95purl Material Science
95purl Material Science
95purl Material Science
MPROVEMENT
Mechanical Engineering
Material Science
Answer Key of Objective & Conventional Questions
1 Crystal System
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1. (a) 20. (c)
Solution : 39
(i) Crystallographic Axes: Axes which are used to define the position of a crystal face in space by the
intercepts of the face on three imaginary lines. These will define a coordinate system within the crystal.
Interfacial Angle: Interfacial angle between the two crystal faces as the angle between the lines that
are perpendicular to the faces. Such a lines are called the poles to the crystal face.
(ii) The BCC unit cell consists of a net total of two atoms, the one in the center and eight from the corners.
The co-ordination number is 8 and Atomic Packing Factor (APF) in BCC is 0.68.
In the FCC arrangement, again there are eight atoms at corners of the unit cell and one atom centered
in each of the faces. The atom in the face is shared with the adjacent cell. The co-ordination number is
12 and APF is 0.74.
(iii) In alloys there is a solute and solvent. Solute are the minor elements that is added to the solvent, which
is major element. When the particular crystal structure of the solvent is maintained during alloying, the
alloy is called solid solution.
Substitutional Solid Solution: If the size of the solute
atom is similar to the solvent atom, the solute atoms Solvent metal atom
can replace solvent atoms and form a substitutional Solute element atom
solid solution. An example is brass, an alloy of zinc
and copper, in which zinc (solute atoms) is introduced
into lattice of copper.
Interstitial Solid Solution: If the size of the solute
atom is much smaller than that of the solvent atom, Solvent metal atom
each solute atom can occupy an interstitial position, Solute element atom
such a process forms an interstitial solid solution.
An important family of interstitial solid solutions is
steel, in which carbon atoms are present in interstitial
positions.
Solution : 40
Major imperfections in the crystal structure of metals
1. Point defects
(i) Vacancies
(ii) Interstitial atoms
(iii) Impurities
2. Line defects : Dislocations
(i) Edge dislocation
(ii) Screw dislocation
3. Surface or Grain boundaries defects
(i) Grain boundaries
(ii) Tilt boundaries
(iii) Twin boundaries
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Figure shows the vacancy defect. The lattice planes will be distorted when the atoms surrounding
a vacancy come close together.
(ii) Interstitial (atom) defect: Interstitial defect arises when an atom
occupies an interstitial position i.e. between the atoms in the lattice
of the ideal crystal.
Figure shows the interstitial defect. The interstitial atom may be
either a normal atom of the crystal or a foreign atom. Interstitial
defect occurs if the atomic packing factor of the crystal structure is
low.
The interstitial defect produces lattice distortion because in order
to occupy an interstitial position in a perfect crystal (ideal crystal),
Interstitial atom
the atom tends to push the surrounding atoms farther apart. If the
Interstitial defect
interstitial atom is smaller than the rest of the atoms in the crystal,
the lattice distortions produced will be negligible.
(iii) Impurities: Small particles may be embedded in the structure such as slag inclusions in metals
or foreign atoms in the lattice structure. Impurity atoms are of two types either substitutional or
interstitial atoms.
(a) (b)
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Rank Improvement Workbook 5
Considerable distortion of lattice structure occurs due to the presence of impurities in the crystal
or lattice structure.
2. Line Defects-Dislocations: The most important two dimensional or line defect is the dislocation.
A dislocation may be defined as a disturbed region SS
X
between two substantially perfect parts of a crystal. It
occurs when an imperfection extending along a line has
a length much larger than the lattice spacing. There are
two basic types of dislocations :
(i) Edge dislocation: Figure shows an edge S P
Y
dislocation in a simple cubic crystal. The line
marked as SP represents the slip plane of the
crystal and the dashed lines represent the crystal
planes perpendicular to the slip plane.
The plane marked ‘X’ at the top of the figure ends
SS
at point ‘Y’ on the slip plane, whereas the planes An edge dislocation
on
either side of ‘X’ run continuously from the top to the bottom of the figure. In such a case where
a lattice plane ends inside a crystal, an edge dislocation is the result.
The edge dislocation shown in figure has an incomplete plane which lies above the slip plane.
Such as edge dislocation is called positive edge dislocation and is represented by the symbol ⊥
where the vertical line represents the incomplete plane and the horizontal line represents the slip
plane. It is also possible to have the incomplete plane below the slip plane which can be
represented by the symbol T.
(ii) Screw Dislocation : A screw dislocation is shown
schematically in figure. The upper front portion of
the crystal has been sheared by one atomic distance
of the left relative to the lower front portion. No slip Screw
has taken place to the rear portion of the line DC dislocation
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6 Materials Science
crystals is less than 10°, the distortion in the boundary is not very drastic and these boundaries
are called low angle tilt boundaries.
(iii) Twist Boundaries: Other low angle boundaries formed by screw dislocations are called as twist
boundaries.
(iv) Twin Boundaries: Another type of surface imperfections are twin boundaries. A twin boundary
separates two parts of a crystal having the same orientation.
