Unit

Polynomial functions are the most widely used functions in

Mathematics. They arise naturally in many applications.
Essentially, the graph of a polynomial function has no breaks
and gaps. It describes smooth curves as shown in the figure
above.

POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS
Unit Outcomes:
After completing this unit, you should be able to:
define polynomial functions.
perform the four fundamental operations on polynomials.
apply theorems on polynomials to solve related problems.
determine the number of rational and irrational zeros of a polynomial.
sketch and analyse the graphs of polynomial functions.

Main Contents
1.1 Introduction to polynomial functions
1.2 Theorems on polynomials
1.3 Zeros of polynomial functions
1.4 Graphs of polynomial functions
Key Terms
Summary
Review Exercises
Mathematics Grade 10

INTRODUCTION
There is an extremely important family of functions in mathematics called polynomial
functions.
Stated quite simply, polynomial functions are functions with x as an input variable,
consisting of the sum of several terms, each term is a product of two factors, the first
being a real number coefficient and the second being x raised to some non-negative
integer power.
In this unit you will be looking at the different components of polynomial functions.
These are theorems on polynomial functions; zeros of a polynomial function; and
graphs of polynomial functions. Basically the graph of a polynomial function is a
smooth and continuous curve. However, you will be going over how to use its degree
(even or odd) and the leading coefficient to determine the end behaviour of its graph.

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO POLYNOMIAL

FUNCTIONS

OPENING PROBLEM
Obviously, the volume of water in any dam fluctuates from season to season. An
engineer suggests that the volume of the water (in giga litres) in a certain dam after
t-months (starting 1st September) is described by the model:
v (t) = 450 – 170t + 22t2 – 0.6t3
Electric Power Corporation rules that if the volume falls below 200 giga litres, its side-
wise project, “irrigation”, is prohibited. During which months, if any, was irrigation
prohibited in the last 12 months?
Recall that, a function f is a relation in which no two ordered pairs have the same first
element, which means that for any given x in the domain of f, there is a unique pair
(x, y) belonging to the function f.
In Unit 4 of Grade 9 mathematics, you have discussed functions such as:
2 1
f ( x) = x + , g (x) = 5 – 3x, h (x) = 8x and l ( x) = − 3x + 2.7.
3 2
Such functions are linear functions.
A function f is a linear function, if it can be written in the form
f (x) = ax + b, a ≠ 0,
where a and b are real numbers.

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 Unit 1 Polynomial Functions

The domain of f is the set of all real numbers and the range is also the set of all real
numbers.
If a = 0, then f is called a constant function. In this case,
f (x) = b.
This function has the set of all real numbers as its domain and {b} as its range.
Also recall what you studied about quadratic functions. Each of the following
functions is a quadratic function.
1 2
f (x) = x2 + 7x – 12, g (x) = 9 + x , h (x) = – x2 + π, k (x) = x2,
4
l (x) = 2 (x – 1)2 + 3, m (x) = (x + 2) (1 – x)
If a, b, and c are real numbers with a ≠ 0, then the function
f (x) = ax2 + bx + c is a quadratic function.
Since the expression ax2 + bx + c represents a real number for any real number x, the
domain of a quadratic function is the set of all real numbers. The range of a quadratic
function depends on the values of a , b and c.

Exercise 1.1
1 In each of the following cases, classify the function as constant, linear, quadratic,
or none of these:

a f (x) = 1 – x2 b h (x) = 2 x−1

4
c h (x) = 3 + 2x d g (x) = 5 – x
5
−1
2
e f (x)= 2 3 f f (x) =  
3

g h (x) = 1 − | x | h f (x) = (1 – 2 x ) (1 + 2 x)
3
i k (x) = (12 + 8x) j f (x) = 12x−1
4
( x + 1) (x − 2)
k l ( x) = l f ( x) = x4 − x +1
x − 2
2 For what values of a, b, and c is f (x) = ax2 + bx + c a constant, a linear or a
quadratic function?

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Mathematics Grade 10

1.1.1 Definition of a Polynomial Function

Constant, linear and quadratic functions are all special cases of a wider class of
functions called polynomial functions.

Definition 1.1
Let n be a non-negative integer and let an, an – 1, . . ., a1, ao be real
numbers with an ≠ 0. The function
p(x) = anxn + an – 1 xn – 1 + . . . + a1 x + ao
is called a polynomial function in variable x of degree n.

Note that in the definition of a polynomial function

p (x) = anxn + an – 1xn – 1 + . . . + a1x + ao
i an , an – 1, an – 2, . . ., a1 , ao are called the coefficients of the polynomial function
(or simply the polynomial).
ii The number an is called the leading coefficient of the polynomial function and
anxn is the leading term.
iii The number a0 is called the constant term of the polynomial.
iv The number n (the exponent of the highest power of x), is the degree of the
polynomial.
Note that the domain of a polynomial function is R.
Example 1 Which of the following are polynomial functions? For those which are
polynomials, find the degree, leading coefficient, and constant term.
2 7 x
a f (x) = x4 – 12x2 + x + b f (x) =
3 8 x
c g (x) = ( x + 1) 2 d f (x) = 2x–4 + x2 + 8x + 1
x2 + 1 8 15
e k (x) = f g (x) = x
x2 + 1 5
6
g f (x) = (1 – 2 x ) (1 + 2 x) h k ( y) =
y
Solution:
2
a It is a polynomial function of degree 4 with leading coefficient and
3
7
constant term .
8
b It is not a polynomial function because its domain is not R.

4
 Unit 1 Polynomial Functions

2
c g ( x) = ( x + 1) = x + 1 , so it is not a polynomial function because it
cannot be written in the form g (x) = anxn + an – 1 xn – 1 + . . . + a1 x + ao.
d It is not a polynomial function because one of its terms has a negative
exponent.
x2 + 1
e k (x) = 2 = 1, so it is a polynomial function of degree 0 with leading
x +1
coefficient 1 and constant term 1.
8
f It is a polynomial function of degree 15 with leading coefficient and
5
constant term 0.
g It is a polynomial function of degree 2 with leading coefficient – 2 and constant
term 1.
h It is not a polynomial function because its domain is not R.

A polynomial expression in x is an expression of the form

an x n + an −1 x n −1 + . . . + a1 x + ao
where n is a non negative integer and an≠ 0. Each individual expression ak xk making up
the polynomial is called a term.

ACTIVITY 1.1
x2 + 3 − 6 x4 7
1 For the polynomial expression + x − x3 ,
4 8
a what is the degree? b what is the leading coefficient?
c what is the coefficient of x3? d what is the constant term?
2 A match box has length x cm, width x + 1 cm and height 3 cm,
a Express its surface area as a function of x.
b What is the degree and the constant term of the polynomial obtained above?
We can restate the definitions of linear and quadratic functions using the terminology
for polynomials. Linear functions are polynomial functions of degree 1. Nonzero
constant functions are polynomial functions of degree 0. Similarly, quadratic
functions are polynomial functions of degree 2. The zero function, p (x) = 0, is also
considered to be a polynomial function but is not assigned a degree at this level.
Note that in expressing a polynomial, we usually omit all terms which appear with zero
coefficients and write others in decreasing order, or increasing order, of their exponents.

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Mathematics Grade 10

x 2 − 2 x5 + 8 7
Example 2 For the polynomial function p(x) = + x − x3 ,
4 8
a what is its degree? b find an, an – 1 , an – 2 and a2.
c what is the constant term? d what is the coefficient of x?
x 2 − 2 x5 + 8 7 3 x2 2 5 8 7
Solution: p(x) = + x−x = − x + + x − x3
4 8 4 4 4 8
1 5 3 1 2 7
= – x −x + x + x +2
2 4 8
a The degree is 5.
−1 1
b an = a5 = , an –1 = a4 = 0, an – 2 = a3 = –1 and a2 = .
2 4
c The constant term is 2.
7
d The coefficient of x is .
8
Although the domain of a polynomial function is the set of all real numbers, you may
have to set a restriction on the domain because of other circumstances. For example, in
a geometrical application, if a rectangle is x centimetres long, and p (x) is the area of the
rectangle, the domain of the function p is the set of positive real numbers. Similarly, in a
population function, the domain is the set of positive integers.
has, a polynomial function p is said to
Based on the types of coefficients it has,
be:
 a polynomial function over integers, if the coefficients of p (x) are all integers.
 a polynomial function over rational numbers, if the coefficients of p (x) are all
rational numbers.
 a polynomial function over real numbers, if the coefficients of p (x) are all real
numbers.
Remark: Every polynomial function that we will consider in this unit is a polynomial
function over the real numbers.
2 4 7
For example, if g ( x ) =x − 13 x 2 + , then g is a polynomial function over rational and
3 8
real numbers, but not over integers.
If p (x) can be written in the form, anxn + an –1 xn – 1 + ... + a1 x + ao, then different
expressions can define the same polynomial function.
6
 Unit 1 Polynomial Functions

For example, the following expressions all define the same polynomial function as
1 2
x −x.
2

x2 − 2 x 1 1 2 1 
a b − x + x2 c ( x − 2 x) d x  x − 1
2 2 2 2 
Any expression which defines a polynomial function is called a polynomial expression.
Example 3 For the polynomial expression 6x3 – x5 + 2x + 1,
a what is the degree? b what is the coefficient of x3?

c what is the leading coefficient? d what is the constant term?

Solution:
a The degree is 5. b The coefficient of x3 is 6.
c The leading coefficient is – 1. d The constant term is 1.

Consider the functions f ( x) =

( x + 3)( x − 1) and g(x) = x + 3.
x −1
When f is simplified it gives f (x) = x + 3, where x ≠ 1. As the domain of f is not the set
of all real numbers, f is not a polynomial function. But the domain of g is the set of all
real numbers. The functions f and g have different domains and you can conclude that f
and g are not the same functions.
When you are testing an expression to check whether or not it defines a polynomial
function, you must be careful and watch the domain of the function defined by it.

