Calculus 2 Study Guide and Notes

Written by David Corbin

Based on James Stewart Calculus Eighth Edition and Dr. Thompson’s Calculus 2 Class

6.1 Inverse Functions

A function f is called a one-to-one function if it never takes on the same value twice

f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) whenever x1 6= x2

Horizontal Line Test: A function is one-to-one ⇐⇒ no horizon line intersects its graph more than
once.
Let f be a one-to-one function with domain A and range B. Then its inverse function f −1 has domain
B and range A and is defined by
f −1 (y) = x ⇔ f (x) = y
for any y in B.
Note that the -1 in f −1 is not an exponent.

How to Find the Inverse Function of a One-to-one Function f

• Write y = f (x).
• Solve this equation for x in terms of y (if possible).
• To express f −1 as a function of x, interchange x and y. The resulting equation y = f −1 (x).

Theorem. If f is a one-to-one continuous function defined on an interval, then its inverse function f −1
is also continuous.
Theorem. If f is a one-to-one differentiable function with inverse function f −1 and f 0 (f −1 (a)) 6= 0,
then the inverse function is differentiable at a and
1
(f −1 )0 (a) =
f 0 (f −1 (a))

6.2 Exponential Functions

If b is a positive number and r is rational then,

bx = lim br
r→x

Theorem. If b > 0 and b 6= 1, then f (x) = bx is a continuous function with domain R and range (0, ∞).
In particular, bx > 0 for all x. If 0 < b < 1, f (x) = bx is a decreasing function; if b > 1, f is an increasing
function. If a, b > 0 and x, y ∈ R, then
1. bx+y = bx by
bx
2. bx−y = by
y
3. (bx ) = bxy
x
4. (ab) = ax bx
If b > 1, then limx→∞ bx = ∞ and limx→−∞ bx = 0
If 0 < b < 1, then limx→∞ bx = 0 and limx→−∞ bx = ∞

1
Definition of the Number e
e is the number such that
eh − 1
lim =1
h→0 h

Derivative of the Natural Exponential Function

d x
(e ) = ex
dx
d u du
(e ) = eu
dx dx

6
ex
5

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1

Properties of the Natural Exponential Function

The exponential function f (x) = ex is an increasing continuous function with domain R and range (0, ∞).
Thus ex > 0 for all x. Also,
lim ex = 0 lim ex = ∞
x→−∞ x→∞
x
So the x-axis is a horizontal asymptote of f (x) = e .

Integration of ex
Z
ex dx = ex + C

6.3 Logarithmic Functions

The inverse of an exponential function is called a logarithmic function with base b and denoted by
logb .

logb x = y ⇔ by = x

2
Graph of a Logarithmic Function
6
ex
ln x
4

−6 −4 −2 2 4 6

−2

−4

−6

logb (bx ) = x for every x ∈ R

blogb x = x for every x > 0
Theorem. If b > 1, the function f (x) = logb x is a one-to-one, continuous, increasing function with
domain (0, ∞) and range R. If x, y > 0 and r is any real number, then
1. logb (xy) = logb x + logb y
2. logb ( xy ) = logb x − logb y

3. logb (xr ) = r logb x

If b > 1, then lim logb x = ∞ and lim logb x = −∞

x→∞ x→0+

Natural Logarithms
The logarithm with a base e is called the natural logarithm and special notation:

loge x = ln x

ln x = y ⇔ ey = x
ln(ex ) = x x∈R

ln e = 1

Change of Base Formula

For any positive number b (b 6= 1), we have

ln x
logb x =
ln b

Growth of the Natural Logarithm

lim ln x = ∞ lim ln x = x∞
x→∞ x→0+

3
6.4 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions
d 1
(ln x) =
dx x
d 1 du
(ln u) =
dx u dx
or
d g 0 (x)
[ln g(x)] =
dx g(x)
d 1
(ln |x|) =
dx x
Z
1
dx = ln |x| + C
x
Z
tan xdx = ln | sec x| + C

General Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

d 1
(logb x) =
dx x ln b
d x
(b ) = bx ln b
dx
bx
Z
bx dx = +C b 6= 1
ln b

Steps to Logarithmic Differentiation

1. Take the natural log of both side of an equation y = f (x) and use the properties of logarithms to
simplify.
2. Differentiate implicitly with respect to x.
3. Solve the resulting equation for y 0 .

