Operation of micro grid & micro

grid protection
 Modes of operation
• Normally, converters are used to connect DG
systems in parallel with the grid or other sources,
but it may be useful for the converters to
continue functioning in stand-alone mode when
the other sources become unavailable, in order
to supply critical loads.
• Converters connected to batteries or other
storage devices will also need to be bidirectional
to charge and discharge these devices.
• Grid connected mode
• Islanding mode
 Grid connected mode
• For grid-connected operation, the microgrid is required to follow
the distribution rules of the network without participating in the
operation of the main power system.
• The microgrid operating on the basis of this approach is important
for stable operation of the power system.
• In the case of grid-connected operation, the microgrid can draw its
power from the main grid or it can supply power to the main grid,
and it works like a controllable load or source.
• In grid-connected mode, the microgrid either draws or supplies
power to the main grid, depending on the generation and load mix
and implemented market policies. The microgrid can separate from
the main grid whenever a power quality event in the main grid
occurs
• In this mode of operation, the converter connects the power source
in parallel with other sources to supply local loads and possibly feed
power into the main grid.
• Parallel connection of embedded generators is governed by
national standards [7–9].
• The standards require that the embedded generator should not regulate or
oppose the voltage at the point of common coupling, and that the current fed
into the grid should be of high quality with upper limits on its total harmonic
distortion (THD).
• There is also a limit on the maximum DC current injected into the grid .
• The power injected into the grid can be controlled either by direct control of
the current fed into the grid [10] or by controlling the power angle [11].
• In the latter case, the voltage is controlled to be sinusoidal. However, using
power angle control without directly controlling the output current may not be
effective at reducing the output current THD when the grid voltage is highly
distorted.
• In practice, the converter output current or voltage needs to be synchronized
with the grid, which is usually achieved by using a phase-locked loop or grid
voltage zero crossing detection
• The standards also require that embedded generators, including power
electronic converters, should incorporate an anti-islanding feature, so that they
are disconnected from the point of common coupling when the grid power is
lost.
 Stand alone mode
• It may be desirable for the converter to continue to supply a critical
local load when the main grid is disconnected, for example, by the
anti-islanding protection system.
• In this stand-alone mode the converter needs to maintain constant
voltage and frequency, regardless of load imbalance or the quality of
the current, which can be highly distorted if the load is nonlinear.
• A situation may arise in a microgrid, disconnected from the main grid,
where two or more power electronic converters switch to stand-alone
mode to supply a critical load.
• In this case, these converters need to share the load equitably.
• Equitable sharing of load by parallel connected converters operating in
stand-alone mode requires additional control.
• There are several methods for parallel connection, which can be
• broadly classified into two categories:
• (i) frequency and voltage droop method
• (ii) master-slave method,
 Islanded Operation
• The microgrid units can be controlled on the basis of a decentralized
approach to balance the microgrid components’ energy and the demand.
• When the grid is affected by any abnormal operation or conditions, the
micro-grid should be disconnected and changed to grid-islanded operation
mode.
• If the micro-grid is in grid-islanded mode, it should handle the following
considerations 1. balancing of supply and demand;
2. acceptable power quality;
3. voltage and frequency balance; and
4. communication among the microgrid components.
• The control of an isolated microgrid means balancing the generation and the
demand power to keep high performance with an acceptable range of
frequency and voltage amplitude.
• In the literature two main control strategies are used for this purpose:
• (1 )a PQ inverter controller to keep the active power constant at a desirable
power factor,
• (2)a voltage source inverter (VSI) controller to regulate the frequency and
voltage amplitude.
 Issues in islanded modes of operation
• The microgrid should disconnect when an abnormal
condition occurs in the grid. It shifts to island mode of
operation, and the microgrid is faced with the following
issues:
• Balancing of supply and demand;
• If the microgrid is exporting or importing power to the
grid before disconnection, then secondary control
actions should be implemented to balance generation
and consumption in island mode.
• If the connected load exceeds the available generation,
demand side management should be implemented.
Also, there should be enough energy storage capacity to
ensure initial balance after an abrupt change in load or
generation
 Issues in islanded modes of operation
• Acceptable power quality
• The microgrid should maintain an acceptable power quality while in
island operation. There should be an adequate supply of reactive
energy to mitigate voltage sags.
• The energy storage device should be capable of reacting quickly to
frequency and voltage deviations and injecting or absorbing large
amounts of real or reactive power.
• Finally, the microgrid should be able to supply the harmonics
required by nonlinear loads.
• voltage and frequency balance
• The voltage and frequency are established by the grid when the
microgrid is connected.
• When the microgrid islands, one or more primary or intermediate
energy sources should form the grid by establishing its voltage and
frequency, otherwise, the microgrid will collapse.
• Both voltage and frequency should be regulated within acceptable
limits.
• If the frequency has dropped to excessively low levels, loads may
be shed to speed its recovery towards the nominal value
Issues in islanded modes of operation
• communication among the microgrid components
• The availability of communication infrastructure between the
microgrid components is another aspect considered when
choosing the control approach on an islanded microgrid.
• The micro grid should have a plug and-play architecture so
that the micro sources will rely on locally available
information to control their generated power
• If communication between components is required (e.g. MG
