2ND Mate (F.G.) - D.G. Past Papers - Beq Solved PDF
2ND Mate (F.G.) - D.G. Past Papers - Beq Solved PDF
2ND Mate (F.G.) - D.G. Past Papers - Beq Solved PDF
SR. PAGE
NO. INDEX NO.
GYRO COMPASS, MAGNETIC COMPASS, AUTO
1 1
PILOT, COURSE RECORDER, ROTI
5 BRIDGE PROCEDURES 45
9 MANOEUVRING 90
2nd MATE (F.G.) – D.G. SOLVED PAST PAPERS – BRIDGE EQIPMENT & WATCHKEEPING
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1) Gyroscopic Inertia:- A freely spinning gyroscope will maintain its axis of spin in
the same direction with respect to space irrespective of how its supporting base
is turned. It resists any attempt to change its direction of spin. Thus a free
gyroscope has high directional stability. This property is called GYROSCOPIC
INERTIA or RIGIDITY IN SPACE.
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First property of free gyro scope is useful. However, due to the placing of this
gyroscope on the surface of the earth it will be moved along the direction of
rotation of the earth. As such the gyroscope will have an apparent motion. For
example, at night if the gyroscope is made to point in the direction of a star, then
the gyroscope will follow the star as the earth rotates and the star apparently
moves in the sky.
W.R.T earth‟s surface the free gyro scope will not point in a fix direction but
will be exhibiting tilt & drift.
Q) How is the Gyro Compass System made North Seeking? (Sept-17, July-
16, Jan-16)
Ans:- North Seeking Gyro:-
In order to damp unwanted oscillation, we need to achieve damping in tilt.
This is done by means of offset slightly to the east of vertical, resulting in
component of the same force producing the required torque.
The magnitude and direction of this force is pre-calculated to achieve the
required damping oscillation.
The amplitude of each oscillation is reduced to 1/3rd of previous oscillation.
The spin axis reaches equilibrium and settles in a position at which drifting is
counteracted by control precession & the damping precession counteracts tilting.
Finally, the gyro settles in the meridian & becomes north seeking.
Tilt is elevation or depression of the spin axis above or below the horizon.
Drift is the movement of the spin axis in the direction of azimuth.
Rate of tilting in degrees per hour = 15O sine Azimuth * cosine Latitude
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Tilt:-
If a free gyroscope is situated on the equator and lies with its axis East West
and horizontal, it can be assumed of as pointing to a star with zero declination
and is about to rise.
The East End of the gyroscope axis will follow the movement of this star and will
tilt upwards as the star rises.
After nearly six hours the axis will be vertical and after nearly twelve hours the
gyroscope will have turned completely over with the axis again horizontal but
now the original East end of the axis would be pointing to the star setting due
West.
After one sidereal day, the gyroscope would have tilted through 360 O and the
star would again be rising.
This rate of tilting of 360O in a day is a rate of 15O per hour.
If the gyroscope had been situated on the equator with its axis lying in the
North – South direction, then the North end would be pointing towards the Pole
star and would then have no apparent movement relative to the Earth.
The rate of tilting thus varies from zero when the axis is lying North – South to a
maximum when it is lying East – West. That is the rate of tilting varies as the
Sine of the Azimuth.
A free gyroscope situated at a pole with its axis horizontal would have an
apparent turntable motion due to the Earth‟s rotation.
That is it would follow a fixed star around the horizon but it would not rise or
set.
The rate of tilting thus varies from a maximum when the latitude is 0 O to zero
when the latitude is 90O. That is the rate of tilting varies as the Cosine of the
Latitude.
Rate of tilting in degrees per hour = 15O sine Azimuth * cosine Latitude
The direction of tilting is such that the end of the gyroscope axis, which lies to
the East of the meridian, tilts upwards and the end of the axis, which lies to the
West of the meridian tilts downward.
Drift:-
Drift is the apparent movement of a gyroscope in azimuth.
A free gyroscope situated at the North Pole with its axis horizontal will have an
apparent movement, which is entirely in the horizontal plane.
Its axis will appear to move in a clockwise direction when viewed from above.
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This would be due to the real counter clockwise rotation of the earth beneath,
this circular motion causes the gyroscope to drift through 360 O in one sidereal
day, that is at a rate of 15O per hour.
A free gyroscope situated at the equator with its axis horizontal will not drift at
all, irrespective of whether its axis is set in the North – South or East – West
line.
The rate of drift for a gyroscope with its axis horizontal thus varies from a
maximum at the poles to zero at the equator.
That is the rate of drift varies as the sine of the latitude. For a free gyroscope
with its axis horizontal: Rate of Drift in degrees per hour = 15O sin Latitude.
The direction of drift depends upon hemisphere so that the North end of a
horizontal gyroscopic axis drifts to the eastwards in the Northern hemisphere
but to the Westwards in the southern hemisphere.
Q) Explain the term latitude course & speed error with respect to the Gyro
Compass. (Sept-17, July-16, Jan-16) OR
With regards to Gyro Compass, briefly explain: Procedure to determine the
compass error (Jan-17) OR
Explain the course and speed correction of the Gyro and how will you
apply? (May-16)
Ans:- Course, Speed and Latitude Error (Speed Error):-
The gyro compass settles in the N/S direction by sensing Earth‟s spinning
motion. Same gyro compass when placed on a ship also senses the ship‟s
motion. And therefore, the axis of gyro compass settles in a direction which is
perpendicular to the resultant of the Earth‟s surface speed and the ship‟s
velocity.
The direction, in which the compass settles, is therefore, different to the
direction of the True North and depends on ship‟s course, speed and latitude of
the observer.
This error also increases as the observer‟s latitude increases. The error is
westward on all Northerly courses and vice-versa.
In exactly E-W courses, the error is nil. In exactly N-S courses, the error is
maximum.
To compensate for speed error, a speed rider is provided, which in association
with the latitude rider, shifts the lubber line equal to speed error in the
appropriate direction.
This error can be corrected automatically by a mechanism which moves the
lubber line by an amount equal to the error, or it can be found from correction
tables or from a portable correction calculator and then applied as necessary.
use.
Following is the procedures for Sperry MK 37 digital.
At power-up and prior entering the settling mode, system performs automatic
procedure to determine if the equipment is operating within specified
parameters.
If gyro is stationary the system opts for cold start, if rotating a hot start if
programmed.
During a cold start, if no heading data is input to system when requested the
gyro selects automatic. Once the power is switched on, two bleeps prompts for
heading input, if the heading data is not entered within 5 minutes, the gyro
switches to an auto level process. (In some older make, the slewing is done
manually, a special key is provided for the same which is inserted into a slot).
If heading data is fed the rotor is automatically slewed.
The rotor is brought up to required speed within 14 minutes and the gyro will
subsequently settle within an hour.
If heading data is not fed, the gyro will settle within 5 hrs.
Some more points:-
If entered heading is in error by more than 20 deg, gyro may take about 5
hours to settle.
Once gyro is settled, synchronize the repeaters (radar & ECDIS also need
synchronization.)
If speed & latitude is fed manually, it should be done prior to starting the gyro.
Once settled, compass error should be checked & compasses should be checked
more frequently.
The timing and logistics of this operation are often governed by the tide, the
weather and other vessels in the vicinity. The time it takes to swing and adjust
the compass is also influenced by the condition and accessibility of the compass
and correctors, the manoeuvrability of the vessel, the skill of the helmsman and
the complexity of, and reasons for, the deviating magnetic fields involved.
On successful completion of compass swing, a table recording any remaining
residual deviation and a statement as to the good working order of the compass
will be issued. A current deviation card / certificate of adjustment is a legal
requirement on all sea going commercial vessels.
Deviation can be determined by a number of methods: the sun's azimuth or
known bearings of distant objects, such as a mountain peak or lighthouse are
considered most accurate. In certain circumstances, such as poor visibilty,
calibration is carried out by making comparisons with other navigation
instruments, such as a gyro or GPS compass.
Using other navigation instruments to find deviation is only satisfactory if the
absolute accuracy of these instruments has first been verified, or any known
error is factored into the calculations. Most professionals prefer something
tangible, such as a fixed landmark, with a known position and bearing to work
with.
Q) What are the advantages of wet compass card over dry compass card?
How will you remove an Air Bubble from the compass bowl? (Nov-17, Nov-
16)
Ans:- Steps to remove bubbles from magnetic compass: A bubble may form in the
bowl owing to the fact that some of the liquid has somehow escaped from the bowl.
This is a bare occurrence and must be remedied by following the manufacturer‟s
instructions. In most compasses:
Tilt the bowl until the “filter hole” comes upper most. This hole is provided on
the side of the bowl.
Unscrew the stud/screw provide.
Top up with ethyl alcohol. If this is not available distilled water would be added.
