Mathematics 3 3-1a

Differential Calculus

A derivative function defines the slope described by the original function.

Example 1 (FEIM):
Given: y(x) = 3x3 – 2x2 + 7. What is the slope of the function y(x) at x = 4?
y "(x) = 9x 2 # 4x
y "(x) = (9)(4)2 # (4)(4)
= 128

Example 2 (FEIM):
# 1&
! Given: 1 % ((1+ 4x ) 7 + 2k). What is the value of k such that y1 is
y " =
$2'
perpendicular to the curve y2 = 2x at (1, 2)?

Perpendicular implies that m1m2 = "1

!Since y # (1) = 2,then
2

1 $ 1'
y1# (1) = " = & )(1+ (4)(1) " 7 + 2k)
2 %2(
k = 1/ 2
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Mathematics 3 3-1b
Differential Calculus
Maxima

Minima

Example (FEIM): (maxima)

What is the maximum of the function y = –x3 + 3x for x ≥ –1?
y " = #3x 2 + 3
y "" = #6x
When y " = 0 = #3x 2 + 3
x 2 = 1;x = ±1
y ""(1) = #6 < 0; therefore, this is a maximum.
y ""(#1) = 6 > 0; therefore, this is a minimum.
y(1) = #(1)3 + 3 = 2
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 Mathematics 3 3-1c
Differential Calculus
Inflection Point

f ′′(a) changes sign about x = a

Example (FEIM):
What is the point of inflection of the function y = –x3 + 3x – 2?
y " = #3x 2 + 3
y "" = #6x
y "" = 0 when x = 0 and y "" > 0 for x < 0; y "" < 0 for x > 0
Therefore this is an inflection point.
y(0) = #(0)3 + (3)(0) # 2 = #2

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 Mathematics 3 3-1d
Differential Calculus
Partial Derivative
• A derivative taken with respect to only one independent variable at a time.

Example (FEIM):
What is the partial derivative of P(R, S, T) taken with respect to T?
P = 2R 3S2T 1/ 2 + R 3 / 4S cos 2T

P = 2R 3S2 (T 1/ 2 ) + R 3 / 4S(cos 2T )
"P
! = 2R 3S2 ( 21 T #1/ 2 ) + R 3 / 4S(#2 sin2T )
"T
! = R 3S2T "1/ 2 " 2R 3 / 4S sin2T

!
!

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 Mathematics 3 3-1e
Differential Calculus
Curvature

Radius of Curvature

Example (FEIM):
What is the curvature of y = –x3 + 3x for x = –1?
(A) –2
(B) –1
(C) 0
(D) 6
y " = #3x 2 + 3 y "" = #6x
y "(#1) = 0 y ""(#1) = 6
y "" 6
K= = =6
(1+ (y ")2 )3 / 2 (1+ (0)2 )3 / 2

Therefore, (D) is correct.

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 Mathematics 3 3-1f
Differential Calculus
Limits

Look at what the function does as it approaches the limit.

If the limit goes to plus or minus infinity:
• look for constants that become irrelevant
• look for functions that blow up fast: a factorial, an exponential
If the limit goes to a finite number:
• look at what happens at both plus and minus a small number
# f (x) & # f (a) & 0 )
For lim% (, % ( = or = :
x "a
$ g(x) ' $ g(a) ' 0 )

• Use L’Hôpital’s rule

!
NOTE: Use L’Hôpital’s rule only when the next derivative of f(x) and
g(x) exist.

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Mathematics 3 3-1g1
Differential Calculus
Example 1 (FEIM): %x + 4(
What is the value of lim' *?
x "#
& x $ 4 )
(A) 0
(B) 1
(C) ∞ !
(D) undefined

Divide the numerator and denominator by x.

% 4(
%x + 4( '1+ * 1+ 0
lim' * = lim' x * = =1
x "#
& x $ 4 ) x "#
4
'1$ * 1$ 0
& x)
Therefore, (B) is correct.

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Mathematics 3 3-1g2
Differential Calculus

Example 2 (FEIM): $ x2 # 4 '

What is the value of lim& )?
(A) 0
x "2
% x#2 (
(B) 2
(C) 4
(D) ∞ !
Factor out an (x – 2) term in the numerator.
$ x2 # 4 ' $ (x # 2)(x + 2) '
lim& ) = lim & ) = lim (x + 2) = 2 + 2 = 4
x "2
% x#2 ( x "2
% x#2 ( x "2

Therefore, (C) is correct.

!

