Residential Energy

Use

ME 416/516
 Topics
ƒ Energy use categories
ƒ Winter heat loss
ƒ Summer heat gain
ƒ Annual heating and cooling costs
ƒ Home energy systems
ƒ Innovations in residential energy conservation

ME 416/516
 Home Energy Use Categories
ƒ Space heating
ƒ Hot water heating
ƒ Air conditioning
ƒ Lighting
ƒ Electric appliances
• cooking, laundry, refrigeration, other
ƒ Gas appliances

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 Winter Heat Loss
ƒ Heat loss, q, is proportional to ∆T-- the relevant
∆T is Tod - Ti
ƒ For analysis purposes, inside the home is a
thermodynamic system (control volume) called
the conditioned space, and outside air and
earth are the surroundings.
ƒ The system boundary of a building is called the
building envelope.
ƒ A home’s envelope consists of four parts: floor,
ceiling/attic combo, walls and doors/windows.
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 Heat Loss Modes
ƒ Typically, the home loses heat by convection
from inside air at Ti to envelope, conduction
through envelope, and convection from outer
envelope surface to outside air at Tod.
ƒ Some envelope components are more
complicated, such as the ceiling/roof, which has
a ceiling, attic air at a temperature different from
outdoors, and a roof.
ƒ Two other heat loss routes are infiltration and
duct losses.
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 Infiltration
ƒ Infiltration is the term applied to the unwanted
influx of outside air through various leakage
areas in the envelope.
ƒ Infiltration introduces cold, dry air in the winter
and hot, humid air in the summer.
ƒ Typical infiltration sites are gaps between floor,
walls, and ceilings, window and door frames,
switch and light fixture penetrations, pipe and
duct penetrations, fireplaces, exhaust fans, etc.

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 Duct Losses
ƒ Ducts that carry air to and from the furnace/air
conditioner air handler are subject to both
leakage losses and conduction losses.
ƒ Ducts are often located in attics or crawlspaces
where the air is colder than the indoor air
ƒ Duct loss can be greatly reduced through proper
insulation and sealing (using mastic or top
quality tape).
ƒ Duct loss can be eliminated by locating ducts in
the conditioned space.
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 Envelope Heat Transfer
ƒ Recall that heat transfer q
through a wall having kA
several resistances is
calculated as:
q = ∆T/ΣRth hout
Tin
ƒ Conduction Rth = ∆x/kA Tout
hin
ƒ Convection Rth = 1/hA
ƒ For buildings, usually: q

Rconduc >> Rconvec

kB
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 R-Value
ƒ Building energy calculations are based on R-
value rather than Rth.
ƒ R-Value (called “R” from here on) is defined as:
R-value = R = ∆x/k = A * Rth
ƒ Conduction q through a wall of area A built of
several layers of materials is:
q = A × ∆T/ΣR
ƒ R-value for a given envelope component
(insulation, window, etc.) doesn’t depend on A.
ƒ Units of R are: hr-ft2-F/Btu
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 Heat Transfer (Cont’d)
ƒ Heat transfer q is calculated for each conductive
element by considering its R and surface area A.
ƒ R-values are summed for built-up series resistances
(e.g., wall has sheet rock, R = 0.5, + fiberglass
insulation, R = 11, + R-3 bead-board, + brick, R = 1, for
a total R = 15.5 wall).
ƒ Convection resistances (small) are usually ignored-
causes slight overestimation of q.
ƒ Roof/ceiling combo has a total effective R.
ƒ Floor (slab, crawlspace, or basement) requires special
treatment.
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 Heat Transfer (Cont’d)
ƒ Duct losses include a conduction loss that requires
a duct R-value plus an estimation of the duct
surroundings temperature
ƒ Duct loss also includes an estimate of leakage loss
(accurate calculation very difficult without duct
blower test).
ƒ Infiltration loss incorporates an estimation of
infiltration area (total), which is used to estimate an
infiltration cfm, then a total heat loss taking Tod into
account. A blower door test can be used to
actually measure infiltration.
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 Example
Given: A wall consists of 200 ft2 of wall with
4 inches of material with k = 0.04 W/m°C and
50 ft2 of windows having an R-4 rating. Ti =
70°F and Tod = 35° F.
Find: the rate of heat loss through the wall.
Sol’n: First find R-value of material:

∆x 4 in ×1 ft hr ⋅ ft 2 ⋅o F
12 in
R= = = 14.4 = R 14.4
k Btu Btu
W hr ⋅ ft F
o
0.04 o × 0.578
mC W o
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mC
 Example (Cont’d)
Next, use q = A × ∆T/R:
qwall = [200 ft2 × (70 - 35) °F]/14.4 hr-ft2°F/Btu
= 486 Btu/hr
qwindow = [50 × (70 - 35)]/4 = 438 Btu/hr
q = 486 + 438 = 924 Btu/hr

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 Sizing of Heating and Cooling
Equipment
ƒ To size heating equipment, use heat loss for
near worst case weather conditions.
ƒ Usually use the 97.5% design condition- for
heating, the actual outside temperature is lower
than the design temperature only 2.5% of the
hours during December, January and February.
ƒ The thermal mass of a house will "flywheel" it
through temporarily worse conditions.
ƒ If building is very light, e.g. a mobile home, use
99% design condition.
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 Design Temperatures and Summer
Daily Range (°F)
Winter Summer
City 99% 97.5% DB WB DR
Boston 6 9 88 71 16
Denver -5 1 91 59 30
Houston 28 33 95 77 18
San Fran. 35 38 77 63 20
St. Paul, MN -16 -12 89 73 22
Tucson, AZ 28 32 10 66 26
Tuscaloosa 20 23 96 76 22
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 Summer Heat Gain
ƒ Heating uses more energy except sub- tropical
or warmer climates (So. Fla., So. Texas, So.
Cal., Hawaii), but use of energy for air
conditioning is certainly very significant.
ƒ Much of cooling load comes from solar thermal
radiation, so orientation, color or absorptivity,
and shading of house becomes important.
ƒ The summer heat gain, or cooling load, has two
components: latent load and sensible load.

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 Sensible Cooling Load
ƒ Sensible load refers to cooling air over some ∆T,
so q is proportional to m × cp × ∆T.
ƒ Sensible load arises from heat gain through
envelope, solar gain, lights, cooking, TV's,
people, etc.

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 Latent Cooling Load
ƒ Latent load refers to the need to dehumidify
moist air for comfort by condensation and
removal of water vapor
ƒ Latent q is proportional to mcond × hfg
ƒ Latent load arises from occupant breathing and
perspiring, intake of humid outside air, bathing,
dish and clothes washing, cooking, etc.

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 Simplified Method for Summer
Cooling Load
ƒ To size cooling equipment, need to find both
latent and sensible loads.
ƒ The latent load has a strong geographic
dependence on summer wet bulb temperature
(review table).
ƒ We can simplify calculation of total cooling load
by calculating sensible load then using a rule of
thumb with regional climate to get latent and
total load.

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 Sensible Heat Factor
ƒ The ratio of the sensible load to the total cooling
load is the sensible heat factor (SHF).
ƒ The approximate SHF as a function of climate is:

Climate Range SHF

Humid Twb > 73 0.7
Moderate 67 < Twb < 73 0.75
Dry Twb < 67 0.8

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 Transmission Gains
ƒ Gains of sensible heat through building
envelope are called transmission gains, which
differ from latent gains and internal sensible
gains.
ƒ Transmission gains are affected by solar
insolation (flux), which have
the effect of heating the
outer surface of the enve-
lope to a higher T than
outside air temperature, Tod.
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 Gains Through Non-
Transmitting Envelope
ƒ For all but windows, the design equivalent
temperature difference (DETD) method uses a
higher ∆T than Tod - Ti to account for solar gain.
ƒ The design equivalent temperature is calculated
for various non-window portions of the envelope.
ƒ Then heat gain q is calculated as:
q = A × DETD/R