Screw the stud/screw back into place.
Gently let the bowl return to upright.
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Necessity:- The dry card compass is too sensitive for steering purposes,
especially in bad weather. Even small disturbances cause the dry card to
oscillate. In the wet card compass oscillations are damped, without loss of
accuracy, by immersing the card in a liquid. The card therefore has a „dead beat‟
movement.
The card:- The wet card is made of mica and is only about 15 cm in diameter.
The card is attached to nickel- silver float chamber that has a sapphire cap. The
cap rests on iridium tipped pivot. The sapphire has a polishing effect on the
iridium tip. This arrangement is practically frictionless.
The directive element:- In modern wet card compasses the directive element
is a ring magnet fitted around the base of the float. The ring magnet offers less
resistance to movement and causes less turbulence.
The bowl:- The diameter of the bowl is about 23 cm in order to reduce
disturbances caused by turbulence in the liquid during rotation of the card. The
top of the bowl is of transparent glass. The bottom is of frosted glass.
Allowance for expansion:- One method is to have a small accordion – like
expansion chamber attached to the bowl. The chamber increases or decreases in
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When making a turn from a northerly heading, the compass briefly gives an
indication of a turn in the opposite direction.
When making a turn from the south, it gives an indication of a turn in the
correct direction but at a faster rate.
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Q) Explain the various settings and controls on the Adaptive Auto pilot.
(May-17, March-16)
Ans:- The Autopilot Control Unit – The PID Control Unit:- In order to maintain the
ship‟s course accurately, the deviation signal has to be generated under the
following conditions:
a) When the set course is changed (by the navigator)
b) When the ship deviates from the set course (due to external factors)
For this purpose, the helm must be provided with data regarding the ship‟s
movement relative to the course to steer line.
Proportional Control:-
The effect on steering, when only the proportional control is applied, causes the
rudder to move by an amount proportional to the off-course error from the
course to steer.
When the ship has gone off-course to port, an error occurs and helm,
proportional to the deviation and hence error signal, is used to bring her back to
the set course.
As the ship starts to return to the set course, the helm is gradually eased and
finally removed when the ship is back on the set course.
The rudder will be amidships when the ship reaches its set course and then the
heading overshoots resulting in the vessel to go more to starboard. Correcting
helm is now applied causing the ship to return to port and back to the original
course.
The vessel thus keeps on oscillating to port and starboard of the course line.
Derivative Control:-
Integral Control:-
Certain errors due to the design of the ship (bow going to port due to transverse
thrust, shape of the hull, current draft, etc.) have an impact on the steering
capabilities of the ship and have to be corrected for effective overall steering
performance.
In order to achieve this, signals are produced by sensing the heading error over
a period of time and applying an appropriate degree of permanent helm. The
rudder used to correct the course will now be about this permanent helm. That
is, the permanent helm will now act as midships.
Additionally, there are various controls provided on the autopilot system along
with a filter system for the action of the winds and waves which supply more
data to the autopilot which optimizes the performance of integral control.
The output of these three controls is combined and the net resultant thus
obtained drives the rudder maintaining the ship on the set course. This type of
auto pilot is referred to as PID auto pilot.
When the wheel is turned over, the ship actually traverses along a curved track
rather than performing a sharp turn about a point. It is very useful knowing the
nature of this traversed path the ship takes which can help in planning:
1. The desired turn with given radius
2. Desired speed of the vessel to execute the planned turn.
3. When to apply the turn (wheel over point)
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Explanation:-
Distance recording is achieved by using a constant speed motor (10) which
drives the distance counter (11), via friction gearing.
The constant speed motor has been used in order that a distance indication may
be produced that is independent of the non-linear characteristic of the system.
The motor is started by contact (5) as previously described.
The main shaft (7), whose angle of rotation is directly proportional to the speed
of the ship, is fitted with a screw spindle (12).
The rotation of the shaft causes a lateral displacement of the friction wheel (13).
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At zero speed, the friction wheel rests against the apex of the distance cone
(14), whilst at maximum speed the wheel has been displaced along the cone to
the rim.
The distance indicator (11) is driven from the constant speed motor (10) via the
cone.
The nearer to the rim of the cone the friction wheel rides, the greater will be the
distance indication.
Revolutions of the distance shaft (15) are transmitted to the remote distance
indicator via the servo transmission system (16 and 17).
The speed unit provides the following outputs to drive both speed and distance
counters:-
o An analogue voltage, the gradient of which is 0.1 V/knot, to drive the
potentiometer servo-type speed indicators.
o A pulse frequency proportional to speed.
o The frequency is 200/36 pulses/s/knot. Pulses are gated into the digital
counter by a 1.8-s gate pulse.
o A positive/negative voltage level to set the ahead/astern indication or the
B track/W track indication.
o 2000 pulses per nautical mile to drive the stepping motor in the digital
distance indicator.
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The Doppler Effect is a frequency shift that results from relative motion between
a frequency source and a listener.
If both source and listener are not moving with respect to each other (although
both may be moving at the same speed in the same direction), no Doppler shift
will take place.
If the source and listener are moving closer to each other, the listener will
perceive a higher frequency – the faster the source or receiver is approaching
the higher the Doppler shift.
If the source and listener are getting further apart, the listener will perceive a
lower frequency – the faster the source or receiver is moving away the lower the
frequency.
So, the Doppler shift is directly proportional to speed between source and
listener, frequency of the source, and the speed the wave travels.
FORMULA:-
Doppler effect can be further explained by following equations:
o fr is the frequency received by observer.
o ft is the transmitted frequency.
o c is the speed of sound.
o vO is Velocity of observer
o vg is Velocity of source
fr = ft (c + vg) / c
o Since, in the case of the Doppler log, the source & observer are the same.
hence,
vO is equal to vS, is equal to v
fr = ft (c+ v) / (c - v)
It follows that if the angle changes, the speed calculated will be in error because
the angle of propagation has been applied to the speed calculation formula in
this way. If the vessel is not in correct trim (or pitching in heavy weather) the
longitudinal parameters will change and the speed indicated will be in error.
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To counteract this effect to some extent, two acoustic beams are transmitted,
one ahead and one astern. The transducer assembly used for this type of
transmission is called a „Janus‟ configuration after the Roman god who
reputedly possessed two faces and was able to see into both the future and the
past.
After installing transducer facing aft, the Doppler frequency shift formula now
becomes:-
Frt – fra – 4 vft cos / c
The addition of a second transducer assembly set at right angles to the first one,
enables dual axis speed (longitudinal speed and transverse speed) to be
indicated.
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DOCKING OPERATION:-
The placing of the Janus configuration in a fore and aft direction is known as a
single axis system and is used to calculate speed over ground in the forward and
after direction. A dual axis system places a second grouping of Janus configured
transducers in an athwart ships direction allowing for the calculation of a
vessel's speed when moving sideways through the water, as in docking. The
beam width of the athwart ship installation is about 8 degrees to account for the
possibility of a vessel's rolling.
The Doppler system calculates speed to within an accuracy of about 0.5 percent
of the distance traveled. It functions well for all speeds that modern vessels can
attain and works from a minimum depth of about 1.5 feet to a maximum depth
of about 600 feet. Frequencies employed are between 100 kHz and 600 kHz.
There are primarily four errors to be aware of when using the Doppler system:
Transducer orientation error caused when the pitching or rolling of the vessel
becomes excessive
Vessel motion error caused by excessive vibration of the vessel as it moves
through the water
Velocity of sound errors due to changes in water temperature or den-sity due to
salinity and particle content
Signal loss errors caused by attenuation ofthe vibrations during tran-sit through
the water or upon reflection from the bottom
The Doppler system normally measures speed over ground to about 600 feet.
Mter this depth signals may be returned by a dense, colder layer of water
located throughout the oceans called the deep scattering layer (DSL). Signals
received off the DSL are not as accurate as signals received from bottom
reflections but can still be used to provide an indication of speed through the
water instead of speed over ground when bottom tracking. Your unit may have a
manual or automatic system which will switch from bottom tracking to water
tracking at increased depth.
The Doppler system can be connected with other electronic navigation systems
providing generally accurate speed input. The navigator should be cautioned
that precise speed should be determined not only by using the Doppler but also
from careful calculations of distances be-tween accurate navigational fixes.
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Q) Explain the basic principle of an echo sounder with the help of a block
diagram. (March-17, Aug-16, July-16, March-16) OR
Describe the main components of an Echo-sounder with the help of a
simple block diagram and state the function of each component? (July-17,
March-16)
Ans:- Basic Principle:-
Short pulses of sound vibrations are transmitted from the bottom of the ship
to the seabed. These sound waves are reflected back by the seabed and the time
taken from transmission to reception of the reflected sound waves is measured.