4. Volume Defects: Volume defects are stacking faults which are created by a fault in the stacking
sequence of close packed atomic planes in crystals such as FCC and HCP. Consider for example the
stacking arrangement in an FCC crystal ABC ABC ABC ABC. If an A plane indicated by an arrow is
missing then the stacking sequence becomes
ABC BC ABC ABC
which is a surface defect and is called as stacking fault. Stacking faults are more frequently found in
deformed metals.
The presence of these imperfections or defects in metallic crystals impairs the physical and mechanical
properties of metal and alloys.
The theoretical strength of a metal (the force required to separate the bond between adjoining atoms) turns
out to be several million newtons per square metres, but the ordinary strength of metals is 100 to 1000
times less. This is because of occurrence of defects in the crystal structure.
The lower yield point of crystals than the computed yield point is because of the imperfections in the
crystal and is explained by the type of defect called ‘dislocation’. With grain growth, strength and hardness
of a metal decrease, but ductility increases.
Solution : 41
For this coordination, the small cation is surrounded by three anions to form an equilateral triangle as
shown here, triangle ABC; the centers of all four ions are coplanar.
rC
Cation
B C
O
P α
rA
A
Anion
This boils down to a relatively simple plane trigonometry problem. Consideration of the right triangle
APO makes it clear that the side lengths are related to the anion and cation radii rA and rC as
AP = rA
and AO = rA + rC
AP
Furthermore, the side length ratio is a function of the angle α as
AO
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Rank Improvement Workbook 7
AP
= cos α
AO
The magnitude of α is 30°, since line AO bisects the 60° angle BAC. Thus,
AP rA 3
= = cos30° =
AO rA + rC 2
Solving for the cation-anion radius ratio,
3
rC 1−
2 = 0.155
rA = 3
2
Solution : 42
Nu = 2.2 × 1025 vacancies /m3
Solution : 43
Upon cold working (temperature less then 0.4 temperature where temperature is melting point in K) the
number of dislocations in the material increases. How much dislocation multiplication takes place, is the
property of material and it is expressed by work hardening exponent (n) in the flow curve equations σf =
K∈n, where k is strength coefficient, σf is true stress and ∈ is true strain.
Higher is the value of n, more dislocations will be created upon cold working the material. These dislocations
piles up at the grain boundary and creates a dislocation forest. Since dislocation-dislocation interactions
are repulsive in nature, this dislocations forest create a back stress in the movement of dislocation. This
increases the strength of material upon unloading the specimen from the region of work hardening and
reloading in opposite direction, back stresses now support the movement of dislocation. As a result of
that yield point in opposite direction appears prematurity. This phenomenon is called Bauschinger effect.
UTS
σf = Kεn
YP
– Power law
Hooke’s – Hollomon equation
Stress
law
σ∝e
Strain
Nominal UTS
σ0 = 400 MPa
e = 0.35
So ∈ = ln (1 + e) = ln(1.35) = 0.3
σf = σ0 (1 + e) = 400(1.35) = 540 MPa
at UTS n = ∈ = 0.3
σf = K ∈n
540 = K (0.3)0.3
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8 Materials Science
K = 775
So power law equation is σf = 775 ∈0.3.
Solution : 44
1. Copper and Nickel
2. Iron and Carbon
(a) Copper and Nickel : Cu-Ni forms a substitutional solid solution if melted cu and Ni with any composition
is cooled, a solid solution begins to freeze out. This solid solution is richer in Ni than are liquid solution.
(b) Iron and Carbon : Fe-C forms an interstitial solid solution, the c-atom occupy interstitial position in
crystal structure of substance Fe. The Fe-Fe3c are characterized by five individual phases. Five phases
that exist in Fe-c phase diagram are
1. α ferrite (BCC) 2. γ autenite (FCC) solid solution
3. δ fernite (BCC) [solid solution] 4. Fe3c (iron carbide or cementite)
[an intermetallic compound and liquid Fe-c solution]
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2 Alloy and Binary
Phase Diagram
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1. (c) 13. (c)
9. (c)
10. (b)
11. (a)
12. (a)
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10 Materials Science
Solution : 21
(i)
(i)In heter ogeneous nucleation
heterogeneous nucleation, the surface of some different substance, such as the wall of the container,
acts as the centre upon which the first atoms, ions or molecules of the crystal become property oriented.
In homogeneous nucleation
nucleation, a few particles come into correct juxtaposition in the course of their random
movement through bulk of medium. Heterogeneous nucleation is more common.
(ii) Nucleation and growth: Nucleation is the first step in the formation of either a new structure or phase
via self assembly or self organization. Once nucleation starts, crystals begins to grow in size and
number, by progressive addition of atoms in growth phase.
(iii) Embryos and Nuclei: An embryo is a tiny particle of solid that forms the liquid as atoms cluster
together. The embryo is unstable and may either grow in a stable nuclei or re-dissolve. While nucleus
is a tiny particle of solid that is large enough to be stable, nucleation occurs and growth of solid
begins.