Exercise 1.2
1 Which of the following are polynomial functions?
a f (x) = 3x4 – 2x3 + x2 + 7x – 9 b f (x) = x25 + 1
1 2 2
c f (x) = 3x–3 + 2x–2 + x + 4 d f (y) = y + y+1
3 3
3 2
e f (t ) = + 2 f f (y) = 108 – 95y
t t

g f (x) = 312x6 h f (x) = 3x2 − x3 + 2

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Mathematics Grade 10

4 x 2 − 5 x3 + 6
i f (x) = 3x + x + 3 j f (x) =
8
3 18
k f (x) = l f (y) =
6+ x y
a x
m f (a) = n f (x) =
2a 12
1
o f (x) = 0 p f (a) = a 2 + 3a + a2
9 83 4
q f (x) = x + 54 x97 + π r f (t) = − 2π
17 7
 2  3
s f (x) = (1 – x) (x + 2) t g ( x) =  x −  x + 
 3  4
2 Give the degree, the leading coefficient and the constant term of each polynomial
function in Question 1 above.
3 Which of the polynomial functions in Question 1 above are:
a polynomial functions over integers?
b polynomial functions over rational numbers?
c polynomial functions over real numbers?
4 Which of the following are polynomial expressions?
( x + 3) 2
a 2 3−x b y (y – 2) c
x+3
( y − 3) ( y −1) (t − 5) (t − 1)
d y 2 + 3 + 2 − 3y3 e f
2 t −1
( x − 3) ( x 2 + 1) x2 + 4
g h y + 2y – 3y i
x2 + 1 x2 + 4
5 An open box is to be made from a 20 cm long
square piece of material, by cutting equal
squares of length x cm from the corners and
turning up the sides as shown in Figure 1.1. x
x
a Verify that the volume of the box is given
x
by the function v (x) = 4x3 – 80x2 + 400x.
b Determine the domain of v.
Figure 1.1

8
 Unit 1 Polynomial Functions

1.1.2 Operations on Polynomial Functions

Recall that, in algebra, the fundamental operations are addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. The first step in performing operations on polynomial
functions is to use the commutative, associative and distributive laws in order to
combine like terms together.

ACTIVITY 1.2
1 What are like terms? Give an example.
2 Are 8a2, 2a3 and 5a like terms? Explain.
3 For any three real numbers a, b and c, determine whether each of the following
statements is true or false. Give reasons for your answers.
a a – (b + c) = a – b + c b a + (b – c) = a + b – c
c a – (b – c) = a – b + c d a – (b – c ) = a – b – c
4 Verify each of the following statements:
a (4x + a) + (2a – x) = 3 (a + x)
b 5x2 y + 2xy2 – (x2y – xy2) = 4x2y + 3xy2
c 8a – (b + 9a) = – (a + b)
d 2x – 4 (x – y) + (y – x) = 5y – 3x
5 If f (x) = x3 – 2x2 + 1 and g (x) = x2 – x – 1, then which of the following
statements are true?
a f (x) + g (x) = x3 + x2 – x b f (x) – g (x) = x3 – 3x2 + x + 2
c g (x) – f (x) = 3x2 + x3 – x – 2 d f (x) – g (x) ≠ g (x) – f (x).
6 If f and g are polynomial functions of degree 3, then which of the following is
necessarily true?
a f + g is of degree 3. b f + g is of degree 6.
c 2f is of degree 3. d fg is of degree 6.

Addition of polynomial functions

You can add polynomial functions in the same way as you add real numbers. Simply
add the like terms by adding their coefficients. Note that like terms are terms having the
same variables to the same powers but possibly different coefficients.
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Mathematics Grade 10

For example, if f (x) = 5x4 – x3 + 8x – 2 and g (x) = 4x3 – x2 − 3x + 5, then the sum of
f (x) and g (x) is the polynomial function:
f (x) + g (x) = (5x4 – x3 + 8x – 2) + (4x3 – x2 – 3x + 5)
= 5x4 + (–x3 + 4x3) – x2 + (8x – 3x) + (–2 + 5) . . . (grouping like terms)
= 5x4 + (4 – 1)x3 – x2 + (8 – 3) x + (5 – 2) . . . . . . (adding their coefficients)
= 5x4 + 3x3 – x2 + 5x + 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (combining like terms).
Therefore, the sum f (x) + g (x) = 5x4 + 3x3 – x2 + 5x + 3 is a polynomial of degree 4.
The sum of two polynomial functions f and g is written as f + g, and is defined as:
f + g : (f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x), for all x ∈ ℝ .
Example 4 In each of the following, find the sum of f (x) and g (x):
2 2 1 1
a f (x) = x3 + x – x + 3 and g (x) = −x3 + x2 + x − 4 .
3 2 3
b f (x) = 2x5 + 3x4 – 2 2x3 + x – 5 and g (x) = x4 + 2x3 + x2 + 6x + 8.
Solution:
2 2 1  3 1 2 
a f (x) + g (x) = (x3 + x − x + 3) +  −x + x + x − 4 
3 2  3 
2 1   1 
= (x3 – x3) +  x 2 + x 2  +  − x + x  + (3 − 4) . . . (grouping like terms)
3 3   2 
 2 1  1
= (1 – 1)x3 +  +  x 2 + 1 −  x + ( 3 − 4 ) . . (adding their coefficients)
 3 3  2
1
= x2 + x − 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (combining like terms)
2
1
So, f (x) + g (x) = x2 + x – 1, which is a polynomial of degree 2.
2
b f (x) + g (x) = (2x5 + 3x4 – 2 2x3 + x – 5) + (x4 + 2 x3 + x2 + 6 x + 8)

= 2x5 + (3x4 + x4) + (_2 2 x3 + 2 x3 ) + x 2 + (x + 6x) + ( − 5 + 8)

= 2x5 + (3 + 1)x4 + (–2 2 + 2 )x3 + x2 + (1 + 6) x + (8 – 5)

= 2x5 + 4x4 – 2 x3 + x2 + 7x + 3
So, f (x) + g (x) = 2x5 + 4x4 – 2 x3 + x2 + 7x + 3, which is a polynomial function
of degree 5.

10
 Unit 1 Polynomial Functions

ACTIVITY 1.3
1 What do you observe in Example 4 about the degree of f + g?
2 Is the degree of (f + g) (x) equal to the degree of f (x) or g (x),
whichever has the highest degree?
3 If f (x) and g (x) have same degree, then the degree of (f + g) (x) might be lower
than the degree of f (x) or the degree of g (x).Which part of Example 4 illustrates
this situation? Why does this happen?
4 What is the domain of (f + g) (x)?

Subtraction of polynomial functions

To subtract a polynomial from a polynomial, subtract the coefficients of the
corresponding like terms. So, whichever term is to be subtracted, its sign is changed and
then the terms are added.
For example, if f (x) = 2x3 – 5x2 + x – 7 and g (x) = 8x2 – x3 + 4x + 5, then the difference
of f (x) and g (x) is the polynomial function:
f (x) – g (x) = (2x3 – 5x2 + x – 7) – (8x2 – x3 + 4x + 5)
= 2x3 – 5x2 + x – 7 – 8x2 + x3 – 4x – 5 . . . . . . (removing brackets)
= (2 + 1) x3+(–5 – 8) x2+(1 – 4)x + (–7 – 5) . .(adding coefficients of like terms)
= 3x3 – 13x2 – 3x – 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(combining like terms)
The difference of two polynomial functions f and g is written as f – g, and is defined as:
(f − g) : (f – g) (x) = f (x) − g (x), for all x ∈ ℝ .
Example 5 In each of the following, find f – g;
a f (x) = x4 + 3x3 – x2 + 4 and g (x) = x4 – x3 + 5x2 + 6x
b f (x) = x5 + 2x3 – 8x + 1 and g (x) = x3 + 2x2 + 6x – 9
Solution:
a f (x) – g (x) = (x4 + 3x3 – x2 + 4) – (x4 – x3 + 5x2 + 6x)
= x4 + 3x3 – x2 + 4 –x4 + x3 –5x2 – 6x……....(removing brackets)
= (1 – 1)x4 + (3 + 1)x3 + (–1 – 5)x2 – 6x + 4..(adding their
coefficients)
= 4x3 – 6x2 – 6x + 4 ......................................(combining like terms)
Therefore, the difference is a polynomial function of degree 3,
f (x) – g (x) = 4x3 – 6x2 – 6x + 4

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Mathematics Grade 10

b f (x) – g (x) = (x5 + 2x3 – 8x + 1) – (x3 + 2x2 + 6x – 9 )

= x5 + 2x3 – 8x + 1 – x3 – 2x2 – 6x + 9
= x5 + (2x3 – x3) – 2x2 + (–8x – 6x) + (1 + 9)
= x5 + (2 – 1)x3 – 2x2 + (–8 – 6) x + (1 + 9)
= x5 + x3 – 2x2 – 14x + 10
Therefore the difference f (x) – g (x) = x5 + x3 – 2x2 – 14x + 10, which is a
polynomial function of degree 5.
Note that if the degree of f is not equal to the degree of g, then the degree of (f – g) (x) is the
degree of f (x) or the degree of g (x), whichever has the highest degree. If they have the
same degree, however, the degree of (f – g) (x) might be lower than this common degree
when they have the same leading coefficient as illustrated in Example 5a.

Multiplication of polynomial functions

To multiply two polynomial functions, multiply each term of one by each term of the
other, and collect like terms.
For example, let f (x) = 2x3 – x2 + 3x – 2 and g (x) = x2 – 2x + 3. Then the product of
f (x) and g (x) is a polynomial function:
f (x) . g (x) = (2x3 – x2 + 3x – 2)⋅(x2 – 2x + 3)
= 2x3(x2 − 2x + 3) − x2(x2 − 2x + 3) + 3x(x2−2x + 3)−2(x2 − 2x +3)
= 2x5 – 4x4 + 6x3 – x4 +2x3 – 3x2 +3x3 – 6x2 + 9x – 2x2 + 4x – 6
= 2x5 + (–4x4 – x4) + (6x3 + 2x3 + 3x3) + (–3x2 – 6x2 – 2x2) + (9x + 4x) – 6
= 2x5 – 5x4 + 11x3 – 11x2 + 13x – 6
The product of two polynomial functions f and g is written as f⋅g, and is defined as:
f⋅g : (f⋅g) (x) = f (x)⋅g(x), for all x ∈ ℝ.
Example 6 In each of the following, find f . g and give the degree of f . g :
3 2 9
a f (x) = x + , g (x) = 4xb f (x) = x2 + 2x, g (x) = x5 + 4x2 – 2
4 2

3 9
Solution: a f (x).g (x) =  x 2 +  .(4 x) = 3x3+18x
4 2
So, the product (f.g) (x) = 3x3 + 18x has degree 3.

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 Unit 1 Polynomial Functions

b f (x).g (x) = (x2 + 2x).(x5 + 4x2 – 2)

= x2 (x5 + 4x2 – 2) + 2x (x5 + 4x2 – 2)
= x7 + 2x6 + 4x4 + 8x3 – 2x2 – 4x
So, the product (f⋅g) (x) = x7 + 2x6 + 4x4 + 8x3 – 2x2 – 4x has degree 7.
In Example 6, you can see that the degree of f⋅g is the sum of the degrees of the two
polynomial functions f and g.
To find the product of two polynomial functions, we can also use a vertical arrangement
for multiplication.
Example 7 Let f (x) = 3x2 – 2x3 + x5 – 8x + 1 and g (x) = 5 + 2x2 + 8x. Find f (x). g (x)
and the degree of the product.
Solution: To find the product, f.g, first rearrange each polynomial in descending
powers of x as follows:
x5 – 2x3 + 3x2 – 8x + 1 Like terms are written

2x2 + 8x + 5 in the same column.