Since the speed of sound in water is about 1500 m/sec, the depth of the sea bed is
calculated which will be half the distance travelled by the sound waves.
The received echoes are converted into electrical signal by the receiving
transducer and after passing through to stylus which burns out the coating of the
thin layer of aluminum powder and produces the black mark on the paper
indicating the depth of seabed.
COMPONENTS:-
Basically an echo sounder has following components:
Transducer – to generate the sound vibrations and also receive the reflected
sound vibration.
Pulse generator – to produce electrical oscillations for the transmitting
transducer.
Amplifier – to amplify the weak electrical oscillations that has been generated by
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CONTROLS:-
An echo sounder will normally have the following controls:
Range Switch – to select the range between which the depth is be checked e.g.
0- 50 m, 1 – 100 m, 100 – 200 m etc. Always check the lowest range first
before shifting to a higher range.
Unit selector switch – to select the unit feet, fathoms or meter as required.
Gain switch – to be adjusted such that the clearest echo line is recorded on the
paper.
Paper speed control – to select the speed of the paper – usually two speeds
available.
Zero Adjustment or Draught setting control – the echo sounder will normally
display the depth below the keel. This switch can be used to feed the ship‟s
draught such that the echo sounder will display the total sea depth. This switch
is also used to adjust the start of the transmission of the sound pulse to be in
line with the zero of the scale in use.
Fix or event marker - this button is used to draw a line on the paper as a mark
to indicate certain time e.g. passing a navigational mark, when a position is
plotted on the chart etc.
Transducer changeover switch – in case vessel has more than one switch e.g.
forward and aft transducer.
Dimmer – to illuminate the display as required.
Ranging:-
In echo sounder the stylus is mounted on circular belt driven by means of a
stylus motor which moves at certain speed and transmission takes place when
the stylus passes the zero marks.
A magnet fixed on the stylus belt triggers the transmitter to transmit a pulse
every rotation of belt when stylus is at zero mark on the paper scale, the
transmission of the acoustic waves from the transducer is synchronized with the
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Phasing:-
In phasing the speed of the stylus motor remains constant.
Instead of changing the speed of the stylus, the transmission point is advanced.
If the first range is 0 to 50 M the second range will be 50 to 100 M (instead of 0
to 100 M).
Various sensors are positioned around the stylus belt, the magnet generates the
pulse when it passes the sensors which in turns activates the transmitter.
In the below diagram, when we select the lowest range i.e. 0 to 50 M, the
magnet mounted on the stylus belt will activate sensor no. 1, transmission takes
place when the stylus exactly passes over the zero mark, when we switch over
to higher range, say 50 to 100 M, the magnet mounted on the stylus belt will
activate sensor no.2 and transmission will take place early, at the time of the
transmission, the stylus will not be passing over 50 M mark on display unit, in
other words there will be delay introduced by delay unit no.2 & the stylus will
reach the 50 M on display unit after delay of 0.067 seconds. (50 x 2 / 1500,
where 50 correspond to the range, multiplied by 2 because double of distance is
covered by acoustic waves & the echoes and 1500 is the speed of acoustic
waves).
Likewise, when we switch over to higher range say, 100 to 150 M, magnet
mounted on the stylus belt will activate sensor no. 3 & more delay will be
introduced for the stylus to pass over the 100 M.
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Range 1 – 0 to 50 M
Range 2 – 50 to 100 M
Range 3 – 100 to 150 M
Range 4 – 150 to 200 M
Caution when using phasing technique: - We must always start sounding at lowest
range and check for echoes, adjust the gain control if required and then only switch
over to higher range.
Stylus speed error:- The speed of the stylus is such that the time taken by the
stylus to travel from top to bottom on chart is same as the time taken by sound
waves to travel twice the range selected, but due to fluctuation in voltage
supplied to stylus motor, will cause error in the recorded depth.
Pythagoras error:- This error is found when two transducers are used, one for
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transmission and the other one for reception. This error is calculated using the
Pythagoras principle. This error becomes prominent whenever distance between
two transducer is more than 2 mtrs, manual should be referred in order to use
the table for corrections.
Multiple echoes:- The echo may be reflected no. of times from the bottom of the
sea bed, hence providing the multiple depth marks on paper.
The thermal and density layers:- The density of the water varies with
temperature and salinity, which all tends to form different layers. The sound
wave may be reflected from these layers.
Zero line adjustment error:- If the zero is not adjusted properly, it will give error
in reading.
Cross noise:- If sensitivity of the amplifier is high, just after zero marking a
narrow line along with the several irregular dots and dashes appear and this is
called cross noise. The main reasons for the cross noise are aeration and picking
up the transmitted pulse. If intensity of cross noise is high, it will completely
mask the shallow water depths. This is controlled by swept gain control circuit.
Aeration:- When the sound wave is reflected from the reflected from the air
bubbles, it will appear as dots, this is known as aeration.
o Aeration can be due to pockets of bubble due to heavy weather.
o Rudder hard over causing drastic alteration of course.
o Pitching in light condition.
o Whilst astern propulsion. (Switch over to forward transducer if available.)
Space Segment:
The space segment is the number of satellites in the constellation. It comprises
of 29 satellites circling the earth every 12 hours at 12,000 miles in altitude.
The function of the space segment is utilized to route/navigation signals and to
store and retransmit the route/navigation message sent by the control segment.
These transmissions are controlled by highly stable atomic clocks on the
satellites.
The GPS Space Segment is formed by a satellite constellation with enough
satellites to ensure that the users will have, at least, 4 simultaneous satellites in
view from any point at the Earth surface at any time.
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Control Segment
User Segment:
The user segment comprises of the GPS receiver, which receives the signals
from the GPS satellites and determine how far away it is from each satellite.
Mainly this segment is used for the U.S military, missile guidance systems,
civilian applications for GPS in almost every field.
Most of the civilian uses this from survey to transportation to natural resources
and from there to agriculture purpose and mapping too.
User segment
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the figure, the four satellites are used to determine the position of the receiver
on the earth.
The target location is confirmed by the 4th satellite. And three satellites are
used to trace the location place.
A fourth satellite is used to confirm the target location of each of those space
vehicles. Global positioning system consists of satellite, control station and
monitor station and receiver.
The GPS receiver takes the information from the satellite and uses the method
of triangulation to determine a user‟s exact position.
GPS Circuit:-
GPS is used on some incidents in several ways, such as:
To determine position locations; for example, you need to radio a helicopter
pilot the coordinates of your position location so the pilot can pick you up.
To navigate from one location to another; for example, you need to travel from
a lookout to the fire perimeter.
To create digitized maps; for example, you are assigned to plot the fire
perimeter and hot spots.
To determine distance between two different points.
Not possible to precisely synchronize satellite and receiver clock hence the
pseudo ranges are obtained.
Hence an additional satellite is used to obtain the true ranges.
The satellite clock & the GPS clock may not be perfectly synchronized so this
gives rise to an error in range measurement and the obtained is termed as pseudo
range.
Hence, there are four unknowns i.e. latitudes, longitude, altitude (x, y, z co-
ordinates) of the user as well as the user‟s clock error with respect to satellite
clock.
The position of the satellite S1 (x1, y1 , z1) is known to the user by the 30 sec
navigational message and from this satellite the following equation is
obtained:-
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With the help of these equations the 3D-fix can be obtained. In the case of a craft
floating on water, a 2-D fix (i.e. Lat & long) is required and 3 equations from 3
satellites will be sufficient to fix position.
Q) What are the errors possible in GPS? (July-17, May-17, Nov-16, March-16)
OR
With respect to GPS. Explain the following: What factors affect the
accuracy of GPS positions. (Jan-17)
Ans:- ERRORS OF GPS:-
1) Atmospheric Error: Changing atmospheric conditions change the speed of the
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GPS signals as they pass through the Earth's atmosphere and this affects the
time difference measurement and the fix will not be accurate.
Each satellite transmits its message on two frequencies and hence a dual
frequency receiver receives both the frequencies and correction is calculated and
compensated within the receiver thus increasing the accuracy of the fix.
a. Effect is minimized when the satellite is directly overhead.
b. Becomes greater for satellites nearer the horizon. The receiver is designed
to reject satellites with elevation less than 9.5 degrees.
2) User Clock Error: If the user clock is not perfectly synchronised with the satellite
clock, the range measurement will not be accurate. The range measurement
along with the clock error is called pseudo range. This error can be eliminated
within the receiver by obtaining pseudo range from three satellites and is done
automatically within the receiver.
3) Satellite Clock Error: This error is caused due to the error in the satellite‟s clock
w.r.t. GPS time. This is monitored by the ground based segments and any error
in the satellites clock forms part of the 30 seconds navigational message.
