TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS

Math 27
Analytic Geometry and Calculus II

Kimberly Hazel B. Camino, MSc

Department of Mathematics, Physics,
and Computer Science

Math 27
Transcendental Functions

1 Inverse functions

2 The Exponential Functions

3 The Logarithmic Functions

4 Other exponential and logarithmic functions

5 The Trigonometric Function

6 The Inverse Trigonometric Functions

7 The Hyperbolic and Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

8 Applications of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Transcendental Functions

1 Inverse functions

2 The Exponential Functions

3 The Logarithmic Functions

4 Other exponential and logarithmic functions

5 The Trigonometric Function

6 The Inverse Trigonometric Functions

7 The Hyperbolic and Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

8 Applications of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Algebraic Functions
A function y = f (x) is an algebraic function of x if it satisfies
an equation of the form

Pn (x)y n + Pn−1 (x)y n−1 + · · · + P1 (x)y + P0 (x) = 0,

in which the coefficients P0 (x), P1 (x), . . . , Pn (x) are polynomials

in x.

The function
1
y=
(x2 + 1)2/3
is algebraic since it satisfies the equation

(x2 + 1)2 y 3 − 1 = 0.

Math 27
Example: Theory of Relativity
The mass of a particle with velocity v is
m0
m = f (v) = p
1 − v 2 /c2
where m0 is the rest mass of the particle and c = 3.0 × 105
km/s is the speed of light in a vacuum.

Math 27
Transcendental Functions
A function which is not algebraic is called transcendental.

Examples
1 Exponential Function

2 Logarithmic Function
3 Trigonometric Functions
4 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
5 Hyperbolic Functions
6 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

Math 27
Functions
A function f is a set of ordered pairs (x, y) in which no two
distinct ordered pairs have the same first component. The set of
all admissible values of x is called the domain of the function
and the set of all resulting values of y is called the range of the
function.

One-to-one Function
A function f is one-to-one if every number in its range
corresponds to exactly one number in its domain, that is, if
whenever x1 and x2 are in the domain of f and x1 6= x2 , we
have f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ).
Equivalently, if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ), then x1 = x2 .

Math 27
Examples
1 Is g(x) = sin x one-to-one on the interval [0, π]?
2 Is the function f (x) = x2 , x ≥ 0, one-to-one?

Math 27
Math 27
Math 27
Horizontal Line Test
A function f is one-to-one if and only if every horizontal line
intersects the graph of the function at most once.

Math 27
Inverse Function
Let f be a one-to-one function with domain D and range R.
Then its inverse function is defined by

f −1 (y) = x if and only if y = f (x)

for any y ∈ R. The domain of f −1 is R and the range of f −1 is

D.

Note
Do not mistake the −1 in f −1 for an exponent.

Math 27
Steps to find the inverse function of a function f :

1 Show that the function is one-to-one.

2 Write y = f (x).
3 Interchange the roles of x and y.
4 Solve the new equation for y in terms of x.
5 Replace y by f −1 (x).

Remark
We have to make sure that the inverse is indeed a function. Not
all functions will have inverses that are also functions. In order
for a function to have an inverse function, it must be one-to-one.

Math 27
Examples
1 Find the inverse function of f (x) = 1/5x + 9, if it exists.
2 Find the inverse function of f (x) = x2 − 4, x ≥ 0, if it
exists.

Math 27
Math 27
Remark
The graph of f −1 is obtained by reflecting the graph of f about
the line y = x.

Math 27
Transcendental Functions

1 Inverse functions

2 The Exponential Functions

3 The Logarithmic Functions

4 Other exponential and logarithmic functions

5 The Trigonometric Function

6 The Inverse Trigonometric Functions

7 The Hyperbolic and Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

8 Applications of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Exponential Function
If a > 0 and x ∈ R, then the function f defined by f (x) = ax is
called the exponential function to the base a.