5x5 + 0x4 –10x3 + 15x2 – 40x + 5 . . . . .(multiplying by 5)

8x6 + 0x5 – 16x4 + 24x3 – 64x2 + 8x . . . . . . . .(multiplying by 8x)
2x7 + 0x6 – 4x5 + 6x4 – 16x3 + 2x2 …. (multiplying by 2x2)
2x7 + 8x6 + x5 – 10x4 – 2x3 – 47x2 – 32x + 5 . ......(adding vertically.)
Thus, f (x).g (x) = 2x7 + 8x6 + x5 – 10x4 – 2x3 – 47x2 – 32x + 5 and hence the
degree of f.g is 7.

ACTIVITY 1.4
1 For any non-zero polynomial function, if the degree of f is m
and the degree of g is n, then what is the degree of f .g?
2 If either f or g is the zero polynomial, what is the degree of f .g?
3 Is the product of two or more polynomials always a polynomial?
Example 8 (Application of polynomial functions)
A person wants to make an open box by cutting equal squares from the corners of
a piece of metal 160 cm by 240 cm as shown in Figure 1.2. If the edge of each
cut-out square is x cm, find the volume of the box, when x = 1 and x = 3.

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Mathematics Grade 10

160 cm
160 – 2x
x 240 – 2x x
x x

240 cm

160 – 2x

240 – 2x

Figure 1.2
Solution: The volume of a rectangular box is equal to the product of its length,
width and height. From the Figure 1.2, the length is 240 – 2x, the width is
160 – 2x, and the height is x. So the volume of the box is
v (x) = (240 – 2x) (160 – 2x) (x)
= (38400 – 800x + 4x2) (x)
= 38400x – 800x2 + 4x3(a polynomial of degree 3)
When x = 1, the volume of the box is v (1) = 38400 – 800 + 4 = 37604 cm3
When x = 3, the volume of the box is
v (3) = 38400 (3) – 800 (3)2 + 4 (3)3 = 115200 – 7200 + 108 = 108,108 cm3

Division of polynomial functions

It is possible to divide a polynomial by a polynomial using a long division process
similar to that used in arithmetic.
Look at the calculations below, where 939 is being divided by 12.

7 78
12 939 12 939
84 84
99 99
96
3
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 Unit 1 Polynomial Functions

The second division can be expressed by an equation which says nothing about division.
939 3
939 = (78 × 12) + 3. Observe that, 939 ÷ 12 = 78 + (3÷12) or = 78 + .
12 12
Here 939 is the dividend, 12 is the divisor, 78 is the quotient and 3 is the remainder of
the division. What we actually did in the above calculation was to continue the process
as long as the quotient and the remainder are integers and the remainder is less than the
divisor.

ACTIVITY 1.5
x2 − x + 2 4
1 Consider the following: f (x) = = x +1+ . Which
x−2 x−2
polynomials do you think we should call the divisor, dividend,
quotient and remainder?
2 Divide x3 + 1 by x + 1. (You should see that the remainder is 0)
3 When do we say the division is exact?
4 What must be true about the degrees of the dividend and the divisor before you
can try to divide polynomials?
5 Suppose the degree of the dividend is n and the degree of the divisor is m. If
n > m, then what will be the degree of the quotient?
When should we stop dividing one polynomial by another? Look at the three
calculations below:
3
x x+2 x+2+
x +1
x+1 x2 + 3x + 5 x + 1 x2 + 3x + 5 2
x + 1 x + 3x + 5
x2 + x x2 + x x2 + x
2x + 5 2x + 5 2x + 5
2x + 2 2x + 2
3 3
3
0
The first division above tells us that
x2 + 3x + 5 = x (x + 1) + 2x + 5.
It holds true for all values of x ≠ –1. In the middle one of the three divisions, you
continued as long as you got a quotient and remainder which are both polynomials.
15
Mathematics Grade 10

When you are asked to divide one polynomial by another, stop the division process
when you get a quotient and remainder that are polynomials and the degree of the
remainder is less than the degree of the divisor.
Study the example below to divide 2x3 – 3x2 + 4x + 7 by x – 2.

x2
Think =x
x
2x 3 6x
Think = 2x2 Think =6
x x

2x2 + x + 6 Quotient
Divisor x – 2 2x3 – 3x2 + 4x + 7 Dividend
2x3 – 4x2 multiply 2x2 (x – 2)
x2 + 4x + 7 subtract
x2 – 2x multiply x (x – 2)
6x + 7 subtract
6x – 12 multiply 6 (x – 2)
Remainder 19 subtract

So, dividing 2x3 – 3x2 + 4x + 7 by x – 2 gives a quotient of 2x2 + x + 6 and a

2 x3 − 3x2 + 4 x + 7 19
remainder of 19. That is, = 2x2 + x + 6 +
x−2 x−2
The quotient (division) of two polynomial functions f and g is written as f ÷ g, and is
defined as:
f ÷ g : ( f ÷ g) (x) = f (x) ÷ g (x), provided that g (x) ≠ 0, for all x ∈ ℝ .
Example 9 Divide 4x3 – 3x + 5 by 2x – 3
Solution: 2x2 + 3x + 3 Arrange the dividend and the divisor in
3 2 descending powers of x.
2x – 3 4x + 0x – 3x + 5
Insert (with 0 coefficients) for missing terms.
4x3 – 6x2
Divide the first term of the dividend by the first
6x2 – 3x + 5 term of the divisor.
6x2 – 9x Multiply the divisor by 2x2, line up like terms
6x + 5 and, subtract
Repeat the process until the degree of the
6x – 9
remainder is less than that of the divisor.
Remainder 14
Therefore, 4x3 – 3x + 5 = (2x2 + 3x + 3) (2x – 3) + 14

16
 Unit 1 Polynomial Functions

Example 10 Find the quotient and remainder when

x5 + 4x3 – 6x2 – 8 is divided by x2 + 3x + 2.
Solution:
x 3 − 3 x 2 + 11x − 33
x 2 + 3 x + 2 x5 + 0 x 4 + 4 x3 − 6 x 2 + 0 x − 8
x5 + 3x 4 + 2 x3
−3 x 4 + 2 x 3 − 6 x 2 + 0 x − 8
−3 x 4 − 9 x 3 − 6 x 2
11x 3 + 0 x 2 + 0 x − 8
11x 3 + 33 x 2 + 22 x
−33 x 2 − 22 x − 8
−33 x 2 − 99 x − 66
77 x + 58
3 2
Therefore the quotient is x – 3x + 11x – 33 and the remainder is 77x + 58
x5 + 4 x3 − 6 x 2 − 8 77 x + 58
We can write the result as 2
= x3 − 3x2 + 11x − 33 + 2 .
x + 3x + 2 x + 3x + 2

Group Work 1.1

1 Find two polynomial functions f and g both of degree three
with f + g of degree one. What relations do you observe
between the leading coefficients of f and g?
f
2 Given f (x) = x + 2 and g (x) = ax + b, find all values of a and b so that is a
g
polynomial function.
2 2
3 Given polynomial functions g (x) = x + 3, q (x) = x − 5 and r ( x) = 2 x + 1 , find a
f ( x) r ( x)
function f (x) such that = q ( x) + .
g ( x) g ( x)

Exercise 1.3
1 Write each of the following expressions, if possible, as a polynomial in the form
anxn + an – 1 xn – 1 + . . . + a1x + ao:
a (x2 – x – 6) – (x + 2) b (x2 – x – 6)(x + 2)
2 x2 − x − 6
c (x + 2) – (x – x – 6) d
x+2
x+2
e 2
f (x2 – x – 6)2
x − x−6
x–3
g 2 + 23 – x h (2x + 3)2
i (x2 – x + 1)(x2 – 3x + 5) j (x3 – x4 + 2x + 1) – (x4 + x3 – 2x2 + 8)
17
Mathematics Grade 10

2 Let f and g be polynomial functions such that f (x) = x2 – 5x + 6 and g (x) = x2 – x + 3.

Which of the following functions are also polynomial functions?
f
a f+g b g–f c f⋅g d
g
2
e f −g f 2f + 3g g f2
3 If f and g are any two polynomial functions, which of the following will always be
a polynomial function?
f
a f+g b f–g c f⋅g d
g
3 1 f −g
e f2 f g− f g
4 3 f +g
4 In each of the following, find f + g and f – g and give the degree of f, the degree of
g, the degree of f + g and the degree of f – g:
2
a f (x) = 3x – ; g (x) = 2x + 5
3
b f (x) = –7x2 + x – 8; g (x) = 2x2 – x + 1
c f (x) = 1 – x3 + 6x2 – 8x; g (x) = x3 + 10
5 In each of the following,
i find the function f⋅g.
ii give the degree of f and the degree of g.
iii give the degree of f⋅g.
a f (x) = 2x + 1; g (x) = 3x – 5
b f (x) = x2 – 3x + 5; g (x) = 5x + 3
c f (x) = 2x3 – x – 7; g (x) = x2 + 2x
d f (x) = 0; g (x) = x3 – 8x2 + 9
6 In each of the following, divide the first polynomial by the second:
a x3 – 1; x – 1 b x3 + 1; x2 – x + 1
c x4 – 1; x2 + 1 d x5 + 1; x + 1
e 2x5 – x6 + 2x3 + 6; x3 – x – 2
7 For each of the following, find the quotient and the remainder:
a (5 – 6x + 8x2) ÷ (x – 1) b (x3 – 1) ÷ (x – 1)
c (3y – y2 + 2y3 – 1) ÷ (y2 + 1) d (3x4 + 2x3 – 4x – 1) ÷ (x + 3)
 2
e (3x3 – x2 + x + 2) ÷  x + 
 3

18
 Unit 1 Polynomial Functions

1.2 THEOREMS ON POLYNOMIALS

1.2.1 Polynomial Division Theorem
Recall that, when we divided one polynomial by another, we apply the long division
procedure, until the remainder was either the zero polynomial or a polynomial of lower
degree than the divisor.
For example, if we divide x2 + 3x + 7 by x + 1, we obtain the following.
x+2 quotient
2
Divisor x + 1 x + 3x + 7 dividend
2
x +x
2x + 7
2x + 2
5 remainder
In fractional form, we can write this result as follows:

dividend quotient remainder

x 2 + 3x + 7 5
=x+2+
x +1 x +1
divisor divisor

This implies that x2 + 3x + 7 = (x + 1) (x + 2) + 5 which illustrates the theorem called

the polynomial division theorem.