4) GDOP Error: The GDOP of a satellite determines the angle of cut which in turn
governs the quality of the position obtained. Wider the angular separation
between the satellites, better the accuracy of the fix. Or, conversely said, the
lower the GDOP value, the greater the accuracy of the fix. The GDOP value is
indicated on the display unit.
5) Multipath Error: This error is caused by the satellite signals arriving at the ship‟s
antenna both directly from the satellite and those that get reflected by some
objects. Thus two signals are received simultaneously which will cause the
distortion of signal from which range measurement is obtained. Siting the
antenna at a suitable place can minimize this error.
6) Orbital Error: The satellites are monitored and their paths are predicted by the
ground based segment. However, between two consecutive monitoring of the
same satellite, there may be minor drifts from their predicted paths resulting in
small position inaccuracy.
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These values follow mathematically from the positions of the usable satellites.
Signal receivers allow the display of these positions (skyplot) as well as the DOP
values.
The term can also be applied to other location systems that employ several
geographical spaced sites. It can occur in electronic-counter-counter-measures
(electronic warfare) when computing the location of enemy emitters (radar
jammers and radio communications devices). Using such an interferometry
technique can provide certain geometric layout where there are degrees of
freedom that cannot be accounted for due to inadequate configurations.
Q) Describe how a GPS receiver determines the speed of the ship. (Nov-16)
Ans:- SPEED DETERMINATION
The carrier frequency is also used to determine the speed of the user by the
measurement of Doppler shift, i.e. change in the frequency of radio waves
received when the distance between the satellite and user is changing due to
the relative motion between the two.
The position and velocity of the satellite as well as the position of the user are
known to the user‟s receiver.
The velocity vector of the satellite can be resolved in two ways:
o In the direction towards the user
o In the direction perpendicular to (i).
The 2nd component is not considered as speed in this direction will not cause
Doppler shift.
The receiver calculates the velocity vector of the satellite in the direction
towards the user.
If the relative approach speed between the satellite and the user‟s speed (based
on the Doppler shift measurement) is not equal to the satellite speed vector
towards the user; the difference can only arise due to user‟s speed towards or
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Frequencies:- 1575.42 MHz (L1 signal) and 1227.6 MHz (L2 signal).
The L1 carrier consists of both the C/A and P codes, while the L2 carrier
consists the P code only.
Each satellite transmits pseudo random noise signals on these two different
frequencies.
P code:-
The full code length is of 267 days.
The extremely long code length makes it difficult to lock on to the P code.
P code is available only for US & allies.
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2) Cross Track Error (XTE) Alarm :- The XTE alarm warns you when own ship is off
its intended course.
3) Ship‟s Speed Alarm:- The ship‟s speed alarm sounds when ship's speed is lower
or higher (or within) the alarm range set.
4) Trip Alarm:- The trip alarm sounds when the distance run is greater than the
trip alarm setting.
5) Water Temperature Alarm:- The water temperature alarm sounds when the
water temperature is higher or lower (or within) the preset temperature. This
alarm requires temperature signal from external equipment.
6) Depth Alarm:- The depth temperature alarm sounds when the depth is higher or
lower (or within) the preset depth. This alarm requires video sounder
connection.
location - the "base station“ and comparing that data with DGPS positions collected
from unknown locations with "roving receivers."
Q) How the DGPS calculate even more accurate position than the GPS?
(Nov-17)
Ans:- Explanation:-
Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) is an enhancement to Global
Positioning System that provides improved location accuracy, from the 15-meter
nominal GPS accuracy to about 10 cm in case of the best implementations.
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Q) Explain the limitations of AIS and the precautions during the use of
same for collision avoidance? (March-17, Jan-16)
Ans:- Limitation of AIS:-
Small crafts may not be fitted with AIS
AIS might have switched off on other ship
Erroneous data might have entered
Accuracy of data received depend on the accuracy of data transmitted
Error in sensor‟s input data,
Failure of sensors to provide data
Cell of vessel may be full
AIS 1 – 161.975 MHz – channel 87B (Simplex, for ship to ship) and
AIS 2 – 162.025 MHz – channel 88B (Duplex for ship to shore).
Although only one radio channel is necessary, each station transmits and
receives over two radio channels to avoid interference problems and to allow
channels to be shifted without communications loss from other ships.
Each station determines its own transmission schedule (slot), based upon data
link traffic history and knowledge of future actions by other stations.
A position report from one AIS station fits into one of 2250 time slots
established every 60 seconds.
In this way, new stations including those stations which suddenly come within
radio range close to other vessels will always be received by those vessels.
Each AIS consists of on VHF transmitter, two VHF TDMA receivers, one VHF DSC
receiver, and a standard marine electronic communications link to shipboard
display and sensor systems.
Working of AIS:-
o AIS is fitted with two receivers, one transmitter VHF DSC receiver
Standard marine electronic communication link providing the various input
data.
o The AIS transmission uses 9.6 kb GMSK FM over 25 or 12.5kHz channel
using HDLC Packet control.
o Each AIS transmits and receives over two radio channel to avoid
interference problems.
o Each station determines its own transmission slot based on the data link
traffic history and knowledge of future actions by other stations.
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- Mobile platforms
Ships fitted with AIS and sailing in sea A1 areas do not need to transmit LRIT data.
INFORMATION TRANSMITTED:-
Identity (Ship‟s LRIT Identifier)
Position (Lat/Long)
Date and time (UTC)
UPDATE INTERVAL:-
Default value 6 hourly
Update interval remotely selectable
Minimum interval 15 min
May be switched off by the Master under certain conditions
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AIS is a broadcast system and data is available to all receiver in the receiving
range whereas LRIT is available only to the authorized person.
AIS works on the very high frequency, where as LRIT is based on the satellite
system.
AIS range is limited to the VHF range but LRIT range is worldwide.
AIS DATA is not stored by any organization whereas LRIT data is stored and
available on demand.
There is display for AIS ON BOARD but there is no display for LRIT on board the
ship.
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Explanation:-
A VDR or voyage data recorder is an instrument installed on a ship to
continuously record vital information related to the operation of a vessel.
It contains a voice recording system for a period of at least last 12 hours.
This recording is recovered and made use of for investigation in events of
accidents.
The data records covering the last 12 hours are continuously overwritten by the
latest data.
A VDR is capable of withstanding heavy weather, collisions, fires and pressure
conditions even when a ship is at a depth of several meters in water.
Working:-
There are various sensors placed on bridge of the ship and on prominent
location from which the required data is continuously collected.
This data which comprises of voices, various parameters, ships location etc. are
then fed to a storage unit where the whole input is recorded and saved for at
least 12 hours.
There is also a record button provided in the bridge unit so that after pushing
button (say during starting of any incident like collision or grounding), the
recorder will start recording new set of information from that period of time.
The data collected by VDR is digitalised, compressed, and is stored in a
protective storage unit which is mounted in a safe place.
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This tamper proof storage unit can be a retrievable fixed or floating unit
connected with EPIRB for early location in the event of accident.
Main Components:-
Data Management Unit: It acquires data from various sources using interfaces,
processes and stores the data in a specified format.
Audio Module:
o It consists of an audio mixer for recording audio from microphones placed
in the wheelhouse, bridge wings, ECR and various other locations.
o VHF audio signals can also be interfaced with this unit.
Final Recording Unit:
o This is a fire resistant, pressure tight storage medium to store recorded
data.
o The capsule is resistant against shock, penetration, fire, deep sea pressure
and immersion. Housed in a highly visible protective capsule which can
withstand high temperatures (1100OC) and deep sea pressure of 6000 m.
Remote Alarm Module: This is a small panel connected to the Data Management
Unit that will sound an alarm should any error or fault develop in the equipment.
Replay Station:
o This is an optional module for downloading and replaying the recorded
data.
o The data when played back can help in casualty investigations as well as
for self analysis.
Information Recorded:-
o Date & Time from GPS every 1s
o Position & Datum – Lat/Long and datum from GPS, Loran-C etc. The
source of data is identified on playback.
o Speed (water / ground) recorded every 1s to 0.1k resolution
o Heading (gyro or magnetic) is recorded at intervals of 1s to a resolution of
0.1 deg
o Depth under keel from echo sounder to a resolution of 0.1m.
o Auto pilot settings for speed, latitude, rudder limit, off-course alarms etc.
o Bridge audio in real time, both internal & external (150-6000Hz). The mic
test beeps every 12 hrs & this is recorded.
o Radar image recorded every 15s includes range rings, EBLs, VRMs, radar
maps, parts of SENC & other essential navigational indications.
o Wind speed/direction from the Anemometer is recorded & stored
individually with time stamps.
o VHF communication from 2 VHFs are recorded for both transmitted and
received audio signals. Audio is compressed and labeled VHF 1 & VHF 2.
o Hull openings & watertight doors status is received every 1s and stored
with time stamps
o Hull stresses are received and stored with time stamps.
o Thruster status (bow/stern) can be recorded for their order and response
o Rudder order and response angle is recorded to a resolution of 1 deg
o Engine order and response from the telegraph or direct engine control with
shaft revolution and ahead and astern indicators are recorded to a
resolution of 1 rpm
o AIS target data is recorded as a source of information regarding other
ships.