(iv) Supercooling and Sublimation: Supercooling is the process of lowering the temperature of liquid or
gas below its freezing point without becoming a solid. Sublimation is the transition of a substance
directly from the solid to gas phase without passing through liquid phase.
Solution : 22
(i) Gibbs phase rule and level rule: Gibbs phase rule applies to non-reactive multi component
(i)Gibbs
heterogeneous systems in equilibrium and is given by: F = C – P + 2, where F is the number of
degrees of freedom, C is the number of components and P is the number of phases in equilibrium.
The lever rule is a tool used to determine weight percentages of each phase of a binary equilibrium
phase diagram. In an alloy with two phases, α and β, which themselves contain two elements, A and
B, the lever rule states that the weight percentages of the α phase is
⎛ C − b⎞
Xα = ⎜⎝ ⎟ , where
a −b⎠
Liquidus line
a is wt% of element B in α-phase
b is wt% of element B in β-phase
C is wt% of element B in entire alloy Temp. (C)
Solidus line
(ii) Isomorphous System: Isomorphous system is one,
where complete liquid and solid solubility occurs. For Composition
example the Cu-Ni alloy where complete solubility occurs
Isomorphous system
because Cu and Ni have the same crystal structure, phase diagram
electronegativity and valency.
(iii) Peritection reaction in steel: In Peritectic reaction, a liquid and solid phase of fixed proportions react
at a fixed temperature to yield a single solid phase.
(0.18%Carbon)
L + δ
γ
(Molten liquid) (Delta ferrite) (1495° C)
(Gamma − Austenite)
Solution : 23
Alloy composition → 79.65wt% Fe, 0.35 wt% C
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Rank Improvement Workbook 11
910°C
723°C
Cementite
Solution : 24
mα = 0.659
mβ = 0.340
vα = 0.57(57%)
vβ = 0.43 (43%)
Solution : 25
(a) Weight % of austenite = 46.58%
(b) Weight % of ferrite = 0.516 or 51.6%
(c) Weight % of proeutectoid ferrite slightly below 723°C is same as that slightly above, i.e. 48.4%
(d) Weight % of total (ferrite + cementite) just below 723°C = 94.3%
Weight % of Fe3C just below 723°C = 5.64%
Weight % of eutectoid ferrite = 42.7%
Weight % of eutectoid cementite = 5.08%
Solution : 26
x′ = 0.1128
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3 Heat Treatment of Steels
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1. (a) 20. (b)
16. (c)
17. (d)
18. (d)
19. (c)
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Rank Improvement Workbook 13
Solution : 34
The factors that influence the Ms and Mf temperature are:
(i) Alloying element, adding alloying elements increase the extent to which martensite forms.
(ii) Specimen size and shape, the extent of martensite formation increases as the specimen cross-section
decreases and as the degree of shape irregularity increases.
(iii) Quenching medium, the more severe the quench, the more martensite is formed. Agitating the medium
also enhances the severity of quench.
Temper embrittlement is caused by the segregation of impurities along the grain boundaries at
temperature between 480°C and 590°C in alloy steels. Controlling the presence of impurities in the
composition of alloys, step quenching can avoid the temper brittleness.
Spheroidizing is a form of heat treatment for Iron-based alloys, mostly carbon steels, in order to
convert them into ductile and machinable alloys. It is conducted at temperatures that are slightly below
the eutectoid temperature, (prolonged heating) followed by a slow cooling process. Unlike the laminar
shapes of cementite which act as stress raisers, spheroidities, are less conducive to stress concentration
because of their rounded shapes. The structure has higher toughness and lower hardness.
Solution : 35
The critical cooling rate is the cooling rate that is tangential to the TTT
diagram at the nose of the curve. Cooling at or faster than critical Eutectoid Temperature
cooling rate will transform the austenite to martensite and not to pearlite
cr
or bainite. 0%
itic
al
Temperature (°C)
100%
co
50%
• Critical cooling rate depends upon amount of Carbon and olin
g
rate
alloying elements.
• With increase in the carbon content and alloying elements
Time
(except Cobalt), the critical cooling rate decreases i.e., shift
of nose of TTT curve to the right.
• Shift of nose to the right gives an idea about hardenability; lower the cooling rate, higher is the
hardenability.
• Lower cooling rate reduces the tendency of warping and cracking.
• Critical cooling rate also depend on size of job and cooling medium.
Solution : 36
(1) Nitriding
In nitriding the N content of the surface is increased, this is done by heating the steel in the atmosphere of
NH3 gas. The parts to be nitrided are placed in an air tight container. NH3 is passed continuously over the
work pieces at a temperature of 500 to 650°C, NH3 gas dissociates as follows
2NH3 → 2N + 3H2
This atomic state of nitrogen diffuses into steel surfaces and react with alloys of steel making a case
containing the alloy nitrides. Thus the presence of alloying elements such as Al, Cr, Mo etc. is necessary,
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14 Materials Science
in order to obtain a case of maximum hardness Medium C-steel containing 3% of alloying elements produces
hardest case on the steel surface.