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 Gains Through Windows
ƒ Heat gain by both conduction and radiation.
ƒ An effective heat flux (q/A), called cooling load
factor (CLF), is found for each window, then:
q = Aw × CLF
ƒ CLF depends on design Tod, window shades,
blinds, etc., direction which
the window faces, and shading.
ƒ Shading depends on tinting or
actual shading (trees, etc.)
of window.
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 Heat Gains in Ductwork
ƒ Method is similar to finding heat loss in winter,
except must account for attics being hotter and
crawl spaces being cooler than outdoors.
ƒ Use modified equations to calculate attic and
crawlspace temperatures.
ƒ Use empirical relationships to get DETD, then:
q = A × DETD/R
ƒ R is the equivalent R-value for the roof/ceiling
combination or the crawlspace.

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 Infiltration Gains
ƒ Sensible heat gain by infiltration is calculated for
summer just as for winter.
ƒ Infiltration losses are usually smaller in summer
than winter because average wind speeds and
average ∆Ts are smaller in summer.

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 Internal Sensible Gains
ƒ Internal sensible gains result from sensible heat
sources, e.g., people, appliances and lighting.
ƒ Some typical values (averaged over a 24-hour
period), in Btu/hr are (multiply by 0.293 for W):
People (avg. activity)..….. 225 Btu/hr/person
Refrigerator (w/ freezer)……. 650 Btu/hr
Range (electric/gas)…... 270 - 470/500 - 1100
Television…………………………..150 - 180
Dryer (electric/gas)…….. 370 - 500/500 - 800
Lighting- 3.4 × avg watts or... 400 - 800
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 Total Heat Gain (Cooling Load)
ƒ Sum all sensible gains (transmission, window,
duct, infiltration and internal sensible gains) to
get total sensible heat gain, qs. Heat gain is
determined for the summer design condition.
ƒ Total heat gain (cooling load) is qc = qs/SHF.
ƒ The winter heat loss and summer cooling load
(both for the design condition) can be tabulated
by category to identify major energy use areas.
ƒ Unusually large components should be the first
target for energy conservation improvements.
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 Annual Heating and Cooling
Costs
ƒ The design heating load (an instantaneous rate)
is used with the heating degree days to find the
annual heating energy requirement.
ƒ The annual heating energy requirement, along
with heating system efficiency, fuel type, and
fuel cost, determines the annual heating bill.
ƒ The cooling costs are computed the same way
using the design cooling load and the cooling
degree days.

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 Degree Days
ƒ Degree Days (DD) represent the area between
the Ti and Tod curves in units of degrees × days.
ƒ DD × 24 hr/day × Btu/hr·°F for the house gives
the total Btu of heating or cooling energy
required.

Area
°F
represents 65
Heating
Degree Tod
Days
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 Typical Degree Days
Winter Summer
City Wind DDc 70 65 60
Boston 11.8 5593 280 699 1296
Denver 7.5 6014 289 680 1217
Houston 10.0 1549 1736 2761 3995
San Fran. 10.5 3161 7 115 519
St. Paul, MN 11.2 8007 302 662 1207
Tucson, AZ --- 1960 1700 2860 3620
Tuscaloosa 9.8 2685 1278 2102 3101
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 Estimating Heating Energy Use
with Degree Days
The quantity of heating “fuel” required is about:
24 ⋅ DD ⋅ q h ⋅ C D
F=
η ⋅ (Ti − Tod ) ⋅ HV
where:
• DD is the number of heating Degree Days
• Qh is the design heating load in Btu/hr
• CD is an adjustment constant (see next slide)
• η is heating unit efficiency; use AFUE for gas,
HSPF for a heat pump and η = 1 for strip electric
• HV is fuel heating value in Btu per unit of fuel
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 Calculating Correction Factor
ƒ The value of CD for the annual heating energy
equation is taken from the plot below:
0.9

0.8
CD Factor

0.7

0.6

0.5
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Heating Degree Days (F)
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 Annual Cooling Energy
The annual air conditioner energy requirement is:
24 ⋅ DD ⋅ q c
kWh =
SEER ⋅ (Tod − Ti ) ⋅1000
where:
• DD is degree days of cooling
• Qc is design cooling load in Btu/hr
• SEER is corrected ARI rating of appliance
To use the above equation, the correct DD value
should be used, as explained on the next slide.

