
half of a revolution. A
current will be produced in the
coil and galvanometer. Allow the galvanometer to corne
to rest and then turn the coil in the same direction as
before through another half revolution the galvanometer
;
will be deflected in the opposite direction. This shows

that during one complete revolution of the coil two cur-
rents are produced, a current in one direction in the
coil during one half revolution, and a current in the
opposite direction in the coil during the remaining half
revolution. This experiment is like the preceding ones,
but the induced currents are stronger because the field
is stronger.
Again, let the coil be set in rapid rotation by the thumb
and finger. Watch the action of the galvanometer while
the motion of the coil gradually dies away. The galva-
nometer coil or needle will be given an oscillatory motion
because the currents induced by the rotating coil change
direction at each half revolution.
509. Alternating currents. Electric currents such as
we have studied hitherto, being continuously in one direc-
tion in the conductor, are called direct currents; but a
current which, like the last one shown, flows for an instant
in one direction, then stops and flows in the opposite
direction, thus continually reversing its direction, is called

an alternating current. The reversals usually occur many
times a second. Two reversals are called a cycle.
510. Current induction by motion of the magnet. In
the preceding experiments the coils have been moved
428 ELECTRICITY AND MAGXETISM
while the magnets or the field have been stationary ;

but
the coil may remain at rest while the field is moved.
Connect a coil of quite a large number of turns of wire
to the galvanometer (Fig. 308), and then thrust one of the
poles of a magnet
into it. A current
is induced in the
coil. Allow the
magnet to rest in
the coil, and no cur-
rent is produced.
308.- Apparatus
Withdraw the mag-
FIG. for showing thalcurrents
may be induced in a coil by means of a magnet. net, and a Current
opposite to the first
results. If the magnet is introduced into the coil or
removed very slowly, the induced currents are much
weaker because the E.M.F.'s developed are less.
511. Direction of the induced current. If the direction
of the induced currents in the preceding experiments are
traced out through the coil and galvanometer, it will be
found in each case to agree with the following rule When :
the lines of force are increasing,

grasp the coil with the left
hand with the fingers through it in the direction of the lines
f force, and the extended thumb will indicate the direction
of the induced current; when the lines of force are decreasing,

use the right hand.
Test this rule by a study of Figures 305 and 306, and
also determine at what point in the revolution of the coil
( 508) the direction of the current changes.
512. The law of Lenz. The direction of the induced
current is always such as to oppose the motion which causes
the induced 'current. This opposition to the motion is due
to the reaction between the magnetic field causing the
induction and the field developed by the induced current.
CURRENT INDUCTION 429
For example, experiment with Apparatus

in the ( 508), M
when one face of the coil is approaching a north pole of the
magnet, the induced current in the coil makes that face a
north pole, and hence there is repulsion between it and the
pole it is approaching. The law of Lenz is a necessary
consequence of the principle of conservation of energy ;
forif it were otherwise, electrical energy could be devel-
oped at the expense of no other energy.
Experiment. Let a solid brass cylinder about 2 cm. in diameter

and 3 cm. long be suspended by a stout thread between the poles of a
strong electro-magnet (Fig. 309).

Twist the thread considerably so
that it will cause the cylinder to
revolve rapidly between the poles of

the magnet without touching them.
When there is no current in the
magnet coils, it will revolve easily,
but when the circuit is closed and
the magnet energized, it is instantly

brought to rest; when the circuit
is broken, begins to revolve again.
it
The motion of the cylinder is

more easily seen at a distance if it FIG. 309. Brass cylinder revolving
has one or two stripes of black between the poles of an electro-
paint upon it. magnet.

The cylinder stops revolving,
not because it touches
anything, nor because it is magnetic and is
attracted by the magnet, for it is not; bat the parts of it form
circuits in which currents are induced. These induced currents
(.6, Fig. 309) within the cylinder oppose the motion. Currents
caused in this way within a mass of metal are called "eddy" or
Foucault currents. If a cylinder, C", built up of copper washers with
disks of paper between them, is used, these currents are largely pre-
vented, and the motion of the cylinder is little affected by the magnet.
It is on the principle illustrated here that the vibrating coil of a
D'Arsonval galvanometer is quickly brought to rest when it is short
circuited. As the coil turns in the magnetic field, currents are induced
in it which oppose the motion and stop it.
VII. THE DYNAMO AND ELECTRIC MOTOR

513. The dynamo
is a machine for transforming the
energy mechanical
of motion into the energy of the
electric current by means of current induction. The
mechanical energy is usually supplied through the agency
of a steam engine or a water wheel.
The main parts of a dynamo are (1) the field magnet,
(2) the armature, (3) the brushes, and (4) the collecting
rings. The experiment with Apparatus ( 508) illus- M
trates these parts as well as the action of the dynamo.
The magnets which furnish the magnetic field are the
fieldmagnets, the revolving coil in which the current is
induced is the armature, and the mercury performs the
work of the collecting rings by which the current is
transferred from the armature to the rest of the circuit.
However, when the field is furnished by permanent
magnets as in this case, the machine is called a magneto
rather than a dynamo.
514. The field magnet of a dynamo is a powerful electro-
magnet furnishing the field in which the current induction

may take place. It consists of four
parts :
(1) the pole pieces N
and 8
(Fig. 310) (2) the field cores O and
;
(7; (3) the field coils which are wound

around the field cores; and (4) the
yoke Y. The pole pieces, the cores,
the yoke, and the space A
form the
FIG. 3io. -Diagram of
magnetic circuit. The lines of force
the field of a ~
dynamo.
magnet
m
. .
Passing from N
to 8 make a strong
field in the space A, and it is in this
circular space that the armature revolves.
A dynamo with such a field magnet is called a bipolar
machine because it has two poles. Most modern machines
THE DYNAMO AND ELECTRIC MOTOR 431
have more than two poles, and in that case they arecalled
multipolar machines. In such machines the yoke is a
massive hollow cylinder of
iron (Figs. 311 and 312)
and the cores extend from it
toward the center ;
in the
central space the field is
formed in which the arma-

ture revolves. Dynamos of
moderate size have four or
six poles, but larger ones
usually have more.
515. Brushes and collect-
FIG. 311.- Diagram of a field magnet
ing rings. Figure 313 rep- with four poles.
resents a coil of wire between
the poles of a magnet. This coil is supposed to revolve
on an axis or shaft in the line ST. The ends of the coil
are attached to two
metal rings R and
R r
which are on the
same shaft and re-
volve with it. These
rings are insulated
from the shaft and
from each other. B
and B' are bars of
copper or carbon
fixed in position
which rest on the
rings and rub against
FIG. 312.
them J revolve.
as they
Multipolar dynamo.
These bars are called
brushes, and the
rings, collecting rings. The alternating
currents induced in the revolving coil pass to these rings,
from them to the brushes, and by the wires to the ex-

ternal circuit. The current leaves the machine by and
B f
alternately. A
dynamo which
furnishes in this
way an alternat-
r current is
ing
called an alter-
nator.
FIG. 313. Diagram of collecting rings and brushes. 516. The com-
mutator is a de-
vice used instead of collecting rings when a direct current
is wanted from the dynamo. It may be considered as a
collecting ring cut

into parts or seg-
ments as shown in
Figures 314 and 315.

Each segment is care-
fully insulated from

the others and con-
nected to the end of FIG. 314. Diagram of a commutator and brushes.
a coil of wire in which
the currents are generated. As the coil and commutator
revolve (Fig. 314), the two brushes rest alternately on
c andand they are so placed that
c
f
,
the spaces between c and </ pass

under the brushes at the instant the
current changes direction in the coil.
In this way B
remains positive and
FIG. 315. - Diagram of
negative, and the current is direct
f
the segments of a corn-

mutator. m îe external circuit while it is
.
alternating in the coil or armature.

The commutator therefore is a device for changing
alternating currents into direct currents.

When there is only one coil (Fig. 314), the commutator

has two segments ; but when there are more coils, a
greater number of segments are necessary, as shown in
Figure 315.
517. The armature consists of the coil or coils in which
the current is induced, together with the core of iron
upon which the coils are wound. It is supported on an

axle, or shaft, upon which it is caused to revolve rapidly
in the field of the field magnet. The loop of wire
shown in Figure
306 and the coils
shown in Figures
313 and 314 repre-
sent the armature.
In practical ma- FIG. 316. Shuttle armature.
chines, however,
the armature has several coils instead of one, and these
coils are wound upon an iron core, called the armature
core. The simplest form of armature consists of one
coil of wire wound in two grooves cut lengthwise on
opposite sides of an iron cylinder (Fig. 316). Such
an armature is called a shuttle armature.
518. The drum armature, which was developed from the
shuttle armature, is one very much used in direct current
dynamos. Instead of
one coil in one pair
of grooves, there are
several coils in as many
pairs of grooves, spaced
FIG. 317. Drum armature. equally round ,the cy-
Figure lindrical core.
317 such an armature with a commutator
illustrates
attached. An armature with only one coil gives a
current which rises and falls in strength, there being
ADAMS'S PHYS. 28
two points in every revolution of the armature when it

is zero ; but with several coils the current becomes steady,
because some one coil is always in the position giving the
maximum effect.
519. The Gramme ring is another form of armature
that much used. The core of this armature is an iron
is
ring CDEA (Fig. 318), which is wound with a continuous

length of wire uni-
f ormly over its whole
surface, or it is wound
with a number of coils
which are joined to-
gether in series so as
to form a continuous
wire. At equal in-
tervals the windings
are joined to the dif-
Fio. 318. Gramme feren t Segments of the

-Diagram of a ring arma-
ture. commutator. The
lines of force pass
through the core as shown by the dotted lines ; when the
armature is revolving in the direction shown by the
arrow, the lines of force threading the coils between C
to D and A to E
are increasing, while in the coils from
E
O to A and to D they are decreasing.
By applying the rule for finding the direction of
induced currents (511) to the different parts of the ring,
one will see that the directions of the currents in the
various coils are as shown by the arrows in the figure. If
thecurrent in the coils on the right half of the ring,
CAE, are traced out, they will be seen to be going from
0, or brush B 1
, B also on the left side of
to t, or brush ;
the ring, ODE, found to be going from o to

they will be
t. Thus the currents induced in the two halves of the
ring meet at passing out by the brush B, and return to

,
the armature by B', dividing at o.

520. Laminated cores. The core of an armature is
not made of one solid piece of iron, for if it were, eddy
currents ( 512) would be induced in it as well as in the
wire wound upon it. The energy of such currents, being
transformed into heat, would not only be wasted, but
would make the machine too hot to be operated. Arma-
ture cores are therefore made of thin disks of iron
packed together but insulated from one another by

varnished paper.
521. The excitation of the field magnets. The current
necessary to energize the field magnet of a dynamo is
taken from the dynamo itself,
if it is a direct current machine;
if it is an alternator, a small
auxiliary dynamo called an ex-
citer is used to supply the cur-

rent for the field coils.
When the current leaves the
J the brush
armature by B (Fig. FIG. 319. Diagram of a senes-
319), itpass through the

may wound dynamo,
field coils and then to the ex-
ternal circuit and back to the other brush. Such a machine
is called a series-ivound dynamo.
When the current divides,
as at brush B
(Fig. 320), a
part going through the
field
coils and part through the

external circuit, the two parts
uniting again at B', the dy-
namo is said to be shunt-ivound.
of a-shunt-
In series-wound dynamos the
FIG. 320. Diagram
wound dynamo. field coils are composed of a
few turns of coarse wire, but in shunt-wound machines

the field coils have many turns of small wire.
When a dynamo is started up again after being at rest,
there is of course little or no current to actuate the field
magnets, but there is always sufficient residual magnetism
left inthe magnet to start the currents, and after a short
time the machine generates its full E.M.F.
522. The electric motor is a machine for transforming
the energy of the electric current into mechanical energy,
being in this respect the converse of the dynamo. The
direct current motor has the same parts as the direct
current dynamo, namely, field magnet, commutator and
brushes, and armature. In fact every direct current dy-
namo may be run as a motor, if a current is passed through
it. The armature may be either a Gramme ring or a
drum armature.
For example, let us study how the Gramme ring (Fig.
318) acts when used as a motor. A current entering the
coils of the ringby the brush B' divides at 0, half of it go-
ing through the coils on the sid-e D
and half through the
coils on the side A. The two parts of the current unite
t and These currents make
at pass out by the brush B.
an electro-magnet of the ring with its E
north pole at and
its south pole at 0. Although the ring
(See rule,
480.)
revolves, the poles remain stationary near the points and
E because the brushes by which the current enters and
leaves the armature are stationary. The rotation of the
armature occurs because the south pole at is repelled by
8 and attracted by JV, and the north pole at is repelled E

by N and attracted by Observe that the direction of
8.
rotation is opposite to that which it had as a dynamo.
The motor may be reversed by changing the direction of
the current either in the field coils or in the armature, but
not by reversing the current in both at once.
CURRENTS INDUCED BY CURRENTS 437
Apparatus M (Fig. 275) may be made into a motor to

illustrate the action of a drum armature in a motor.
The action is very similar to that of the Gramme ring.
Let a two-part commutator be placed on the rod d and
a brush holder be attached to the rod A. Then let
one part of the commutator be connected to d and the
other part to c by wires, and let magnets be placed on each
side of the coil to furnish the field. If a current is then
passed through the coil, it will revolve rapidly.