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o Alarms are recorded with time stamps. All IMO mandatory alarms as well
as other audible alarms are stored individually by the bridge audio
microphones.
Q) Explain the purpose of VDR, list the data recorded on VDR/ S-VDR and
data retrieving procedure in case of a collision. (March-16)
Ans:- Purpose of VDR:-
The main purpose of VDR is to record and store ship‟s critical parameters to
facilitate reconstruction of the incident for the purpose of analysis
Additionally navigator can use this for self-analysis, as lessons-learning tool and
thus improvement of procedures in the future.
VDR can be used to identify cause of an accident and thus make major
contribution to maritime safety.
o The benefits are:
o Promotion of safe practices
o Accident investigation and enquiry
o Response assessment and study
o Training aid and support
o Reduction in insurance costs
o Statistics generation
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c) In the case of a catastrophic accident, where the VDR is inaccessible and the
data has not been retrieved prior to abandonment, a decision will need to be
taken by the Flag State in co-operation with any other substantially interested
States on the viability and cost of recovering the VDR balanced against the
potential use of the information. If it is decided to recover the VDR the
investigator should be responsible for co-ordinating its recovery. The possibility
of the capsule having sustained damage must be considered and specialist
expertise will be required to ensure the best chance of recovering and
preserving the evidence. In addition the assistance and co-operation of the
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owners, insurers and the manufacturers of the VDR and those of the protective
capsule may be required.
How to determine:
During day time, clamp the index bar at zero and holding the sextant vertically,
view the horizon through the telescope.
If the true horizon and its reflection appear in the same line, Index error is not
present.
If they appear displaced vertically, turn the micrometer drum till they are in the
same line.
The micrometer reading then is the index error, which is
on the arc if the micrometer reading is more than zero,
off the arc if it is less than zero.
Contents:-
PART A: GUIDANCE FOR MASTERS AND WATCH KEEPING OFFICERS
1. Bridge Organisation
1.1 General
1.2 Passage Plan.
1.3 Safety System – Maintenance And Training.
2. Passage Planning
2.1 Responsibility For Passage Planning
2.2 Pilotage And Passage Planning.
2.3 Notes On Passage Planning.
2.4 Parallel Index Plotting.
3.1 General
3.2 Keeping A Good Watch.
3.3 Main Engines.
3.4 Changing Over The Watch.
3.5 Periodic Checks Of Navigational Equipment.
3.6 Helmsman / Autopilot.
3.7 Navigation In Coastal Waters.
3.8 Restricted Visiblity.
3.9 Calling The Master.
3.10 Navigation With Pilot Embarked.
3.11 Watchkeeping Personnel.
3.12 Search And Rescue.
3.13 Helicopter Operations.
3.14 Log Books.
3.15 Bridge And Emergency Checklists.
3.16 Ship At Anchor.
3.17 Ships Draft And Manoeuvering Information.
3.18 Bridge Located Systems / Systems Controls / Monitoring And Operations.
Appendix A Regulation V/33 of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at
Sea, 1974, as amended
Appendix B Search action message
Appendix C Factors affecting observer effectiveness
Appendix D Standard format for search and rescue situation report (SITREP)
Appendix E SAR briefing and debriefing form
Appendix F Own emergency
Appendix G Rendering assistance
Most effective when the location of the search object is known within
relatively close limits.
The commence search point is always the Datum Position.
To be used by a single ship during a search.
Often appropriate for vessels or small boats to use when searching for
persons in the water or other search objects with little or no leeway.
Accurate navigation is required.
The first leg is usually oriented directly into the wind to minimize navigational
errors.
All course alterations are of 90O.
Two first two legs will be of same length „d‟. „d‟ will depend upon the visibility
and the height of eye of the lookouts and the swell and sea height.
Legs 3 and 4 will be a length of 2d.
Legs 5 and 6 will be a length of 3d.
Legs 7 and 8 will be a length of 4d.
And so on until the area is fully searched.
2) SECTOR SEARCH:-
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Most effective when the position of the search object is accurately known and
the search area is small.
Used to search a circular area centred at the datum.
Can be used by only one craft at a time at a certain location.
An aircraft and a vessel may be used to perform independent sector searches
of the same area.
A suitable marker may be dropped at the datum and used as a reference
point.
The commence search point is where the ship or aircraft enters the area to
be searched.
Used to search a large area when the location of the search object is
uncertain.
Most effective over water or flat terrain.
Usually used when a large search area must be divided into sub-area for
assignment to individual search facilities on-scene at the same time.
The commence search point is in one corner of the sub-area, one-half track
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space inside the rectangle from each of the two sides forming the corner.
Search legs are parallel to each other and to the long sides of the sub-area.
The main legs indicate the direction of drift.
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Used around mountains and in valleys when sharp changes in elevation make
other patterns not practical.
Search is started from highest peak and goes from top to bottom with new
search altitude for each circuit.
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Normally used only if there is an OSC present to give direction to and provide
communications with the participating craft.
Creeping line search, co-ordinated (CSC) is often used.
The aircraft does most of the searching, while the ship steams along a course
at a speed as directed by the OSC so that the aircraft can use it as a
navigational checkpoint.
The aircraft, as it passes over the ship, can easily make corrections to stay
on the track of its search pattern.
Gives a higher probability of detection than can normally be attained by an
aircraft searching alone.
Ship speed varies according to the speed of the aircraft and the size of the
pattern.
The relationship among the speed of the surface facility, the aircraft‟s speed,
the track spacing and the length of the search legs is defined by the following
equation:
Vs = (5 x Va)/ (L + 5)
Where,
Vs is the speed of the surface facility in knots;
S is the track spacing in nautical miles;
Va is the aircraft‟s true air speed (TAS) in knots, and
L is the length of the aircraft‟s search leg in nautical miles.
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responses to distress situations in every area of the world, but they are
not intended to restrict anyone from assisting persons in distress
2) the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) regional air navigation
plans (RANPS) depict aeronautical SRRs
3) the International Maritime Organization (IMO) Global SAR Plan depicts
maritime SRRS.
justifiable criteria for identifying whether VTS is the most appropriate tool to
improve the safety and efficiency of navigation, safety of life and the protection
of the environment.
A VTS is generally appropriate in areas that may include any, or a combination,
of the following:
o high traffic density;
o traffic carrying hazardous cargoes;
o conflicting and complex navigation patterns;
o difficult hydrographical, hydrological and meteorological elements;
o shifting shoals and other local hazards and environmental considerations;
o interference by vessel traffic with other waterborne activities;
o number of casualties in an area during a specified period;
o existing or planned vessel traffic services on adjacent waterways and the
need for cooperation between neighbouring states, if appropriate;
o narrow channels, port configuration, bridges, locks, bends and similar
areas where the progress of vessels may be restricted; and
o existing or foreseeable changes in the traffic pattern in the area.
Q) State the elements of the Ship‟s Routeing System. (May-17, Aug-16, Jan-
16)
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Q) What kind of reports does a ship need to send out? (May-17, Jan-16)
Ans:- Reports should be sent as follows:
Sailing plan (SP) - Before or as near as possible to the time of departure from a
port within a reporting system or when entering the area covered by a system.
Position report (PR) - When necessary to ensure effective operation of the
system.
Deviation report (DR) - When the ship's position varies significantly from the
position that would have been predicted from previous reports, when changing
the reported route, or as decided by the master.
Final report (FR) - On arrival at destination and when leaving the area covered
by a system.
Dangerous goods report (DG) - When an incident takes place involving the loss
or likely loss overboard of packaged dangerous goods, including those in freight
containers, portable tanks, road and rail vehicles and shipborne barges, into the
sea.
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Harmful substances report (HS) - When an incident takes place involving the
discharge or probable discharge of oil (Annex I of MARPOL) or noxious liquid
substances in bulk (Annex II of MARPOL).
Marine pollutants report (MP) - In the case of loss or likely loss overboard of
harmful substances in packaged form, including those in freight containers,
portable tanks, road and rail vehicles and shipborne barges, identified in the
International Maritime Dangerous Goods Code as marine pollutants (Annex III of
MARPOL).