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Mathematics 3 3-1h
Differential Calculus

Example 3 (FEIM): $1# cos x '

What is the value of lim& )?
% x
x "0 2
(A) 0 (
(B) 1/4
(C) 1/2
(D) ∞ !
Both the numerator and denominator approach 0,
so use L’Hôpital’s rule.
$1# cos x ' $ sin x '
lim& ) = lim& )
% x ( x "0 % 2x (
x "0 2

Both the numerator and denominator are still approaching 0,

so use L’Hôpital’s rule again.
! # sin x & # cos x & cos(0)
lim% = lim
( x "0 % (= = 1/ 2
x "0
$ 2x ' $ 2 ' 2
Therefore, (C) is correct.

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Mathematics 3 3-2a
Integral Calculus

Constant of Integration
• added to the integral to recognize a possible term

Example (FEIM):
What is the constant of integration for y(x) = " (e 2x
+ 2x)dx if y = 1 when x = 1?
(A) 2 " e2
(B) " 21 e2
(C) 4 " e2 !
(D) 1+ 2e2
y(x) = 21 e2 x + x 2 + C
y(1) = 21 e2 +1+ C = 1
!
C = " 21 e2
!
Therefore, (B) is correct.
!
!

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Mathematics 3 3-2b
Integral Calculus

Indefinite Integrals

1. Look for ways to simplify the formula with algebra before integrating.
2. Plug in initial value(s).
3. Solve for constant(s).
4. Indefinite integrals can be solved by differentiating the answers, but
this is usually the hard way.

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 Mathematics 3 3-2c
Integral Calculus

Method of Integration – Integration by Parts

Example (FEIM):
Find " x 2e x dx.
Let g(x) = e x and f (x) = x 2
so dg(x) = e x dx " x 2e x dx = x 2e x # " 2xe dxx

!
eax
From the NCEES Handbook: # xe dx = 2 (ax " 1).
ax

a
!
Therefore, # x e dx = x e
2 x 2 x
" 2(xe x " e x ) + C

Notice that chosing dg(x)

! = x2 dx and f(x) = ex
does not improve the integral.
!

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 Mathematics 3 3-2d
Integral Calculus

Method of Integration – Integration by Substitution

• Trigonometric Substitutions:

Example (FEIM):
Find " (e x + 2x)2 (e x + 2)dx.

Let u(x) = e x + 2x
so, du = (e x + 2)dx
!
u3 1
" (e + 2x) (e + 2)dx = " u du = 3 + C = 3 (e x + 2x)3 + C
x 2 x 2

!
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 Mathematics 3 3-2e
Integral Calculus
Method of Integration – Partial Fractions
• Transforms a proper polynomial fraction of two polynomials into a
sum of simpler expressions
Example 1 (FEIM):
6x 2 + 9x " 3
Find # dx, using the partial fraction expression.
x(x + 3)(x " 1)
6x 2 + 9x " 3 A B C A(x + 3)(x " 1) B(x)(x " 1) C(x)(x + 3)
= + + = + +
x(x + 3)(x " 1) x x + 3 x " 1 x(x + 3)(x " 1) x(x + 3)(x " 1) x(x + 3)(x " 1)
! So, 6x2 + 9x – 3 = A(x + 3)(x –1) + B(x)(x – 1) + C(x)(x + 3)
Solve using the three simultaneous equations:
! A+B+C=6
2A – B + 3C = 9
–3A = –3
A = 1, B = 2, and C = 3
6x 2 + 9x " 3 1 2 3
# x(x + 3)(x " 1) dx = # x dx + # x + 3 + # x " 1dx = In x + 2In x + 3 + 3In x " 1 + C

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Mathematics 3 3-2f
Integral Calculus

If the denominator has repeated roots, then the partial fraction

expansion will have all the powers of that root.
Example 2 (FEIM):
4x " 9
Find the partial fraction expansion of .
(x " 3) 2

4x " 9 A B A(x " 3) B

= + = +
(x " 3)2 x " 3 (x " 3)2 x " 3(x " 3) (x " 3)2
!
4x – 9 = Ax – 3A + B

! Solve using the two simultaneous equations.