Motors, like dynamos, may be either series-wound or
shunt-wound. In the former, the fields are wound with a
few turns of heavy wire which are joined in series with the
armature in the latter, the field coils have finer wire and
;
are connected in parallel with the armature. Street car

motors are usually series- wound, while other motors are
more often shunt-wound.
523. The counter E.M.F. of a motor. When the armature of a
motor is revolving, it tends to act like a dynamo and to set up an
E.M.F. in opposition to the current which is passing through it. In-
deed, in a good motor running at full speed, this opposing or counter
E.M.F. is so great as to diminish the current through the armature
very greatly. In a motor just starting, this counter E.M.F. is at
first
zero and the current through the armature might be so great as to

burn the wire and insulation. To prevent this the full pressure is not
applied to the armature all at once, but gradually through a rheostat.
It is by overcoming this counter E.M.F. of the motor that the cur-
rent does work. The counter E.M.F. x the amperes = the rate at which
the electrical energy is
changed into mechanical energy.
VIII. CURRENTS INDUCED BY CURRENTS

524. Current induction by the magnetic field of another
current. It has been shown that an electric current has
a magnetic field about it, and that a coil carrying a current
acts like a magnet. We
should therefore expect that a
current in one coil could produce a current in another coil
by induction. Experiment proves this to be true. The

coil in which the inducing current flows is known as the
primary coil and the one in which the currents are induced,
as the secondary coil.
Almost any two coils may be used to illustrate this prin-
ciple experimentally; but coils made by winding wire

about short lengths of pasteboard mailing tubes answer
admirably for the purpose. Let one coil be made by wind-
ing 500 turns of No. 28 wire on a tube about 12 cm. long
and 5 cm. in and another coil, by winding
diameter ;
about 300 turns of No. 25 wire on a tube about 3 cm. in

diameter.
Experiment. Let the 500-turn coil, S (Fig. 321), be joined to the

galvanometer G and constitute the secondary, and the other coil, P, be
joined to two bichromate or
dry cells to act as a primary
coil,the two coils being sup-
ported on a wooden rod. The
experiment may be divided
into six distinct operations :
(1) Let one end of the

FIG. 321. Apparatus for illustrating cur- . ., ,
, , ,
rent induction by means of another primary coil be brought near

current. to one en(l f tne secondary
coil, or let the primary coil
be introduced into the secondary. The galvanometer will show the
presence of an induced current in the secondary during this movement.
(2) Remove the primary coil away from the secondary, and again
a current will be induced in the secondary.
(3) While the primary coil rests within the secondary, let the cir-
cuit of the primary be made. A
momentary current will be induced
in the secondary.
(4) Again with the coils in the same position as in the last case,
let theprimary circuit be broken. A momentary induced current will
occur in the secondary at the instant the primary circuit is broken.
(5) Let some kind of rheostat be placed in the primary circuit,

so that the current may be increased or decreased at pleasure. With
the primary coil within the secondary or close to it, let the primary
CURRENTS INDUCED BY CURRENTS 439
current be suddenly increased. This will cause a current in the sec-

ondary.
(6) Let the current in the primary be decreased and a current will
be induced in the secondary by the operation.
Observe that the 1st, 3d, and 5th operations are alike
in that they increase the lines of force threading the sec-
ondary. If the directions of the primary and secondary

currents are traced out in these cases, the direction of the
secondary current will be found in each case to be opposite
to that of the primary.
The 2d, 4th, and 6th cases are alike in that they de-
crease the lines of force threading the secondary, and the
direction of the induced current is the same as that of the
inducing current.
The 1st and 2d of these methods are used in the induc-
tion coil ( 528), and the 5th and 6th are used in connec-
tion with the telephone ( 530).
Let the two coils be supported upon a rod of soft iron
instead of wood and the six operations be repeated. The
induced currents will be very much stronger than before
because the number of lines of force is greatly increased
by the presence of the iron.
525. The transformer. If an iron ring rr (Fig. 322)
has two independent coils of insulated wire A and B wound
upon it, an alternating current in one
of them will induce an alternating
current in the other. Let us suppose
coil A to be connected to an alternat-
ing generator. The current starting
at zero in the direction of arrow 1
rises to a maximum, and then, falling
'
to zero, starts in the direction of
arrow 2, again rising to a maximum and
in that direction
falling to zero. These changes go on continuously and

rapidly. The current in the first direction magnetizes the

ring with the lines of force extending around in the ring
in a clockwise direction; but the ring loses its magnetism
and immediately remagnetized, when the current
is
changes direction, with the lines of force counter clock-

wise in the ring. In this way an alternating current is in-
duced in coil B because lines of force are made to
thread it alternately, first in one direction and then in the
other.
The E.M.F.'s in the two coils are directly proportional
to the number of turns of wire in them. If coil B, which
is the secondary, has
100 times as many
turns as J., then the
E.M.F. in B is 100
times as great as in A.
Such an arrangement,
which increases the
E.M.F., is called a
"step-up" trans-
former. On the other
hand, if A, the primary,
has the greater number
of turns, the E.M.F.
in B will be less than
in A. It is then called
FIG. 323. A commercial transformer, the a "step-down" trans-

outside shaped like a figure 8, is the lami- former. The E.M.F.
nated core; the coils are wound upon the < i, ,
of an alternating cur-
crosspiece of the 8.
rent may in this way

be greatly increased or reduced with little loss of energy,
and it is for this reason that the alternating current is
so largely used for many practical purposes, especially for
transmitting electrical energy over long distances.

CURRENTS IXDUCELT BY CURRENTS 441
If the iron ring is one piece of metal, eddy or Foucault

currents are induced in it as well as in the wire upon it,
and the energy of the current is wasted in heat. In com-
mercial transformers (Fig. 323) the magnetic circuit is
built up of thin sheets of iron to prevent this loss. *

526. Self-induction. We have seen how a current may
be induced in one coil by means of a current in another
coil not connected with it; but two
separate coils are not necessary for in-
duction. For example, when a current
is started through A
(Fig. 324), each
separate turn of acts inductively on
it
all of the others the turn a develops

;
lines of force which thread 6, <?, etc., and

b and c and all of the others do likewise. FIG. 324. Diagram
When the current starts in A, the in- rortiattag seif-in-
duction in a coil.
duced E.M.F. is in opposition to the P.D.
sending the current through A. This retards the current
so that it does not reach its full strength at once. When
the circuit of A is broken, the induced E.M.F. is in the
same direction as the P.D. sending the current through the
coil. This tends to prolong the current so that it cannot
stop instantly. This action giv-es to a current a property
like inertia. This inductive action occurring in the same
conductor as that in which the inducing current flows
is called self-induction.
Because self-induction retards the starting of a current
in a coil, the E.M.F. induced by making a circuit is always
verymuch less than that induced by breaking the circuit.

The current caused by self-induction is often called the
extra current.
Experiment. Let a large electro-magnet be placed in the circuit of

one or more dry cells. Arrange the wires so that the circuit may be
made and broken by touching two free ends and separating them
again. Grasp the bare ends of the wires with the moistened thumb
and finger of each hand and make and break the circuit with them.
At the break, of the circuit, the E.M.F. due to the self-induction may
be great enough to give quite a shock to the arms, although the
E.M.F. of the battery is imperceptible.
Again complete the circuit by dipping the ends of the wire into
some mercury, then break it by lifting one wire quickly from the
mercury. A bright spark will be produced at the break by the
self-induction.
527. Induction by alternating currents. Many towns have the
alternating current for electric lighting. If such a current is avail-
able, some very interesting experiments in induction may be made
with an apparatus constructed as follows Sufficient soft iron wire,
:
such as stovepipe wire, is cut into 15-inch lengths to make a bundle

about 4 in. in diameter. This core is covered with insulating tape
and supported in an upright position by being set in a round hole in a
It is then wound for its whole
suitable base. length with two layers
of No. 12 magnet wire, the ends of the wire being attached to two
binding posts on the base. The terminals of a 110-volt alternating
circuit may be safely joined to this coil without other resistance. We
will designate this apparatus as coil P.
Experiment. Make a coil 6 in. in diameter of four turns of

No. 12 wire, joining the ends of the wire by a short piece of fine plati-
num wire. When this coil is placed over coil P, the currents induced
in it will heat the platinum wire red-hot.
Experiment. Make a compact coil of 500 turns of No. 22 wire.
The opening in the coil should'be about 6 in., or large enough to slip
over coil P
without touching it. Join the ends of this coil to a lamp
socket in which a 110-volt incandescent lamp is placed. Lower this
coil over coil P. The lamp will be lighted very brilliantly by the
induced currents.
Experiment. Let a heavy copper ring about 6 in. in diameter be

supported about the upper part of coil P. At the closing of the circuit
of coil P, this ring will be thrown upward and away from P. This
repulsion occurs because the alternating currents induced in the ring
are for the most part opposite to those in coil P.
If the ring is held in position about coil P, it soon becomes very
hot. The induced currents in the ring are very large and they cause
large currents in coil P
also. The operator should make sure that the
wires and fuses leading to his coil are sufficient for this purpose.
CURRP:XTS INDUCED BY CURRENTS 443
Experiment. Secure from the tinner a ringlike dish of copper

having an opening large enough so that it may be placed over or
around coil P. Fill this dish with water and place it so that it
encircles coil P near its center. The water will soon be made to boil
by the heat caused by the induced currents in the dish.
528. The induction coil (Fig. 325) consists of a large coil

of very many turns of fine insulated wire, within which
there is another coil
consisting of one or
a very few layers of
coarse wire. A core
consisting of a bun-
dle of iron wires ex-
tends through the
inner coil. The FIG. 325. Induction coil.
coarse wire, which is

connected to a battery, forms the primary coil. The coil
of fine wire, often many miles in length, is the secondary
in which currents are induced by the making and breaking
of the primary circuit ( 524). A current interrupter, a
device for making and breaking the primary circuit rapidly,
is necessary ad-
a
junct to the induc-
tion coil. Usually
it is a part of the
instrument itself, as
described here ; but
often it is a separate
affair.
Figure 326 shows

the arrangement of
FIG. 326. Diagram of an induction coil.
the parts of an in-
duction coil. CO represents the iron core, the heavy wire
PP the primary coil, and the fine wire SS the second-
ary coil. RR' is a flat strip of spring brass fixed at R

and carrying a block of soft iron i this is the current
;
interrupter. The current passes from the battery B

through the primary coil PP
to R, up the spring to RR '
0, then to the screw W, down the post L, and back to the
battery. The passage of the current through the primary

coil magnetizes the core (7(7, which attracts the iron block
1, and bends the spring RR' away from the screw W.
This breaks the circuit at o.
As magnetism and the

a result of this, the core loses its
spring flies back against the screw W, again making the

circuit at o. In this way the spring is caused to vibrate
and to make and break the circuit rapidly at the point o.
At each make, a current is induced in the secondary
opposite in direction to that in the primary; at each

break, a current is induced in the secondary having a
direction the same as that in the primary.
The E.M.F.'s induced in the secondary are extremely
high because of the very great number of turns of wire in
that coil ( 525). If the distance between the terminals
is not too great, the current induced at the break
in the primary leaps across the gap, forming a spark.
Coils giving sparks more than three feet in length
have been made, and those giving 12-inch or even longer
sparks are not uncommon. The P.D. between the ter-
minals of these large coils is very great, sometimes more
than 2,000,000 volts.
Currents from small coils are passed through the human
body for therapeutic purposes, but the shock from a coil of
even moderate size may be dangerous. The induction coil
has many other practical uses. The spark of the coil is
used in chemistry for igniting gases it is also used for
;
firing mines and blasts, and in gasoline engines to ignite