Any other report - Any other report should be made in accordance with the
system procedures as notified in accordance with paragraph 9 of the General
Principles.
into account:
a) By all vessels:
i. the state of visibility;
ii. the traffic density including concentrations of fishing vessels or any other
vessels;
iii. the maneuverability of the vessel with special reference to stopping
distance and turning ability in the prevailing conditions;
iv. at night the presence of background light such as from shore lights or
from back scatter of her own lights;
v. the state of wind, sea and current, and the proximity of navigational
hazards;
vi. the draught in relation to the available depth of water.
b) Additionally, by vessels with operational radar:
i. the characteristics, efficiency and limitations of the radar equipment;
ii. any constraints imposed by the radar range scale in use;
iii. the effect on radar detection of the sea state, weather and other sources
of interference;
iv. the possibility that small vessels, ice and other floating objects may not be
detected by radar at an adequate range;
v. the number, location and movement of vessels detected by radar;
vi. the more exact assessment of the visibility that may be possible when
radar is used to determine the range of vessels or other objects in the
vicinity.
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Q) State the STCW guidelines in ensuring a safe and efficient bridge watch.
(July-16)
Ans:- Watchkeeping arrangements and principles to be observed:-
1) Masters, Chief Engineer Officers and all watchkeeping personnel on board their
ships shall comply with the requirements, principles, principles and guidance set
out in section A-VIII/2 of the STCW Code. The requirements shall be observed
to ensure that safe continuous watches appropriate to the prevailing
circumstances and conditions are maintained in all sea going ships at all times.
2) The Master of every ship shall ensure that watchkeeping arrangements are
adequate for maintaining safe watches, taking into account the prevailing
circumstances and conditions and that, under the Master's general direction-
a) Officers in charge of the navigational watch are responsible for navigating
the ship safely during their periods of duty, when they shall be physically
present on the navigating bridge or in a directly associated location such
as the chartroom or bridge control room at all times;
b) Radio operators are responsible for maintaining a continuous radio watch
on appropriate frequencies during their periods of duty;
c) Officer in charge of an engineering watch under the direction of the Chief
Engineer Officer, shall be immediately available and on call to attend the
machinery spaces and, when required, shall be physically present in the
machinery space during their periods of responsibility; and
d) an appropriate and effective watch or watches are maintained for the
purpose of safety at all times, while the ship is at anchor or moored and, if
the ship is carrying hazardous cargo, the organisation of such watches
takes full account of the nature, quantity, packing and stowage of the
hazardous cargo and of any special conditions prevailing on board, afloat
or ashore.
Following listed procedure must be included along with the check and tests
described above:
1. The full movement of the rudder as per the required capabilities of the steering
gear system present onboard
2. A visual inspection of all the linkages and connection in the steering gear
3. The means of communication between the steering gear room and navigational
bridge must always be operational
Q) State the circumstances under which you will call the Master. (Nov-17,
May-17, May-16)
Ans:- Calling the Master:- Master to be called for the following reasons
1) When visibility has dropped or is suspected to drop to limit stated in Master‟s
standing orders.
2) Failure to sight a navigation mark.
3) When any navigation mark is found unexpectedly.
4) Failure of navigation / radio equipment.
5) Failure of main engine / reduction in RPM.
6) Failure of aux engines / steering.
7) When atmospheric pressure dropped 3 hpa below normal. (or as directed by the
Master in the standing orders.)
8) If the position of own vessel is doubtful.
9) On receipt of any urgent message received from company, owners, charterers,
agent etc.
10) In case of any emergency.
11) When any vessel / person in distress.
12) When traffic is causing concern, other vessel not complying with COLREGS,
or if own vessel needs to deport from COLREGS necessary to avoid immediate
danger.
13) Failure to make land fall or in case of unexpected landfall.
14) When soundings are not obtained as expected or when sounding is found
unexpectedly.
15) When CPA/ TCPA cannot be achieved as per standing orders.
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16) When wind force increased to limit stated in Master‟s standing orders.
17) When difficulty is experienced to maintain the course.
18) When vessel is pounding or pitching heavily.
19) When shipping seas on foc‟sle deck.
20) During heavy weather when there is any doubt regarding possibility of heavy
weather damage.
21) Whenever unsafe practices are being carried on board.
22) If the relieving watch keeper(s) is/ are unfit for the wath.
23) If any nav. warning, met warning or piracy report is received is concerning
own vessel.
24) If any suspicious craft/ object is sighted.
25) When any oil spillage sighted.
26) When vessel‟s speed dropped, unexpectedly without reduction in RPM.
27) If any danger message to be sent as per SOLAS ch V.
28) If unusual change in list or trim is observed.
29) Whenever vessel is suspected to go into no go area.
30) When vessel is suspected to contravene company‟s UKC policy.
31) If any important instructions received from VTS, port control etc.
32) Whenever the vessel reached the point marked on the chart / ECDIS by
Master himself. (Master will write:- “Call Me”).
33) When at anchorage, should you have reasons to believe that own vessel is
dragging anchor or other vessel in vicinity is dragging anchor.
34) When at anchor, if other vessel is going to drop anchor or dropped the
anchor very close distance to own vessel (Master must mention the distance in
his standing orders).
35) Should you have reasons to believe that the own vessel had near miss
situation with another vessel (collision).
36) If deck cargo is suspected to be washed overboard.
37) If the gyro error or compass deviation is greater than the limit mentioned by
Master.
38) Any other instructions as per Master‟s standing orders or the company‟s
standing orders or SMS procedures or night order / bridge order book.
39) If presence of master is required for any reasons not stated anywhere
(Master‟s or company‟s standing orders may not be exhaustive).
40) Call the Master when ever in any kind of doubt, (an early call is better rather
than calling at last moment, adjustment of night vision should be taken into
consideration, till master reaches the bridge appropriate action to be taken).
Q) What are the rest periods required for watch keepers as per STCW
2010? (July-17, Jan-16)
Ans:- Rest Periods:-
The STCW Code has laid down regulations for mandatory rest periods for
members of bridge team in order to prevent fatigue. The STCW Code has
stipulated the following:-
o Rest periods of at least 10 hours in any 24-hour period are required.
o If rest is taken in two periods, one of those periods must be at least 6
hours.
o The minimum period of 10 hours may be reduced to not less than 6
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consecutive hours provided that any such reduction does not extend
beyond two days, and not less than 70 (in case of UK 77) hours rest is
provided during each seven-day period.
The OOW must ensure that the seafarer assigned the watchkeeping duties:
o Has been given instructions in keeping lookout
o Knows what is expected of seafarer
o Knows how and what observations to report
o Suitably attired and protected from weather
o Working hours are complied with and frequent relief is possible.
Q) When can the officer of the watch be the Safe Lookout on bridge? (July-
17) OR
When can the officer of the watch be the Sole Lookout on bridge? (Jan-16)
Ans:- Safe Lookout / Sole Lookout:-
Under the STCW Code, the OOW may, be the sole lookout in daylight provided
that on each such occasion:
The situation has been carefully assessed and it has been established without
doubt that it is safe to operate with a sole lookout.
Full account has been taken of all relevant factors, including, but not limited to:
o State of weather.
o Visibility.
o Traffic density.
o Proximity of dangers to navigation.
o The attention necessary when navigating in or near traffic separation
schemes.
When deemed necessary, assistance is immediately summoned to the bridge.
If sole lookout watchkeeping practices are to be followed, clear guidance on how
they should operate will need to be given in the SMS.
Q) Your vessel is at anchor, how will you take over your watch. (Jan-17)
Ans:- Taking over an anchor watch
1) Read instructions from Master or Chief Officer.
2) Check position of own vessel to ensure she is not dragging anchor.
3) Check UKC, maintain VHF watch for instruction.
4) Check distance of all other vessel‟s at anchorage. Look out for other vessel‟s
dragging.
5) Look out for vessel‟s approaching the anchorage area.
6) Check the wind, sea, swell, continuously asses the visibility.
7) Read & sign all met warning‟s & nav warnings received during watch.
8) Establish compass error.
9) Check SAT-C for routine messages notify Master accordingly.
10) If bunker barge expected, keep look out for the same, if bunker barge is
already alongside, keep track of all timings, ensure no sheen is visible, if so
inform master.
11) Keep look out for bunker overflow.
12) Abide by all ISPS procedures, do not let unauthorized vessel(s) be alongside
own vessel.
13) Ensure appropriate lights & shapes are displayed.
14) Ensure appropriate flags are hoisted/ lowered.
15) Keep eye on crew working on deck, stop any kind of unsafe practices, abide
by all international & local regs.
16) Some boats/ launches may be expected carrying stores, crew, port officials,
surveyors, auditors, inspectors, ship chandler etc., ensures these boats are
tended to safety.
17) Test the controls as instructed.
18) Try out m/eng as instructed.
19) Keep track of vessel berthing/ unberthing intended berth.
20) Receive instructions from VTS/ Ports Control & notify all parties as instructed.