The most common size of nitriding case is 0.3 to 5 mm thick, it requires 30-40 hrs at 500-520°C. The time
can be reduced by using a double state process in which the work is first heated at 500-520°C and then at
550-600°C for the nitriding process. After nitriding the work is cooled in the furnace in the spring of
ammonia.
Advantages :
(a) It increases the hardness of surface layer which is harder as compared to carburising.
(b) It increases wear resistance, endurance limit and resistance to corrosion.
(c) No heat treatment is required after nitriding.
Uses : Nitriding is used during manufacture of gears components of M/c tools cylinders of powerful engines,
cylinder liners, gauges, cams, values etc.
Disadvantages :
(a) The case produced is brittle.
(b) The process is costly compared to carburising.
(2) Cyaniding
In cyaniding a thick case of high hardness and wear resistance is produced on C-alloy steels. Work is
immersed in molten salt bath containing NaCN which is heated to 820-860°C. This is usually followed by
water quenching. The cyanide bath consists of 20-30% NaCN, 25-50% NaCl and 25-50% Na2CO3. The time
required for cyaniding depends on the depth of case required. For 0.15- 0.5mm, 30-90 minutes are required.
2NaCN + O2 → 2 NaCNO (Air)
2NaCNO + O → NaCO3 + CO +2N (Atom)
2CO + O → CO2 + C (Atomic)
The atomic C diffused into steel the work can be directly quenched as soon as it is taken out of bath then
low temperature tempering is done at 200°C. The case obtained by cyaniding is of high wear resistant and
endurances limit compared to carburising. It should be noted that hardness at case varies in the following
sequence
Nitriding > Cyaniding > Carburizing
Cyaniding is used to produce light cases on small parts like small shafts, worms, gears, nuts, springs,
pins etc.
Advantages :
1. It requires less time than carburising.
2. There is less distortion of the work piece
3. Resistance to corrosion and wear is high.
Disadvantages :
1. High cost.
2. Cyaniding bath is toxic hence the worker needs protection.
(3) Flame Hardening
The process consists of heating the surface of medium carbon steel by high temperature gas flame at
2400°C-3300°C and immediately cooling in air or in water. Heat may be supplied by oxyacetylene torch. The
fuel used by the flame may be oxyacetylene, natural gas or kerosene. The flame rapidly imparts large
amount of heat to the surface. The heat is supplied so quickly to the surface and for so short time the core
remains unaffected.
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Rank Improvement Workbook 15
As soon as the desired temperature is achieved water is immediately sprayed which cools the surface. By
proper control of heating and cooling operation the core is not affected by the treatment. The thickness of
hardened layer is 2-4 mm and its structure is martensite. The structure of underline layers is troostomartensite.
Advantages :
(a) There is practically no distortion of the work piece because only small sections of the work piece are
heated.
(b) As heating rate is high the work surface remains clean.
(c) The process can easily be automated.
(d) The process is more efficient for large work piece as compared to induction heating. It is very economical
for large work.
Disadvantages :
(a) Very thin sections may get distorted extensively.
(b) Over heating may cause crack.
(4) Induction Hardening
This process is employed to increase hardness, wear resistance and endurances limit of the surface of the
work piece. The heat treatment is given to the surface only by supplying excessive heat to the surface
followed by drastic quenching, the surface is heated to the austenite range and then quenched immediately
to form martensite. The structure of core remains un changed because it is not effected by heat, the
components should contain 0.4 - 0.5% carbon or sufficient alloying elements as chromium Ni, or Mo. The
work is placed in Helical coils called inductor the coil consist of several turns of water cooled cu tubing.
Alternate current is passed through the inductor and thus alternate magnetic field sets up. The field induces
eddy currents on the surface layers and heat is generated. The current density is not uniform through out
the cross-section of the work piece. Approximate the 90% of the heat is generated in the work layer of
thickness (x) represented by
ρ
x = 5000
μf
Where f is the frequency, μ is the magnetic permeability and ρ is the electrical resistivity of the metal of the
work piece. The heating rate in the range of transformation temperatures is upto 300°C/sec for hypoeutectoid
steels and subsequently the heating time is very small (2 - 50 sec’s). The high frequency current is supplied
by motor generator and vacuum tube generator. When it is required to increase the strength of the core the
work should be normalized before induction hardening. The quenching temperature depends upon the rate
of heating if the rate is 500°C/sec it is 1000°C and if it is 250°C/sec it is 900°C. Induction hardening can be
performed in three ways :
1. The whole work surface is heated at one time and quenched. This procedure is used for hardening
surfaces of small components like shafts and sharp of tools.
2. The sections of work are heated and quenched consequently. This procedure is used for hardening
generals of crank shaft teeth of gears and cams of cam shaft.
3. The work in made to travel with respect to stationary inductor or vice versa and spray quenching is
done. This procedure is used for hardening long shafts and axles. Generally induction heating is
followed by low temperature tempering at about 180°C.