the mixture of air and gasoline vapor. Wireless telegraphy,
TELEPHONE 445
the X-ray, and the telephone, all make use of the induction
coil.
529. The condenser. On account of self-induction in the primary,

a condenser ( 428) usually attached to an induction coil (Fig.
is
826). It consists of many layers of tin foil and is contained in the

base of the instrument. When the circuit is broken at 0, the extra
current jumps across the break, forming a spark at that place. The
heat of this spark burns the end of the screw as well as the point
of contact on the spring. The spark also prolongs the time of break-
ing the circuit and thus lessens the induced E. M. F. in the secondary.
The condenser, which is joined to points on each side of o, prevents
these sparks at o to a great extent and thus makes the break more
abrupt. Instead of jumping across the gap at o, the extra current

rushes into the condenser and charges it. The condenser, however, is
immediately discharged around through the primary and the battery.
As this discharge is opposite to the battery current, it helps to demag-
netize the core at the break. Since the starting of the current in the
primary at the make is considerably prolonged by self-induction, the
E.M.F. in the secondary at the make is too small to cause a spark at
the terminals. The discharge, therefore, occurs only at the break and
only in one direction.
IX. TELEPHONE
The telephone, invented by Alexander Graham
530.
Bell and first exhibited by him in Philadelphia in 1876, is
wonderfully simple in construction, although the tele-

phone as we know it to-day is a somewhat complicated
combination of several instruments.
The Bell telephone proper is the
instrument which we place at the
ear and now call the receiver. The
instrument into which we speak is
known as the transmitter. The tele-

receiver may be used as a
phone ...
1-11 i
transmitter and, indeed, was so used
F IG 327. Diagram of - a
telephone receiver,
at first.
The receiver consists of a permanent bar magnet M

(Fig. 327) having a small spool s of fine insulated wire
around one end of it. Near the same end of the magnet
isa disk or diaphragm of thin soft iron DD. The parts
are inclosed in a case of hard rubber, the diaphragm
being clamped firmly all around its edge so that it
may vibrate at its center like a drumhead. It must
not, however, touch the end of the magnet as it vi-
brates. The receiver may be actuated by either an
alternating or a fluctuating current which passes through
the wire wound upon the spool. To one understanding
the electro-magnet it is obvious that the attraction of the
magnet M for the center of the disk is changed by each
alternation or fluctuation of this current. This variation
in the strength of the magnet causes the disk to vibrate
in harmony with the variations of the current. The
vibrations of the disk produce sound waves in the air, and
hence the receiver transforms the energy of the electric
current into the energy of
sound, a form of mechanical

energy.
In recent years the receiver
has been slightly modified by
substitution of a U -shaped
tlle
Ito. 328.-Section of a telepZe
receiver. magnet for the bar magnet
(Fig. 328).
When two receivers are connected by wires as shown in
Figure 329, either one may be used as a transmitter while
Line Ftire
FIG. 329. Diagram of two receivers connected.
the other is used as a receiver. The sound waves striking

the diaphragm of the one used as a transmitter cause it
TELEPHONE 447
to vibrate so that its center alternately approaches and

recedes from the end of the magnet. When it approaches
the magnet, it increases the lines of force that thread the
spool of wire; when it recedes, the lines of force are
decreased. This action induces alternating currents in
the wire, which, passing to the other receiver and through
cause its diaphragm to vibrate and reproduce the
its coil,
words spoken at the first one. Conversation may in this

way be carried on by two receivers a few miles apart.
The earth may be substituted for one of the wires con-
necting the two instruments.
531. The microphone. A simple form of this instru-
ment is shown in Figure 330. B and B are two short
rods of carbon fastened to an upright support, and O is a
third rod of carbon with pointed
ends which rest loosely in two little
cavities in the rods B and B.
These three rods form part of a
battery circuit in which a tele-
phone receiver is placed. The
slightest disturbance of the con- FIG. 330. Microphone,
tacts between the rod and the
rods B and B
changes the resistance to the current at
those points and hence causes a change in the strength
of the current throughout the circuit. It is said that
even a fly walking on the base of the instrument may
cause sufficient disturbance of the contacts to produce
an audible sound in the receiver. This action of loose
carbon contacts, which has proved of great practical
importance, was discovered in 1878 by Professor Hughes
in England, and independently by Edison in this country
in the same year.
532. Transmitters. The Bell receiver isexceedingly
sensitive as a receiver, but it is not a very satisfactory
transmitter. For that reason some form of a microphone

or instrument depending 011 loose carbon contacts is
used as a transmitter in connection with the receiver.
In one form, now much used, there is a small space E
(Fig. 331), between two carbon disks, A and B, which
is filled with grains of hard carbon. The back disk A
is fixed, the front disk B is attached
to the diaphragm (7. The two disks
and the grains of carbon between them
form part of a battery circuit, the
current passing by a wire to one disk,
through the granules to the other disk,
-Diagram ty a, w j re ^ck to., the battery.
FIG. 331. of
anc[ t i ien
a transmitter. TT _. ,. .
When
sound waves strike the dia-
phragm C* they cause vibrations in it which are communi-
cated to the disk B and to the carbon granules. Every
variation of contact among these granules causes a change
of resistance to the current passing through them, and
consequently a change in the current strength. The cur-

rent therefore fluctuates with every movement of the dia-_
phragm. This fluctuating current may itself be sent to a
distant receiver, but usually it is sent through the primary
of a small induction coil, and the alternating currents
induced in the secon'dary pass to the distant telephone.
X. CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF THE ELECTRIC CURRENT

533. The - - In order to conduct a
electrolytic cell.
current through liquid, wires from a
a battery or a
dynamo are joined to two metal plates A and B (Fig.

332), which are immersed in the liquid. These plates
are the electrodes, the one A
by which the current enters
the liquid being the anode, and the other, by which it
leaves, the cathode. The anode is positive and the
CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF THE ELECTRIC CURRENT 449
cathode is negative. If the liquid contains molecules
capable of dissociation into two parts or ions, it is called
-Cathode
Anode-,
Voltaic cells Electrolytic cell
FIG. 332. Cells arranged for electrolysis of CuSO4 .
an electrolyte, and the whole arrangement constitutes an

electrolytic cell.
Experiment. Let two strips of platinum foil be attached to the

ends of wires joined to the poles of a battery of two or more cells.
The strip joined to the positive pole or cathode of the battery will be
the positive electrode, or anode, of the electrolytic cell. The other one
will be the negative electrode, or cathode. When these strips of foil
are dipped into a tumbler containing some copper sulphate (CuSO 4 )
dissolved in water, bubbles of oxygen gas will be seen escaping from
the positive electrode, and after a short time the negative electrode
will be covered with a bright coating of the metal copper. It is,
indeed, electroplated with copper. The tumbler with the solution

and plates is an electrolytic cell.
When copper sulphate (CuSO 4 ) is dissolved in water,

some of its molecules break up into two ions, Cu and
SO 4 . The Cu ion is positively charged, and the sulphion
(SO 4 ) negatively charged. The negative electrode attracts
the + Cu ions and the positive electrode repels them, so
that they travel toward the cathode and are there
deposited, delivering up their charges to the plate.

On
the other hand the negative SO 4 ions are urged toward the
anode, to which they deliver their negative charges. It

ADAMS'S PHYS. 29
is in this that all liquids, except molten metals, are

way
supposed conduct
to electricity. Pure liquids like water
and alcohol are not electrolytes and Cannot conduct
electricity.
The process of separating a liquid into two parts by
passing a current through it is called electrolysis.
534. The products of electrolysis appear only at the
electrodes, no apparent action occurring in the liquid
between them. The final
products process areof the
often the results of further chemical actions between the
deposited ions and the electrodes or the solvent. For
example, in the above experiment with platinum electrodes
sulphions (SO 4 ) go to the anode, but they immediately
attack the water present, taking its hydrogen to form sul-
phuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) and setting its oxygen free. Hence
the final products are copper at one electrode and sul-
phuric acid and oxygen at the other.
The nature of the electrode itself often affects the
final results. For instance, in the experiment just de-
scribed, when the positive electrode is a copper plate
instead of a platinum one, the final product at that
electrode is copper sulphate (CuSO 4 ), instead of sulphuric
acid and oxygen. This result is produced because the
sulphions take atoms of copper from the plate itself
and with them form copper sulphate. In this way a
new molecule of copper sulphate is formed as often as
one destroyed by the electrolysis. The solution remains
is
constant in strength, but the anode loses in weight

while the cathode gains.
535. Electroplating. The principle just described is
utilized in electroplating. The object to be plated is
made the negative electrode of the electrolytic cell (Fig.

333). The electrolyte is a solution of some salt of the
metal with which the object is to be plated, and the
cathode a plate of the same metal. Thus, in making

is
silver-plated ware, the liquid is a solution of cyanide

of silver, and the anode is a piece of solid silver, from
which silver passes
into solution as fast
as it is deposited on
the objects being
plated. For this
reason the solution
may be used in-
-> r* -, T FIG. 333. Diagram of an electroplating tank.
536. Electrotyping. Books as a general thing are not

printed from type, but from electrotype plates. The page
is first set in common type, and an exact impression of it
is made in a wax plate. This plate or mold is to be made

the negative electrode in an electroplating bath of copper
sulphate; but as it is composed of nonconducting material,
its surface must first be rendered conducting before the
electrolysis can proceed. done by sifting finely
This is
powdered graphite upon it, and sometimes its surface is

sifted over with fine iron filings and then washed with a
solution of copper sulphate. This last process deposits a
thin film of copper by a chemical method on the plate.
The mold is now ready for the plating bath, in which it re-
mains until a sheet of copper has been deposited upon it
as thick as a visiting card. This sheet of copper, which is
an exact complement of the impression in the wax and
hence a copy of the type which made the impression, is
now strengthened by having molten type metal poured
over its back to the depth of an eighth of an inch.
537. Electrolysis of water. Since pure water is not an
electrolyte, a small quantity of sulphuric acid is added to
it to render it conducting. The most convenient means
for the electrolysis of water is Hofmann's apparatus
(Fig. 334). If, however, this is not at hand, two test
tubes filled with the electrolyte and inverted in a dish

of it may be used. The platinum
electrodes, sealed in bent glass
tubes and connected to the wires
of the battery by mercury placed
in these tubes, are inserted under
the mouths of the test tubes.
When the circuit is closed, bub-
bles of gas form on the electrodes
O
and rise to the top of the tubes,
H
collecting twice as fast over the
negative as over the positive
electrode. When the tube over
the negative is full, the gas in it
may be shown to be hydrogen by
the application of a lighted match
to it. It will burn with almost a
Anode IF^ Cathode
colorless flame. The gas in the
other -tube may be shown to be
oxygen by its causing a glowing
splinter to burst into flame.
FIG. 334. Diagram of Hof- It is supposed that in this
mann's apparatus for the
electrolysis of water. decomposition of water by elec-
trolysis the hydrogen ions of the

sulphuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) pass to the negative electrode,
and, giving up their positive charges, appear as hydrogen
gas; also that theSO 4 ions pass to the positive electrode,
where, giving up their negative charges, they unite with
the hydrogen of the water (H 2 O) to form a new molecule
of sulphuric acid. The oxygen of the water left after the
hydrogen has been taken from it rises in bubbles from the

electrode. Thus none of the acid, which is the real
electrolyte, is destroyed, while the water is in the end
decomposed. Note that the action here -described at the

positive electrode is the same as that given in 534.
538. The battery.