Math 27
Laws of Exponents
Let a, b > 0 and x, y ∈ R.
1 ax+y = ax ay
ax
2 ax−y = y
a
3 (ax )y = axy
4 (ab)x = ax bx

Math 27
Transcendental Functions

1 Inverse functions

2 The Exponential Functions

3 The Logarithmic Functions

4 Other exponential and logarithmic functions

5 The Trigonometric Function

6 The Inverse Trigonometric Functions

7 The Hyperbolic and Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

8 Applications of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Definition
If a > 0 and a 6= 1, the logarithmic function to the base a is the
inverse function of the exponential function to the base a, that
is,
y = loga x if and only if ay = x

The domain of the function is (0, ∞) and the range is R.

Examples
1 log 8
2
1
2 log10
100

Math 27
Laws of Logarithms
Let a > 0, a 6= 1 and x ∈ R, u, v > 0.
1 loga 1 = 0
2 loga a = 1
3 loga ax = x
4 aloga x = x
5 loga uv = loga u + loga v
u
6 loga = loga u − loga v
v

7 loga ub = b loga u

Math 27
Examples
1 Express 2 log3 (x + 3) + log3 x − log3 7 as a single logarithm
log10 x
2 Condense the logarithm expression + 3 log10 (x + 1).
2
2x2 (x − 4)3
3 Expand log4 .
(x + 1)4

Math 27
Transcendental Functions

1 Inverse functions

2 The Exponential Functions

3 The Logarithmic Functions

4 Other exponential and logarithmic functions

5 The Trigonometric Function

6 The Inverse Trigonometric Functions

7 The Hyperbolic and Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

8 Applications of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Definition
The irrational number e is approximately
2.71828182845904523 . . . It is the base of the natural
exponential and natural logarithmic functions.

Other Definitions
1 h
 
1 lim 1 + =e
h→∞ h
1
2 lim (1 + h) h = e
h→0
eh − 1
3 e is the unique positive number such that lim =1
h→0 h

Math 27
Definition
1 The natural logarithmic function is defined by

f (x) = loge x for x > 0. It is written ln x.

2 The function f (x) = ex is the natural exponential function.
3 The common logarithmic function is given by
f (x) = log10 x for x > 0. It is written log x.

Math 27
Change of Base Formula
Let a, b, x ∈ R+ with a, b 6= 1. Then
logb x
loga x =
logb a

Math 27
Theorem
If u is a differentiable function of x and u(x) > 0, then
Dx u
1 D (ln u) =
x
u
loga e 1
2 D (log u) =
x a Dx u ⇔ Dx (loga u) = Dx u
u u ln a

Math 27
Examples
Find the derivative of the function:
1. y = x2 ln x
h
6 i
2. y = ln x2 + 1 x3 + 2

Integrate the following:

ln 6x2
Z
3. dx
x
Z
4. log7 ew dw

Math 27
Logarithmic Differentiation
5. y = x2x+3
x
6. y = xe
3
7. z = (sin y)y

Math 27
Theorem
1 If a is any positive number and u is a differentiable

function of x,
Dx (au ) = au ln a Dx u
2 If a is any positive number except 1,
au
Z
au du = +C
ln a

In particular,
If u is a diffferentiable function of x,
Z
u u
Dx (e ) = e Dx u and eu du = eu + C

Math 27
Examples
Differentiate the following:
3
8. y = e5x
1 1
ln ln
9. z = e y log5 e y

Integrate the following:

Z ln x
7
10. dx
x
Z log w
7 5
11. dw
w

Math 27
Recall
If n 6= −1,

un+1
Z
un du = +C
n+1

Theorem
Z
du
= ln |u| + C
u

Example
y4
Z
dy
3y 5 + 6

Math 27
 eln x
Z
1. dx
x (eln x + 3)

2
2. Differentiate z = ex log3 (5x − sin x).