ACTIVITY 1.6
1 For each of the following pairs of polynomials, find q (x) and
r (x) that satisfy f (x) = d (x) q (x) + r (x).
a f (x) = x2 + x – 7; d (x) = x – 3 b f (x) = x3 – x2 + 8; d (x) = x + 2
c f (x) = x4 – x3 + x – 1; d (x) = x – 1
2 In Question 1, what did you observe about the degrees of the polynomial
functions f (x) and d (x)?
f ( x)
3 In Question 1, the fractional expression is improper. Why?
d ( x)
r ( x)
4 Is proper or improper? What can you say about the degree of r (x) and d (x)?
d ( x)

19
Mathematics Grade 10

Theorem 1.1 Polynomial division theorem

If f(x) and d(x) are polynomials such that d(x) ≠ 0, and the degree of d(x)
is less than or equal to the degree of f(x), then there exist unique
polynomials q(x) and r(x) such that

f(x) = d(x) q(x) + r(x)

Dividend Quotient

Divisor Remainder

where r(x) = 0 or the degree of r (x) is less than the degree of d(x). If the
remainder r(x) is zero, f(x) divides exactly into d(x).

Proof:-
i Existence of the polynomials q (x) and r (x )
Since f (x) and d (x) are polynomials, long division of f (x) by d (x) will give a
quotient q(x) and remainder r (x), with degree of r (x) < degree of d (x) or r (x) = 0.

ii The uniqueness of q (x) and r (x )

To show the uniqueness of q (x) and r (x), suppose that
f (x) = d (x)q1(x) + r1(x) and also
f (x) = d (x)q2(x) + r2(x) with deg r1(x) < deg d (x) and deg r2(x) < deg d(x).
Then r2(x) = f (x) – d (x) q2(x) and r1(x) = f (x) – d (x) q1(x)
⇒ r2(x) – r1(x) = d (x) [q1(x) – q2(x)]
Therefore, d (x) is a factor of r2(x) – r1(x)

As deg (r2(x) – r1(x)) ≤ max {deg r1 ( x), deg r2 ( x)} < deg d (x) it follows that,

r2(x) – r1(x) = 0
As a result r1(x) = r2(x) and q1(x) = q2(x).
Therefore, q (x) and r (x) are unique polynomial functions.

20
 Unit 1 Polynomial Functions

Example 1 In each of the following pairs of polynomials, find polynomials q (x) and
r (x) such that f (x) = d (x) q (x) + r (x).
a f (x) = 2x3 – 3x + 1; d (x) = x + 2
b f (x) = x3 – 2x2 + x + 5; d (x) = x2 + 1
c f (x) = x4 + x2 – 2 ; d (x) = x2 – x + 3
Solution:
f ( x) 2 x 3 − 3x + 1 9
a = = 2 x2 − 4x + 5 −
d ( x) x+2 x+2
⇒ 2x3 − 3x + 1 = (x+2)(2x2 − 4x + 5) − 9
Therefore q (x) = 2x2 – 4x + 5 and r (x) = − 9.
f ( x) x3 − 2 x 2 + x + 5 7
b = 2
= x−2+ 2
d ( x) x +1 x +1
⇒ x3 – 2x2 + x + 5 = (x2 + 1) (x – 2) + 7
Therefore q (x) = x – 2 and r (x) = 7.
f ( x) x4 + x2 − 2 −4 x + 1
c = 2
= x2 + x −1 + 2
d ( x) x − x+3 x − x+3
⇒ x4 + x2 – 2 = (x2 – x + 3) (x2 + x – 1) + (–4x + 1)
giving us q (x) = x2 + x – 1 and r (x) = –4x + 1.

Exercise 1.4
1 For each of the following pairs of polynomials, find the quotient q (x) and
remainder r (x) that satisfy the requirements of the Polynomial Division Theorem:
a f (x) = x2 – x + 7; d (x) = x + 1
b f (x) = x3 + 2x2 – 5x + 3; d (x) = x2 + x – 1
c f (x) = x2 + 8x – 12; d (x) = 2
2 In each of the following, express the function f (x) in the form
f (x) = (x – c) q (x) + r (x) for the given number c.
1
a f (x) = x3 – 5x2 – x + 8; c = –2 b f (x) = x3 + 2x2 – 2x – 14; c =
2
3 Perform the following divisions, assuming that n is a positive integer:
x3n + 5x2n + 12 xn + 18 x3n − x2n + 3xn − 10
a b
xn + 3 xn − 2

21
Mathematics Grade 10

1.2.2 Remainder Theorem

The equality f (x) = d (x) q (x) + r (x) expresses the fact that
Dividend = (divisor) (quotient) + remainder.

ACTIVITY 1.7
1 Let f (x) = x4 – x3 – x2 – x – 2.
a Find f (_2) and f (2).
b What is the remainder if f (x) is divided by x + 2?
c Is the remainder equal to f (–2)?
d What is the remainder if f (x) is divided by x – 2?
e Is the remainder equal to f (2)?
2 In each of the following, find the remainder when the given polynomial f (x) is
divided by the polynomial x – c for the given number c. Also, find f (c).
a f (x) = 2x2 + 3x + 1; c = –1 b f (x) = x6 + 1; c = –1, 1
c f (x) = 3x3 – x4 + 2; c = 2 d f (x) = x3 – x + 1; c = –1, 1

Theorem 1.2 Remainder theorem

Let f(x) be a polynomial of degree greater than or equal to 1 and let c be
any real number. If f(x) is divided by the linear polynomial (x – c), then
the remainder is f(c).

Proof:-
When f (x) is divided by x – c, the remainder is always a constant. Why?
By the polynomial division theorem,
f (x) = (x – c) q (x) + k
where k is constant. This equation holds for every real number x. Hence, it holds
when x = c.
In particular, if you let x = c, observe a very interesting and useful relationship:
f (c) = (c – c) q (c) + k
= 0. q (c) + k
=0+k=k
It follows that the value of the polynomial f (x) at x = c is the same as the remainder k
obtained when you divide f (x) by x – c.

22
 Unit 1 Polynomial Functions

Example 2 Find the remainder by dividing f (x) by d (x) in each of the following
pairs of polynomials, using the polynomial division theorem and the
remainder theorem:
a f (x) = x3 – x2 + 8x – 1; d (x) = x + 2
b f (x) = x4 + x2 + 2x + 5; d (x) = x – 1
Solution:
a Polynomial division theorem Remainder theorem
x3 − x 2 + 8 x − 1 3 2
f ( − 2 ) = ( − 2 ) − ( − 2 ) + 8 ( − 2 ) − 1,
x+2
29
= x2 − 3x + 14 − = –8 – 4 – 16 – 1 = –29
x+2
Therefore, the remainder is –29.
b Polynomial division theorem Remainder theorem

x4 + x2 + 2x + 5
f (1) = (1)4 + (1)2 + 2(1) + 5
x −1
9
= x3 + x2 + 2x + 4 + =1+1+2+5=9
x − 1
Therefore, the remainder is 9.
Example 3 When x3 – 2x2 + 3bx + 10 is divided by x – 3 the remainder is 37. Find
the value of b.
Solution: Let f (x) = x3 – 2x2 + 3bx + 10.
f (3) = 37. (By the remainder theorem)
⇒ (3)3 – 2 (3)2 + 3b(3) + 10 = 37
27 – 18 + 9b + 10 = 37 ⇒ 9b + 19 = 37 ⇒ b = 2.

Exercise 1.5
1 In each of the following, express the function in the form
f (x) = (x – c) q (x) + r (x)
for the given number c, and show that f (c) = k is the remainder.
a f (x) = x3 – x2 + 7x + 11; c = 2
b f (x) = 1 – x5 + 2x3 + x; c = –1
2
c f (x) = x4 + 2x3 + 5x2 + 1; c = −
3

23
Mathematics Grade 10

2 In each of the following, use the Remainder Theorem to find the remainder k
when the polynomial f (x) is divided by x – c for the given number c.
1
a f (x) = x17 – 1; c = 1 b f (x) = 2x2 + 3x + 1; c = −
2
c f (x) = x23 + 1; c = –1
3 When f (x) = 3x7 – ax6 + 5x3 – x + 11 is divided by x + 1, the remainder is 15.
What is the value of a?
4 When the polynomial f (x) = ax3 + bx2 – 2x + 8 is divided by x – 1 and x + 1 the
remainders are 3 and 5 respectively. Find the values of a and b.

1.2.3 Factor Theorem

Recall that, factorizing a polynomial means writing it as a product of two or more
polynomials. You will discuss below an interesting theorem, known as the factor
theorem, which is helpful in checking whether a linear polynomial is a factor of a
given polynomial or not.

ACTIVITY 1.8
1 Let f (x) = x3 – 5x2 + 2x + 8.
a Find f (2).
b What is the remainder when f (x) is divided by x – 2?
c Is x – 2 a factor of f (x)?
d Find f (–1) and f (1).
e Express f (x) as f (x) = (x – c) q (x) where q (x) is the quotient.
2 Let f (x) = x3 – 3x2 – x + 3.
a What are the values of f (–1), f (1) and f (3)?
b What does this tell us about the remainder when f (x) is divided by x + 1, x – 1
and x – 3?
c How can this help us in factorizing f (x)?

Theorem 1.3 Factor theorem

Let f(x) be a polynomial of degree greater than or equal to one, and let c
be any real number, then
i x – c is a factor of f(x), if f(c) = 0, and
ii f(c) = 0, if x – c is a factor of f(x).

Try to develop a proof of this theorem using the remainder theorem.

24
 Unit 1 Polynomial Functions

Group Work 1.2

4 2
1 Let f ( x) = 4x − 5x + 1 .
a Find f (–1) and show that x + 1 is a factor of f (x).
b Show that 2x – 1 is a factor of f (x).
c Try to completely factorize f (x) into linear factors.
2 Give the proof of the factor theorem.

Hint: You have to prove that

i if f (c) = 0, then x – c is a factor of f (x)
ii if x – c is a factor of f (x), then f (c) = 0
Use the polynomial division theorem with factor (x – c) to express f
(x) as
f (x) = d (x) q (x) + r (x), where d (x) = x – c.
Use the remainder theorem r (x) = k = f (c), giving you
f (x) = (x – c) q (x) + f (c)
where q (x) is a polynomial of degree less than the degree of f (x).
If f (c) = 0, then what will f (x) be? Complete the proof.