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 Cooling Degree Day Correction
ƒ Select DD from the previous table by
interpolating based on Tb, obtained as:
ƒ Tb = Ti – qig/UA, where UA = qs/(Tod – Ti)
ƒ qig is the sum of the internal gains in Btu/hr
ƒ Interpolate for DD using Tb in the previous DD
table

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 Climate Affects Efficiency
ƒ The climate in which air conditioners and heat pumps
operate affects their efficiency.
ƒ Heat pumps and air conditioners are rated by the
American Refrigeration Institute (ARI).
ƒ ARI divides country into 6 regions. Standard ratings
are based on Region IV, including NYC, Indianapolis
and Salt Lake City.
ƒ Hotter climates have higher heating ratings and lower
cooling ratings.
ƒ Tuscaloosa (on Region II/III border):
HSPF ≅ ARI + 0.6 SEER ≅ ARI - 0.6
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 Residential HVAC Equipment
ƒ We will look at typical heating and cooling
equipment used in U.S. homes, concentrating on
equipment typical of the Southeast.

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 Cooling/Dehumidification
ƒ Evaporative cooler- "desert or swamp cooler.”
ƒ Works on adiabatic saturation principal-
water/air can be cooled to near the wet bulb
temperature.
ƒ Effective in very dry climates, certainly
ineffective as primary A/C in Southeast.

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 Evaporative
Cooler

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 Air Conditioner
ƒ Operates on thermodynamic refrigeration cycle
between cool inside and warm outside. All air
conditioners both cool and dehumidify. Types:
ƒ "Window" unit- Typically 1 Ton or lower, window
mounted so inside air circulates over evaporator
and outside air circulates over condenser.
ƒ Advantages: Inexpensive, no ductwork, provides
A/C for short cooling seasons w/ low first cost.
ƒ Disadvantages: Low SEER, single point air distri-
bution only cool one room well, UGLY, NOISY.
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 Window
A/C Unit

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 Central Air Conditioning
ƒ Evaporator is inside air handler, air-cooled con-
denser and compressor located in outdoor unit.
ƒ Advantages- Has better efficiency (SEER) and
improved comfort compared to window units.
Integrates well with forced-air gas or oil-fired
furnace (same air handler and ductwork used).
ƒ Disadvantages- High first cost, needs ductwork.
ƒ Various efficiencies available (at a price). Note
that some “high efficiency” units have low latent
capacity. Multiple speed units now appearing.
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Central A/C (This is really a
commercial unit)

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 Heat Pump
ƒ Air-to-air heat pump- essentially identical to
central A/C in the cooling mode.
ƒ Evaporator becomes condenser and vice versa
when reversing valve switches.

Heat Pump
in Cooling
Mode
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Heat Pump or Central Air System

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 Water-Source Heat Pump
ƒ Condenser is cooled by water from a well or lake.
ƒ Advantages- Groundwater is nearly at a constant
year-round temperature (65°F in Tuscaloosa) and
is typically cooler than outside air in summer and
warmer in winter. SEER can be significantly
higher than air-to-air. No need for condenser to
be outside (but not in your attic!).
ƒ Disadvantages- Need water source, possible
fouling, difficult to find information, few qualified
installers in many areas, higher first cost.
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 Blower Air/Refrigerant Coil