storage Experiment. Let two lead plates,
about 4 x 6 be fastened to a strip of wood a half inch thick
in.,
(Fig. -335), and suspended in a jar containing about ten parts of water
to one of sulphuric acid. Join two wires to these
plates and connect them to a battery of two
bichromate cells, placing an ammeter or a gal-
vanometer of low resistance in the circuit. This
forms an electrolytic cell, and when the circuit is
closed, the water is decomposed as in the last ex-
periment. The oxygen, however, instead of
escaping in bubbles, unites with the lead of the

positive plate, forming lead peroxide (PbO.,),
which covers the plate as a dark brown coating.
The hydrogen escapes at the negative plate.
\Vhile this is going on, the ammeter shows that
the current from the battery is diminishing. FlG 335 Electro-
- -
After a time disconnect the wires from the lytic cell with lead
, . . v n i rrn_. electrodes, used as
,
The
,
battery and join them to an electric bell. storage cell

bell will now ring, and the ammeter will show
that the electrolytic cell is sending a current back through it opposite
in direction to the original current.
This experiment illustrates the principle of the storage

battery. While the current is being sent through it from
the battery it is being "charged," and during the electro-
lytic process chemical potential energy is being stored,
not electricity. Just as much electricity comes out of the
cell at the cathode as passes into it at the anode, but some
of the energy of* the current remains in the cell and is

transformed from a kinetic to a potential form. When
" "
the cell is used to ring the bell, it is being discharged
and is then virtually a voltaic cell. The dark brown plate
isthe positive plate both during the charging and the dis-
charging of the cell. During the charging an opposing

E.M.F. develops in the cell, which opposes and weakens
the charging current and which causes the current of the

discharge. The transformation of energy is reversed
during the discharge, for the stored potential energy is
changed back again into the kinetic energy of the electric
current. During this double transformation of energy
some energy is wasted, so
that the efficiency of the
storage battery is only

about 75%.
In commercial cells
(Fig. 336) the plates are

prepared by pressing a
paste made of lead oxide
and sulphuric acid into
interstices in them. In
this way a large amount of
"active material" is pro-
vided. In practice the two
electrodes consist of many
plates placed close to-
gether, positive and nega-

FIG. 336. Storage cell. tive plates alternately.
In this way the internal
resistance of the cells is made very small, and large
currents can be obtained from them. The E.M.F. of
a lead storage cell is usually 2 volts.
539. Faraday's laws of electrolysis. Faraday deter-
mined experimentally two laws of electrolysis (1834).
I. The, quantity of an electrolyte decomposed by electrol-
ysis is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity

it.
passing through
Because of this law it is possible to measure the
quantity of electricity passing through circuit by a
electrolysis ; also if the current is uniform, its strength
may be determined. An electrolytic cell used for the

purpose of measuring current strength is called a vol-
tameter. A few years ago electric lighting companies
measured the electricity used in our homes by means of
a voltameter consisting of a little bottle containing a
solution of sulphate and two zinc plates.
zinc Each
month the quantity of electricity used was determined by
weighing the negative plate and finding its gain in
weight. In fact the ampere itself is defined as that
strength of current which under suitable conditions
by electrolysis 0.001118 g. of silver per second.
deposits
The amount of an element deposited by one ampere in
one second is known as the electro-chemical equivalent of
that element.
II. The electro-chemical equivalent of an element
is pro-
portional chemical equivalent.

to its
For example, 31.7 g. of copper, or 32.5 g. of zinc, or

108 g. of silver are required to take the place of 1 g.
of hydrogen in chemical compounds, and hence these
numbers are respectively the chemical equivalents of
copper, zinc, and silver. A current that sets free 1 g.

of hydrogen would in the same time deposit 31.7 g. of
copper, 32.5 g. of zinc, or 108 g. of silver.

540. Uses of electrolysis. Besides the several uses
already mentioned, electrolytic processes are now con-

ducted on a great scale for commercial purposes. Copper
and other metals are refined by it. The metals aluminum
and sodium, and other chemical products, are manufac-
tured by electrolytic processes. The metals sodium and
potassium were first discovered by electrolysis by Sir
Humphry Davy in 1807.
XL ENERGY OF THE CURRENT HEAT EFFECTS

The energy of an electric current. - - To develop
541.
an E.M.F. and to maintain an electric current requires
an expenditure of energy. In a voltaic cell chemical
potential energy is used for the purpose in a dynamo, ;
mechanical energy obtained by means of steam engines

or water wheels is used. The chemical energy or the
mechanical energy is transformed into electrical energy
which somewhere in the circuit is given back again, in
the form of heat, mechanical energy, or chemical energy.
The energy of the current depends upon two factors:
(1) the quantity of electricity transferred, and (2) the
P.D. of the points between which it is transferred. If
Q = the quantity of electricity, and E
= the P.D., then
energy of the current = E x Q.
If the quantity is expressed in coulombs and the P.D.
in volts, then the energy is given in joules.
Volts x coulombs = joules' of work or energy.
The power of the electric current means its rate of

542.
expending or absorbing energy. Since an ampere means

one coulomb of electricity per second,
volts X amperes = joules of work per second. (1)
By definition ( 92) one joule of work per second = one
watt. Hence,
volts = watts, or El = watts.
x amperes (2)
Since volts x amperes = joules per second, volts x am-
peres x seconds = the total amount of work done in

any number of seconds, or in symbols,
Eit = j; (3)
J" representing work or energy in joules.
ENERGY OF THE CURRENT HEAT EFFECTS 457
If the used simply in overcoming

energy of a current is
resistance, we may substitute RI for ( 495) in the E

above equations. We thus obtain from equation (3)
PRt = J.
If we wish to express electrical power in horse power,

we may do so by dividing the number of watts obtained
by 746, since 746 watts equal one horse power. Elec-
trical machinery is usually rated in kilowatts. A kilo-
watt equals 1000 watts and is almost exactly of a horse
power.
Problems
1. How many amperes represent a horse power when the P.D. is
'2 volts?
2. How many volts P.D. are necessary for a horse power when the
current is 2 amperes?
3. An ordinary 16 candle power incandescent lamp requires 0.5
ampere of current when the P.D. between its terminals is 110 volts.
How many watts are required to operate the lamp and how many per
candle power?
4. A certain building is lighted by 1017 such lamps. A steam
engine of what horse power would be required to furnish the current
when all of the lamps are in use, provided no energy were wasted ?
5. In an Edison station the dynamos are rated at 6000 kilowatts,
and the P.D. between their terminals is' 4600 volts. How many
amperes does a dynamo furnish when running at its full capacity?
6. What horse power is required to maintain a current of 4 amperes
through a resistance of 373 ohms?

7. An arc lamp requires a current of 9.75 amperes and the P.D.
between its terminals is 50 volts. What power does it absorb?

8. A 10 horse power engine is required to run a dynamo wliich
maintains a current of 16 amperes through an external resistance of

25 ohms. Show that the efficiency of the dynamo is about 86 %.
9. How many joules of energy are absorbed by a current of 1
ampere flowing for 10 sec. through a wire having 50 ohms of resist-

ance? By a current of 2 amperes ? 4 amperes ? 10 amperes ?
10. How large a steam engine is necessary to maintain a P.D of

220 volts between two points connected by a conductor having a resist-
ance of 4 ohms ?
543. Heat produced by the electric current. All that

part of the energy of the electric current which is used
simply in overcoming the resistance of the conductor is
converted into heat by the resistance. This conversion of
kinetic electrical energy into heat by resistance is analo-
gous to the transformation of mechanical energy into

heat by friction. We
have already studied how some of
the energy of the current is transformed into mechanical
energy by the electric motor, also how it may be converted
into chemical energy by electrolysis.
The heating effect of a current nmy be illustrated by
joining the terminals of a bichromate cell or of a dry cell
by a very short, thin platinum wire. This will be heated
to incandescence by the current.
Experiment. Let a thin iron wire about 1 m. long be stretched be-
tween two supports and a current passed through it. At first if the
current is not very strong, the only observable effect will be a sagging
of the wire because it expands by the heat. If, however, the wire is
in the lighting circuit of the building or is connected to a storage

battery and the current can be gradually increased, it may be made
white-hot or even easily melted.
Instead of using an iron wire a meter long, join a thin copper wire
of the same size to the end of the iron wire by twisting their ends
together and stretch the two between t!ie supports so that about a
third of the length is iron and the remainder is copper. If the cur-
rent is sent through this, the iron part may be made red-hot or even
melted, while the copper wire is warmed very little. The iron offers
more resistance than the copper and for that reason is heated more.
544. Joule's law. We

have learned (370) that 4. 187
joules of mechanical energy are equivalent to 1 gram-cal-
orie of heat; 1 joule must therefore be equal to of a
calorie, or in the decimal form to 0.2388 calorie. It is

customary to use the number 0.24 instead of 0.2388 as

the equivalent of a joule in heat.
Since the energy expended by a current in t seconds in
overcoming resistance
expressed in is
joules by I^Rt, then
0.24 x I 2 Rt gives the amount of heat produced by the
current in gram-calories. Let H
-represent the heat thus
produced; then,
This equation teaches that

The heat developed in a conductor by an electric current is
proportional (1) square of the current strength, (2) to

to the
the resistance of the conductor, and (3) to the time the current
flows.
These facts were worked out experimentally by Joule
in 1841, and the above statement is known as Joule's law.
545. Practical applications of the heating effect of the
electric current are very numerous. Electric flatirons,
soldering irons, griddle plates, and many other devices are

in common use. These are heated by currents passing
through coils of wire of considerable resistance which are
placed in them. Houses are sometimes heated and cook-
ing done is
by the heat of the electric
current. Electric welding is also one of
the practical applications of this principle.
To protect electric wires from the heat
of too strong currents, fuses, consisting
often of short pieces of easily melted
wire, are placed in the circuit. Should the
current rise above a given limit, these fuses
"
melt or " blow and the circuit is broken.
_ . _ _, FIG. 337. Ineandes-
546. The incandescent lamp
electric ce nt electric lamp.
(Fig. 337) is the most common example

of the heating effect of the electric current. It consists
of a fine thread or filament of carbon, resembling a
horsehair, which is placed in a glass bulb. The ends

of this filament are joined to two platinum wires
which are fused into the end of a glass tube entering
the bulb. These platinum wires are joined to two brass
parts at the base of the lamp which are insulated
from each other. When the lamp is screwed into its
socket, these two brass pieces are brought into electrical
connection with the two wires leading to the dynamo.
Recently lamps have been produced in which the filament
consists of thin wires made of the metal tungsten and
other rare metals.
The
filament has a high resistance, so that a small cur-
rent passing through it heats it to incandescence. The
air isexhausted from the bulb, otherwise the oxygen
would unite with the filament and burn it up.
An ordinary 16 candle power lamp used on a 110-volt
circuit requires about 0.5 of an ampere. This by Ohm's
law gives the resistance of the lamp as 220 ohms when the
lamp hot, and the rate of consumption of energy as 55
is
watts, or about 3.5 watts per candle power. The lamps

with metallic filaments require from 1 to 2 watts per
candle power.
547. The Nernst lamp has, instead of a carbon filament, a tiny rod
or glower, composed of oxides of rare earths, which is heated by the
current passing through it. This glower is a nonconductor when it
is cold and must be heated in some way before it will operate. This
isusually done by some coils of fine platinum wire placed near the
glower and heated by the current passing through them after the ;
lamp begins to glow, the current iscut out of the platinum coils and
passes only through the glower. The glower of the Nernst lamp is
incombustible and does not need to be inclosed in a bulb. It requires
about 1.7 watts per candle power.
548. The electric arc. When two conductors which

are connected to the poles of a large battery or of a
dynamo are brought together for an instant and then

separated a short distance, a kind of electric flame, called

the electric arc, is produced between them. This was
discovered by Sir Humphry Davy and wasexhibited by
him on a grand scale at the Royal Institution in 1808.
He used two pieces of charcoal for his conductors, which
were joined to a battery of about 2000 cells. The heat
and the light So great
of the electric arc are very intense.
is the heat that the most refractory substances are melted
and vaporized in it. It is the vapor thus formed at the

end of the negative conductor that forms the arc and
transmits the current across the space. The temperature
of the arc is between 3500 and 4000 C.
549. The arc lamp (Fig. 338) consists of an electric arc
between two rods of dense carbon. The greater part of
the light comes from the ends of the
carbons, which are heated to a very high
temperature, the positive being much
hotter than the negative. In the tip of
the positive carbon there is a small in-
dentation, called the crater, which is the
brightest part of the arc. In the open
air the carbons burn away quite rapidly,
the positive about twice as fast as the
negative. "Inclosed arc" lamps have a
small globe, nearly air-tight, surround-
ing the arc, which prevents the free
access of oxygen, and the carbons last
about ten times as long as in the open
arc. As the carbons waste away the arc
soon breaks, unless the FIG. 338. Poles of
lengthens until it
an arc lamp.
distance between them is readjusted. If
the arc broken, the carbons must be brought together

is
again to reestablish it. The movement of the carbons is

usually controlled by the current itself through an electro-
magnetic mechanism too complicated to be described here.