CC sending set points to micro sources or negotiation between
agents controlling the micro sources), the delay within the
communication network should not present problems
• The micro sources and storage device should co-operate with
each other to maintain the honesty of the islanded micro grid.
 Issues in islanded modes of operation
• Micro sources issues
• A major difference between the primary energy sources in the grid and micro sources
connected to the microgrid is that the latter has no inertia
• The microgrid does not have the spinning reserves that are inherently present in the
conventional grid.
• Most microsources (e.g. turbines and fuel cells) have slow response or ramp-time when
implementing secondary voltage and frequency control.
• The intermediate storage units and microsources with built-in battery banks are therefore
expected to deliver the benefits that should be derived from spinning reserves.
• The power electronics interface enabled these devices to respond quickly to abrupt
command signals and changes in the power flow levels.
• The types, ownership and combination of connected microsources also complicate the
control of a microgrid during island operation.
• Microsources relying on renewable energy like wind and solar are operated at their
maximum outputs to maximize production, and require forecasting methods to predict
their output.
• CHP sources are only operated when their heat productions are required.
• Some microsources may be required to meet the energy demands of specific loads before
they should provide for other loads.
 Islanding detection
• Microgrid, designed as small low-voltage units to supply thermal and
electrical local loads in suburbs, universities and industrial and commercial
centers, are basically distributed active networks, because they connect
distributed generators and different load in distribution voltage levels to
each other.
• The most important protective needs for connected microgrids to the
network are detecting and protecting against islanding conditions.
• According to IEEE Std.1547.1, islanding conditions in distributed
generators is an electrical phenomena , and it occurs when the utility grid
injected power due to different reasons interrupted and distributed
generators supply the load partially or completely.
• Islanding conditions happen in two ways, planned and unwanted, because
of natural incidents and human mistakes, that in unwanted islanding
conditions several problems will occur for microgrid
• That reliability of islanding detection methods and the efficiency of
islanding prevention methods usually evaluated regarding nondetected
zones conditions (NDZ).
• The nondetected zones refer to interval based on difference between
supplied power by distributed generator inverter and consumed power by
load that in these intervals, that inverter islanding detection method fails
in correct detection of islanding condition
• For secure and reliable operation of the stand-alone
Microgrid, the protection system should ensure the
following:
(1) Appropriate grounding must be provided for stand-alone
Microgrid.
(2) Fault detection devices in Microgrid must work in
compliance with the fault detection system in the grid-
connected mode.
(3) A means of fault detection, not dependent on a large ratio
between fault current and maximum load current, must be
provided to take care of the reduced fault level after islanding.
(4) Any existing anti-islanding schemes should be examined
and modified if necessary, to prevent instability or undesirable
loss of micro sources with sensitive settings.
(5) Any load shedding scheme set up by the utility in the
Microgrid area must be closely co-ordinated.
 Islanding: separation from utility
• Microgrids normally have a capacity less than 10 MVA that is
very small compared to the utility.
• Microgrids must have sufficient generation to supply a
significant portion of its load.
• If islanding does not occur at the PCC, then the Microgrid may
carry a part of the utility with it.
• In this matter IEEE standards suggest minimum
interconnection protection criteria, which a Microgrid should
meet during grid connected operation.
• Cost of implementation and technical limitations are
important for designing protection schemes for Microgrids.
• Following issues should be duly considered for islanding of the Microgrid:
(1) Whether speed of operation of protection system need to approach SEMI
F47 specifications.
(2) (2) How to minimize spurious separations?
(3) (3) Whether non-fault separations would be allowed for under-voltage,
open phase and voltage unbalance conditions.
(4) Separation protection limitations imposed by exporting Micro grids.
(5) Whether re-synchronization to utility would be automatic or manual
particularly in relation to frequency and voltage matching
• Different islanding scenarios
This section discusses the following scenarios related to the islanding
of the Microgrid:
(1) Fast separation from the faulted feeder
(2) Prevention of spurious separation
(3) Non-fault separation
(4) Separation from exporting Microgrids
(5) Re-synchronization.
• 5.2.1.1 Fast separation from a faulted feeder
• One major service provided by Microgrid is uninterrupted power supply to
priority loads during any outage. If the loads of the Microgrid are so voltage-
sensitive as to require separation times of less than 50 ms (as per SEMI F47
specifications), then it will not be possible for the existing protective
equipment to act that fast to clear the fault under any condition.
• Usually, secure relay time to detect an under- or over-voltage is up to two
cycles and a medium voltage (MV) breaker requires three to five cycles to
interrupt the circuit, after receiving the trip signal.
• Therefore, if the Microgrid does not have a very fast acting solid-state circuit
breaker at PCC, other means must be adopted to prevent the voltage from
falling below 50% for three cycles or longer.
• To achieve design and protection improvements, following two cases have
been considered:
• (1) When separation is not necessary
• (2) When separation is mandatory.
• (1) When separation is not necessary
• Such cases occur when the fault is not located between the PCC and
the utility sub-station breaker.
• For example, a fault causing sag on a sub-station bus may occur on
an adjacent feeder fed from the same sub-station.
• In such cases, one option of preventing sags is to install electronic
sag correctors or replacing the Y–Y connected transformer at PCC
with D–Y connected transformer and adding a high voltage side
breaker.
• For single phase-to-ground faults in the utility, D–Y transformer
would ensure that the phase-to-ground voltage in the Microgrid does
not drop below 58%.