21) Follow Master‟s standing orders, bridge orders, call Master & doubt.
22) Abide by company‟s sms procedures, checklists and all additional measures
as per Risk assessments.
that the OOW would be able to monitor the navigation of the vessel at all times,
even when the Master or the pilot is directing the process. This serves as a
second check on the navigational safety of the ship.
3) Communicate to the arrival port, by VHF, the ETA of the ship as and when
instructed by the Master.
4) Inform the Master at the time indicated by him.
5) Give notice to the engine room at the time or charted position, as instructed by
the Master. Inform Master when this has been done.
6) Synchronise clocks of the bridge, the engine room and the auto-recorder of the
bridge – ER telegraph.
7) Call up a seaman to act as the bridge messenger.
8) Change over to hand steering.
9) Switch on the other steering motor also.
10) Try out the steering system. After a long sea passage, it is necessary to try
out the steering system about two hours before reaching confined waters. This
done by:
o Changing over to hand steering and then putting the helm hardover to one
side and then the other whilst using one steering motor.
o The same is then repeated while using the other steering motor.
o If the ship is fitted with electro-hydraulic steering system, it is necessary
to try out the steering on the electric and the hydraulic systems
separately.
o On ships fitted with a shaft generator, it would normally be necessary to
inform the Engine Room before making sudden helm movements in order
to prevent the generator from tripping off. If this happens, a diesel
generator would automatically come on but, in the intervening couple of
minutes, there would be no electric supply on the ship.
11) Take in the log (retract log sensor).
12) If daytime, keep flags ready – Red Ensign, courtesy flag, house flag, G, Q, H,
etc.
13) If night time, try out lights of Christmas Tree by switching them on
momentarily.
14) Try out pneumatic whistle and electric klaxon by giving a very short blast on
each.
15) Rig up the daylight signaling lamp and try it out on the mains and also the
battery.
16) Check communication system to the forward and aft stations and to the
steering gear compartment.
17) Have pilot ladder, life buoy with rope attached, heaving line and boat rope
kept ready to be rigged (also flood light at night).
18) Give adequate notice to the crew for coming on arrival stations.
19) Electric power to be switched on to the windlass.
20) Keep a record of all events and their timings in the Bridge Notebook. The
important entries are to be copied into the Mates Logbook later on.
21) Keep „Pilot information card‟ ready for presentation to the pilot as soon as he
enters the wheelhouse. This card contains the necessary information regarding
the ship‟s particulars, navigational equipment, etc. in a standard format as given
in the „Bridge Procedure Guide‟ published by the International Chamber of
Shipping (ICS). This card is separate from, and in addition to, the „Wheel-house
Poster‟ displayed in the wheelhouse.
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22) After ringing Stand-By Below (SBB) on the telegraph, the Master would try
out the engine by going astern. An entry, „‟Engine tried out astern‟ should be
made in the Bridge Notebook and later copied into the Ship‟s Logbook.
23) Anti-pilferage watch to be arranged on deck to commence before arrival port.
24) While going alongside, the pump room blowers should be switched off. This is
to prevent sparks from the funnels of tugs used from being drawn into the pump
room.
Once the planned length of chain is in the water the guillotine bar should be
dropped and secured, and the chain allowed to bear against the guillotine bar. The
guillotine bar is designed to take the weight of the anchor cable.
The windlass should be out of gear and the brake applied. Throughout anchor
period the appropriate anchor signals are to be used (ball, lights, bell and gong).
Q) What factors would you consider in deciding the anchor position and
amount of cable to use. (May-17)
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Standard condition:
Length of cable = [(Depth of water in meters * 2) + 90 ] / 27.5
When good holding power cannot be expected:
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Disadvantages:
If the brake fails, or there is too much speed over ground, the cable will run
out to the bitter end with consequent damage. The brake lining could also be
damaged due to this Dynamic load (the Static load on brakes to restrain movement
of an anchored vessel is much less).
c) Bring anchor cable direction forward and confirmed anchor holds its position.
Disadvantages:
Vessel must be completely stopped to avoid major damage to Windlass.
Q) Describe the procedures for: Securing the anchors for sea (March-17)
Ans:- Sequence of Operation:-
1) The anchor should be walked back clear of the hawse pipe.
2) With the aid of a man in a bosun‟s chair, a heavy wire should be passed through
the anchor crown „D‟ shackle, this wire being led from the shoulder at a point
from which it is intended to suspend the anchor. (The wire should be of
sufficient SWL (safe working load) to accept the full weight of the anchor and a
limited amount of cable.)
3) This wire should be secured aft of the fo‟c‟sle head, one end being turned up on
bitts, while the other is turned on to the windlass drum (with heavy anchors,
both parts should be turned up on bitts).
4) Rig a preventer wire, in a slack condition well forward of operations, in case the
first wire should part once the cable is broken.
5) The anchor cable should be walked back to allow the first wire to accept full
weight of the anchor. The first wire now being in the up/down position.
6) Continue to walk back on the cable to bring the next joining shackle on deck,
securing this length in short bights. Engage bow stopper or other cable-securing
arrangements.
7) Rig a second easing wire forward of the joining shackle, and take the weight of
the amount of cable between the anchor and the joining shackle on deck.
8) Break the joining shackle.
9) Clear away cable securing, and walk back on the easing wire to bring the bare
end clear of the hawse pipe.
10) Rig a hawser, with the aid of a bosun‟s chair, to recover the bare end inboard
via the fairlead, thus leaving the hawse pipe clear.
The cable joining shackle should not be broken until the first wire has been secured
(both parts of the bight), because if control of the first wire is lost, and the cable
has already been broken, then the possibility of losing anchor and a length of cable
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becomes more than probable. This probability is increased with very heavy
anchors, e.g. 20 tonnes.
Q) How would you take over a bridge watch, during night and while
navigating in piracy prone areas? (Jan-16)
Ans:- Taking over watch at sea
1. Be on watch about 15 min before, at night time it helps to adjust the night
vision.
2. Read and sign any orders from master in night order book / bridge order book.
3. Inspect all the charts likely to be used in the watch for the following:-
a) Check courses to be steered and distances marked on the chart, also check
the courses and distances as per the passage plan for the voyage.
b) Ensure the largest scale chart to be used.
c) Check courses are plotted clear of dangers to surface navigation.
d) Check the no go areas, mark them if not done.
e) Check the unit of depth and that the courses are plotted clear of shallows in
accordance with company‟s UKC policy. Info regarding draft & display to be
available on the bridge.
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16. Check the tachometer & note down RPM, if CPP check the pitch of the
propeller, if on main eng on UMS mode, the duty eng must be known, (duty eng
roster is sometimes available on bridge)
17. Check BNWAS to know the dormant period, confirm who is the back up
officer.
18. Ensure VHF is switched on and level of volume is audible enough.
19. In case of selected ship (VOF), find if coded msg to be prepared.
20. Check GPS is on which geodetic datum, confirm cross track limits.
21. Check various settings on ECDIS.
22. Check VDR/ S-VDR remote module for any alarm.
23. Check auto pilot for the settings.
24. Check the radar picture & all settings and all the targets on PPI.
25. Identify the shore lights, some of vessels may not be visually identified due
to shore light.
26. Check targets on AIS, check info reg draft & no. of crew is correct.
27. Adjust all the dimmers as required.
28. Check smoke detector panel. (no circuits to be kept isolated)
29. Check status of automatic fire doors / water tight doors (if fitted)
30. Check if any permit has been issued.
31. Should inquire as to where crew is working. (hold, tank etc).
32. Check nav lights are burning, confirm that it is matching with the status of
nav light on the sentinel.
33. Confirm if the compressed air is available for ship‟s whistle.
34. Check that day light signaling lamp is working.
35. Check operational condition of all nav & GMDSS equipment.
36. Check if vessel is unusually trimmed or listed.
37. Ask if any ballast exchange in progress and the planned sequence.
38. Confirm if compass error established.
39. Change echo sounder unit same as that on the chart. (if applicable)
40. Master Gyro to be synchronized with all repeaters.
41. If daytime check for any sign of visual damages to ship.
42. Check wind, sea, swell etc.
43. Check any deck cargo if loaded is missing.
44. Check appropriate manual inputs for gyro is applicable.
45. Once outgoing OOW has plotted the position, check the position & cross track
error.
46. Exchange courses, compare compasses.
47. Check if any action to be taken to abide with COLREGS.
48. Change settings an auto pilot if required.
49. Change settings on radar if required.
50. Comp c/list for taking over watch & relevant procedures in the SMS to be
complied with.
PS:- Watch should not be taken over when course is being altered for
traffic or in case of a way point.