Such lamps are called " automatic " lamps. So called
" hand-feed " in which the carbons are moved
lamps, by the
hand, are often used in electric stereopticons or lanterns.
550. Loss of energy by transmission. Suppose a house to be lighted
by 100 incandescent lamps, each requiring a current of 1 ampere and
a P.D. of 60 volts. By Ohm's law the resistance of each lamp will
be 60 ohms. Suppose the line wires or feeders connecting the lamps
to the dynamo to have a resistance of 1 ohm, what is the loss of
" "
potential or drop in the line when one lamp is in use ? What is
it when all of the lamps are in use ? When one lamp is in use, the
current is 1 ampere and the resistance of the line is 1 ohm. By
Ohm's law, E= RI, or 1 x 1 =is, the loss of potential in the
1; that
line is 1 volt. The dynamo must
therefore produce a P.D. of 61 volts
to maintain a P.D. of 60 volts at the lamp. The energy is consumed
in the lamp at the rate of 60 watts (/ x E
= 1 x 60 = 60 watts) in ;
the line, at the rate of 1 watt (1x1 = 1 watt). This means that 60
times as much energy is consumed in the lamp as in the line.
When all the lamps are in use, the current required is 100 amperes,
for the lamps are in parallel, and each lamp requires 1 ampere. The
potential drop in the line is RI = 1 x 100 volts. The energy is con-
sumed in the line at the rate of IE= 100 x 100 = 10,000 watts; the
energy is consumed in the lamps at the rate of IE = 100 x 60 = 6000
watts. The dynamo must therefore deliver to the circuit energy at
the rate of 16,000 watts, more than half, or 62i%, of which is wasted
in heat in the wires leading to the lamps. This loss may be reduced
by making the line wires larger so as to reduce the resistance but if
;
the distance becomes greater and the number of lamps increase, the
weight and cost of the copper wire necessary to transmit the energy
without undue waste become so great as to make this method of dis-
tribution practically impossible.
551- A more economical method. It is to be noted that the en-
ergy of a circuit does not depend on one thing alone, but upon two
factors not upon the amperes solely nor on volts alone, but upon the
;
product of the volts by the amperes. El

In the problem
watts.
just considered, the greater demand for energywas met by an increase
of the current factor or the amperes. This wefound to be a wasteful
method. However, the watts can be increased by increasing the P.D.
or volts factor. Let us consider this method.
Suppose the P.D. at the terminal of each lamp is 240 volts, and that
a lamp requires 0.25 ampere each lamp would then consume energy
;
at the same rate as before; 240 volts x 0.25 ampere = 60 watts.

When one lamp is in use, the loss of potential in the line is Rl= 1 x
0.25= 0.25 volt and the energy is consumed in the line at the rate
;
of IE = 0.25 x 0.25 = 0.0625 watts. This is & of what it was

before.
When allthe lamps are in use, the current required is 100 x .25 =
25 amperes. The drop in the line is RI = 1 x 25 = 25 volts, and the
energy is consumed in the line at the rate of 25 volts x 25 amperes =
625 watts. This again is ôf what it was before. The lamps in
both cases require the same amount of energy. These examples show
that by increasing the P.D. 4 times with a corresponding decrease in
the current strength, the same amount of energy may be transmitted
over the same wire with a loss ^
as great.
Joule's law, H= PRt x .24, also shows that the energy lost in
transmission increases as the square of the current and as the resist-
ance. Hence the transmission of large amounts of energy over long
distances cannot be done efficiently by large currents and small dif-
ferences of potential.
552. Long-distance transmission of electrical energy.

A dynamo which furnishes a current of 1000 amperes
under a pressure of 10 volts delivers energy at the same
rate as one furnishing 10 amperes under a pressure of
1000 volts ; but we have seen that in the latter case the
energy maybe carried to a distance with much greater
efficiency. Successful transmission of great power over
long distances depends on the possibility of using very
high potentials. Difficulties of insulation limit the poten-
tials to be used, but pressures of 70,000 volts are now
successfully employed.
By alternating currents and "step-up" transformers,
very great E.M.F.'s are generated and again at a distant
;
station, by "step-down" transformers, the P.D. may be

reduced to a low voltage suitable for operating motors and
lights.
In 1891, 140 horse power were transmitted from Lauffen
to Frankfurt, Germany, 117 miles, by three small wires,

with a net loss of only 26J6. This was the first attempt at
electrical transmission over a long distance on a large scale.
Since that time there has been a wonderful development in
the use of the alternating current for transmission of
electrical energy. For example, at Niagara Falls genera-
tors develop a pressure of 2300 volts, which is transformed
to 22,000 volts for transmission to Buffalo (22 mi.), where
it is again transformed to low voltage for operating street
cars, electric lights, and factories. Power is also trans-
mitted over a line about 200 miles long from Niagara to
Syracuse, N.Y., the pressure being 60,000 volts.
Problems
1. The main wires a house lighted by electricity are often
of
maintained at a constant P. I), of 120 volts, and each lamp which con-
nects these two wires has a resistance of about 240 ohrns. By apply-
"
ing Ohm's law and Joule's law, explain why, when the lamp is short
circuited," some portion of the circuit is melted or burned out. Short
circuiting means connecting the terminals or the mains by something
which has little resistance.
2. If the P.D. between the carbons of an arc lamp is 45 volts, and
the current is 9.75 amperes, at what rate is the
lamp consuming
energy? How many such lamps could be operated by a 100 H.P.
engine, if 20% of the energy is wasted?
3. How much heat produced by a current of 10 amperes flowing
is
for 30 min. through a resistance of 180 ohms?

4. How much heat would be produced if, in the last example, the
current is 20 amperes instead of 10?
5. If the E.M.F. remains the same, show that the amount of heat
generated in the circuit is doubled when the resistance is reduced
one half.
6. A 110- volt lamp requires 0.5 ampere, and has a resistance of

220 ohms. How much heat will be generated by such a lamp in an
hour?
ROXTGEN RAYS WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY 465
7. Suppose a coil of wire of 3.5 ohms' resistance is placed in 3 1. of
water at 20 C. AVhat will be the temperature of the water after 4

amperes has been flowing through the coil for 10 minutes ?
8. A current passed through a coil of wire having a resistance of
40 ohms which was placed in 200 g. of water. After 10 min. the

temperature of the water had risen 15 C. What was the current
strength ?
9. In Problems 3, 7, and 8, power absorbed in watts.

find the
10. How many 16 c.p. lamps can be run by a 4-kilowatt dynamo,

each lamp requiring 3.5 watts per c.p.? If the lamps are 50-volt
lamps, what current does it take ?
11. A building is lighted by 100 incandescent lamps, each requiring

1 ampere and a P.D. of 60 volts. Suppose the line wires or feeders
connecting the wires with the dynamo have a resistance of 0.6 ohm.
AVhat is the loss of potential or "drop" in the line when one lamp is
in use ? What portion of the energy of the current is consumed in the
lamp and in the line?

12. In the last problem, what is the loss of potential when all of
the lamps are in use ?

(100 lamps require 100 times the current that
1 lamp does.) How does the energy consumed in the line compare
with that consumed in the lamps?
Xn. RONTGEN RAYS WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY

553. The electric discharge through rarefied gases has
in recent years become of great importance. The gas
through which the discharge takes place is contained in
a glass tube (Fig.
339) in the ends of
which two platinum
wires are sealed.
These wires are
Connected to the FIG. 339. Tube for illustrating an electric dis-
, J
, charge through a rarefied gas.
terminals of the
secondary of a large induction coil or to those of a static
machine, and form the electrodes by which the electricity
enters and leaves the tube. The one by which it enters is
ADAMS'S PHYS. 30
the positive, or anode, and the other is the negative, or

cathode. These wires or electrodes often terminate at
their inner ends in a metal disk or ball.
The discharge occurs much more easily through a par-
tial vacuum than through air at ordinary pressure. This
may be shown by connecting such a
tube to an air pump at P. At first
sparks will pass between t and t', but
when the air in the tube becomes rarer
the discharge takes the longer path from
a to o. The passage of the electricity
produces some very beautiful and pecul-
iar luminous effects, which vary con-
siderably with the degree of exhaustion
of the tube and the nature of the resid-
ual gas. Tubes made in many forms
similar to that shown in Figure 340, in
which the exhaustion is carried to about
FIG. 340. Geissler -g^Q-
of an atmosphere, are called Geissler
tubes.
tubes. The beauty of the color effects
is enhanced by making parts of the tube of glass different
colors and shapes.
554. Crookes tubes and cathode rays. Sir William
Crookes investigated tubes in which the exhaustion
first
was carried to an extreme degree, perhaps to the millionth
part of an atmosphere. Such tubes are called Crookes

tubes, and in them the discharge assumes an entirely dif-
ferent character. From the cathode there is projected a
stream of negatively electrified corpuscles, called electrons,
which are believed to be very minute parts of the atoms
of matter. These streams of particles constitute the so-
called cathode rays. They proceed in straight lines at
right angles to the surface of the cathode. This is shown
by the fact that a concave cathode focuses them at a point
RONTGEN RAYS WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY 467
as a mirror does light and also by the sharp shadows which
pieces of mica produce when placed in their path (Fig.

341). They may, however, be
turned aside by a magnet (Fig.
342).
Cathode rays produce a faint
glow in the traces of gas left in
the tube, and brilliant fluores-
cent effects in objects upon
which they strike. If they FIG. 341. Crookes tube, show-
fallupon the walls of the tube, ing shadow cast by a unica cross
in cathode rays.
the glass glows usually with a
greenish yellow light, although the color depends upon
the nature of the glass. The impact of the rays upon
certain gems and on
various sulphides pro-
duces beautiful fluores-
cent colors.
Another important
characteristic of cathode
FIG. 342. Crookes tube, showing cathode
rays is the production
rays deflected by a magnet.
of heat in the objects
upon which they strike. The walls of the tube may be

melted by them and if
;
they are concentrated on a

piece of platinum, it may
be raised to a white heat
or even melted.
555. Rontgen rays, or
X-rays. When cathode

rays strike a solid, they give
rise to another kind of rays.
1^2^
called-Rontgen rays or X-ray Field
X-rays which start from .
FIG. 343. Routgeu tube.
the surface upon which the cathode rays fall. Figure

343 represents an X-ray tube, showing the curved cathode
and the plate from which the X-rays emanate.
X-rays are like cathode rays in that they produce fluor-
escence in the glass walls of the tube and also in other
substances upon which they fall like them also they pro-
;
ceed in straight lines. They further resemble cathode

rays in not being reflected, refracted, or polarized as
light is. X-rays are unlike cathode rays because they are
not deflected by a magnet or by an electrostatic charge,
and the latter have less penetrating power than the
former.
From these and other considerations it seems certain
that they do not consist of electrically charged particles,
nor on the other hand are they composed of trains of ether
waves like light. It is thought, however, that they may
consist of irregular wave-like pulses in the ether.
556. X-ray
photographs. X-rays affect the photo-
graphic plate in the same manner as light, but they pene-
trate many substances which are opaque to light. Dense
substances like iron and zinc cut off the rays, while light
substances like wood and flesh are transparent to them.
When the hand is placed between a photographic plate
and the X-ray tube, a shadow picture (Fig. 344) of the
more opaque parts, such as the bones, is produced on the
plate.
In the fluoroscope, which consists of a darkened box
having an opening fitting closely about the eyes, there is
a card covered with a fluorescent salt. When the hand
isplaced between the tube and this card, the X-rays cause
the card to glow except where they are cut off by the
bones of the hand or by other dense substances. Thus
the shadow of the bones of the hand is at once visible on
the card.
557. Electric waves. In 1864 James Clerk-Maxwell

of Cambridge, England, developed mathematically a theory
of electro-magnetic
waves propagated
through the ether
with the velocity of
light. Inl888Hein-
rich Hertz of Ger-
many proved the
existence of such
waves experimen-
tally. He produced
reflection, refraction,
interference, and
other phenomena
with them which are
exactly similar to
those we studied un-
der the subject of
light, and moreover

he showed the veloc-
ity of propagation of
these waves to be the
FIG. 344. X-ray picture of a child's hand.
same as that of light.
The only difference between light waves and electric
waves appears to be that of length. The longest light
waves that are capable of affecting the human eye have a
length of about 0.00008 cm.; the shortest electric
waves
so far measured are about 0.3 cm. long. They vary in
length from that to many meters. Intermediate between
the longest light and the shortest electric waves are cer-
tain so-called heat waves, the longest of which yet de-
tected are about 0.006 cm. All of these waves, however,
long or short, are of the same kind, and are regarded
as
electro- magnetic waves. The honor of establishing the

electro-magnetic theory of light belongs to Maxwell and
Hertz. To them also must be given the credit for open-
ing the way for wireless telegraphy.
Joseph Henry, an American, discovered in 1842 that

the spark discharge of a Ley den jar is oscillatory; that is,
the electricity does not pass once merely from one coating
to the other, but surges back and forth at a rate perhaps
of several million times per second. Spark discharges of
an induction coil are also oscillatory. Such oscillatory
discharges set up electric waves in the ether. For his
experiments Hertz used spark discharges produced by an
induction coil between polished metal balls and electric ;
waves for wireless telegraphy are produced in this manner.