Advantages :
1. Time required is very small hence the process is very quick and productivity is high.
2. Scale is not formed hence machining time is saved moreover material is not lost due to scale formation.
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16 Materials Science
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Rank Improvement Workbook 17
Austempering
725°C
0%
T
100%
Pearlite
Bainite
50%
200°C
50% P + 50% M
100°C
m
time
Different cooling rate results to different microstructure
Upon quenching austenite specimen into water since surface is coming in contact with the quenched
medium. It will immediately convert into martensite but the core is still austenite. After some time when
core converts into martensite its volume will expand because martensite is having lower density. This
produces crack over the surface. Cracks in quenching are due to density difference and not due to
thermal stresses.
Solution : 38
From figure the final structures of steel can be determined
(a) Martensite
(b) Coarse pearlite
(c) Fine pearlite
(d) 50% fine pearlite and 50% martensite
(e) Bainite
(f) 50% fine bainite and 50% martensite
(g) Fine bainite
TTT Curves
690°C
700 (b)
680°C
(c) Pearlite
600 580
Temperature(°C)
500 450°C
(e) Bainite
400
300°C
300 (g)
Ms
2 3 4
1 10 10 10 10
Time(sec)
Figure : Cooling Scheme of steel strip
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4 Mechanical Testing,
Corrosion Prevention and Control
& Mechanical Propeties of materials
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1. (b) 19. (c)
37. (a)
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Rank Improvement Workbook 19
Solution : 38
(i) Discontinuous yielding or yield point phenomenon occurs in mild steels due to the segregation of
impurity solute atoms (Carbon in steel) around dislocations so as to reduce the strain energy associated
with the distorted atomic arrangement. The dislocations which are understood to be the cause of plastic
deformation are pinned to these interstitial solutes and hence
σ
becomes immobile, with the initiation of the plastic deformation
there is an ample increase in the number of dislocations due to the
formation of cottrell atmosphere.
This leads to high population of dislocations and the movement of
ε
dislocations are restricted and cause the yield point phenomenon.
This is common in mild steels subjected under tension. Hysteresis loop
(ii)
(ii)The area between the load and unload curves is called hysteresis
loop.Specimens loaded cyclically to as to alternate between tension
and compression can exhibit hysteresis loop if the loads are high
enough to induce plastic flow (stresses above yield point).
The enclosed area in the loop is strain energy per unit volume released as heat in each loading cycle.
Solution : 39
There are three stages in the mechanism of fatigue failure-Initiation, Propagation and Final rupture.
Initiation: It is the most complex stage of fatigue fracture. The most significant factor about the initiation
stage of fatigue failure is that the irreversible changes in the metal caused by repetitive shear stresses.
Propagation: The propagation stage of fatigue causes the microcrack to change direction and grow
perpendicular to the tensile stress.
Final Rupture: As the propagation of the fatigue crack continuous, gradually reducing the cross-sectional
area of the part, it eventually weakens the part and causes final rupture eventually.
Creep Failure: There are three stages in creep failure
mechanism - Primary, Secondary and Tertiary. Primary Secondary Tertiary
Solution : 40
Corrosion is the deterioration of a material due to its interaction with its surroundings. Although this definition
is applicable to any type of material, it is usually reserved for metallic alloys. Of the 105 known chemical
elements, approximately eighty are metals, and about half of these can be alloyed with other metals,
giving rise to more than 40,000 different alloys. Each of the alloys will have different physical, chemical,
and mechanical properties, but all of them can corrode to some extent, and in different ways.
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20 Materials Science
Corrosion is natural phenomenon. When newly made steel is first exposed to air, its originally shiny surface
will be covered with rust in a few hours. The tendency of metals to corrode is related to the low stability of
the metallic state. Metals occurs either in the pure metallic state, the zero oxidation state, or in the form of
compounds with other elements (they acquire positive states of oxidation). In the natural world, the most
metals are found as compound with other elements, indicating the greater stability of their oxidized forms.
For this reason, to obtain the pure metal form are of its compound, it is necessary to put in energy. The
reverse is true when a metal is exposed to its environment, it tends to release this stored energy through
the processes of corrosion. This is rather analogous to what happens when an object is suspended at a
point above the ground (equivalent to the metallic state). When allowed to fall or reach to stable state, it
returns to a position of minimum energy on the ground (equivalent to the metal’s oxidized state).
The chemical reactions that take place in corrosion processes are reduction-oxidation (redox) reactions.
Such reactions require a species of material that is oxidized (the metal), and another that is reduced (the
oxidizing agent). Thus the complete reaction can be divided in to two partial reactions: one oxidation and
the other reduction. In oxidation, the metal loses electrons. The zone in which this happens is known as the
anode. In the reduction reaction, the oxidizing agent gains the electrons that have been shed by the metal,
and the zone in which this happens is the cathode.
Solution : 41
The stress-strain behaviour of polymers can be categorized into several classes of behaviour
Stress Bittle plastic
(σ)
r
Elastome
Stress (∈)
(i) Brittle fracture: It is characterized by no yield point, a region of Hookean behaviour at low strains and
failure characterized by chonchoidal lines such as seen in inorganic glasses.