Example 4 Let f (x) = x3 + 2x2 – 5x – 6. Use the factor theorem to determine

whether:
a x + 1 is a factor of f (x) b x + 2 is a factor of f (x).
Solution:
a Since x + 1 = x – (–1), it has the form x – c with c = –1.
f (–1) = (–1)3 + 2(–1)2 – 5(–1) – 6 = –1 + 2 + 5 – 6 = 0.
So, by the factor theorem, x + 1 is a factor of f (x).

b f (–2) = (–2)3 + 2 (–2)2 – 5 (–2) – 6 = –8 + 8 + 10 – 6 = 4 ≠ 0.

By the factor theorem, x + 2 is not a factor of f (x).
Example 5 Show that x + 3, x – 2 and x + 1 are factors and x + 2 is not a factor of
f (x) = x4 + x3 – 7x2 – x + 6.
Solution: f (–3) = (–3)4 + (–3)3 – 7(–3)2 – (–3) + 6 = 81 – 27 – 63 + 3 + 6 = 0.
Hence x + 3 is a factor of f (x).
f (2) = 24 + (2)3 – 7 (2)2 – 2 + 6 = 16 + 8 – 28 – 2 + 6 = 0.
25
Mathematics Grade 10

Hence x – 2 is a factor of f (x).

f (–1) = (–1)4 + (–1)3 – 7 (–1)2 – (–1) + 6 = 1 – 1 – 7 + 1 + 6 = 0
Hence x + 1 is a factor of f (x).
f (–2) = (–2)4 + (–2)3 – 7 (–2)2 – (–2) + 6 = 16 – 8 – 28 + 2 + 6 = –12 ≠ 0
Hence x + 2 is not a factor of f (x).

Exercise 1.6
1 In each of the following, use the factor theorem to determine whether or not g (x)
is a factor of f (x).

a g (x) = x +1; f (x) = x15 +1

b g (x) = x −1; f (x) = x7 + x −1
3
c g ( x) = x − ; f ( x) = 6 x 2 + x − 1
2
d g ( x) = x + 2; f ( x) = x 3 − 3x 2 − 4 x − 12
2 In each of the following, find a number k satisfying the given condition:
a x − 2 is a factor of 3 x 4 − 8 x 2 − kx + 6
b x + 3 is a factor of x5 − kx 4 − 6 x3 − x 2 + 4 x + 29
c 3x − 2 is a factor of 6 x3 − 4 x 2 + kx − k
3 Find numbers a and k so that x – 2 is a factor of f (x) = x4 – 2ax3 + ax2 – x + k and
f (–1) = 3.
4 Find a polynomial function of degree 3 such that f (2) = 24 and x – 1, x and x + 2
are factors of the polynomial.
5 Let a be a real number and n a positive integer. Show that x – a is a factor of xn – an.
6 Show that x – 1 and x + 1 are factors and x is not a factor of 2x3 – x2 – 2x + 1.
7 In each of the following, find the constant c such that the denominator will divide
the numerator exactly:
x3 + 3 x 2 − 3 x + c x3 − 2 x 2 + x + c
a b .
x −3 x+2
2
8 The area of a rectangle in square feet is x + 13x + 36. How much longer is the
length than the width of the rectangle?

26
 Unit 1 Polynomial Functions

1.3 ZEROS OF A POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION

In this section, you will discuss an interesting concept known as zeros of a polynomial.
Consider the polynomial function f (x) = x – 1.
What is f (1)? Note that f (1) = 1 – 1 = 0.
As f (1) = 0, we say that 1 is the zero of the polynomial function f (x).
To find the zero of a linear (first degree polynomial) function of the form f (x) = ax + b,
a ≠ 0, we find the number x for which ax + b = 0.
Note that every linear function has exactly one zero.
ax + b = 0 ⇒ ax = –b ........ Subtracting b from both sides
b
⇒ x= − ........ Dividing both sides by a, since a ≠ 0.
a
b
Therefore, x = − is the only zero of the linear function f, whenever a ≠ 0.
a
2x −1 x + 2
Example 1 Find the zeros of the polynomial f ( x ) = − −2.
3 3
2x −1 x + 2
Solution: f ( x) = 0 ⇒ − =2
3 3
2x − 1−(x + 2) = 6 ⇒ 2x − 1− x − 2 = 6 ⇒ x = 9.
So, 9 is the zero of f (x).
Similarly, to find the zeros of a quadratic function (second degree polynomial) of the
form f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0, we find the number x for which
ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ≠ 0.

ACTIVITY 1.9
1 Find the zeros of each of the following functions:
3
a h (x) = 1 – (x + 2) b k (x) = 2 – (x2 – 4) + x2 – 4x
5
c f (x) = 4x2 – 25 d f (x) = x2 + x – 12
e f (x) = x3 – 2x2 + x f g (x) = x3 + x2 – x –1
2 How many zeros can a quadratic function have?
3 State techniques for finding zeros of a quadratic function.
4 How many zeros can a polynomial function of degree 3 have? What about degree 4?
Example 2 Find the zeros of each of the following quadratic functions:
a f (x) = x2 – 16 b g (x) = x2 – x – 6 c h (x) = 4x2 – 7x + 3
27
Mathematics Grade 10

Solution:
a f (x) = 0 ⇒ x2 – 16 = 0 ⇒ x2 – 42 = 0 ⇒ (x – 4) (x + 4) = 0
⇒ x – 4 = 0 or x + 4 = 0 ⇒ x = 4 or x = – 4
Therefore, – 4 and 4 are the zeros of f.
b g (x) = 0 ⇒ x2 – x – 6 = 0
Find two numbers whose sum is – 1 and whose product is – 6. These are – 3 and 2.
x2 – 3x + 2x – 6 = 0 ⇒ x (x – 3) + 2 (x – 3) = 0 ⇒ (x + 2) (x – 3) = 0
⇒ x + 2 = 0 or x – 3 = 0 ⇒ x = –2 or x = 3
Therefore, –2 and 3 are the zeros of g.
c h (x) = 0 ⇒ 4x2 – 7x + 3 = 0
Find two numbers whose sum is –7 and whose product is 12. These are –4 and –3.
Hence, 4x2 – 7x + 3 = 0 ⇒ 4x2 – 4x – 3x + 3 = 0 ⇒ 4x (x – 1) – 3 (x – 1) = 0
3
⇒ (4x – 3) (x – 1) = 0 ⇒ 4x – 3 = 0 or x – 1 = 0 ⇒ x = or x = 1.
4
3
Therefore, and 1 are the zeros of h.
4
Definition 1.2
For a polynomial function f and a real number c, if
f(c) = 0, then c is a zero of f.

Note that if x – c is a factor of f (x), then c is a zero of f (x).

Example 3
a Use the factor theorem to show that x + 1 is a factor of f (x) = x25 + 1.
b What are the zeros of f (x) = 3 (x – 5) (x + 2) (x – 1)?
c What are the real zeros of x4 – 1 = 0?
d Determine the zeros of f (x) = 2x4 – 3x2 + 1.
Solution:
a Since x + 1 = x – (–1), we have c = –1 and
f (c) = f (–1) = (–1)25 + 1 = –1 + 1 = 0
Hence, –1 is a zero of f (x) = x25 + 1, by the factor theorem.
So, x – (–1) = x + 1 is a factor of x25 + 1.
b Since (x – 5), (x + 2) and (x – 1) are all factors of f (x), 5, –2 and 1 are the
zeros of f (x).

28
 Unit 1 Polynomial Functions

c Factorising the left side, we have

x4 – 1 = 0 ⇒ (x2 – 1) (x2 + 1) = 0 ⇒ (x – 1) (x + 1) (x2 + 1) = 0
So, the real zeros of f (x) = x4 – 1 are –1 and 1.
d f (x) = 0 ⇒ 2x4 – 3x2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ 2 (x2)2 – 3x2 + 1 = 0
Let y = x2. Then 2(y)2 – 3y + 1 = 0 ⇒ 2y2 – 3y + 1 = 0 ⇒ (2y – 1) (y – 1) = 0
⇒ 2y – 1 = 0 or y – 1 = 0
1
Hence y = or y = 1
2
1
Since y = x2, we have x2 = or x2 = 1.
2
1 1 2
Therefore x = ± or x = ± 1. (Note that = .)
2 2 2
2 2
Hence, − , , –1 and 1 are zeros of f.
2 2
A polynomial function cannot have more zeros than its degree.

1.3.1 Zeros and Their Multiplicities

If f (x) is a polynomial function of degree n, n ≥ 1, then a root of the equation
f (x) = 0 is called a zero of f.
By the factor theorem, each zero c of a polynomial function f (x) generates a first degree
factor (x – c) of f (x). When f (x) is factorized completely, the same factor (x – c) may
occur more than once, in which case c is called a repeated or a multiple zero of f (x). If
x – c occurs only once, then c is called a simple zero of f (x).

Definition 1.3
If (x – c)k is a factor of f (x), but (x – c)k+1 is not, then c is said to be a zero
of multiplicity k of f.

Example 4 Given that –1 and 2 are zeros of f (x) = x4 + x3 − 3x2 − 5x − 2, determine

their multiplicity.
Solution: By the factor theorem, (x + 1) and (x − 2) are factors of f (x)
Hence, f (x) can be divided by (x + 1) (x − 2) = x2 − x − 2, giving you
f (x) = (x2 − x − 2) (x2 + 2x + 1) = (x + 1) (x − 2) (x + 1)2 = (x + 1)3 (x − 2)
Therefore, –1 is a zero of multiplicity 3 and 2 is a zero of multiplicity 1.

29
Mathematics Grade 10

Exercise 1.7
1 Find the zeros of each of the following functions:
3 1
a f (x) = 1 – x b f (x) = (1 – 2x) – (x + 3)
5 4
2
c g (x) = (2 – 3x) (x – 2) (x + 1) d h (x) = x4 + 7x2 + 12
3
e g (x) = x3 + x2 – 2 f f (t) = t3 – 7t + 6
g f (y) = y5 – 2y3 + y h f (x) = 6x4 – 7x2 – 3
2 For each of the following, list the zeros of the given polynomial and state the
multiplicity of each zero.
 2 2
a f (x) = x12  x − 
 3
b (
g (x) = 3 x − 2 ) ( x + 1)
5
c
5
h (x) = 3 x 6 ( π − x ) ( x − ( π + 1) )
3
d (
f ( x) = 2 x − 3 ) ( x + 5) (1 − 3x )
9

3 2
e f (x) = x − 3x + 3x −1
3 Find a polynomial function f of degree 3 such that f (10) = 17 and the zeros of f
are 0, 5 and 8.
4 In each of the following, the indicated number is a zero of the polynomial function
f (x). Determine the multiplicity of this zero.
a 1; f (x) = x3 + x2 – 5x + 3 b –1; f (x) = x4 + 3x3 + 3x2 + x
1
c ; f ( x) = 4 x3 − 4 x2 + x .
2
4
5 Show that if 3x + 4 is a factor of some polynomial function f, then − is a zero of f.
3
6 In each of the following, find a polynomial function that has the given zeros
satisfying the given condition.

a 0, 3, 4 and f (1) = 5 b −1, 1 + 2, 1 − 2 and f (0) = 3.