558. Electrical resonance. We
have seen ( 214) how
sound waves in air produced by one tuning fork will cause
another fork to vibrate, provided the two forks have the
same period of vibration. We called this resonance. In
a strictly analogous way, electrical waves caused by the
oscillatory discharge of one Leyden jar will cause an
oscillatory discharge in another jar, provided the rates of
the two jars and their discharging circuits are the same.
This may be shown by the following experiment :
Experiment. Two exactly similar Leyden jars, A and (Fig. B

345), are fitted with rectangular loops of wire which join the inner
and outer coatings. The
rectangle of A is adjust-
able in size by a slider
S, and that of. B is
broken by a spark gap

at bb. A strip of tin foil
extends from the inner
coating of A up over the
FIG. 345. Apparatus for illustrating electrical edge of the jar and down
resonance. the outside almost to the
RONTGEN RAYS -WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY 471
outer coating, a gap of about a millimeter being left between them

at c. The jars are placed side by side with the loops of wire parallel
to each other, and the two coatings of B are joined to the terminals of
an induction machine or an induction coil. Every discharge of the
jar B across the spark gap bb produces surgings in the rectangle of B
and sends out electrical waves toward A. When the jars and rec-
tangles are tuned to unison by moving the slider S, these waves pro-
duce similar oscillations in jar A, which become strong enough to
make A overflow and produce a spark at c.
559. Wireless -- Electric waves in ether
telegraphy.
are utilized for sending messages without wires. To
send a message some
instrument must be
used to set up such
waves ; arid to re-
ceive the message,
one capable of detect-
ing electric waves is
necessary. The send-
FIG. 346. Hertz oscillator for sending out
ing instrument, often electric waves.
called an oscillator,
consists of a powerful induction coil whose terminals are
connected to two polished metal balls separated a short
distance from each other. The oscillatory discharge
between these terminals sets up the waves in the ether.
To intensify these waves Hertz joined a square metal
plate to each of these balls (Fig. 346) but later Marconi
;
invented the method of joining one of them to a high

mast or tower of wires, the other being connected with
the earth.
560. The coherer. Although there are several meth-
ods of detecting electric waves, the coherer is the one
that has been most used thus far. It is very simple in
construction and was invented by Branley in 1890. It
consists of a glass tube (Fig. 347), perhaps as large
in diameter as an ordinary lead pencil and half as long.

Two metal plugs are pushed into this tube, a small space
being left between them. This place is nearly filled with
filings of nickel and
silver or other
metals. When
FIG. 347. of a coherer.
these plugs and the
Diagram
filings between
them are made
a part of the circuit of a battery, very
little current flows in the circuit, because the filings offer
great resistance. This may be shown by placing a gal-

vanometer in the circuit. But when electric waves fall
upon the circuit, the resistance of the filings is greatly

reduced and the current is much stronger. In this way
the waves are detected. The filings are restored to
their original or non-
conducting condi-
tion by tapping the
tube after the pas-
sage of a current.
Figure 348 shows
the arrangement of
the apparatus for
receiving wireless
messages. A bat-
tery, B, and a relay,

jR, are included in
the coherer circuit.
FIG. 348. Diagram of receiving apparatus for
The relay brings into wireless telegraphy.
action another bat-
tery, B', having in its circuit a telegraph sounder, S, and

an electric bell, L. The hammer of the latter acts as a
tapper or decoherer to shake up the filings after each
signal has been received. The bell and sounder may be
in series instead of in parallel, or the sounder

may be dis-
pensed with, the bell acting as sounder and decoherer.
For illustrating wireless telegraphy in the school room,
metal plates are often connected to each side of the spark
gap of the induction coil of the sending apparatus, as in
the Hertz oscillator (Fig. 346), and two similar plates
are joined to the terminals, t, t (Fig. 348), of the coherer.
If these plates are not used, a vertical wire ten or
twelve feet high takes the place of one of them in both
sending and receiving instruments, and a wire connecting
the terminal to the earth through a gas or water pipe
takes the place of the other plate in each case.
A spark coil of an automobile may be used for the
induction coil.
APPENDIX
VARIATION AND PROPORTION IN PHYSICS
IN order to explain many phenomena in physics, it is necessary

to make measurements and by means of them to find the relations
existing between the various phenomena. These relations give rise
to many physical laws which are often expressed in the form of a
variation or a proportion. To illustrate these subjects, let us consider
the wages, time, and amount earned by a laborer, representing the
quantities respectively by w, t. and a.
I. When two quantities increase or decrease at the same rate, i.e.
in the same one of them is said to vary as the other. It is

ratio,
obvious, for instance, that with fixed or constant wages, the amount
earned by a man will increase or decrease in the same ratio as the
time he works. If his time is doubled, or trebled, or halved, the
amount earned will also be doubled, or trebled, or halved and there- ;
fore we say the amount earned varies directly as his time. Using cc }
the symbol of variation, we express it as follows:
(1) a a t.
This can be expressed in another way. Since t and a change at

the same rate, it is evident that the ratio - must remain the same
for different values of a and /, or, as it is expressed in mathematics,

- = a constant. Hence the law, When the quotient of one variable
divided by another is constant, each caries directly as the other.
Every variation may be reduced to a proportion. If a oc /, then
- = k, a constant; and ^- = k also, a' and t'

being new values for
amount earned and time. Since - and both equal , they are
equal to each other. Hence - = ,

or a : t = a' : f.
We say, therefore, that the amount earned varies directly as the

time the man works ;
or we may express the same thought by saying
475
476 APPENDIX
the amounts a man earns are directly proportional to the times he

works. Sometimes a law in physics is expressed in one way and
sometimes in the other.
IT. Again, let us compare the wages with the time, the amount
earned being a fixed or constant quantity. It is evident that if a man's

wages are increased, the time required to earn the fixed amount is de-
creased in the same ratio ;
if his wages are multiplied, the time is
divided by the same quantity. In such a case we say the time varies
inversely as the wages, and express it thus :
(2) foci.
w
As in the other case, t -4-
- or,
t x w, equals a constant quantity.
w
Hence the law: When the product of two variables is constant, each
varies inversely as the other.
This variation may be put in the form of a proportion. Let t =
the time when the wages are iv, and t' = the time when the wages
are w'. Then x w t x t' w' because both products are equal to the
same constant. By taking two of these as extremes and the other
two as means we have the proportion t' = w'
t :
w, or, the times
:
required to earn a fixed sum are inversely proportional to the wages

received.
III. When one quantity varies separately as two others, it varies
jointly as their product.

To illustrate this, let t = the number of days required to dig a
ditch ; I, number of feet in the length of the ditch ;
and h, the num-
ber of hours per day the laborer works. It is evident that other
things being equal the time required for the work will vary as the
length of the ditch, or t x I. It is also plain that the number of days
to do the work will increase in proportion as the number of hours
worked per day diminishes, or t oc .
We and h both vary at the same time,

will vary as
wish
I
to
x
1
prove that
-, that
h
is, t
if
oc
I
h
I
,
or that t:=t'\.
h
IVh'
t
To do this, let and h vary separately, t first

us suppose that /
becoming t\ when / becomes Z', and then afterward t\ changing to t'

when h changes to h,'. Expressing these changes by proportion, we
have
APPENDIX 477
Multiplying these two proportions term by term and cancelling t\
out of the first term of each ratio, we have
t: L = t:, that is foe-.

h hr h
THE TOEPLER-HOLTZ MACHINE EXPLAINED

The Holtz machine (Fig. 237, page 358), as modified by Toepler and
later by Voss,consists of two vertical glass plates, one of which is
stationary while the other revolves in front of it. Upon the back of
the fixed plate are two paper sectors, A
and B, called armatures, each
covering two disks of tin foil connected by a strip of tin foil. Upon the
front of the revolving plate are a number of equidistant tin-foil disks
called carriers, which are surmounted by brass buttons. Two brass
rods, rand r' (Fig. 238), are fastened to the fixed plate, being connected
to the tin-foil disks under the armatures ; these curve around in front
of the revolving plate, and carry at their ends tinsel brushes which
rub upon the brass buttons as they pass by. The neutralizing rod bb,
placed diagonally in front of the moving plate and opposite the arma-
tures, has tinsel brushes, which touch the passing buttons, and also a
number of sharp metallic points which are directed toward the plate,
but do not touch it or the carriers.
On a horizontal diameter in front of the revolving plate and oppo-
site the paper armatures are two collecting combs, CC", having sharp
teeth pointing toward the plate. These are connected to conductors

and the discharging rods KK.
the
Action of the Toepler-Holtz. (Figure 238 is a diagram of
machine, the corresponding parts having the same letters as in Fig.
2;>7.) In operation the arma-
ture A has at first a small
initial charge suppose it
negative which may be
caused by friction of the
brushes or otherwise. This
charge acts by electrical in-
fluence upon the neutralizing
rod bb, making its upper end
negative and its lower end
positive; and each carrier
passing this neutralizing rod FIG. 238. Diagram of the Toepler-Holtz
carries away a charge, at the machine.
478 APPENDIX
top negative and at the bottom positive. These carriers as they

pass the tinsel brushes r and r give some of their charges to the
1
armatures, positive to B and negative to A. In this way the

armatures A and B become strongly charged, and they soon take
very little from the passing carriers, which go on and deliver their
charges by the combs CC' to the conductors and the discharging rods,
one side C receiving negative and C' positive. Both armatures, after
the machine is started, act by influence on the neutralizing rod, one
helping the other.

When the knobs of the discharging rods are separated, the two
charges accumulate upon them until they are discharged by a spark
passing between them. The capacity of these conductors and the in-
tensities of the sparks are greatly increased by Leyden jars, usually
attached to each side of the machine.
THE MORSE ALPHABET

A H O U
B - I - P - V -
C- J- Q- W
D- K- R- X-
E - L - S- Y -
F - M T Z
G N
APPENDIX 479
TABLE I. NATURAL SINES AND TANGENTS

480 APPENDIX
TABLE II. SIZE OF WIRE, ETC. AMERICAN GAUGE (B. & S.)
INDEX
Aberration, chromatic, 202. Archimedes, principle of, 152.
spherical, 269, 281. Armature, 400, 433.
Absolute temperature, 304. Astigmatism, 286.
Absolute units, 9. Astronomical telescope, 288.
Absolute zero, 305. Atmospheric pressure, 142.
Absorption, 118. Atoms, 101.
of heat, 328. Atwood machine, 25.
of light, 216. Average velocity, 16.
of radiant energy, 328. Avoirdupois pound, 10.
selective, 330. Axis, of a lens, 276.
spectrum, 250. of a mirror, 266.
Accelerated motion, 20, 22-32.
Acceleration, 15, 20, 22. Bar magnets, 370.
value due to gravity, 24, 68. Barometer, 139-141.
Achromatic lens, 282. Fortin's, 141.
Achromatism, 241. Baroscope, 152.
Activity, 72. Batteries, 381-391.
Actual velocity, 16. storage, 453.
Adhesion, 104, 118. Beats, 190.
Advantage, mechanical, 82. Bell, electric, 401.
Agonic line, 373. Bichromate cell, 388.
Air, liquid, 341. Boiling, 294, 337.
density of, 148, 161. Boyle's law, 144.
pressure in, 129-133. Bright-line spectra, 250.
Air pump, 108. British Thermal Unit, 316.
Air resonator, 186. Brittle, 115.
Air thermometer, 296. Brushes, 431.
Alternating currents, 427. Bunsen photometer, 223.
Ammeters, 408. Buoyancy, 1-32.
Ampere, 381, 455.
Amplitude of vibration, 64, 163, 194. Cake, 357.
Analysis of light, 239. Caloric, 306.
of sound, 203. Calorie, 316.
Angle, critical, 233. Cameia, 282.
of deviation, 237. Candle power. 224.
of incidence, 226. Capillarity, 123.
of reflection, 226. Capstan, 89.
of repose, 99. Cathetal prism, 234.
visual, 284. Cathode, 448.
Anode, 448, 466. rays, 466.
Aperture of a mirror, 266. Caustic curve, 270.
Apparatus M, 396. Cells, electric, 387.
Arc lamp, 461. Celsius thermometers, 295.
ADAMS'S PHYS. 31 481