The Power Rule

If n is any real number and f (x) = xn , then
f 0 (x) = nxn−1

e as a Limit
1/x
e = lim (1 + x)
x→0
1 n
e = lim (1 + )
n→∞ n

6.6 Inverse Trigometric Functions

arcsin (sin−1 )
π π
sin−1 x = y ⇔ sin y = x ≤y≤
and −
2 2
π π
sin−1 (sin x) = x for − ≤ x ≤
2 2
sin(sin−1 x) = x for − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1

d 1
(sin−1 x) = √ −1<x<1
dx 1 − x2

4
arccos (cos−1 )
cos−1 x = y ⇔ cos y = x and 0 ≤ y ≤ π

cos−1 (cos x) = x for 0 ≤ x ≤ π

−1
cos(cos x) = x for − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1

d 1
(cos−1 x) = − √ −1<x<1
dx 1 − x2

arctan (tan−1 )
π π
tan−1 x = y ⇔ tan y = x and −
<y<
2 2
π π
lim tan−1 x = − lim tan−1 x =
x→−∞ 2 x→∞ 2
d 1
(tan−1 x) =
dx 1 + x2

arccsc (csc−1 ), arcsec (sec−1 ), arccot (cot−1 )

y = csc−1 x (|x| ≥ 1)
 
⇐⇒ csc y = x and y ∈ 0, π/2 ∪ (π, 3π/2
y = sec−1 x (|x| ≥ 1)
 
⇐⇒ sec y = x and y ∈ 0, π/2 ∪ (π, 3π/2
y = cot−1 x (x ∈ R) ⇐⇒ cot y = x and y ∈ (0, π)

Derivatives of Inverse Trigometric Functions

d 1
(sin−1 x) = √
dx 1 − x2
d 1
(cos−1 x) = − √
dx 1 − x2
d 1
(tan−1 x) =
dx 1 + x2
d 1
(csc−1 x) = − √
dx x x2 − 1
d 1
(sec−1 x) = √
dx x x2 − 1
d 1
(cot−1 x) = −
dx 1 + x2

6.7 Hyperbolic Functions

Hyperbolic Functions
ex − e−x
sinh x =
2
ex + e−x
cosh x =
2
sinh x
tanh x =
cosh x
1
csch x =
sinh x
1
sech x =
cosh x
cosh x
coth x =
sinh x

5
Hyperbolic Identities
cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1
sinh(−x) = − sinh x
cosh(−x) = cosh x
1 − tanh2 x = sech2 x
sinh(x + y) = sinh(x) cosh(y) + cosh(x) sinh(y)
cosh(x + y) = cosh(x) cosh(y) + sinh(x) sinh(y)

Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

d
(sinh x) = cosh x
dx
d
(cosh x) = sinh x
dx
d
(tanh x) = sech2 x
dx
d
(csch x) = − csch x coth x
dx
d
(sech x) = − sech x tanh x
dx
x
(coth x) = −csch2 x
dx

Inverse Trigometric Functions Expressed in Terms of Logarithms

p
sinh−1 x = ln(x + x2 + 1) x ∈ R
p
cosh−1 x = ln(x + x2 − 1) x ≥ 1
 
1 1+x
tanh−1 x = ln −1<x<1
2 1−x

Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

d 1
(sinh−1 x) = √
dx 1 + x2
d 1
(cosh−1 x) = √
dx 2
x −1
d 1
(tanh−1 x) =
dx 1 − x2
d 1
(csch−1 x) = − √
dx |x| x2 + 1
d 1
(sech−1 x) = − √
dx x 1 − x2
d 1
(coth−1 x) =
dx 1 − x2

6
6.8 Intermediate Forms and l’Hospital’s Rule
l’Hospital’s Rule
Theorem. Suppose f and g are differentiable and g 0 (x) 6= 0 on an open interval I that contains a
(except possibly at a). Suppose that

lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0

x→a x→a

or that
lim f (x) = ±∞ and lim g(x) = ±∞
x→a x→a

Then
f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim 0
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)

if the limit on the right side exists (or is ±∞).

Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem

Theorem. Suppose that the function f and g are continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), and
g 0 (x) 6= 0 for all x in (a, b). Then there is a number c in (a, b) such that

f 0 (x) f (b) − f (a)

=
g 0 (x) g(b) − g(a)

7.1 Integration by Parts

Formula for Integration by Parts
Theorem. From the product rule we see that if f and g are differentiable, then
d
[f (x)g(x)] = f (x)g 0 (x) + g(x)f 0 (x)
dx
We can rearrange this as
Z Z
f (x)g 0 (x) dx = f (x)g(x) − g(x)f 0 (x) dx

Let u = f (x) and v = g(x), then

Z Z
u dv = uv − v du

7.2 Trigonometric Integrals

sinm x cosn xdx
R
Solving Integrals in the Form
1. If the power of cosine is odd, save one cosine factor and use cos2 x = 1 − sin2 x to express the
remaining factors in terms of sine:
Z Z Z
m m k k
sin x cos 2k+1
xdx = 2
sin x(cos x) cos xdx = sinm x(1 − sinx x) cos xdx

Then substitute u = sin x.

2. If the power of sine is odd, save one sine factor and use sin2 x = 1 − cos2 x to express the remaining
factors in terms of cosine:
Z Z Z
2k+1 n 2 k n k
sin x cos xdx = (sin x) cos x sin xdx = (1 − cos2 x) cosn sin xdx

Then substitute u = sin x.

7
 3. If the powers of both sine and cosine are even, use the half-angle identities

1 1
sin2 x = (1 − cos 2x) cos2 x = (1 + cos 2x)
2 2
or
1
sin x cos x = sin 2x
2
R
Solving Integrals in the Form tanm x secn xdx
1. If the power of secant is even, save a factor of sec2 x and use sec2 x = 1 + tan2 x to express the
remaining factors in terms of tan x.
Z Z Z
k−1 k−1
tanm x sec2k xdx = tanm x(sec2 x) sec2 xdx = tanm x(sec2 x) sec2 xdx

2. If the power of tangent is odd (m = 2k + 1), save a factor of sec x tan x and use tan2 x = sec2 x − 1
to express the remaining factors in terms of sec x.
Z Z Z
2k+1 n 2 k n−1 k
tan x sec xdx = (tan x) sec x sec x tan xdx = (sec2 x − 1) secn−1 x sec x tan xdx

Antiderivative of Secant
Z
sec xdx = ln | sec x + tan x| + C

7.3 Trigonometric Substitution

For an expression in the form
p
a 2 − x2 use the identity 1 − sin2 θ = cos2 θ
p
a2 + x2 use the identity 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ
p
x2 − a2 use the identity sec2 θ − 1 = tan2 θ

7.4 Integration of Rational Functions by Partial Fractions

If the denominator Q(x) is a product of distinct linear factors:
This means that we can write

Q(x) = (a1 x + b1 )(a2 x + b2 )(ak x + bk )

where no factor is repeated (and no factor is a constant multiple of another). In this case the partial
faction theorem states that there exist constants A1 , A2 , Ak such that

R(x) A1 A2 Ak
= + + ··· +
Q(x) a1 x + b1 a2 x + b2 ak x + bk

If the denominator is a product of linear factors, some of which are repeated:

Suppose the first linear factor (a1 x+b1 ) is repeated r times; that is, (a1 x+b1 )r occurs in the factorization
of Q(x). Then we would use

A1 A2 Ar
+ + ··· +
a1 x + b1 (a1 x + b1 )2 (a1 x + b1 )r

8
If the denominator Q(x) contains irreducible quadratic factors, none of which is repeated:
R(x)
If Q(x) has the factor ax2 + bx + c, where b2 − 4ac < 0, then the expression for Q(x) will have a term of
the form
Ax + B
ax2 + bx + c
where A and B are constants to be determined.

If the denominator Q(x) contains a repeated irreducible quadratic factor:

If Q(x) has the factor (ax2 + bx + c)r , where b2 − 4ac < 0, then instead of the single partial fraction, the
sum
A1 x + B A2 x + B2 Ar x + B r
2
+ 2 2
+ ··· +
ax + bx + c (ax + bx + c) (ax2 + bx + c)r
R(x)
occurs in the partial fraction decomposition of Q(x) . Each of the terms in the sum can be integrated by
using a substitution of by first completing the square if necessary.