1
7 A polynomial function f of degree 3 has zeros −2, and 3, and its leading
2
coefficient is negative. Write an expression for f. How many different polynomial
functions are possible for f ?

30
 Unit 1 Polynomial Functions

8 If p (x) is a polynomial of degree 3 with p (0) = p (1) = p (–1) = 0 and p (2) = 6, then
a show that p (–x) = –p (x).
b find the interval in which p (x) is less than zero.
9 Find the values of p and q if x – 1 is a common factor of
f ( x ) = x 4 − px 3 + 7 qx + 1, and g ( x ) = x 6 − 4 x 3 + px 2 + qx − 3.
10 The height above ground level in metres of a missile launched vertically, is given by
h(t ) = −16t 3 +100t.
At what time is the missile 72 m above ground level? [t is time in seconds].

1.3.2 Location Theorem

A polynomial function with rational coefficients may have no rational zeros. For
example, the zeros of the polynomial function:
f (x) = x2 – 4x – 2 are all irrational.
Can you work out what the zeros are? The polynomial function p (x) = x3 – x2 – 2x + 2
has rational and irrational zeros, − 2,1 and 2 . Can you check this?

ACTIVITY 1.10
1 In each of the following, determine whether the zeros of the
corresponding function are rational, irrational, or neither:
a f (x) = x2 + 2x + 2 b f (x) = x3+ x2 – 2x – 2
c f (x) = (x + 1)(2x2 + x – 3) d f (x) = x4 – 5x2 + 6
2 For each of the following polynomials make a table of values, for – 4 ≤ x ≤ 4:
a f (x) = 3x3 + x2 + x – 2 b f (x) = x4 – 6x3 + x2 + 12x – 6
Most of the standard methods for finding the irrational zeros of a polynomial function
involve a technique of successive approximation. One of the methods is based on the
idea of change of sign of a function. Consequently, the following theorem is given.

Theorem 1.4 Location theorem

Let a and b be real numbers such that a < b. If f is a polynomial function
such that f(a) and f(b) have opposite signs, then there is at least one zero
of f between a and b.

This theorem helps us to locate the real zeros of a polynomial function. It is sometimes
possible to estimate the zeros of a polynomial function from a table of values.

31
Mathematics Grade 10

Example 5 Let f (x) = x4 – 6x3 + x2 + 12x – 6. Construct a table of values and use the
location theorem to locate the zeros of f between successive integers.
Solution: Construct a table and look for changes in sign as follows:
x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
f (x) 210 38 –10 –6 2 –10 –42 –70 –44 102
Since f (–2) = 38 > 0 and f (–1) = –10 < 0, we see that the value of f (x) changes
from positive to negative between – 2 and –1. Hence, by the location theorem,
there is a zero of f (x) between x = –2 and x = –1.
Since f (0) = – 6 < 0 and f (1) = 2 > 0, there is also one zero between x = 0 and x = 1.
Similarly, there are zeros between x = 1 and x = 2 and between x = 5 and x = 6.
Example 6 Using the location theorem, show that the polynomial
f (x) = x5 – 2x2 – 1 has a zero between x = 1 and x = 2.
Solution: f (1) = (1)5 – 2(1)2 – 1 = 1 – 2 – 1 = – 2 < 0.
f (2) = (2)5 – 2 (2)2 – 1 = 32 – 8 – 1 = 23 > 0.
Here, f (1) is negative and f (2) is positive. Therefore, there is a zero between x = 1
and x = 2.

Exercise 1.8
1 In each of the following, use the table of values for the polynomial function f (x)
to locate zeros of y = f (x):
a
x –5 –3 –1 0 2 5
f (x) 7 4 2 –1 3 –6
b
x –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2
f (x) –21 –10 8 –1 –5 6 4 –3 18

2 Use the location theorem to verify that f (x) has a zero between a and b:
a f (x) = 3x3 + 7x2 + 3x + 7 ; a = –3 , b = –2
3
b f (x) = 4x4 + 7x3 – 11x2 + 7x – 15; a = 1, b =
2
c f (x) = –x4 + x3 + 1 ; a = –1 , b = 1
d f (x) = x5 – 2x3 – 1 ; a = 1, b = 2

32
 Unit 1 Polynomial Functions

3 In each of the following, use the Location Theorem to locate each real zero of f (x)
between successive integers:
a f (x) = x3 – 9x2 + 23x – 14; for 0 ≤ x ≤ 6
b f (x) = x3 – 12x2 + x + 2; for 0 ≤ x ≤ 8
c f (x) = x4 – x2 + x – 1; for –3 ≤ x ≤ 3
d f (x) = x4 + x3 – x2 – 11x + 3; for –3 ≤ x ≤ 3
4 In each of the following, find all real zeros of the polynomial function, for
−4 ≤ x ≤ 4 :
15 2
a f (x) = x4 – 5x3 + x − 2x − 2 b f (x) = x5 – 2x4 – 3x3 + 6x2 + 2x – 4
2
c f (x) = x + x – 4x2 – 2x + 4
4 3
d f (x) = 2x4 + x3 – 10x2 – 5x
5 In Question 10 of Exercise 1.7, at what time is the missile 50 m above the ground
level?
6 Is it possible for a polynomial function of degree 3 with integer coefficient to
have no real zeros? Explain your answer.

[ 1.3.3 Rational Root Test

The rational root test relates the possible rational zeros of a polynomial with integer
coefficients to the leading coefficient and to the constant term of the polynomial.

Theorem 1.5 Rational root test

p
If the rational number , in its lowest terms, is a zero of the polynomial
q
f (x) = anxn + an–1 xn –1 + . . . . + a1x + ao
with integer coefficients, then p must be a factor of ao and q must be a factor of an.

ACTIVITY 1.11
1 What should you do first to use the rational root test?
2 What must the leading coefficient be for the possible rational
zeros to be factors of the constant term?
3 Suppose that all of the coefficients are rational numbers. What could be done to
change the polynomial into one with integer coefficients? Does the resulting
polynomial have the same zeros as the original?
4 There is at least one rational zero of a polynomial whose constant term is zero.
What is this number?

33
Mathematics Grade 10

Example 7 In each of the following, find all the rational zeros of the polynomial:
a f (x) = x3 – x + 1 b g (x) = 2x3 + 9x2 + 7x – 6
1 1
c g ( x) = x 4 − 2 x3 − x 2 + 2 x
2 2
Solution:
a The leading coefficient is 1 and the constant term is 1. Hence, as these are
factors of the constant term, the possible rational zeros are ± 1.
Using the remainder theorem, test these possible zeros.
f (1) = (1)3 – 1 + 1 = 1 – 1 + 1 = 1
f (–1) = (–1)3 – (–1) + 1 = –1 + 1 + 1 = 1
So, we can conclude that the given polynomial has no rational zeros.
b an = a3 = 2 and ao = –6
Possible values of p are factors of –6. These are ±1, ±2, ±3 and ±6.
Possible values of q are factors of 2. These are ± 1, ± 2.
p 1 3
The possible rational zeros are ± 1, ± 2, ± 3, ± 6, ± , ± .
q 2 2
Of these 12 possible rational zeros, at most 3 can be the zeros of g (Why?).
1
Check that f (–3) = 0, f (– 2) = 0 and f   = 0.
2
Using the factor theorem, we can factorize g (x) as:
2x3 + 9x2 + 7x – 6 = (x + 3) (x + 2) (2x – 1). So, g (x) = 0 at
1
x = –3, x = –2 and at x = .
2
1
Therefore –3, –2 and are the only (rational) zeros of g.
2
c Let h (x) = 2g(x). Thus h (x) will have the same zeros, but has integer
coefficients.
h (x) = x4 – 4x3 – x2 + 4x
x is a factor, so h (x) = x(x3 – 4x2 – x + 4) = xk (x)
k (x) has a constant term of 4 and leading coefficient of 1. The possible rational
zeros are ±1, ±2, ±4.
34
 Unit 1 Polynomial Functions

Using the remainder theorem, k (1) = 0, k (–1) = 0 and k (4) = 0

So, by the factor theorem k (x) = (x – 1) (x + 1) (x – 4).
Hence, h (x) = x k (x) = x(x – 1) (x + 1) (x – 4) and
1 1
g (x) = h( x) = x(x – 1)(x + 1)(x – 4).
2 2
Therefore, the zeros of g (x) are 0, ± 1 and 4.

Exercise 1.9
1 In each of the following, find the zeros and indicate the multiplicity of each zero.
What is the degree of the polynomial?
a f (x) = (x + 6) (x – 3)2 b f (x) = 3 (x + 2)3 (x – 1)2 (x + 3)
1
c f (x) = (x – 2)4 (x + 3)3 (1 – x) d f (x) = x4 – 5x3 + 9x2 – 7x + 2
2
e f (x) = x4 – 4x3 + 7x2 – 12x + 12
2 For each of the following polynomials, find all possible rational zeros:
a p (x) = x3 – 2x2 – 5x + 6 b p (x) = x3 – 3x2 + 6x + 8
c p (x) = 3x3 – 11x2 + 8x + 4 d p (x) = 2x3 + x2 – 4x – 3
e p (x) = 12x3 – 16x2 – 5x + 3
3 In each of the following, find all the rational zeros of the polynomial, and express
the polynomial in factorized form:

a f (x) = x3 − 5x2 − x + 5 b g (x) = 3x3 + 3x2 − x −1

c p (t ) = t 4 − t 3 − t 2 − t − 2
4 In each of the following, find all rational zeros of the function:

3 11 2 1 1 4 25 2
a p (y) = y + y − y− b p (x) = x − x +9
6 2 3 4
4 21 2 3 4 7 3 7 2 5
c h (x) = x − x + x d p (x) = x + x − x − x
10 5 6 3 2
5 For each of the following, find all rational roots of the polynomial equation:
a 2x3 – 5x2 + 1 = 0 b 4x4 + 4x3 – 9x2 – x + 2 = 0
c 2x5 – 3x4 – 2x + 3 = 0

35
Mathematics Grade 10

1.4 GRAPHS OF POLYNOMIAL FUNCTIONS

In your previous grades, you have discussed how to draw graphs of functions of degree
zero, one and two. In the present section, you will learn about graphs of polynomial
functions of degree greater than two.
To understand properties of polynomial functions, try the following Activity.