482 INDEX
Center of curvature, 266, 275. Core, 399.

of gravity, 50, 52. Cornea, 283.
of inertia, 51. Corpuscular theory, 213.
of mass, 51. Coulomb, 381.
of oscillation, 64. Crane, traveling, 90.
Centigrade thermometer, 293, 295. Crest of a wave, 169.
Centimeter-Gram-Second System, 9. Critical angle, 99, 233.
Centrifugal force, 58. Crookes radiometer, 329.
Centripetal force, 58. Crookes tubes, 466.
Change of motion, 31. Crystalline lens, 284.
of velocity, 22. Current electricity, 349, 380.
Charles, law of, 303. Current strength," 381.
Chemical effects of current, 448. Currents, alternating, 427.
Chest, steam, 312. Foucault, 429.
Chladni plates, 176. induced by other currents, 437.
Chromatic aberration, 282. Curvature, center of, 266.
Circle of reference, 165. Cycle, 427.
Circuit, 383. Cyclones, 144.
Coefficient of friction, 98. Cyclonic area, 144.
Coherer, 471. Cylinder, 312.
Cohesion, 104.
Cold, by expansion, 341. Daniell cell, 389.
by solution, 336. D 'Arson val galvanometer, 407.
by vaporization, 340. Dead points, 313.
Collecting rings, 431. Declination, 373.
Color, of a body, 245. Declination needle, 374.
of light, 244. Decoherer, 472.
Colors,complementary, 247. Defective vision, 285.
Commutator, 432. Deflection, 391.
Components, rectangular, 45. Density, 12. -
Composition of forces, 37, 39. Derived units, 8.
of more than two forces, 41. Deviation, 235.
of motions and velocities, 47. Dewar's apparatus for liquefying air,
of parallel forces, 43. 342.
Compound engine, 314. Dew-point, 345.
Concurring forces, 39. Diamagnetic, 372.
Condensation of a wave, 169. Dielectric, 355.
Condenser, electrical, 365, 445. Differential pulley, 93.
of steam engine, 313. Diffraction, 255.
of stereopticon, 286. interference by, 258.
Condensing pump, 109. Diffraction gratings, 259.
Conduction of heat, 322. Diffusion, 110.
Conductivity, 410. of liquids, 116.
Conductors, electrical, 350. Dip, 374.
Conical pendulum, 164. Dipping needle, 374.
Conjugate foci, 269, 279. Direction, line of, 52.
Connecting rod, 313. Discharger, 367.
Conservation of energy, 77. Discontinuous spectra, 249.
Constant acceleration, 22. Discord, 192.
Constant force, 18, 22. Dispersion, 235.
Continuous spectra, 249. Dissonance, 192.
Convection, 322. Distance of distinct vision, 285.
Converging pencil, 219. Diverging pencil, 219.
INDEX 483
Drum armature, 433. Energy of the electric current,. 456.

Dry 389.
cell, radiant, 214, 310.
Ductile, 115. transference of, 77.
Dynamic unit, 32, 70. transformation of, 76.
Dynamic theory of heat, 307. Engine, compound, 313.
Dynamics, 15. efficiency of, 314.
Dynamo, 430. gas, 314.
Dyne, 32, 34. hot-air, 310.
Dyne centimeter, 71. steam, 310, 312.
turbine, 315.
Ebullition, 337. Equilibrant, 41.
Eccentric, 313. Equilibrium, 50, 53.
Echo, 182. Erg, 71.
Eddy currents, 429. Ether, 213.
Efficiency of machines, 83. Evaporation, 337.
Effort in machines, 81. Exhaust pipe, 313.
Elasticity, 112. Exciter, 435.
limit of, 113. Expansion, by heat, 297.
Elastic tension of gases, 106. cold by, 341.
Electric arc, 460. Extra current, 441.
bell, 401. Eye, 283.
lamp, 459. Eyepiece, 287.
motor, 436,
potential, 361. Fahrenheit thermometer, 293, 295.
pressure, 385. Falling bodies, 24.
telegraph, 402. Faraday's ice-pail experiment, 356.
waves, 469. Faraday's laws of electrolysis, 454.
Electrical capacity, 364. Faraday's law of induction, 424.
charges, 349. Field coils, 430.
condensers, 365. Field cores, 430.
distribution, 359. Field, magnetic, 377.
resonance, 470. Fifth, 196.
Electricity, 349. Films, interference by, 255.
current, 3S0. Final velocity, 22.
Electrodes, 383. Fixed pulley, 92.
Electrolyte, 449. Flame, singing, 177.
Electrolytic cell, 448. Flat, 196.
Electrolysis, 450. Floating bodies, 155.
laws of, 454. Fluid, 103.
uses of, 455. Fluids, pressure in, 124.
Electro-magnet, 398. Fluoroscope, 468.
Electro-motive force, 385. Flute pipes, 209.
Electrons, 102. Fly wheels, 313.
Electrophorus, 357. Focal length, 266, 273, 276.
Electroplating, 450. Foci, conjugate, 269, 279.
Electroscope, 352. secondary, 278.
Electrostatics, :U'.. Focus of a mirror, 266.
Elec t rot y pi ng, 45 1 . Foot pound, 71.
E.M.F. (electro-motive force), 385. Force, 18.
Energy, 73. absolute unit of, 32.
conservation of, 77. a factor of work, 70.
forms of, 76. centrifugal, 58.
heat and, 306. I centripetal, 58.
484 INDEX
Force, constant, 18, 22. Gravitation, 48.

electro-motive, 385. Newton's laws of, 49.
in dynamic units, 34. Gravitational unit, 32, 70.
lines of, 378. Gravity, causes pressure, 129.
measured statically, 35. center of, 50.
measurement of, 30. specific, 13.
moment of, 85. Gravity cell, 390.
units of, 33.
Forced vibrations, 184. Harmonic motion, 164.
Force pump, 150. partials, 200.
Forces, composition of, 37. Harmonics, 200.
concurring, 39. of a string, 207.
graphic representation of, 38. Hartl optical disk, 226.
molecular, 104, 112. Heat, 292.
parallelogram of, 40. and energy, 306.
resolution of, 37, 44. development of, 307.
Form, elasticity of, 113. effects of electric current, 456.
Fortin's barometer, 141. expansion by, 297.
Foucault currents, 429. latent, 335, 339.
Franklin's experiment, 339 measurement of, 316.
Fraunhofer lines, 253. nature 306.
of,
Free path, 105. of fusion, 333.
Freezing, 332. of vaporization, 359.
Freezing point, 294. specific, 318.
Frequency, 163, 168. transmission of, 322.
Friction, 96. Helix, 399.
coefficient of, 98. Helmholtz resonator, 203.
heat caused by, 307. Hemispheres, Magdeburg, 131.
Fringes, 257. Hertz oscillator, 471.
Fulcrum, 84. Hofmann's apparatus, 451.
Fundamental tone, 200. Hooke's law, 114.
Fundamental units, 8. Horse power, 72.
Fusion, 331. Horseshoe magnets, 370.
heat of, 333. Hot-air engine, 310.
Humidity, 345.
Galileo's experiment with pendulum, Humor, aqueous, 284.
66. vitreous, 284.
Galileo's telescope, 289. Hydraulic press, 128.
Galvanometers, 406. Hydrometer, 158.
Gas engine, 314. Hypermetropic, 285.
Gases, adhesion between, 118.
elastic tension of, 106. Ice, manufacture of, 343.
molecular motions in, 105. Illumination, 221.
spectra of, 252. Images, formation of, 259.
vibrations in, 177. formed by lenses, 274.
Gay-Lussac, law of, 103, 305. Incandescent, 215.
Geissler tubes, 466. Incandescent electric lamp, 459.
Gold-leaf electroscope, 352. Incidence, 226.
Gram, 10. Inclination, 374.
value in dynes, 34. Inclined plane, 45, 93.
Gramme ring, 434. Induced charges, 354.
Graphic representation of forces, 38. Induction, magnetic, 375.
Gratings, diffraction, 259. coil, 443.
INDEX 485
Induction, current, 424. Light, transmission of, 215.

Inertia,~l7. travels in straight lines, 220.
center of, 51. velocity of, 217.
Insulators, electrical, 350. Light waves, effect of matter on, 215.
Intensity of light, 221. measurement of, 244.
laws of, 222. Lightning, 368.
of sound, 192. Lightning rods, 368.
Interchangeable points, 65. Limiting angle for friction, 99.
Interference, of light, 255. Limit of elasticity, 113.
of sound, 188. Limpid, 116.
wave, 172. Lines of force, 378.
Intervals, musical, 196. Liquid, 103.
Ions, 384. in contact with a solid, 122.
Iris, 283. surface of, 120.
Isobaric lines, 143. Liquid air, 342.
Isobars, 143. Liquids, adhesion between, 118.
Isochronous vibrations, 165. diffusion of, 116.
Isoclinic lines, 375. in connected vessels, 137.
Isogonic lines, 373. molecular motions in, 115.
specific gravity of, 158.
Jack screw, 95. velocity of sound in, 182.
Joule, 71. Loadstone, 370.
Joule's law of heat, 458. Local action, 386.
Longitudinal vibrations, 163.
Keynote, 197. Longitudinal waves, 169.
Kilogram, 10. Loop, 174.
Kilogrammeter, 71.
Kilowatt, 72. Machines, efficiency of, 83.
Kinetic energy, 73. law of, 80.
Kinetic friction, 96. Magdeburg hemispheres, 131.
Kirchhoff 's law, 329. Magnetic axis, 371.
circuit, 399.
Lactometer, 159. effects, 391.
Laminated cores, 435. field, 377.
Lamp, arc, 461. induction, 375.
electric, 459. lines, 378.
Lantern, 286. meridian, 373.
Latent heat, 335, 339. needle, 370.
LeclanchS cell, 388. substance, 372.
Legal unit, 8. susceptibility, 376.
Length, unit of, 9. transparency, 372.
Lens, crystalline, 284. Magnetism, 349, 369.
Lenses, 274. terrestrial, 373.
Lenz, law of, 428. Magneto, 430.
Levers, 83. Magnets) 369.
Leyden jar, 366. law of, 371.
Lifting pump, 149. Major, 196.
Light, color of, 244. Malleable, 115.
intensity of, 221. Manometric flame, 201.
interference and diffraction of, 255. Mass, 9, 13.
nature of, 213. center of, 51.
reflection of, 216, 225. relation to weight, 12.
refraction of, 227. unit of, 10.
486 INDEX
Mass, volume, and density, 13. Movable pulley, 92.

Matter, molecular structure of, 101. Multiple reflection, 264.
properties of, 15. Multipolar machines, 431.
states of, 103. Musical instruments, 204.
Measure, unit of, 7. intervals, 196.
Measurement, of force, 30. scale, 195.
of heat, 316. sound, 195.
of temperature, 292. Myopic, 285.
of work, 70.
Mechanical advantage, 82. National prototype meter, 9.
equivalent of heat, 317. Needle, declination, 374.
powers, 83. dipping, 374.
theory of heat, 307. magnetic, 370.
Mechanics, 15. Nernst lamp, 460.
Melting, 331. Neutral equilibrium, 53.
Melting point, 331. Newton's law of gravitation, 49.
Mercurial thermometer, 293. laws of motion, 17.
Meridian, magnetic, 373. rings, 255.
Meter, 9. Nodes, 174.
Metric system, 8.
Noises, 195.
Micrometer screw, 96.
Nonmagnetic, 372.
Microphone, 447. Normal, 226.
Microscope, 287. Nut, 94.
Mil-ammeter, 408.
Minor, 196.
Objective, 287.
Mirror, 225.
Octave, 196.
Mirrors, 261.
Ohm's law, 412.
Mobile, 116.
Mobility, 103.
Opaque, 216.
Molecular forces, 104, 112. Optical instruments, 282.
Molecular motions, 112, 115. Optical prism, 235.
Molecular structure of matter, 101 .
Oscillation, center of, 64.
Oscillator, Hertz, 471.
Molecules, 101, 102.
85. Osmosis, 117.
Moments,
law of, 87.
Osmotic pressure, 117.
measure of, 85. Overtones, 200.
Momentum, 31.
Motion, 15. Parallel, 416.
accelerated, 20. Parallel forces, 43.
change of, 31. Parallelogram of forces, 40.
friction of, 96. Partials, 200.
harmonic, 164. P.D. (difference of potential), 364.
Newton's laws of, 17. Pencil of light, 219.
of apendulum, 63. Pendulum, conical, 164.
periodic, 162. laws of, 66.
uniform, 16. motion of, 63.
vibratory, 162. simple. 62.
Motions, composition and resolution theory of, 67.
of, 47. torsion, 163.
in gases, 105. uses of, 68.
in liquids, 115. Penumbra, 220.
molecular, 112. Periodic motion, 162.
Motor, electric, 436. Permeability, 379.
INDEX 487
Photometer, Bunsen, 223. Radiant energy, 214.