7.5 Techniques of Integration

Integration Formulas (without constants of integration)
xn+1
Z
xn dx = (n 6= −1)
n+1
Z
1
dx = ln |x|
x
Z
ex dx = ex

bx
Z
bx dx =
ln b
Z
sin xdx = − cos x
Z
cos xdx = sin x
Z
sec2 xdx = tan x
Z
csc2 xdx = − cot x
Z
sec x tan xdx = secx
Z
csc x cot xdx = − csc x
Z
sec xdx = ln | sec x + tan x|
Z
csc xdx = ln | csc x − cot x|
Z
tan xdx = ln | sec x|
Z
cot xdx = ln | sin x|
Z
sinh xdx = cosh x

9
 Z
cosh x = sinh x
Z
dx 1 −1 x
 
= tan
x2 + a2 a a
Z
dx  x 
√ = sin−1 when a > 0
2
a −x 2 a
Z
dx 1 x − a
= ln
 
x2 − a2 2a x+a
 
Z
dx p
√ = ln |x + x2 ± a2 |
x2 ± a2

Strategies for Integration

Simplify the integrand (Do More Algebra)

Look for substitution Repeat from first step

Classify integral according to form

7.7 Approximate Integration

Simpson’s Rule
Z b
∆x
f (x)dx ≈ Sn = [f (x0 ) + 4f (x1 ) + 2f (x2 ) + 4f (x3 ) + · · · + 2f (xn−2 ) + 4f (xn−1 ) + f (xn )]
a 3
where n is even and ∆x = (b − a)/n.

Error Bound for Simpson’s Rule

Suppose that |f (4) (x)| ≤ K for a ≤ x ≤ b. If Es is the error involved in using Simpson’s Rule, then
K(b − a)5
|Es | ≤
180n4

7.8 Improper Integrals

Definition of an Improper Integral Type 1
Rt
If a
f (x)dx exists for every number t ≥ a, then
Z ∞ Z t
f (x)dx = lim f (x)dx
a t→∞ a

provided this limit exists (as a finite number).

Rb
If t f (x)dx exists for every number t ≤ b, then
Z b Z b
f (x)dx = lim f (x)dx
−∞ t→−∞ t

provided that this limit exists (as a finite number).

R∞ Rb
The improper integrals a f (x)dx and −∞ f (x)dx are called convergent if the corresponding limit
exists and divergent if the limit does not exist.

10
8.1 Arc Length
Arc Length Formula
If f 0 is continuous on [a, b], then the length of the curve y = f (x), a ≤ x ≤ b, is
s  2
Z b
dy
L= 1+ dx
a dx
By interchanging the roles of x and y, we obtain the formula
s  2
Z d
dx
L= 1+ dy
c dy

8.2 Area of a Surface of Revolution

Formula for Surface Area
Z
S= 2πρds

where ρ is the axis opposite to the axis of rotation and

s  2 s  2
dy dx
ds = 1 + dx or ds = 1 + dy
dx dy

9.3 Separable Differential Equations

A separable equation is a first-order differential equation in which the expression for dy/dx can be
factored as a function of x times a function of y. This means that it can be written in the form
dy
= g(x)f (x)
dx
To solve an equation, rewrite it in the differential form
h(y)dy = g(x)dx
so that all the y’s and x’s are on opposite sides. Then integrate both sides of the equation.

10.1 Curves Defined by Parametric Equations

A parametric equation is an equation in which x and y are given as functions of a third variable t.
x = f (t) y = g(t)
In general, the curve with parametric equations
x = f (t) y = g(t) a ≤ t ≤ b
has initial point (f (a), g(a)) and terminal point (f (b), g(b)).

10.2 Calculus with Parametric Curves

dy
dy dy dt dt
= × = dx
dx dt dx dt

Areas
The area under the curve generated from the parametric equation x = f (t) and y = g(t), α ≤ t ≤ β is
Z b Z β
A= ydx = g(t)f 0 (t)dt
a α

11
Arc Length
If a curve C is described by the parametric equations s = f (t), y = g(t), α ≤ t ≤ β, where f 0 and g 0 are
continuous on [α, β] and C is traversed exactly once as t increases from α to β, then the length of C is
s
Z β  2  2
dx dy
L= + dt
α dt dt

Surface Area
If a curve C is described by the parametric equations x = f (t), y = g(t), α ≤ t ≤ β, where f 0 , g 0 are
continuous on [α, β] and C is traversed exactly once as t increases from α to β, then the length of C is
s 
Z β 2  2
dx dy
S= 2πy + dt
α dt dt

11.1 Sequences
A sequence can be though of as a list of numbers written in a definite order.

The Fibonacci sequence

f1 = 1 f2 = 1 fn = fn−1 + fn−2 n≥3

Limits of Sequences
Intuitive Definition
A sequence an has the limit L and we write

lim an = L or an → L as n → ∞
n→∞

if we can make the terms an as close to L as we like by taking n sufficiently large. If limn→∞ an exists,
we say the sequence converges. Otherwise, we say the sequence diverges.