• Installation of electronic sag protectors is costlier.

• Replacing the Y–Y interconnecting transformer with a D–Y one is a
cheaper solution, though less effective.
• Since SEMI F47 allows voltage sags below 70% for only 0.2
seconds, the protective action of the utility must be fast enough to
meet the specified fault clearing time.
• When separation is mandatory
• When a fault occurs on its main incoming feeder at the PCC,
the Microgrid must separate itself from the utility.
• The fault point is „upstream‟ to the PCC breaker CB4 as
indicated in Figure 5.1.
• This fault requires high-speed separation under all technical
standards (like SEMI F47) and utility protection requirements,
without maintaining even a low under-voltage tie to the utility.
• Thus, extensive efforts are needed to develop high-speed
protective devices that would meet SEMI F47 requirements
even without long-term electronic sag protectors.
Spurious separations
• From operation point of view, maintaining a tie
between the Microgrid and the utility is highly
desirable.
• But if fault occurs on the tie, then the Microgrid should
be separated from the utility using fast tripping devices
as per SEMI F47 requirements.
• Inexpensive protective devices are not secure and may
cause false trips and spurious separations.
• Currently, the only reliable method of fast tripping the
PCC breaker is to have a transfer trip from the utility
grid sub-station breaker.
Separation in non-fault conditions
• Low voltages (LVs) may also occur under non-fault conditions. Therefore,
whether an LV condition is associated with a fault between the PCC and the
utility substation may be difficult to ascertain without a high-speed
communication between the Microgrid and the utility controllers.
• For under-voltage, it is generally desirable for the Microgrid and the utility
to stay connected, while the latter tries to eliminate the LV, provided it is
not caused by any fault that requires tripping at the PCC.