(ii) Yield behaviour: It is characterized by a maximum in the stress-strain curve followed by yielding
deformation which is usually associated with crazing or shear banding and usually ductile failure. Ductile
failure exhibits a large extent of deformation on the failure surface. Yield behaviour can result in necking
which exhibits a close to constant load regime and a terminal increase in the stress.
(iii) Rubber like behaviour: It is characterized by the absence of a yield point maximum but exhibiting a
plateau in an engineering stress-strain curve. Often rubber-like behaviour exhibits a terminal increase in the
stress followed by failure which results in a tear with little permanent deformation exhibited in the failure
surface.
The mechanical properties of polymer are highly sensitive to —
1. Rate of deformation
2. Temperature of polymer
3. Chemical nature of environment such as the presence of oxygen, water or organic solvents, etc.
Amorphous polymers do not have a specific melting point, but they do undergo a distinct change in their
mechanical behaviour across a narrow range of temperature. At low temperatures, they are hard, rigid,
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Rank Improvement Workbook 21
brittle and glassy; at high temperatures, they are rubbery or leathery. The temperature at which a transition
occurs is called the glass-transition temperature (Tg). The glass transition temperature various with different
polymers. For example room temperature is above Tg for some polymers, below it for others.
Solution : 42
E = 93.8 GPa
The 0.002 strain offset line is constructed as shown in the inset; its intersection with the stress-strain
curve is at aproximately 250 MPa, which is the yield strength of the brass.
F = 57905.835 N
(d) Δl = 15 mm
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5 Plastic, Ceramic, Composite
& Nano Materials
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1. (c) 21. (b)
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Rank Improvement Workbook 23
Solution : 40
Plastics can be broadly classified as:
(i) Thermoplastics: Plastics that return to its original hardness and strength on cooling, i.e. it is reversible.
Examples - PTFE, Nylons, PVC, Polyethylenes, etc.
(ii) Thermosetting Plastics: Plastics having cross-linked structures of molecules with strong covalent
bonds. These are permanently set. Examples-Epoxy, Polyester and Urethane.
Advantages of Plastic Material:
1. Corrosion resistance and resistance to chemicals.
2. Low electrical and thermal conductivity.
3. Low density.
4. High strength-to-weight ratio.
5. Wide choice of colors and transparencies.
6. Ease of manufacturing.
7. Relatively low cost.
Disadvantages:
1. Low strength 2. Low stiffness
3. High coefficient of thermal expansion. 4. Low useful temperature range.
5. Less dimensional stability in services over a period of time.
Solution : 41
(i) Fillers used are generally wood flour (fine saw dust), Silica flour (fine silica powder), clay, powdered
(i)Fillers
mica, talc, Calcium Carbonate and short fibers of cellulose, glass. Fillers are important in reducing the
overall cost of polymers. Depending upon their type, fillers may also improve the strength, hardness,
toughness, abrasion resistance, dimensional stability or stiffness of plastics
(ii) Plasticizers are added to impart flexibility and softness by lowering their glass-transition temperature.
They reduce the strength of the secondary bonds between the long-chain molecules and thus make
the polymer soft and flexible.
(iii) Colourant either organic (dyes) or inorganic pigments are added in plastics to obtain plastics in wide
variety of colours. Pigments are dispersed particles; they generally have greater resistance than dyes
to temperature and light.
(iv) Lubricants may be added to polymers to reduce friction during their subsequent processing into
useful products and to prevent parts from sticking to the moulds. Typical lubricants are linseed oil,
mineral oil and waxes. It is also important in preventing thin polymer films from sticking to
each other.
Solution : 42
Ceramic: Ceramics are compounds of metallic and non-metallic elements and include such compounds
as oxides, nitrides and carbides. The bonding between the atoms in ceramic structure is generally covalent
or ionic. Such bonds are much stronger than metallic bond consequently, they are hard, insulating and
resistant to high temperature. Their electrical and thermal resistance are significantly higher than metals.
Ceramics are available as a single crystal or in polycrystalline form, consisting of many grains. Ceramics
have numerous applications. It is used in electrical and electronics industry because they have high
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Mechanical Engineering •
24 Materials Science
electrical resistivity, high dielectric strength. it is used in high temperature applications. Types of ceramics
include Alumina, Tungsten, Carbide, Titanium Carbide, SiC, CBN, TiN, cermets etc.
Polymers: Polymers are generally organic compounds based upon Carbon and Hydrogen. These are long-
chain molecules that are formed by polymerization, that is by linking and cross-linking of different monomers.
A monomer is the basic building block of a polymer. Polymers offer many advantages such as corrosion
resistance and resistance to chemicals, low density, high strength to height ratios, wide choice of colours
and transparencies but their strength, stiffness and melting temperature are generally much lower than
those of metals and ceramics. Due to their light weight, ease of forming into different shapes, polymers are
preferred for engineering applications.