Math 27
Applications of the Natural Exponential
Function

Compound Interest

Monthly compounding refers to the fact that interest is added

to your account each month and then in subsequent months you
earn interest on the interest. The principal amount is the
amount at time t = 0.
Discrete Compound Interest
If P0 is the principal, r is the annual interest rate, and n is the
number of times that interest is compounded per year, then the
balance at time t years is
 r nt
P (t) = P0 1 +
n

Math 27
Examples
1. If the principal is 1000Php, the annual interest rate is 5%
and the interest is compounded daily, what will be the
balance after ten years?
2. If the principal is 500Php, the annual interest rate is 8%
and the interest is compounded quarterly, what will be the
balance after 42 months?

Math 27
Math 27
Continuous Compounded Interest
If P0 is the principal, r is the annual interest rate, and the
interest is continuously compounded, then the balance at time t
years is
P (t) = P0 ert

Examples
1. How much money would you have to invest at 7% interest
compounded continuously in order to have 5000Php in 4
years?
2. If you deposit 1000Php in an account paying 6%
compounded continuously, how long will it take for you to
have 1500Php in your account?

Math 27
Applications of the Natural Exponential
Function

Note
dy
If = ky, then y = Aekx for some constant A.
dx
dy
In = ky, the rate that the quantity is changing depends on
dx
how much of the quantity you have.

Exponential Growth Equation

P (t) = P0 ekt ,
where P (t) is the population at time t, P0 is the initial
population, and k is the growth constant.

Math 27
Applications of the Natural Exponential
Function

Example
If the population of a particular city started 3 years ago at
1000, but now has grown at 64,000, then what will the
population be 6 months from now? Also, what is the total time
it will take for the population to grow from 1000 to 400,000?

Math 27
Transcendental Functions

1 Inverse functions

2 The Exponential Functions

3 The Logarithmic Functions

4 Other exponential and logarithmic functions

5 The Trigonometric Function

6 The Inverse Trigonometric Functions

7 The Hyperbolic and Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

8 Applications of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Let u be a differentiable function of x and C be a constant.

Dx (sin u) = cos u Dx u

Dx (cos u) = − sin u Dx u

Dx (tan u) = sec2 u Dx u

Dx (cot u) = − csc2 u Dx u

Dx (sec u) = sec u tan u Dx u

Dx (csc u) = − csc u cot u Dx u

Math 27
Integrals of Trigonometric Functions
Z
cos udu = sin u + C
Z
sin udu = − cos u + C
Z
sec2 udu = tan u + C
Z
csc2 udu = − cot u + C
Z
tan udu = − ln |cos u| + C = ln |sec u| + C
Z
cot udu = ln |sin u| + C
Z
sec udu = ln |sec u + tan u| + C
Z
csc udu = ln |csc u − cot u| + C

Math 27
Integrals of Trigonometric Functions

Z
sec u tan udu = sec u + C
Z
csc u cot udu = − csc u + C

Math 27
Review

Review Trigonometric Identities. They will be useful in

evaluating indefinite or definite integrals.

Math 27
Transcendental Functions

1 Inverse functions

2 The Exponential Functions

3 The Logarithmic Functions

4 Other exponential and logarithmic functions

5 The Trigonometric Function

6 The Inverse Trigonometric Functions

7 The Hyperbolic and Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

8 Applications of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Math 27
Math 27
Math 27
Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The inverse sine function, denoted by sin−1 , is defined by

y = sin−1 x if and only if x = sin y.

The inverse cosine function, denoted by cos−1 , is defined by

y = cos−1 x if and only if x = cos y.

The inverse tangent function, denoted by tan−1 , is defined

by
y = tan−1 x if and only if x = tan y.

Math 27
Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The inverse cosecant function, denoted by csc−1 , is defined

by
y = csc−1 x if and only if x = csc y.
The inverse secant function, denoted by sec−1 , is defined by

y = sec−1 x if and only if x = sec y.

The inverse cotangent function, denoted by cot−1 , is

defined by

y = cot−1 x if and only if x = cot y.