ACTIVITY 1.12
1 Sketch the graph of each of the following polynomial functions:
a f (x) = 3 b f (x) = – 2.5
c g (x) = x – 2 d g (x) = –3x + 1
2 Let f (x) = x2 –4x +5
a Copy and complete the table of values given below.
x –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
2
f (x) = x – 4x + 5

b Plot the points with coordinates (x, y), where y = f (x) on the xy-coordinate
plane.
c Join the points in b above by a smooth curve to get the graph of f. What do
you call the graph of f ? Give the domain and range of f.
3 Construct a table of values for each of the following polynomial functions and
sketch the graph:
a f (x) = x2 − 3 b g (x) = −x2 − 2x +1
c h (x) = x3 d p (x) = 1− x4
We shall discuss sketching the graphs of higher degree polynomial functions through
the following examples.
3
Example 1 Let us consider the function p ( x) = x − 3x − 4 .
3
This function can be written as y = x − 3x − 4
Copy and complete the table of values below.
x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
y –6 –2 –6 14
Other points between integers may help you to determine the shape of the graph
better.
36
 Unit 1 Polynomial Functions

1
For instance, for x =
2
1 43
y = p  = −
2 8
 1 43 
Therefore, the point  , −  is on the graph of p. Similarly, for
2 8 
5  5  33
x = , y= p  = .
2  2 8
 5 33 
So,  ,  is also on the graph of p.
2 8 
Plot the points with coordinates (x, y) from the table as shown in Figure 1.3a.
Now join these points by a smooth curve to get the graph of p (x), as shown in
Figure 1.3b.

y
y

10
10

5
5

x x
-5 5 -5 5

-5 -5

-10 -10
a b
Figure 1.3 Graph of p (x) = x3 − 3x − 4
Example 2 Sketch the graph of f ( x) = − x 4 + 2 x2 + 1
Solution: To sketch the graph of f, we find points on the graph using a table of values.

x –2 –1 0 1 2
y = −x4 + 2x2 + 1 –7 2 1 2 –7
Plot the points with coordinates (x, y) from this table and join them by a smooth
curve for increasing values of x, as shown in Figure 1.4.

37
Mathematics Grade 10

From the graph, find the domain and the

y
range of f. Observe that the graph of f opens 3
downward. 2

As observed from the above two examples, 1

x
the graph of a polynomial function has no -2 -1 1 2 3
-1
jumps, gaps and holes. It has no sharp
-2
corners. The graph of a polynomial function -3
is a smooth and continuous curve which -4
means there is no break anywhere on the -5
graph. -6

-7
The graph also shows that for every value
of x in the domain ℝ of a polynomial Figure 1.4 Graph of f (x) = −x4 + 2x2 + 1
function p (x), there is exactly one value y
where y = p (x).
The following are not graphs of polynomial functions.

y y

Jump
hole
Gap
Gap

x Sharp x
Corner

Figure 1.5
Functions with graphs that are not continuous are not polynomial functions.
Look at the graph of the function f ( x) = x given in Figure 1.6. It has a sharp corner at
the point (0, 0) and hence f ( x) = x is not a polynomial function.
y
y
y = f (x)

y=|x| x

O x

Figure 1.6 Figure 1.7

38
 Unit 1 Polynomial Functions

Is the function f (x) = |x – 2| a polynomial function? Give reasons for your answer.
The graph of the function f in Figure 1.7 is a smooth curve. Hence it represents a
polynomial function. Observe that the range of f is R.

The points at which the graph of a function crosses (meets) the coordinate axes are
important to note.
If the graph of a function f crosses the x-axis at (x1, 0), then x1 is the x-intercept of the
graph. If the graph of f crosses the y axis at the point (0, y1), then y1 is the y-intercept of
the graph of f.
How do we determine the x-intercept and the y-intercept?
Since (x1, 0) lies on the graph of f, we must have f (x1) = 0. So x1 is a zero of f.
Similarly, (0, y1) lies on the graph of f, leads to f (0) = y1.
Consider the function
f (x) = ax + b, a ≠ 0
What is the x-intercept and the y-intercept?
b
f (x1) = ax1 + b = 0. Solving for x1 gives ax1 = – b ⟹ x1 = −
a
b
So, − is the x-intercept of the graph of f.
a
Again, f (0) = a.0 + b = b. The number b is the y-intercept.
Try to find the x-intercept and the y-intercept of f (x) = −3x + 5.
The above method can also be applied to a quadratic function. Consider the following
example.
Example 3 Find the x-intercepts and the y-intercept of the graph of
f ( x) = x2 − 4x + 3
Solution: f ( x1 ) = x12 − 4x1 + 3 = 0 ⇒ ( x1 −1)( x1 − 3) = 0 ∴ x1 = 1 or x1 = 3
Therefore, the graph of f has two x-intercepts, 1 and 3.
Next, f (0) = 02 – 4.0 + 3 = 3. Here y1 = 3 is the y-intercept.
The graph of f crosses the x-axis at (1, 0) and (3, 0). It crosses the y-axis at (0, 3).
The graph opens upward and turns at (2, −1). The point (2, −1) is the vertex or
turning point of the graph of f. It is the minimum value of the graph of f. The
range of f is { y : y ≥ −1} .

39
Mathematics Grade 10

3 (0, 3)
2 f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3
1
(1, 0) (3, 0) x
-1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
(2, -1)
-2

Figure 1.8
2
Note that the graph of any quadratic function f ( x) = ax + bx + c has at most two
x-intercepts and exactly one y-intercept. Try to find the reason.
As seen from Figure 1.8, a = 1 is positive and the parabola opens upward.
What can be stated about the graph of g(x) = −2x2 + 4x?
Does the graph open upward?
The coefficient of x2 is negative. What is the range of g?
To study some properties of polynomials, we will now look at graphs of some
n
polynomial functions of higher degrees of the form f (x) = an x + b, n ≥ 3.
3
Example 4 By sketching the graphs of g (x) = x +1 and h ( x) = −2 x3 + 1, observe
their behaviours and generalize for odd n when | x | is large.
Solution: Plot the points of the graphs of g and h.
5 5
y y
4 4

3 3

2 2 h(x)=-2x3+1
g(x)=x3+1
1 1
x x

-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5

-1 -1

-2 -2

-3 -3

a b
Figure 1.9
As shown in Figure 1.9a, when x becomes large in absolute value and x negative, g (x)
is negative but large in absolute value (The graph moves down). When x takes large
positive values, g (x) becomes large positive.

40
 Unit 1 Polynomial Functions

In Figure 1.9b, the coefficient of the leading term is –2 which is negative. As a result,
when x becomes large in absolute value for x negative, h (x) becomes large positive.
When x takes large positive values, h (x) becomes negative but large in absolute value.
n
The graph of f ( x) = an x + b shows the same behaviour when | x | is large as the graph
of g for an > 0 and as the graph of h for an < 0 and n odd.
Example 5 By sketching the graphs of g (x) = 2x4 and h (x) = –x4, observe their
behaviour and generalize for even n when | x | is large.
Solution: The sketches of the graphs of g and h are as follows.
y
y 2
5
1
4 4
x
f (x)= 2x 3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
3
−1
2
−2
1 f (x)= −x4
x −3

−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 −4
−1 −5
a b
Figure 1.10
From Figure 1.10a, when | x | takes large values, g (x) becomes large positive.
On the other hand, from Figure 1.10b, when | x | takes large values, h (x) becomes
negative but large in absolute value and the graph opens downward.
When n is even, the graph of f opens upward for an > 0 and opens downward for an < 0.
Draw and observe the graphs of g (x) = 2 (x – 1)4 and h (x) = – (x – 1)4.

ACTIVITY 1.13
1 Consider the following graphs:
y y

4
4
3
3
2
2
1
x 1
x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
-1 -2 -1 1 3
-3 2
-1
-2
-2
-3
a Graph of g (x) = x3 + 2x2 – x – 2. b Graph of f (x) = x4 – 5x2 + 4.
Figure 1.11

41
Mathematics Grade 10

a What are the domains of f and g?

b What can be said about the values of f (x) and g (x) when x is large and
positive, or large and negative?
c If x = 210, will the term x3 in g (x) and x4 in f (x) be positive or will they be
negative? What happens when x = –210?
2 a Do you think that the range of every polynomial function is the set of all
real numbers?
b Will the graph of every polynomial function cross the y-axis at exactly one
point? Why?

Group Work 1.3

1 On the graph of g (x) = x4 – 5x2 + 4
a What are the values of x at the points where the
graph crosses the x-axis? At how many points
does the graph of g (x) cross the x-axis?
b What is the value of g (x) at each of these points obtained in a?
c What is the truth set of the equation g (x) = 0?
2 Consider the function h (x) = (x + 2) (x + 1) (x – 1) (x – 2)
a On the graph of the function h, what are the coordinates of the points where
the graph crosses the x-axis? The y-axis?
b Do you think that g (in question 1 above) and h are the same function?
3 As shown in Figure 1.11, the graph of the polynomial function defined by
f (x) = x4 – 5x2 + 4 crosses the x-axis four times and the graph of
g (x) = x3 + 2x2 – x – 2 crosses the x-axis three times.
In a similar way, how many times does the graph of each of the following
functions intersect the x-axis?
a p (x) = 2x + 1 b p (x) = x2 + 4
c p (x) = x2 – 8 d f (x) = (x – 2) (x – 1) (x2 + 4).
4 Do you think that the graph of every polynomial function of degree four crosses
the x – axis four times?

42
 Unit 1 Polynomial Functions

Note that the graph of a polynomial function of degree n meets the x-axis at most n
times. So (as stated previously), every polynomial function of degree n has at most n
zeros.
In general, the behaviour of the graph of a polynomial function as x decreases without
bound to the left or as x increases without bound to the right can be determined by its
degree (even or odd) and by its leading coefficient.
The graph of the polynomial function. f (x) = anxn + an –1 xn – 1 + . . . + a1x + ao eventually
rises or falls. Observe the examples given below.
Example 6 Describe the behaviour of the graph of f (x) = –x3 + x, as x decreases
to the left and increases to the right.
Solution: Because the degree of f is odd and the leading coefficient is negative, the
graph rises to the left and falls to the right as shown in Figure 1.12.
A and B are the turning points of the graph of f.
4
y

f(x)=-x3+x
2

1
A x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
B
-1

-2

-3

Figure 1.12
Figure 1.13 shows an example of a polynomial function whose graph has peaks and
valleys. The term peak refers to a local maximum and the term valley refers to a local
minimum. Such points are often called turning points of the graph.
y

Turning points

Turning points

Figure1.13

43
Mathematics Grade 10

A point of f that is either a maximum point or minimum point on its domain is called
local extremum point of f.