Composites: These are combination of two or more chemically distinct and insoluble phases. Its properties
and structural performance are superior to these of the constituents acting independently. The polymer
matrix composites (PMC) consists of fibers (the discontinuous or dispersed phase). Commonly used
fibers are glass, Graphite, Aramids. Metals and ceramics can be embedded with fibers, to improve their
properties, these combinations are known as metal-matrix and ceramic-matrix composites. Composites
are widely used in aircrafts, automobiles, sporting goods etc. due to their superior properties.
Solution : 43
Composites are materials in which a combination of 2 or more materials or phase is present. In metal matrix
composites, there exist a matrix of light metal such as Aluminium, Magnesium or Titanium and another
material such as carbon fibre, is dispersed into this metal matrix as reinforcing material.
Metal matrix
Reinforcement
Cross-section of MMC
Sometime the reinforcement can be another metal or organic compounds. MMC can operate at higher
temperature than other composites; it is resistent to fire, it does not absorb moisture, have better electrical
and thermal conductivity, are resistant to radiation damage, have higher specific strength, creep resistance,
and dimensional stability.
The reinforcing materials are mainly carbon fibre, silicon carbide. It serves structural task as well as
provide wear resistance and also affect friction coefficient and thermal conductivity.
Reinforcement can be of continuous type or discontinuous type. Discontinuous type reinforcement provides
isotropic character.
Application: 1. Carbide drills 2. Defence applications such as tank armours, 3. Sometimes automotive
disc brakes are made of MMC.
Solution : 44
(a) Ecl = 29.64 GPa
(b) Fm = 862 N
Ff = 11,638 N
∈c = ∈m = ∈ = 1.69 × 10–3 .
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6 Properties and Application of
Various Ferrous & their Alloys
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1. (a) 19. (c)
36. (d)
37. (a)
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Mechanical Engineering •
26 Materials Science
Solution : 38
Generally, the following elements are alloyed to aluminium:
(i) Copper: It improves strength to weight ratio; has low resistance to corrosion and are heat treatable.
(ii) Manganese: It improves workability, provides moderate strength and generally are not heat-treatable.
(iii) Silicon: It lowers melting point; forms an oxide film of a dark-gray to charcoal color and are not heat-
treatable.
(iv) Magnesium: It provides good corrosion resistance and weldability. It ensures moderate to high strength
and are not heat-treatable.
(v) Magnesium and Silicon: Provides medium strength, good formability, machinability, weldability and
good corrosion resistance.
(vi) Zinc: Provides moderate to very high strength and are heat treatable.
Solution : 39
Plain carbon steel or carbon steel is a metal alloy. It is a combination of two elements, iron and carbon other
elements added are manganese, silicon and copper.
Alloy steel is a steel that is alloyed with a variety of elements in total amounts between 1.0% and 50% by
weight to improve its mechanical properties.
• Chr omium improves toughness, hardenability, wear and corrosion resistance, it increases the depth
Chromium
of hardness penetration resulting from heat treatment by promoting carburization.
• Nickel improves strength, toughness and corrosion resistance, it improves hardenability.
• Manganese improves hardenability, strength, abrasion resistance and machinability, it deoxidizes
the molten steel and reduces hot hardness.
• Silicon improves strength, hardness and electrical conductivity, it decreases magnetic hysteresis
losses, machinability and cold formability.
• Molybdenum improves hardenability, wear resistance, toughness, creep resistance and hardness; it
minimizes temper embrittement.
• Vanadium improves strength, toughness, abrasion, resistance and hardness at elevated temperatures,
it inhibits grain growth during heat treatment.
• Tungsten improves strength and hardness at elevated temperatures.
Solution : 40
Iron, nickel and cobalt based alloys used primarily for high temperature applications are known as super
alloys. or
Super alloys are nickel, cobalt or iron based alloys with excellent elevated temperature strength, creep
properties and oxidation resistance.
Iron based super alloys contain 32 to 37% Iron
15 to 22% chromium
9 to 38% nickel
Cobalt based super alloys contain 35 to 65% cobalt
19 to 30% chromium
upto 35% nickel
Nickel based super alloys contain 38 to 76% nickel
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Rank Improvement Workbook 27
27% chromium
20% cobalt
Properties:
• Iron based super alloys are characterized by high temperature as well as room temperature strength
and resistance to creep, oxidation, corrosion and wear. Wear resistance increases with carbon content.
• Nickel based super alloys based on the formula Ni3(Al, Ti) are particularly resistant to temperature.
• Cobalt-base super alloys have excellent high-temperature creep and fatigue strengths and resistance
to hot corrosion attack.
Application:
Iron based super alloys: High temperature air craft bearings, and machinery parts subjected to sliding
contact.
Nickel based super alloys: Aeroengine turbine blades, turbine discs, turbo chargers.
Cobalt based super alloys: Gas turbine engines.