Separation of exporting Microgrids

• Exporting Microgrids are not in a position to use simple reverse power
relays to determine utility contingency conditions.
• Also, simple over-/under-voltage relaying schemes may not ensure tripping
for utility faults as the exporting Microgrid itself has adequate generation
capacity.
• As an exporting Microgrid contains excess generation than its maximum
load, its impedance ratio is much closer to that of the utility. This is a major
difference between an exporting Microgrid and an importing (or non-
exporting) one. Hence, the voltage division in exporting Microgrids during
fault is considerably different from that in grid-connected importing
Microgrids.
Re-synchronisation
• Relay and control schemes are generally used for re-
synchronising a conventional synchronous generator either
manually or automatically and for re-synchronising a power
electronic inverter-interfaced microsource automatically.
• If the Microgrid contains only a single microsource, then the
choice for manual or automatic re-synchronisation will depend
largely on the skills and availability of operator.
• But, if multiple microsources are there at various locations, then
automatic re-synchronising schemes should be incorporated in
PCM design.
• PCM may also include other refined controls like delayed re-
synchronising during storm conditions, where disturbances may
be frequent, and communication facilities with at least the larger
microsources.
.
Major protection issues of stand-alone Microgrid
• When a Microgrid operates in the stand-alone mode, the
protection considerations become significantly different from
those for the grid-connected condition.
• This section discusses four main protection considerations,
assuming a proper separation of the Microgrid at the PCC, which
are as follows:

(1) Distribution system fault protection

(2) Protection of microsources
(3) National Electric Code (NEC) requirements for distribution
transformer protection
(4) Neutral grounding requirements
Microgrid distribution system protection
• The issues that should be duly considered are as follows.

Microgrid MV system protection

• The faults occurring in the MV zone (i.e. the utility side) of the
Microgrid can be easily cleared just by tripping all the microsources.
• The problem for the protection system of a stand-alone Microgrid is
the drastic reduction in fault level.
• An MV fault of similar magnitude in a standalone Microgrid would
result in fault currents only about five times the full load current of
the system.
• This is much lesser compared to 20–50 times greater fault currents
in grid-connected condition.
• Thus, with extremely inverse time–current characteristics, the
distribution transformer fuses will be extremely slower to operate
for such faults and it would be very difficult to co-ordinate them
with microsource protection.
• Low voltage fault clearing requirements
• One major problem is that the stand-alone Microgrid is not
likely to appear as an infinite bus on the MV side of the
MV/LV transformer and the apparent impedance of the
Microgrid source may be much greater than that of the
transformer.
• Therefore, the fault current change may be relatively small as
the fault moves further into the LV system from the MV zone
• Thus, in overcurrent co-ordinated protection schemes,
transition of a Microgrid from grid-connected to stand-alone
mode may slow down fault clearing and limit backup
protection.
 Protection of micro sources
• The design of a reliable microsource protection scheme should
consider the following issues and extensive dynamic simulation studies
should be carried out to address them:
(1) Deciding acceptable voltage and frequency protection tolerances for a
standalone Microgrid.

(2) Assessing whether there is any need for the anti-islanding protection of
DERs and if such protection exists, how it may be disabled or overridden
while the Microgrid is operating in the stand-alone mode.

(3) Examining whether the existing anti-islanding techniques may lead to

voltage and/or frequency instability if used in a stand-alone Microgrid.