Precise Definition
A sequence an has the limit L and we write

lim an = L or an → L as n → ∞
n→∞

if for every  > N there is a corresponding integer N such that

if n > N then |an − L| < 

Limit Laws for Sequences

If {an } and {bn } are convergent sequences and c is a constant, then

lim (an + bn ) = lim an + lim bn

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

lim (an − bn ) = lim an − lim bn

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

lim can = c lim an lim c = c

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

lim (an bn ) = lim an × lim bn

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

an limn→∞ an
lim = if lim bn 6= 0
n→∞ bn limn→∞ bn n→∞
h ip
lim apn = lim an if p > 0 and an > 0
n→∞ n→∞

12
Squeeze Theorem for Sequences
If an ≤ bn ≤ cn for n ≥ n0 and limn→∞ an = limn→∞ cn = L, then limn→∞ bn = L.

Increasing and Decreasing Sequences

A sequence {an } is called increasing if an < an+1 for all n ≥ 1, that is, a1 < a2 < a3 < · · ·. It is called
decreasing if an > an+1 for all n ≥ 1. A sequence is monotonic if it is increasing or decreasing.

Sequence Bounds
A sequence {an } is bounded above if there us a number M such that

an ≤ M for all n ≥ 1

If is bounded below if there is a number m such that

m ≤ an for all n ≥ 1

If it is bounded above and below, then {an } it a bounded sequence.

Monotonic Sequence Theorem

Every bounded, monotonic sequence is convergent.

11.2 Series
P∞
Given a series n=1 an = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · ·, let sn denote its nth partial sum:
n
X
sn = ai = a1 + a2 + · · · + an
i=1
P
If the sequence {sn } is convergent and limn→∞ sn = s exists as a real number, then the series an is
called convergent and we write
∞
X
a1 + a2 + · · · + an + · · · = s or an = s
n=1

The number s is called the sum of the series. If the sequence {sn } is divergent, then the series is called
divergent.

Geometric Series
The geometric series
∞
X
arn−1 = a + ar + ar2 + · · ·
n=1

is convergent if |r| < 1 and its sum is

∞
X a
arn−1 = |r| < 1
n=1
1−r

If |r| ≥ 1, the geometric series is divergent.

Test for Divergence

P∞
If limn→∞ an does not exist or if limn→∞ an 6= 0, then the series n=1 an is divergent.

13
Theorem
P P P P
If Pan and bn are convergent series, then so are the series can (where c is a constant), (an + bn ),
and (an − bn ), and
X∞ X∞
can = c an
n=1 n=1
∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
(an + bn ) = an + bn
n=1 n=1 n=1
∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
(an − bn ) = an − bn
n=1 n=1 n=1

11.3 Integral Test and Estimates of Sums

Integral Test
Suppose f is a continuous, positive, decreasing function onR [1, ∞) and let an = f (n). Then the series
P∞ ∞
n=1 an is convergent if and only if the improper integral 1 f (x)dx is convergent. In other words:
Z ∞ ∞
X
If f (x)dx is convergent, then an is convergent.
1 n=1

Z ∞ ∞
X
If f (x)dx is divergent, then an is divergent.
1 n=1

P -series
A p-series is of the form
∞
X 1 1 1 1
p
= p + p + p + ···
n=1
n 1 2 3
P∞ 1
The p-series n=1 np is convergent if p > 1 and divergent if p ≤ 1.

Harmonic Series
When p = 1 in a p-series, the resulting sum is called the harmonic series:
∞
X 1 1 1
= 1 + + + ···
n=1
n 2 3

Remainder Estimate for the Integral Test

P
Suppose f (k) = al , where f is a continuous, positive, decreasing function for x ≥ n and an is
convergent. If Rn = s − sn , then
Z ∞ Z ∞
f (x)dx ≤ Rn ≤ f (x)dx
n+1 n

11.4 The Comparison Tests

P P
Suppose that an and bn are series with positive terms.
P P
• If bn is convergent and an ≤ bn for all n, then an is also convergent.
P P
• If bn is divergent and an ≥ bn for all n, then an is also divergent.