Solution : 41
Properties of γ - Alloys
1. It can be easily casted and hot worked. This is why it is extensively used for casting.
2. It retains its high strength and hardness at high temperature.
3. This can be worked mechanically.
4. The aging process is carried out at room temperature for about 5 days.
5. Specific gravity is 2.78 in cast conditions.
6. The Brinell hardness number is between 82 to 85 for cast conditions.
7. It has better strength at high temperature than duralumin.
Properties of Duralumin
1
1. Strength of duralumin is equal to that of mild steel but density is of steel. It is a light weight
3
alloy having specific gravity 2.8.
2. Silicon remains as impurity in it and provides age hardening effect to duralumin. It means it hardens
spontaneously when exposed to room temperature.
3. Magnesium present, improves resistance to corrosion, so it is corrosion resistant.
4. It is non-magnetic.
5. The co-efficient of linear expansion is 0.00023/°C.
6. It has high ductility and toughness.
7. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
8. It can not be casted but it has good machinability. Forged and stamped components can be
manufactured by the use of this alloy.
9. Its tensile strength can be increased, by heat treatment without affecting its ductility. Maximum
value of tensile strength is 4000 N/mm2.
10. Blanking, forming and drawing operations can be easily done.
11. It can work at temperature 500°C
12. Specific heat is 0.214 and melting point is 650°C.
13. Brinell Hardness Number (BHN) for annealed alloy is 60 and for age hardened alloy it is 100.
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Mechanical Engineering •
28 Materials Science
1
manufacturing (cost of hindalium is of stainless steel).
3
Properties of Hindalium
1. Strong and hard.
2. Non reactive with food acids.
3. Good surface finish.
4. They are not easily scretching.
5. Cost is lower than stainless steel.
Magnalium: It has following properties,
1. It is an alloy of aluminium, magnesium copper, nickel and tin.
2. It is a light weight alloy. It’s tensile strength is in the range of 20-25 kg/mm2.
3. Percentage elongation is 7% for cold worked state and 30% for annealed state.
4. Brittle with poor castability. However, it can be welded.
5. Good machinability.
Solution : 42
Carbon steels in their commercial forms always contain certain amounts of other elements. Many of these
elements enter the steel from the ores and it is difficult to remove them during the process of steel making.
All commercial steels contain varying amounts of Mn, Si, S and P and frequently varying amounts of such
elements in Cr, Ni, Mo and V. If alloying elements other than carbon are present only in small amounts (e.g.
Mn upto 0.8%, Si upto 0.3%, etc.) then the steel is usually called low alloy steel or plain carbon steel.
Sulphur and phosphorus when more than 0.05% of either is present, tend to make steel brittle, so that
during steel making these elements are reduced to at least this value. Si has little effect on strength and
ductility if less than 0.2% is present. As the content is rasied to 0.4% the strength is raised without
effecting ductility, but above 0.4%o Si, the ductility is impaired. Si is added as deoxidiser and that part
which does not make silicon dioxide remains in steel as impurity.
Mn is another alloying element which is present in most steels. If it exists in solid solution in the ferrite it has
a strengthening effect. It may also exist in forms of Mn3C which forms part of the pearlite of MnS. Upto 1%
of Mn has Strengthening effects on steel and its presence in excess of 1.5% induces brittleness in steel.
Excess Mn is added to melt during steel making to bring its level to desired value. It also acts as a
deoxidiser.
Intentional addition of many other elements modifies the structure of steel and hence improves its properties.
Steels to which such intentional additions have been made (including those steel which contain Mn in
excess of 1% or Si in excess of 0.3%) are known as alloy steels. One particular effect of alloying is that it
enables martensite to be produced with low rates of cooling and permits larger sections to be hardened
than is possible with plain carbon steel.
The important elements that are used to alloy with steel in varying quantities are Ni, Cr, Mo, W, Mn and Si.
The bcc metals like Cr, W and Mo when alloyed with steel tend to form carbides which reduce the proportion
of Fe3C in the structure. On the other hand the fcc elements like Ni, Al, Cu and Zr do not form carbides. Mn
which has three allotropic complex structures also forms carbide.
Several advantages in terms of improved mechanical properties and corrosion resistance are obtained by
adding one or several alloying elements.
The various advantages of alloy steel are :
(a) Higher hardness, strength and toughness on surface and over bigger cross-section.
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Rank Improvement Workbook 29
(b) Better hardenability and retention of hardness at higher temperature (good for creep and cutting tools).
(c) Higher resistance against corrosion and oxidation.
Solution : 43
The alloying elements affect the properties of plain C steel in four ways:
(a) By strengthening ferrite while forming a solid solution. The strengthening effects of various alloying
elements are in this order : Cr, W, V, Mo, Ni, Mn and Si.
(b) By forming carbides which are harder and stronger. Carbides of Cr and V are hardest and strongest
against wear particularly during tempering. high alloy tool steel use this effect.
(c) Ni and Mn lower the austenite formation temperature while other alloying elements raise this temperature.
Most elements shift eutectoid composition to lower C percentage.
(d) Most elements shift the isothermal transformation curve (TTT) to lower temperature, thus lowering the
critical cooling rate. Mn, Ni, Cr and Mo are prominently effective in this respect.
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