(4) Assessing the needs for an under-frequency load shedding scheme for
Microgrid‟s own reliability and co-ordinating it with the same scheme of
the utility.
1. Modification of voltage and frequency windows
• Although widening the voltage and frequency windows (i.e.
tolerance range) during stand-alone Microgrid operation seems
desirable for stand-alone Microgrid with low generation
capacity, its impact on the safety of existing equipment must
be carefully studied before actually implementing the change
• If these windows were originally set as protection boundaries
for preventing damage to the connected equipment, then they
should better not be changed.
• But, if they were set as fault and island detection levels, then
they may be changed only after extensive study.
2. Anti-islanding
• Whether there is any need for the anti-islanding
protection for the micro sources or whether the anti-
islanding controls on their power electronic interfaces
should be disabled can only be decided by carrying out
extensive dynamic simulation studies
• In general, it is desirable to deactivate these controls,
unless the ratio of utility generation to microsource
generation is too high.
• However, if these controls are not deactivated the
Microgrid might be left with uncontrolled islands.
• As most anti islanding controls cause very fast tripping, it
might be necessary to have these deactivated instantly on
the detection of forming an isolated Microgrid
 3. Load shedding and demand side
management
• All power systems are designed to deal with local or system-wide overload
conditions caused by contingencies like faults or equipment failures.
• For handling these conditions, the power utilities normally designate a cluster of
loads as noncritical loads and disconnect them to avoid any drop in system voltage
and frequency, especially during loss of generation or tie lines.
• This is done through load shedding and demand side management schemes
designed to stabilise system voltage and frequency during disturbances
• Installing a utility load shedding system in demand side management always has
technical, economic and political implications.
• For a Microgrid, however, the nature of the technical problems
• If a frequency-shed non-priority load exists in the boundaries of a Microgrid, then
its tripping must be co-ordinated with the under-frequency separation point
established for forming the Microgrid.
• If the Microgrid is forced to separate due to a fault or equipment failure
• between the PCC and the supply bus at the utility sub-station, then it should
employ its own load shedding scheme.
 NEC requirements for distribution
transformer protection
• Before designing any protection scheme for the MV/LV distribution transformer, it
• should be carefully checked whether the NEC transformer overcurrent protection
• requirements would suit Microgrids with much lower fault current capacity. As per
• Article 450 of the NEC, overcurrent protection for transformer can be set as high as
• 600% of the transformer rating. Moreover, most NEC recommendations are based
• on the assumption that short circuit to maximum load current ratio would be
greater
• than 10. But depending on the location and rating of transformers and the low-
fault
• current capacity of the stand-alone Microgrid, transformer protection system may
• not pick up faults at all with a high setting and may leave the transformers
practically
• unprotected against short circuits.
5.3.4 Neutral grounding requirements
• The neutral grounding system for a Microgrid
must ensure effective fault protection,
insulation integrity and safety under the
islanded or stand-alone mode of operation.
• Reliable operation of the Microgrid protection
system requires sufficient fault current capacity
of the stand-alone Microgrid so that all the
overcurrent devices within the Microgrid get a
fault current magnitude at least three to five
times more than the maximum load current.
 Islanding detection
• A higher power DPGS, typically wind plants, have completelydifferent requirements and generally
benefits of communication systems and a supervisory control that interact with the utility operator
in view of making the DPGS contribute to the stability of the grid. Here the latest grid codes require
low-voltage ride-through capability, meaning that they should stay connected during grid faults,
which is quite opposite for the PV systems. Hence islanding detection can be considered a
requirement only for low-power DPGSs.
• islanding detection will be treated with attention paid to the consequences of an uncontrolled
islanding (amplitude and frequency variation of the grid voltage, which are usually the first signs of
the island condition) and to the performances of the islanding detection methods: reliability,
selectivity and minimum perturbation. Ideally, the methods should be able to detect the island
condition in every grid condition, strong or weak, with a limited or high penetration of DPGS – this
property can be defined as reliability; the method should also be able to discriminate between a
condition of islanding and a simple perturbation of the grid – this property can be defined as
selectivity; finally, the method should degrade the grid power quality as little as possible in order to
make suitable the parallel operation of several DPGS this property can be defined as minimum
perturbation.