A=4
–9 = –3A + B
A = 4 and B = 3
4x " 9 4 3
Therefore, = +
(x " 3)2 x " 3 (x " 3)2

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Mathematics 3 3-2g
Integral Calculus
Definite Integrals

1. Solve the indefinite integral (without the constant of integration).

2. Evaluate at upper and lower bounds.
3. Subtract lower bound value from upper bound value.

Example (FEIM):
Find the integral between π/3 and π/4 of f(x) = cos x.
#
# 3
$ 3
#
cos xdx = " cos
#
4
4

# $ #'
= " cos " &" cos )
3 % 4(
!
= "0.5 + 0.707 = 0.207

!
!
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 Mathematics 3 3-2h
Integral Calculus
Average Value
1 b
Average = # f (x)dx
b"a a

Example (FEIM):
! What is the average value of y(x) = 2x + 4 between x = 0 and x = 4?
4
1 4 # 1 &# 2x 2 & 1 2
Average =
4"0
) 0
(2x + 4)dx = % (% ( = 4 + (4)(4) = 8
$ 4 '$ 2 ' 0 4
( )

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 Mathematics 3 3-2i
Integral Calculus
Area Problems
y

f 1 (x)
b
area = # a
(f1(x) " f2 (x))dx
f 2 (x)

a b x

Example (FEIM): !
What is the area between y1 = (1/4)x + 3 and y2 = 6x – 1 between x = 0
and x = 1/2?
1 "" 1 % % 1"
23 %
Area = ) 2
$$ x + 3 ' ( (6x ( 1) 'dx = ) 2
0 $
( x + 4 'dx
## 4 # 4
0
& & &
1
2
# 23 2 & # 23 &# 1 & 4 41
2
= %" x + 4x ( = %" (% ( + =
$ 8 ' 0 $ 8 '$ 2 ' 2 32
!

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Mathematics 3 3-2j
Integral Calculus
Centroid

First Moment of Area

Moment of Inertia

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Mathematics 3 3-3a
Differential Equations
First-Order Homogeneous Equations

General form:

General solution:

Initial condition: usually y (b) = constant or y′(b) = constant

y(b) y #(b)
C= or C=
e"ab e"ab

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 Mathematics 3 3-3b
Differential Equations
Example (FEIM):
Find the solution to the differential equation y = 4y′ if y (0) = 1.
(A) 4e-4t
(B) 1/4e–1/4t
(C) e–1/4t
(D) e1/4t

Rearrange in the standard form.

4y " # y = 0
y " # 14 y = 0
General solution, y = Ce–at
y(b) y(0)
! C= = =1
e "ab
e (1/ 4)(0 )

Since a = –1/4 and C = 1, then y = e1/4t.

! Therefore, (D) is correct.

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 Mathematics 3 3-3c
Differential Equations
Separable Equations – integrating both sides
m(x)dx = n(y)dy

Example (FEIM):
Reduce y " + 3(2y # sin x) # (x sin x + 6y) = 0 to a separable equation.
y " + (3)(2)y # 6y # 3 sin x # x sin x = 0
dy
= 3 sin x + x sin x
! dx
dy = (3 sin x + x sin x)dx

Then both sides can be integrated.

y = –3 cos x + (sin x – x cos x) + C
!

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Mathematics 3 3-3d
Differential Equations
Second-Order Homogeneous Equations
General form:
Characteristic equation:
Roots:

General solutions
Real roots (a2 > b):
Real and equal roots (a2 = b):
Complex roots (a2 < b):

Initial conditions
Usually y(constant) = constant and y′(constant) = constant.
Results in two simultaneous equations and two unknowns.

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Mathematics 3 3-3e
Differential Equations
Example (FEIM): y "" + 6y " + 5y = 0
y(0) = 1
y "(0) = 0
Write the equation in the standard form.
y "" + (2)(3)y " + 5y = 0
The characteristic
! equation is r 2 + (2)(3)r + 5 = 0
The roots are "3 ± 32 " 5 = "3 ± 2 = "1,"5
!
This is the overdamped! case because there are two real roots, so the
general solution is y + C1e"1x + C2e"5 x
!
y(0) = 1= C1 + C2
y #(0) = 0 = "C1 " 5C2
1= "4C2
C2 = " 14
C1 = 1 14
y = 1 14 e" x " 14 e"5 x
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Mathematics 3 3-3f
Differential Equations
Nonhomogeneous Equations

General solution:

To solve the particular solution:

• know the form of the solution
• differentiate and then plug into the original equation
• collect like terms

The coefficients of the like terms must sum to zero, giving simultaneous
equations.
Solve the equations and determine the constant(s).