Supply
Well Air/Water HX

Compressor Discharge
Well
Expansion
Valve
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Water-Source Heat Pump
 Ground Source Heat Pump
ƒ Condenser is cooled by water that circulates
through ground in plastic piping.
ƒ Advantages- Uses ground (warmer in winter,
cooler in summer) as heat sink/source, no water
quality problems, high SEER (though SEER of
water source is potentially higher), condenser is
indoors (more attractive).
ƒ Disadvantages- Few qualified installers, must
have driller install ground couplings (in the more
efficient vertical installations), higher first cost,
burdensome regulations in some states.
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 Heating Equipment
ƒ Wood-burning equipment- Certainly the oldest
technology. A variety of relatively efficient
stoves and fireplace inserts are available.
ƒ Advantages- Cheap if wood available at very
low cost (like free). Aesthetically pleasing.
ƒ Disadvantages- Normally must hand load fuel,
wood burning generates significant pollution-
banned in some areas. Open market firewood
is an expensive source of energy compared to
fossil fuels, etc.
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Large, Open Fireplace

Efficiency: Poor- about 10%

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 Wood Stove In best wood stoves,
combustion air is
taken from outside
through a controlled
damper, stove is
sealed with gaskets,
and a catalytic
converter is used.

Efficiency: Moderate- from

20% to 50%
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 Boilers/Hydronic Heating
ƒ Popular in colder climates.
ƒ Typically gas or oil fired (occasionally coal-
stoker).
ƒ Heating is done by a boiler.
ƒ Hot water is circulated through
radiators, baseboard convectors
or through floor piping.
ƒ Good AFUE but high first cost-
does not pay in Southeast.

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 Floor Hydronic Heating

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 Combined Systems
ƒ Oversized hot water heater supplies domestic
hot water, plus supplies coil in air handler for
central heating. Applicable to SE conditions
used in combination with central A/C.
ƒ Advantages- Need not purchase natural gas
furnace- hot water heater serves double duty,
yielding low first cost and AFUE similar to gas
furnace. Hot water heater lasts longer because
of more circulation (reduces bottom sediment).
ƒ Disadvantage- Possible water leaks in attic.
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 Gas- or Oil-Fired Furnace
ƒ Air passed through air handler’s heat exchanger
is heated by oil or gas flame and sent to ducts.
ƒ Along with heat pump, most common heating
method in SE. .Combines well with central A/C.
ƒ AFUE varies from 65 to 95%.
ƒ High AFUE units capture heat by condensing
exhaust H2O. They are presently expensive
and probably not justified in the SE, but do have
advantage of being able to vent low temperature
exhaust laterally through wall in plastic pipe.
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 Gas-Fired Furnace in Air Handler

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 Heat Pumps
ƒ Same types as discussed in cooling section.
ƒ Air-to-air heat pumps have relatively cool supply
air temperature compared to gas furnace or
water/ground source heat pump.

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 Baseboard Electric
ƒ Uses electric resistance heating units mounted
on wall near floor.
ƒ Advantages- Very low first cost, clean, depend-
able operation, very low maintenance, controls
temperature of individual rooms independently,
is good option for heating in very mild climates
(in conjunction with central A/C)
ƒ Disadvantages- COP = 1 (SEER = 3.4), very
low energy efficiency. Slight safety hazard with
exposed warm surfaces.
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 Residential Calculator Example
40 ft Window areas:
Ceilings are 8-ft high. Brick veneer N – 80 sq ft
walls, 1-in Styrofoam sheathing, 2 ×
E – 40 sq ft
4 stud wall with R-13 fiberglass
N insulation, ½-in gypsum board walls. S – 50 sq ft
Slab foundation. Two 20 sq ft
W – 20 sq ft
insulated metal doors N and S sides.
35 ft
Double pane vinyl windows with Age: 10 yr old
Venetian blinds. Five 250 Btuh
Elev: 180 ft
occupants, 1500 Btuh kitchen load,
and 350 W other internal load. Ducts Location:
are R-4 and located in the attic with
Tuscaloosa
>120 F supply temperature.

ME 416/516