• the nondetection none (NDZ) will be defined with reference to the effects on the grid voltage
amplitude and frequency of uncontrolled island operation, which can be used as the basic means to
detect the island operation
• The grid is subject to numerous disturbances, such as voltage dips, overvoltage, harmonic
• distortion and frequency variations. It is necessary to set an islanding protection immune to these
disturbances. The grid voltage and frequency limits according toEN50160 (requirements
• for public low-voltage distribution grid) are given in Table 5.1.
• The worst case for islanding detection is represented by a condition of balance of the
• active and reactive power in which there is no change in amplitude and frequency, i.e.
• P = 0 and Q = 0. It is straightforward that a small P results in an insufficient change in
• voltage amplitude and a small Q results in an inadequate change in frequency to effectively
• disconnect the PV and prevent islanding.
• It is possible to calculate the NDZ area from the mismatches of active and reactive power
• and to set the values of the threshold for frequency and amplitude of the voltage (Figure 5.1(b)).
• The probability that P and Q fall into the NDZ of OUV/OUF (over/under voltage and
• frequency) can be significant. Because of this concern, the standard over/under voltage and
frequency
• protective devices alone are generally considered to be insufficient anti-islanding protection
• and thus they must be combined with other islanding detection methods
 Protection: Fault behavior in grid connected
mode & Islanded mode
• Issues related to protection of microgrids have been addressed in several
publications [2–5].
• The major problems can be summarized as:
1. changes in the value and direction of short-circuit currents, depending on whether a
distributed generator is connected or not,
2. reduction of fault detection sensitivity and speed in tapped DER connections,
3. unnecessary tripping of utility breaker for faults in adjacent lines, due to fault
contribution of DER,
4. increased fault levels may exceed the capacity of the existing switchgear,
5. auto-reclosing and fuse-saving of the utility line breaker policies may fail,
6. reduced fault contribution of inverter based DER on protection system performance,
especially when isolated from the utility grid,
7. conflict between the feeder protection and utility requirements for fault ride
through (FRT) which is included in the grid codes of many countries with a large
penetration of DER,
8. effect of closed-loop and meshed distribution network topologies with DER.
 Protection: Fault behavior in grid connected
mode & Islanded mode
• Grid Connected Mode with External Faults (F1, F2)
• Grid Connected Mode with Fault in the Microgrid (F3)
• Grid Connected Mode with Fault at the End-Consumer Site (F4)
• Islanded Mode with Fault in the Microgrid (F3)
• Islanded Mode and Fault at the End-Consumer Site (F4)
 Grid Connected Mode with External Faults (F1, F2)