Math 27
Derivatives of the Inverse Trigonometric
Functions
Dx u
Dx sin−1 u = √


1 − u2
−Dx u
Dx cos−1 u = √


1 − u2
Dx u
Dx tan−1 u =


1 + u2

−Dx u
Dx cot−1 u =
1 + u2
Dx u
Dx sec−1 u = √


u u2 − 1
−Dx u
Dx csc−1 u = √


u u2 − 1
Math 27
Integrals that yield Inverse Trigonometric
Functions

Z
du u
√ = sin−1 +C
a2 − u2 a
Z
du 1 −1 u
 
= tan +C
a2 + u2 a a
Z
du 1 u
√ = sec−1 +C
u u2 − a2 a a

Math 27
Transcendental Functions

1 Inverse functions

2 The Exponential Functions

3 The Logarithmic Functions

4 Other exponential and logarithmic functions

5 The Trigonometric Function

6 The Inverse Trigonometric Functions

7 The Hyperbolic and Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

8 Applications of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Even and Odd Functions

Every function f that is defined on an interval centered at the

origin can be written as the sum of one even function and one
odd function.

f (x) + f (−x) f (x) − f (−x)

f (x) = +
| 2
{z } | 2
{z }
even part odd part

Math 27
Even and Odd Parts of the Natural Exponential
function

ex + e−x ex − e−x
ex = +
| {z2 } | {z 2 }
even part odd part

Math 27
Hyperbolic Functions
Definitions
The hyperbolic sine function, denoted by sinh, and the
hyperbolic cosine functions, denoted by cosh, are defined as
follows:
ex − e−x ex + e−x
sinh x = and cosh x =
2 2
where x is any real number.

The hyperbolic tangent, hyperbolic cotangent, hyperbolic

secant, hyperbolic cosecant functions, denoted respectively by
tanh, coth, sech, csch, are defined as follows:
sinh x cosh x
tanh x = coth x =
cosh x sinh x
1 1
sech x = csch x =
cosh x sinh x
Math 27
Math 27
Math 27
Math 27
Some Hyperbolic Identities

cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1
1 − tanh2 x = sech 2 x
1 − coth2 x = − csch 2 x
cosh x + sinh x = ex
cosh x − sinh x = e−x
sinh(x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y
cosh(x + y) = cosh x cosh y + sinh x sinh y
sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh y
cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x
cosh 2x = 2 cosh2 x − 1
cosh 2x = 1 + 2 sinh2 x

Math 27
Osborn’s Rule/ Osborne’s Rule
To get a formula for hyperbolic functions from the
corresponding identity for ordinary trigonometric functions,
replace every trigonometric function by the corresponding
hyperbolic function, and change the sign of every product of
sine functions.

Math 27
Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

Dx (sinh u) = cosh uDx u

Dx (cosh u) = sinh uDx u

Dx (tanh u) = sech2 uDx u

Dx (coth u) = −csch2 uDx u

Dx (sech u) = −sech u tanh uDx u

Dx (csch u) = −cschu coth uDx u

Math 27
Integral Formulas of Hyperbolic Functions

Z
cosh udu = sinh u + C
Z
sinh udu = cosh u + C
Z
sech2 udu = tanh u + C
Z
csch2 udu = − coth u + C
Z
sech u tanh udu = −sech u + C
Z
csch u coth udu = −csch u + C

Math 27
Definitions of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

The inverse hyperbolic sine, denoted by sinh−1 , is defined

by
y = sinh−1 x if and only if x = sinh y
where y is any real number.
The inverse hyperbolic cosine, denoted by cosh−1 , is
defined by

y = cosh−1 x if and only if x = cosh y

where y ≥ 0.
The inverse hyperbolic tangent, denoted by tanh−1 , is
defined by

y = tanh−1 x if and only if x = tanh y

where y is any real number.