14
The Limit Comparison Test
P P
Suppose that an and bn are series with positive terms. If
an
lim =c
n→∞ bn
where c is a finite number and c > 0, then either both series converge or both diverge.

11.5 Alternating Series

Alternating Series Test
If the alternating series
∞
X
(−1)n−1 bn = b1 − b2 + b3 − b4 + b5 − b6 + · · · bn > 0
n=1

satisfies
1. bn+1 ≤ bn for all n
2. limn→∞ bn = 0
then the series if convergent.

Alternating Series Estimation Theorem

(−1)n−1 bn , where bn > 0, is the sum of an alternating series that satisfies
P
If s =

bn+1 ≤ bn and lim bn = 0

n→∞

then
|Rn | = |s − sn | ≤ bn+1

11.6 Absolute Convergence and the Ratio and Root Tests

P P
A series P an is called absolutely convergent if the series of absolute values |an | is convergent.
A series P an is called conditionally convergent if it is convergent but not absolutely convergent.
If a series an is absolutely convergent, then it is convergent.

The Ratio Test

• If limn→∞  aan+1  = L < 1, then the series ∞ an is absolutely convergent.
  P
n n=1
 an+1   an+1  P∞
• If limn→∞  an  = L > 1 or limn→∞  an  = ∞, then the series n=1 an is divergent.

• If limn→∞  aan+1
 
 = 1, the Ratio Test is inconclusive.
n

The Root Test

p P∞
• If limn→∞ n
|an | = L < 1, then the series n=1 an is absolutely convergent.
p p P∞
• If limn→∞ n
|an | = L > 1 or limn→∞ n |an | = ∞, then the series n=1 an is divergent.
p
• If limn→∞ n
|an | = 1, the root test is inconclusive.

15
11.8 Power Series
A power series is a series of the form
∞
X
cn xn = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + · · ·
n=0

where x is a variable and cn ’s are coefficients of the series.

Convergence and Divergence of Power Series

P∞
For a given power series n=0 cn (x − a)n , there are only three possibilities:
1. The series converges only when x = a.
2. The series converges for all x.
3. There is a positive number R such that the series converges of |x−a| < R and diverges if |x−a| > R.

11.9 Representations of Functions as Power Series

Geometric Series
∞
1 X
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · = xn |x| < 1
1−x n=0

Term-by-term Differentiation and Integration

cn (x − a)n has the radius of convergence R > 0, then the function f defined by
P
If the power series
∞
X
f (x) = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + · · · = cn (x − a)n
n=0

is differentiable on the interval a − R, a + R and

P∞
1. f 0 (x) = c1 + 2c2 (x − a) + 3c3 (x − a)2 + · · · = n=0 ncn (x − a)n−1
2 3 P∞ n+1
2. f (x)dx = C + c0 (x − a) + c1 (x−a) + c2 (x−a) + · · · = C + n=0 cn (x−a)
R
2 3 n+1

The radii of convergence of the two power series above are both R.

11.10 Taylor and Maclaurin Series

If f has a power series representation at a, that is, if
∞
X
f (x) = cn (x − a)n |x − a| < R
n=0

then its coefficients are given by the formula

f (n) (a)
cn =
n!

Taylor Series of the Function f at a

∞
X f (n) (a)
f (x) = (x − a)n
n=0
n!

Maclaurin Series
∞
X f (n) (0) n f 0 (0) f 00 0 2
f (x) = x = f (0) + x+ x + ···
n=0
n! 1! 2!

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Taylor’s Inequality
If |f (n+1) (x)| ≤ M for |x − a| ≤ d, then the remainder Rn (x) of the Taylor series satisfies the inequality

M
|Rn (x)| ≤ |x − a|n+1 for |x − a| ≤ d
(n + 1)!

Power Series to Memorize

∞
X xn
ex = for all x
n=0
n!
∞
1 X
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · = xn |x| < 1
1−x n=0
∞
X x2n+1
sin x = (−1)n for all x
n=0
(2n + 1)!
∞
X x2n
cos x = (−1)n for all x
n=0
(2n)!

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