• With fault F1, a main grid (MV) protection clears the fault. If sensitive loads are
connected to the microgrid, it could have to be isolated by CB1 as fast as 70 ms
• Also, the microgrid has to be isolated from the main grid by CB1, in case of MV
protection tripping failure
• A detection of F1 with a generic OC relay can be problematic, in case most of the
DERs in the microgrid are connected via PE interfaces with built-in fault current
limitation (i.e. there is no significant rise in current passing through CB1).
• Alternatively, voltage sag) or/and system frequency) can be used as indicators for
tripping CB1.
• It may be also required that the energy sources of the micro grid stay connected
and supply reactive power to support the utility grid during the fault conditions
• With fault F2, the distribution transformer OC protection clears the fault by
opening CB0.
• CB1 is opened simultaneously by a “follow-me” function (hardware lock) of CB0
 Grid Connected Mode with Fault in the Microgrid (F3)
• With fault F3, microgrid protection must disconnect the smallest possible portion of the LV
feeder by CB1.2 and CB2.1.
• CB1.2 is opened due to a high short-circuit current supplied by the main MV grid.
• If CB1.2 fails to trip, fault F3 must be cleared by CB1.1 which is a backup
• protection for CB1.2.
• However, the sensitivity of the OC protection relay in CB1.1 can be potentially disturbed, if
a large synchronous DER (e.g. diesel generator) is installed and switched on at SWB1 (i.e.
between CB1.1 and the fault F3).
• In this case, the fault current passing through CB1.1 with DER will be smaller than without
DER, while the fault current at F3 will be higher due to additional DER contribution.
• This effect is known as protection blinding (the larger the synchronous DER the
greater the effect in some cases the fault current seen by CB1.1 can be reduced by more
than 30%) and may result in a delayed CB1.1 tripping, because of the fault current
transition from a definite-time part to an inverse-time part of the relay tripping
characteristic
• A delayed fault tripping will lead to an unnecessary disconnection of DER at SWB1
• If CB1.2 operates faster than CB2.1, which is very likely, it will island a part of the
microgrid which will be connected to the fault F3.
• If it is possible to balance generation and load in the islanded segment of the microgrid
(microsources are capable of supplying loads directly or after load shedding), it is expedient
to isolate that group of microsources and loads from the fault F3 by opening CB2.1 and
possibly closing CB3.2–6.2.
 Grid Connected Mode with Fault at the End-
Consumer Site (F4
• With fault F4, a high short-circuit current is supplied to the
fault from the main grid, together with a contribution from
DER, which will lead to tripping of CB2.4.
• Frequently, there is a fuse instead of a CB, which is rated in
such a way that a shortest possible fault isolation time is
guaranteed.
• In case of no tripping, the SWB2 is isolated by CB2.5 and
local DER is cut off.
• No sensitivity or selectivity problems are foreseen in this
scenario.
 Islanded Mode with Fault in the Microgrid (F3)
• The microgrid might operate in islanded mode when it is
intentionally disconnected from the main MV grid byCB1
(full microgrid) or a CB along the LV feeder (a segment of
the microgrid).
• This operating mode is characterized by absence of the high
short-circuit current supplied by the main grid. Generic OC
relays should be replaced by directional OC relays, because
fault currents flow from both directions to the fault F3
• If CB1.2 and CB2.1 use setting groups chosen for the grid-
connected mode, they will have a sensitivity problem with
detecting and selectively isolating the fault F3 and tripping
within acceptable time frame for PE interfaced DER (the
fault current could shift from a definite-time part to an
inverse-time part of the relay tripping characteristic).
• There are two possible ways to address this problem:
 Islanded Mode with Fault in the Microgrid (F3)
• Install a source of high short-circuit current (e.g. a
flywheel or a super-capacitor) to trip CBs or blow
fuses with settings or ratings for the grid-
connected mode.
• However, a short circuit handling capability of PE
interfaces can be increased only by increasing the
respective power rating or by having extensive
cooling, which both lead to higher investment
cost [9].
• Install an adaptive micro grid protection using
online data about the micro grid topology and
status of available micro sources or loads.
 Islanded Mode and Fault at the End-Consumer
Site (F4)
• With fault F4, a low short-circuit current is supplied to
the fault from the local DERs.
• There is no grid contribution to the fault current level.
However, CB2.4 settings selected for the main grid-
connected mode are just slightly higher than the rated
load current.
• This ensures that the end-customer site will be
disconnected, even if only PE-interfaced DERs are
operating in the microgrid.
• If there is no tripping, the SWB2 must be isolated by
CB2.5 using a directional OC relay.
• Similar to the grid-connected mode, there are no
sensitivity or selectivity problems foreseen in the
islanded mode for a fault at the end-consumer site
 Types of protection system
• Fault source based protection
• Adaptive Protection
 Fault Current Source for Effective Protection in
Islanded Operation
• one of the major problems in microgrid protection is the low contribution to faults by
DERs that have power electronics (PE) interfaces.
• An FCS would Consist of the following subsystems:
(1)an energy storage device capable of supplying the active power for the fault current for
a specified duration – the amount of power and energy required depends on the
anticipated rating of the fault current source.
(2) a switch or power electronic circuit capable of releasing the power from the fault
current source into the LV network; if an ultra-capacitor is used as a storage device, a PE
circuit is needed to convert the DC voltage across the capacitor into an alternating current.
(3) a detector which monitors the LV network and signals the condition of a fault,
triggering the power circuit of the switch to supply the fault current
• the detection system includes the intelligence of the fault current source.
• It determines when the source has to be activated and it injects current into the
microgrid.
• In order to be able to operate an FCS as a plug-and-play device, this circuit should act
only on locally measured information
(4)a recharging system that restores the state of charge of the energy storage device to its
maximum level after a fault current has been delivered
The operating principles of an FCS are illustrated in Figure 4.24.
Its power circuit remains idle during normal operation of the network
(1) Whenever a fault occurs, the network voltage drops
(2) the FCS is activated
(3) and it attempts to restore the original network voltage, thereby injecting a fault
current into the network
The FCS has finite impedance and, as a consequence, the voltage could be lower
than the nominal voltage of the network.
The current is high enough to cause a fuse or circuit breaker to clear the fault.
Subsequently, the FCS maintains the original voltage and frequency
(4), to enable inverters that had turned off to resynchronize and reconnect to the
network. After some time, typically 5 seconds, the FCS can turn off because the
full load is now supplied by the local sources in the microgrid