Photometry, 223. transformed, 310.
Physics, 7. Radiation, 215.
Pigments, mixing, 247. laws of, 327.
Pipes, 209. of heat, 322.
Piston, 312. Radiometer, 329.
Piston rod, 313. Rainbow, 243.
Pitch of a screw, 94. Rarefaction of a wave, 169.
of sound, 192, 195. Ray of light, 218.
Plane mirrors, 261. Reaumur thermometer, 295.
Plasticity, 115. Receiver, 445.
Point of incidence, 226. Reciprocating engines, 515.
Polarity, 371. Rectangular components, 45.
of the helix, 399. Reed pipes, 209.
Polarization, 386. Reflection, multiple, 264.
Pole pieces, 430. of light, 216, 225.
Poles of a cell, 383. of sound, 182.
of a magnet, 371. Refraction, cause of, 231.
Porosity, 102. index of, 230.
Ports, 312. Relay, 403.
Potential, 361. Repose, angle of, 99.
difference of, 363. Resistance, 401.
Potential energy, 75. in machines, 81.
fall of, 414. laws of, 411.
Pound, avoirdupois, 10. Resolution, of forces, 37, 39, 44.
Power, 72. of motions and velocities, 47.
of recovery, 112. Resonance, 183, 184, 185.
in machines, 81. electrical, 470.
Powers, mechanical, 83. Resonator, air, 186.
Presbyopic, 285. Helmholtz, 203.
Press, hydraulic, 128. Rest, friction of, 96.
Pressure, 19. Resultant, 39.
atmospheric, 142. Retentivity, 376.
below the surface, 135. Rigidity, 103.
caused by weight, 129. Rings, Newton's, 255.
due to gravity, 129. Rolling friction, 97.
in a horizontal plane, 135. Rontgen rays, 465, 467.
in fluids, 124.
osmotic, 117. Saccharimeter, 159.
transmission of, 126. Saturated vapor, 344.
Primary bow, 243. Scale, diatonic, 197.
Primary coil, 438. musical, 195.
Prism, cathetal, 233. tempered, 199.
optical, 235. Sclerotic coat, 283.
Properties of matter, 15. Screw, 83, 94.
Pulley, 83, 91. law of, 95.
law of, 92. Second, 11.
Pump, air, 108. Secondary axis of a lens, 276.
condensing, 109. bow, 243.
force, 150. coil, 438.
lifting or suction, 149. foci, 278.
Pupil of the eye, 284. Selective absorption, 330.
Purple, visual, 284. Self-induction, 441.
488 INDEX
Semipermeable, 117. Stable equilibrium, 53.

Semitone, 196. Standard unit, 8.
Series, 416. States of matter, 103.
Series-wound dynamo, 435. Static friction, 26.
Series-wound motors, 437. Stationary waves, 173, 174.
Set, 113. Steam chest, 312.
Shadows, 220. Steam engine, 310, 312.
Shape, elasticity of, 113. Stereopticon, 286.
Sharp, 196. Storage battery, 453.
Shunts, 417. Strain, 15, 112.
Shunt- wound dynamo, 435. Stress, 19, 113.
motors, 437. energy, of, 75.
Shuttle armature, 433. Stringed instruments, 204.
Side valve, 312. Strings, laws of vibrating, 205.
Sine of an angle, 230. Sublimation, 337.
Singing flame, 177. Suction pump, 149.
Siphon, 148. Sulphion, 384.
Siren, 195. Support of a body, 51.
Size, elasticity of, 113. Surface of a liquid, 120, 134.
Slides, 286. Surface tension, 121.
Soap bubble, colors of, 256. Sympathetic vibrations, 185.
ole, 357. Synthesis of light, 240.
Solid, 103. Systems of units, S.
Solids, adhesion between, 118.
molecular motions in, 112. Tangent galvanometer, 406.
specific gravity of, 157. Telegraph, electric, 402.
velocity of sound in, 182. Telegraphy, wireless, 465, 471.
Solution, 117. Telephone, 445.
cold, 356. Telescope, astronomical, 288.
Sonometer, 205. Galileo's, 289.
Sound, analysis of, 203. Temperature, 292.
characteristics of, 192. absolute, 304.
interference of, 188. Tempered scale, 199.
origin of, 175. Tension, 19.
quality of, 200. elastic, 106.
reflection of, 182. surface, 121.
transmission of, 178. transmitted, 91.
velocity of, 180, 182. vapor, 106, 345.
Sounder, telegraph, 403. Terrestrial magnetism, 373.
Sound waves, form of, 179. Thermal capacity, 318.
Source of light, 221. Thermometer, air, 296.
Space, a factor of work, 70. graduation of, 294.
Specific gravity, 13, 152, 156. mercurial, 293.
of liquids, 158. Thermoscope, 296.
of solids, 157. Thermostat, 299.
Specific heat, 318. Thread of a screw, 94.
Spectra, 249. Timbre, 192.
of gases, 252. Time, unit of, 11.
Spectroscope, 249. Toepler-Holtz machine, 358.
Spherical aberration, 269, 281. Tone, fundamental, 200.
mirrors, 266. Torricelli's experiment, 140.
Spheroidal state, 324. Torsion pendulum, 163.
Stability, 55. Total internal reflection, 232.
INDEX 489
Transference of energy, 77. Velocity, average, 16.

Transformation of energy, 76. change of, 22.
Transformer, 439. final, 22.
Translucent, 216. of light, 217.
Transmission of heat, 322. of sound, 180.
of light, 215 of waves, 168.
of pressure, 124, 126. Ventilation, 327.
of sound, 178. Ventral segment, 174.
Transmitted tension, 91. Vertex, of a mirror, 266.
Transmitter, 445. Vibration frequency, 163.
microphone as, 447. of air in pipes, 210.
Transparency, 372. Vibrations communicated to other
Transparent, 216. bodies, 183.
Transposition, 198. forced, 184.
Transverse vibrations, 162. in gases, 177.
waves, 169. isochronous, 165.
Trough of a wave, 119. sympathetic, 185.
Turbine engine, 315. Vibratory motion, 162.
Viscosity, 116.
Umbra, 220. Vision, defective, 285.
Undercooling, 334. distance of distinct, 285.
Undulatory theory, 214. Visual angle, 284.
Uniformly accelerated motion, 22. purple, 284.
Uniform motion, 16. Vitreous humor, 284.
Unison, 196. Volt, 385.
Unit, dynamic, 32. Voltaic cell, 380.
gravitational, 32. Voltmeters, 408.
legal, 8. Volume, 13.
of length, 9. elasticity of, 113.
of mass, 10.
of measure, 7. Wasted work, 83.
of time, 11. Water, electrolysis of, 451.
standard, 8. Watt, 72, 456.
Units, absolute, 9. Wave form, 166.
derived, 8. front, 180.
fundamental, 8. interference, 172.
of force, 63. length, 167, 168.
of weight, 12. motion, 167.
of work, 70. theory, 214.
systems of, 8. Waves, interference of sound, 188.
Unstable equilibrium, 53. kinds of, 169.
Upper partials, 200. Weather map, 144, 145.
Useful work, 83. Wedge, 83.
Weighing, 12.
Vacuum, Torricellian, 140. Weight, 11.
Vapor, 103. in machines, 81.
saturated, 344. laws of, 49.
tension, 106, 345. of a fluid causes pressure, 129.
Vaporization, 337, 339. relation to mass, 12.
Velocities, composition and resolu- units of, 12.
tion of, 47. Weight arm of a lever, 84.
Velocity, 15. Wheatstone bridge, 415.
actual, 16. Wheel and axle, 83, 88.
490 INDEX
Wheel and axle, law of, 89. X-rays, 467.
Wheel work, 90.
Wind instruments, 204, 209.
Yard, 9.
Windlass, 89.
Wireless telegraphy, 465, 471. Yoke, 430.
AVork, 69. Young-Helmholtz theory, 248.
done by a machine, 83.
measurement of, 70. Zeiss binocular field glass, 290.
units of, 70. Zero, absolute, 304.
CHEMISTRIES
By F. W. CLARKE, Chief Chemist of the United States
Geological Survey, and L. M. DENNIS, Professor of
Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Cornell University
Elementary Chemistry .
$i . i o Laboratory Manual . .
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two books are designed to form a course in

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OUTLINES OF BOTANY
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Edition with Gray's Field, Forest, and Garden Flora $1.80

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*[[
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(174)
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Geological Story Briefly Told . $1.15

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long emphatically
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still While
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(177)
A NEW ASTRONOMY
By DAVID TODD, M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Astron-
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(181)
LESSONS IN PHYSICAL
GEOGRAPHY
By CHARLES R. DRYER, M.A., F.G.S.A., Professor
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r. 20
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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

Accessions No . ..tt.r/...^..... Book No.../....

CHARLES F. ADAMS, A.M.

NEW YORK .-.. CINCINNATI : CHICAGO

successful study requires clear thinking and accurate ex-

pression. The study of physics should, therefore, be

of mental discipline. ^The subject should be so presented

cause he is conscious of successfully exerting his mental

a text-book; and, moreover, the teacher should have greater

range and freedom in the prosecution of that work than

to Dr. Paul R. Heyl, of the Central High School of Phila-

delphia, Pennsylvania to Mr. C. E. Spicer, of the Joliet

Township High to Mr. Herbert C.

Wood, of the East High School, Cleveland, Ohio and ;

to Mr. C. H. Slater, of the William McKinley High

School, St. Louis, Missouri. I assume all responsibility,

however, for any errors that may remain in the text.

IV. HEAT 292

ii. Expansion by heat

V. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM 349

^PART II. MAGNETISM 369

the ratio of that quantity to the unit.

Sometimes quantities are measured indirectly by meas-

used by many people, it becomes a standard unit. Units

English, and the French or metric. The English system

Nearly all quantities with which physical science deals

whose edge is one unit in length, as the liter, which is a

cube whose edge is 10 cm. long. Thus we see that the

time, it is said to be expressed in absolute units. In all

lengths are reduced to centimeters, masses to grams,all

and time to seconds, to express a quantity in absolute

Meter. It is an exact copy of the original meter in the

ington, called the National Prototype Meter.

legally defined in the United States as ^of a meter.

quantity of matter in a body. This has been the accepted

satisfactory chiefly because of the uncertainty existing

is the unit of mass in the 'me trie system.

In 1875 most of the nations of the civilized world

The second, the unit of time used in physics, is ^eiw ^

the mean solar day.

places, being least at the equator and increasing as the

tor, itsweight there would be less than at Washington,

were just strong enough to withstand a pull of 100 Ib.

12. Units of weight. The weights of the units of

" " "

given above ( 11) and from the proportionality of mass

is 5 Ib., its weight is also 5 Ib.

of its mass per unit volume. For example, a cubic foot

per cubic centimeter, being 0.578 oz. per cubic inch, or

be so taken unless stated to the contrary. Thus, when

fore the density of iron is (7.8 x 1) 7.8. Thus it is seen

3. A cube of copper 6 in. on a side weighs 69 Ib. What is its

(c) in grams per cubic centimeter?

7. If 4.5 liters of carbon dioxide gas weigh 8.883 g., what is

MECHANICS AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

17. Mechanics treats of the two effects of force on mat-

position of a body cannot be given except with reference

ship, while it is in motion relatively to the water or the

ence to the earth's surface, while at the same time with