Math 27
Definitions of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
The inverse hyperbolic cotangent, denoted by coth−1 , is
defined by

y = coth−1 x if and only if x = coth y

where y ∈ (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, +∞).

The inverse hyperbolic secant, denoted by sech−1 , is
defined by

y = sech−1 x if and only if x = sech y

where y > 0.
The inverse hyperbolic cosecant, denoted by csch−1 , is
defined by

y = csch−1 x if and only if x = csch−1

where y ∈ (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, +∞).

Math 27
Domain and Range of the Hyperbolic Function

Function Domain Range

sinh−1 u R R
cosh−1 u (1, ∞) (0, ∞)
tanh−1 u (−1, 1) R
coth−1 u (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞) (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
sech−1 u (0, 1] (0, ∞)
csch−1 u (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞) (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)

Math 27
Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

Dx u
Dx sinh−1 u = √


1 + u2
Dx u
Dx cosh−1 u = √


,u>1
u2 − 1
Dx u
Dx tanh−1 u =


, |u| < 1
1 − u2
Dx u
Dx coth−1 u =


, |u| > 1
1 − u2
−Dx u
Dx sech−1 u = √


, 0<u<1
u 1 − u2
−Dx u
Dx csch−1 u =


√ , u 6= 0
|u| 1 + u2

Math 27
Integrals Yielding Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Let a be a nonzero constant.
Z
du u
√ = sinh−1 + C, a > 0
a 2 + u2 a
Z
du u
√ = cosh−1 + C, u > a > 0
u2 − a2 a
 1
−1 u
 

 a tanh +C if u2 < a2
a
Z 
du
=
a2 − u2   1 u
 coth−1 +C if u2 > a2
a a
−1
Z
du u
√ = sech−1 + C,
u a2 − u2 a a
0<u<a
−1
Z
du −1  u 
 
√ = csch   + C,
u a2 + u2 a a
u 6= 0 and a > 0
Math 27
Transcendental Functions

1 Inverse functions

2 The Exponential Functions

3 The Logarithmic Functions

4 Other exponential and logarithmic functions

5 The Trigonometric Function

6 The Inverse Trigonometric Functions

7 The Hyperbolic and Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

8 Applications of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Recall

Second Derivative Test

Let c be a critical number of a function f at which f 0 (c) = 0,
and let f 00 exist for all values of x in some open interval
containing c.
If f 00 (c) < 0, then f has a relative maximum value at c.
If f 00 (c) > 0, then f has a relative minimum value at c.

Critical Point
If c is a number in the domain of the function f , and if either
f 0 (c) = 0 or f 0 (c) does not exist, then c is a critical number of f .

Math 27
Applications of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Example 1
You are sitting in a classroom next to the wall looking at the
blackboard at the front of the room. The blackboard is 12 ft
long and starts 3 ft from the wall you are sitting next to. What
is your viewing angle if you are x feet from the front wall?

Math 27
Applications of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Example 2
A ladder 10 ft long leans against a vertical wall. If the bottom
of the ladder slides away from the base of the wall at a speed of
2 ft/s, how fast is the angle between the ladder and the wall
changing when the bottom of the ladder is 6 ft from the base of
the wall?

Math 27
Applications of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Example 3
A frame 7 feet high is placed on a wall with its base 9 ft above
the level of an observer. How far from the wall should the
observer stand to get the best view of the frame?[that is, in
order for the angle subtended at the observer’s eye by the frame
is maximum?]

Math 27
Assignment(1/2 crosswise yellow paper)

Assignment 1
The slant height of the cone shown here is 3 m. How large
should the indicated angle be to maximize the cone’s volume?

Math 27
Assignment(1/2 crosswise yellow paper)

Assignment 2
A man on a dock is pulling in at the rate of 2 ft/sec a rowboat
by means of a rope. The man’s hands are 20 ft above the level
of the point where the rope is attached to the boat. How fast is
the measure of the angle of depression of the rope changing
when there are 52 ft of rope out.

Math 27