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 Mathematics 3 3-3g
Differential Equations
Example (FEIM):
Find the particular solution for the differential equation y "" # y " # 2y = 10 cos x.
From the table in the NCEES Handbook, the particular solution has the form:
y p = B1 cos x + B2 sin x
y "p = #B1 sin x + B2 cos x !
y "p" = #B1 cos x # B2 sin x
Substituting gives
–B1 cos x – B2 sin x – (–B1 sin x + B2 cos x) – 2(B1 cos x + B2 sin x) = 10 cos x
! (–3 B1 – B2) cos x + (B1 – 3 B2) sin x = 10 cos x
Isolating the sin and cos coefficients, we get the following simultaneous
equations.
"3B1 " B2 = 10
B1 " 3B2 = 0
B1 = "3
B2 = "1
y p = "3 cos x " sin x
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Mathematics 3 3-3h
Differential Equations
Fourier Series

Example (FEIM):
Find the Fourier coefficients for a square wave function f(t) with a period of 2π.
f (t) = "2 when " # < x < 0
f (t) = 2 when 0 < x < #
2 # 1
an = $
2# " #
F (t) cos(nt)dt =
# ( 0 #
$" # "2 cos nxdx + $0 2 cos nxdx = 0 )
2 # 1
bn = $
2# " #
F (t) sin(nt)dt =
# ($ 0

"#
#
"2 sinnxdx + $0 2 sinnxdx )
(2)(2)
= (1" cos n#)
n#

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Mathematics 3 3-3i
Differential Equations

Laplace Transforms

To solve differential equations with Laplace transforms:

1. Put the equation in standard form:

2. Take the Laplace transform of both sides:

3. Expand terms, using these relationships:

4. Use algebra to solve for L(y).

5. Plug in the initial conditions: y(0) = c; y ′(0) = k.

6. Take the inverse transform:

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 Mathematics 3 3-3j
Differential Equations
Example (FEIM):
Solve by Laplace transform: Partial fraction expansion
y "" + 4y " + 3y = 0,y(0) = 3, y "(0) = 1 3s +13 A B
= +
The equation is already in standard (s + 3)(s +1) s + 3 s +1
form. A(s +1) + B(s + 3)
=
! Take the Laplace transform of both (s + 3)(s +1)
sides. ! (A + B)s + (A + 3B)
=
s y " sy(0) " y #(0) + 4(sy " y(0)) + 3(y) = 0
2
(s + 3)(s +1)
Plug in initial conditions and A!+B = 3
rearrange. A + 3B = 13
! s2 y + 4sy + 3y = 3s +1+ (3)(4) A!= "2; B = 5
(s + 3)(s +1)y = 3s +13 "2 5
y= +
Solve for y and separate by partial s + 3 s +1
fractions. Take the inverse Laplace transform
! 3s +13 of y.
y= y(t) = "2e"3t + 5e"t
(s + 3)(s +1) ! $ 1 '
)= e
"1 "#t
&
% (s + #) (
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 Mathematics 3 3-3k
Difference Equations

First-order: balance on a loan

Pk = Pk–1(1 + i) – A

Second-order: Fibonacci number sequence

y(k) = y(k " 1) + y(k " 2)
where y("1) = 1 and y("2) = 1
or
f (k + 2) = f (k +1) + f (k)
! where f (0) = 1 and f (1) = 1

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Mathematics 3 3-3l
Difference Equations

Example (FEIM):
What is a solution to the linear difference equation y(k + 1) = 15y(k)?
(A) y(k) = 15/(1 + 15k)
(B) y(k) = 15k/16
(C) y(k) = C + 15k, C is a constant
(D) y(k) =15k

Try (D) by plugging in a (k + 1) for every k.

y(k + 1) = 15k+1
y(k + 1) = 15(15k)
y(k + 1) = 15y(k)
so y(k) =15k

Therefore, (D) is correct.

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Mathematics 3 3-3m
Difference Equations

z-Transforms

To solve difference equations using the z-transform:

1. Convert to standard form: y(k + 1) = ay(k).
2. Take the z-transform of both sides of the equation.
3. Expand terms.
4. Plug in terms: y(0), y(1), y(–1), etc.
5. Manipulate into a form that has an inverse transform.
6. Take the inverse transform.

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 Mathematics 3 3-3n
Difference Equations

Example (FEIM):
Solve the linear difference equation y(k + 1) = 15y(k) by z-transform,
given that y(0) = 1.

Convert to standard form.

y(k +1) " 15y(k) = 0
Take the z-transform, expand the terms, and plug in the terms.
zY (z) " zy(0) " 15Y (z) = 0
! Y (z)(z " 15) = z
z 1
Y (z) = =
z " 15 1" 15z "1
Take the inverse transform.
y(k) = 15k
!

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