Figure 4.24 Typical voltage waveforms illustrating the operation of an FCS

• In most LV networks, there is a statutory requirement to detect and remove a
low impedance
• fault within a few seconds, for example 5 seconds.
• Therefore after 5 seconds the FCS can assume that the fault has been cleared
and that it is justifiable to cease operation.
• However, this should not happen instantaneously, because some sources in the
microgrid may have switched off as a consequence of the voltage dip during
the fault and need some time to
• reconnect.
• Therefore, at the end of the 5 second interval, the FCS will remain operating,
while gradually increasing its virtual impedance, and then cease operation.
• Once triggered, the FCS acts like a low-impedance voltage source.
• The most sensible location for an FCS in a microgrid is therefore the main LV
distribution busbar of the distribution step-down transformer, if the microgrid
is normally supplied from an MV network.
• In order to avoid a misoperation of the protections in the network, it is
recommended to always install DERs, whose fault current contribution is
much smaller than the fault level created by the FCS at the first protection
device upstream of the DER.
 Adaptive Protection
• Adaptive protection schemes are presented as a solution for microgrid
protection both in grid-connected and in islanded mode of operation.
• The basic philosophy behind these schemes is automatic readjustment of
the relay settings when the microgrid changes from grid-connected to
islanded mode and vice versa.
• In an islanded microgrid, the adaptive protection strategy can be used by
assigning different trip settings for different levels of fault current, which
in turn are linked to different magnitudes of system voltage drops resulting
from disturbance in the system.
• in an islanded microgrid, the fault in the system can result in severe
voltage depression in the entire network (due to low impedances within
the network).
• In such a scenario, selectivity cannot be assured using voltage
measurement alone.
• A possible solution could be the use of a voltage restrained OC technique,
The scheme is shown in Figure 10.3.
• A large depression in voltage (which happens mostly in
the case of short circuit as opposed to overload) will
result in the selection of a lower current threshold.
• This would effectively move the time–current
characteristic down and thus the tripping time would
be reduced.
• In contrast to this, tripping times would be longer
during overloads as a small voltage depression would
not be able to switch the scheme to the lower setting.
• Thus the system would retain the longer time setting
corresponding to long-term characteristics.
• This scheme, although looks sound, has its drawbacks.
It is not clear how the scheme will perform if there is a
small difference in the magnitude of voltage depression
resulting from short circuit and overload conditions.
• The scheme seems to make use of the principle of
relays with inverse time characteristics, that is, the
larger the fault
• current, the smaller the response time.
• Also, it will suffer from a long clearing time in the case
of faults that cause a small voltage drop, thus posing
the risk of fault current spreading in the entire network.