Note that the graph of a polynomial function of degree n has at most n – 1 turning points.
Example 7 Consider the polynomial y
2 4
f (x) = x (x – 2) (x + 2) . 2
y = f(x)
The function f has a simple zero at 0, a zero of
1
multiplicity 2 at 2 and a zero of multiplicity 4
x
at –2, as shown in Figure 1.14, It has a local -2 -1 1 2
maximum at x = –2 and does not change sign –1
at x = –2. Also, f has a relative (local)
-2
minimum at x = 2 and does not change sign
here. Both x = –2 and x = 2 are zeros of even
multiplicity. Figure 1.14

On the other hand, x = 0 is a zero of odd multiplicity, f (x) changes sign at x = 0,

and does not have a turning point at x = 0.
4 3
Example 8 Take the polynomial f (x) = 3x + 4x . It can be expressed as

f ( x) = x3 (3x + 4) .
The degree of f is even and the leading coefficient is positive. Hence, the graph
rises up as | x | becomes large.
y

3
f ( x ) = x 3 (3 x + 4)
2

1
x
-2 -1 1 2 3
-1
-2

Figure 1.15

44
 Unit 1 Polynomial Functions

4  4 
The function has a simple zero at − and changes sign at point  − , 0  .
3  3 
The graph of f has a local minimum at point (–1, –1).
Also f has a zero at x = 0 and changes sign here. So, 0 is of odd multiplicity.
There is no local minimum or maximum at (0, 0).
The above observations can be generalized as follows:
follows:
1 If c is a zero of odd multiplicity of a function f, then the graph of the function
crosses the x-axis at x = c and does not have a relative extremum at x = c.
2 If c is a zero of even multiplicity, then the graph of the function touches (but does
not cross) the x-axis at x = c and has a local extremum at x = c.

Group Work 1.4

1 Give some examples of polynomial functions and observe
the behaviour of their graphs as x increases without bound
to the left ( x is negative but large in absolute value) or as
x increases without bound to the right (x becomes large
positive).
Did you note that for p ( x) = an x n + an −1 x n −1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 , an ≠ 0 if an > 0 and n
is odd, p (x) becomes large positive as x takes large positive values and p (x)
becomes negative but large in absolute value as the absolute value of x becomes
large for x negative?
Discuss the cases where:
i an > 0 and n is even ii an < 0 and n is even
iii an < 0 and n is odd iv an > 0 and n is odd
2 Answer the following questions:
a What is the least number of turning points an odd degree polynomial
function can have? What about an even degree polynomial function?
b What is the maximum number of x-intercepts the graph of a polynomial
function of degree n can have?
c What is the maximum number of real zeros a polynomial function of degree
n can have?
d What is the least number of x-intercepts the graph of a polynomial function
of odd degree/even degree can have?
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Mathematics Grade 10

Exercise 1.10
1 Make a table of values and draw the graph of each of the following polynomial
functions:
a f (x) = 4x2 – 11x + 3 b f (x) = –1 – x2
c f (x) = 8 – x3 d f (x) = x3 + x2 – 6x – 10
1 2 2
e f (x) = 2x2 – 2x4 f f (x) = ( x − 2) ( x + 2) .
4
2 Without drawing the graphs of the following polynomial functions, state for each,
as much as you can, about:
i the behaviour of the graph as x takes values far to the right and far to the left.
ii the number of intersections of the graph with the x-axis.
iii the degree of the function and whether the degree is even or odd.
iv the leading coefficient and whether an > 0 or an < 0.
a f (x) = (x – 1) (x – 1) b f (x) = x2 + 3x + 2
c f (x) = 16 – 2x3 d f (x) = x3 – 2x2 – x + 1
e f (x) = 5x – x3 – 2 f f (x) = (x – 2) (x – 2) (x – 3)
g f (x) = 2x5 + 2x2 – 5x + 1
3 For the graphs of each of the functions given in Question 1(a – f) above:
i discuss the behaviour of the graph as x takes values far to the right and far to
the left.
ii give the number of times the graph intersects the x-axis.
iii find the value of the function where its graph cross the y-axis.
iv give the number of turning points.
4 In each of the following, decide whether the given graph could possibly be the
graph of a polynomial function:

46
 Unit 1 Polynomial Functions

y y

x x

a b
y y

x x

c d
y y

x x

e f
Figure 1.16

5 Graphs of some polynomial functions are given below. In each case:

i Identify the sign of the leading coefficient.
47
Mathematics Grade 10

ii Identify the possible degree of each function, and state whether the degree is
even or odd.
iii Determine the number of turning points.
y y

y =f (x) y = g(x)

x x

a b
y y

x x

y = h(x) y = l(x)

c d
y y

y = k(x)

x x
y = m(x)

e f

48
 Unit 1 Polynomial Functions

y y

y = n(x) y = q (x)

x x

g h
y

y = p(x)

i
Figure 1.17

6 Determine whether each of the following statements is true or false. Justify your
answer:
a A polynomial function of degree 6 can have 5 turning points.
b It is possible for a polynomial function of degree two to intersect the x axis at
one point.

49
Mathematics Grade 10

Key Terms
constant function linear function rational root
constant term local extremum remainder theorem
degree location theorem turning points
domain multiplicity x-intercept
factor theorem polynomial division theorem y-intercept
leading coefficient polynomial function zero(s) of a polynomial
leading term quadratic function
Summary

Summary
1 A linear function is given by f (x) = ax + b; a ≠ 0.
2 A quadratic function is given by f (x) = ax2 + bx + c ; a ≠ 0
3 Let n be a non-negative integer and let an, an – 1, . . . a1 , ao be real numbers with an ≠ 0.
The function p (x) = anxn + an – 1 xn – 1 + . . . + a1 x + ao is called a polynomial
function in x of degree n.
4 A polynomial function is over integers if its coefficients are all integers.
5 A polynomial function is over rational numbers if its coefficients are all rational
numbers.
6 A polynomial function is over real numbers if its coefficients are all real numbers.
7 Operations on polynomial functions:
i Sum: (f + g) (x) = f (x) + g (x)
ii Difference: (f – g) (x) = f (x) – g (x)
iii Product: (f⋅g) (x) = f (x)⋅g (x)
iv Quotient: (f ÷ g) (x) = f (x) ÷ g (x), if g (x) ≠ 0
8 If f (x) and d (x) are polynomials such that d (x) ≠ 0, and the degree of d (x) is less
than or equal to the degree of f (x), then there exist unique polynomials q (x) and
r (x) such that f (x) = d (x) q (x) + r (x), where r (x) = 0 or the degree of r (x) is
less than the degree of d(x).
9 If a polynomial f (x) is divided by a first degree polynomial of the form x – c, then
the remainder is the number f (c).

50
 Unit 1 Polynomial Functions

10 Given the polynomial function

p (x) = an xn + an – 1 xn – 1 + . . . + a1x + ao.
If p (c) = 0, then c is a zero of the polynomial and a root of the equation p (x) = 0.
Furthermore, x – c is a factor of the polynomial.
11 For every polynomial function f and real number c, if f (c) = 0, then x = c is a zero
of the polynomial function f.
12 If (x–c)k is a factor of f (x), but (x – c)k+1 is not, we say that c is a zero of
multiplicity k of f.
p
13 If the rational number , in its lowest term, is a zero of the polynomial
q
f (x) = anxn + an – 1 xn – 1 + . . . + a1 x + ao with integer coefficients, then p must be
an integer factor of ao and q must be an integer factor of an.
14 Let a and b be real numbers such that a < b. If f (x) is a polynomial function such
that f (a) and f (b) have opposite signs, then there is at least one zero of f (x)
between a and b.
15 The graph of a polynomial function of degree n has at most n –1 turning points
and intersects the x-axis at most n times.
16 The graph of every polynomial function has no sharp corners; it is a smooth and
continuous curve.

Review Exercises on Unit 1

1 In each of the following, find the quotient and remainder when the first
polynomial is divided by the second:
a x3 + 7 x2 − 6x − 5; x + 1 b 3x3 − 2x2 − 4x + 4; x + 1
c 3x4 + 16x3 + 6x2 − 2x −13; x + 5 d 2x3 + 3x2 − 6x + 1; x −1
e 2x5 + 5x4 − 4x3 + 8x2 + 1; 2x2 − x + 1 f 6x3 − 4x2 + 3x − 2; 2x2 + 1
2 Prove that when a polynomial p (x) is divided by a first degree polynomial ax + b,
b
the remainder is p (− ) .
a
3 Prove that x + 1 is a factor of xn + 1 where n is an odd positive integer.
4 Show that 2 is an irrational number.
Hint: 2 is a root of x2 – 2. Does this polynomial have any rational roots?)
5 Find all the rational zeros of:
a f (x) = x5 + 8x4 + 20x3 + 9x2 – 27x – 27
b f (x) = (x – 1) ( x (x + 1) + 2x )

51
Mathematics Grade 10

6 Find the value of k such that:

a 2x3 –3x2 – kx – 17 divided by x – 3 has a remainder of –2.
b x – 1 is a factor of x3 –6x2 + 2kx – 3.
c 5x –2 is a factor of x3 – 3x2 + kx +15.
7 Sketch the graph of each of the following:
a f ( x) = x3 − 7x + 6; − 4 ≤ x ≤ 3

b f ( x) = x4 − x3 − 4x2 + x +1; −2 ≤ x ≤ 3

c f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 4
1
d f ( x) = (1 − x )(1 + x 2 )( x − 2)
4
8 Sketch the graph of the function f (x) = x4. Explain for each of the following cases
how the graphs of g differ from the graph of f. Determine whether g is odd, even
or neither.
a g (x) = f (x) + 3 b g (x) = f (–x)
c g (x) = –f (x) d g (x) = f (x + 3)
9 The polynomial f ( x ) = A ( x − 1) 2 + B ( x + 2) 2 is divided by x + 1 and x – 2. The
remainders are 3 and –15 respectively. Find the values of A and B.
2 2
10 If x + (c − 2) x − c − 3c + 5 is divided by x + c, the remainder is –1. Find the
value of c.
11 If x – 2 is a common factor of the
2 2
expressions x (m + n) x − n and 2x + (m −1) x + (m + 2n) , find the values of m and n.
12 Factorize fully:
a x3 − 4x2 − 7 x +10 b 2x5 + 6 x4 + 7 x3 + 21x2 + 5x + 15 .
13 A psychologist finds that the response to a certain stimulus varies with age group
according to
R = y 4 + 2 y3 − 4 y2 − 5 y +14,
where R is response in microseconds and y is age group in years. For what age
group is the response equal to 8 microseconds?
14 The profit of a football club after a takeover is modelled by
p (t ) = t 3 −14t 2 + 20t +120 ,
where t is the number of years after the takeover. In which years was the club
making a loss?

52