17) OR
Draw up a Bridge Watch-keeping Checklist when navigating in Restricted
visibility. (Aug-16)
Ans:- Navigation in restricted visibility
Familiarization: OOW must know each and every aspect of the ship including
dimensions and the characteristics for restricted visibility situation, it is
important that the OOW know the stopping distance of the ship also the blind
sector of all the radars should be known, OOW must know when the Master
should be informed as per Master‟s standing instructions.
Inform the Master: During restricted visibility, it is important that the master
is on the bridge. The OOW must constantly assess the state of visibility and
inform the master immediately, once Master is on bridge hand over the con to
him.
Inform E/R & reduction of speed: OOW should notify the engine room, later
on the tachometer must be checked to ensure RPM is being reduced, bring down
the ship to maneuvering RPM, in order to comply with COLREGS rule no. 19.
(Power Driven v/l must have engines ready for immediate maneuver).
Visual Observance: Check all the targets visually, especially smaller targets
that may not be picked up by radar.
Change in bridge watch keeping level: It is important that enough man
power is present on the bridge, additional officers and rating should be called on
the bridge, lookout(s) must be posted at different locations on the ship, Master
can consulted regarding the deployment of look outs, check for any sounding
signal from other vessels in the vicinity.
Whistle: - Ensure that the whistle is working properly by trying out all the
whistles, start blowing the whistle below entering restricted visibility, as the
rules applies to vessels navigating in or near the area of restricted visibility.
Navigation Lights: Switch on the navigation lights if not already done, ensure
all these lights are burning properly.
Radar & ARPA: Switch on other radar, switch on the ARPA and start acquiring
the targets, check AIS targets and compare data of both ARPA and AIS, adjust
A/C rain & A/C sea as required.
Hand steering: Revert to hand steering, switch on other steering pump if not
done earlier.
Stop works on deck: Stop any job which may prevent sound signal of other
vessels to be heard properly. No one to be allowed on main deck, this is to
prevent injury to personnel working on open deck in case collision/ allusion
(physical contact with fixed or floating objects.)
Open Bridge Doors: Ensure that the bridge doors are kept open and is without
any obstruction for easy bridge wing access.
VHF: Ensure VHF channel 16 is switched on and is audible enough for all the
safety related messages.
Keeping record: Keep record of all activities on the bridge.
Follow all procedures: Follow all the important procedures as per SMS manual
including compliance of any check list for restricted visibility, company
instructions for bridge manning level must be complied with. Resting periods
must be taken care, all precautions as per risk assessment to be fulfilled.
COLREG Rule -19: Always comply with COLREG Rule – 19, if necessary;
navigate with extreme caution till risk of collision is over.
CHECKLIST NAVIGATION IN RESTRICTED VISIBILITY:-
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On anchoring, a fix on the anchor drop position should be made and the ship's
swinging circle marked. The anchor position should be communicated to the port
authority or VTS. While at anchor, the OOW should:
Determine and plot ship‟s position on the appropriate chart. Check should be
maintained on the anchor position to ensure that the ship does not drag anchor,
by taking bearings of fixed navigational marks or readily identifiable shore
objects. Check should be made on under keel clearance. Position can also be
checked using GPS anchor alarm, particularly when using DGPS mode.
Observe meteorological and tidal conditions and the state of the sea.
Particular attention should be paid to check anchor position after change of tide.
Any wind shift or change of weather should be recorded.
Ensure that the state of readiness of main engines and other machinery is in
accordance with the Master‟s instructions.
A proper lookout must be maintained and ship inspection rounds periodically
made, particularly if the ship is anchored in waters, which might present a risk
of attack by pirates or armed robbers.
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Ensure that ship exhibits the appropriate lights and shapes and that appropriate
sound signals are made in accordance with all applicable regulations.
Take measures to protect the environment from pollution by the ship and
applicable pollution regulations.
Notify the Master and take all counter measures if ship drags anchor.
The Master should be immediately notified if the ship drags her anchor, and if
sea conditions or visibility deteriorate.
a. Barometric pressure.
b. Wind direction and force.
c. Direction and height of swell.
d. Storm signals, if any displayed by the port.
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BRM enables the bridge team to mark the abort points and various
contingencies (anchorage and berth).
BRM begins before the voyage with the passage plan and continues through the
end of the voyage with the passage debrief, debriefing or evaluation helps in
improvement.
Situational awareness
Present state of weather, wind, sea state, swell and visibility and the
meterological forecast.
Present draft and depth of water, proximity of hazards and effect of squat.
State of tide and current and effect of the same.
Communications with VTS and any safety related communication with all the
stations.
All the displays on bridge – tachometer, rudder angle indicator, ROTI, UKC,
anemometer, inclinometer etc, also displays for course steered and course made
good, speed through water and speed over ground.
Awareness of own ship‟s configuration, maneuvering characteristics (turning
circle, stopping distance etc).
Awareness of the equipment and systems and the limitations. These include
bridge equipment, communication equipment, propulsion and steering.
Adjustment of various setting for example radar, auto pilot etc.
Many factors can cause you to lose situational awareness, data not observed, either
because it is difficult to observe or your scanning of the environment is deficient
due to:
Passive, complacent behavior.
Lack of training, lack of familiarization, lack of experience, lack of competency.
Lack of interest, lack of motivation, fear, lack of communication skill.
Over reliance on a person, system or equipment.
Inability to understand change in traffic/ weather conditions.
High work load, stress and fatigue.
Ambiguity, confusion, distraction and interruptions etc.
attitudes and risk. BRM recognizes there are many elements of job effectiveness
and safety, such as individual, organizational and regulatory factors and they
must be anticipated and planned for.
BRM enables the bridge team to mark the abort points and various
contingencies (anchorage and berth).
BRM begins before the voyage with the passage plan and continues through the
end of the voyage with the passage debrief, debriefing or evaluation helps in
improvement.
Q) How will you effectively use the various resources such as Navigational
Equipment on the bridge and available man power for safe keeping a safe
navigational watch at sea based on the principle of Bridge Resource
Management? (July-16)
Ans:- Effectively use of Various resources with respect to Navigational Equipment:
A mariner has many resources available to him for safe passage planning and
execution and monitoring. Some examples include:
Electronic equipment (i.e. radar, echo sounder, GPS / DGPS, ARPA, gyro
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The minimum safe manning level of a ship should be established taking into
account all relevant factors, including the following:
o size and type of ship;
o number, size and type of main propulsion units and auxiliaries;
o construction and equipment of the ship;
o method of maintenance used;
o cargo to be carried;
o frequency of port calls, length and nature of voyages to be undertaken;
o trading area(s), waters and operations in which the ship is involved;
o extent to which training activities are conducted on board; and
o applicable work hour limits and/or rest requirements.
The determination of the minimum safe manning level of a ship should be based
on performance of the functions at the appropriate level(s) of responsibility, as
specified in the STCW Code, which include the following:
o navigation, comprising the tasks, duties and responsibilities required
to:
o plan and conduct safe navigation;
o maintain a safe navigational watch in accordance with the requirements
of the STCW Code;
o manoeuvre and handle the ship in all conditions; and
o moor and unmoor the ship safely;
cargo handling and stowage, comprising the tasks, duties and responsibilities
required to:
o plan, monitor and ensure safe loading, stowage, securing, care during
the voyage and unloading of cargo to be carried on the ship;
operation of the ship and care for persons on board, comprising the tasks,
duties and responsibilities required to:
o maintain the safety and security of all persons on board and keep life-
saving, fire-fighting and other safety systems in operational condition;
o operate and maintain all watertight closing arrangements;
Q) While keeping bridge watch at sea, what action would you take when
following alarms are activated: Gyro Failure. (March-16)
Ans:- Action in case of Gyro Compass failure:-
1) Inform the Master
2) Change over to 2nd gyrocompass if available, Otherwise, following procedure to
be followed.
3) Change over to Hand steering for steering with magnetic compass.
4) Apply Compass deviation value to magnetic compass course with the help
Deviation card and observation,
5) Consider effect on other navigational and communication equipment which have
a gyro feed especially Radar/ ARPA and ECDIS and enter headings manually.
6) Plot positions more frequently to confirm course made good and accordingly
allow correction to course steered. In coastal waters, make good use of parallel
indexing technique to keep vessel on charted track.
7) Also secure True course run (Course made good) by plotting GPS position and
verify with Heading of Magnetic compass.
8) Reduce speed if considered necessary.
9) In the meantime, to check Instruction Manual for troubleshooting guide.
Details of drills and their periodicity is strictly laid down in ships training manual.
Company Superintendents and Surveyors are very particular that these drills are
carried out regularly and recorded correctly as per the ISM procedures.
Q) How will you know your vessel is dragging anchor? (Jan-17, May-16)
Ans:- Checks to be performed:
One of the fundamental principles of the anchor watch is to ensure that the
vessel does not break her anchor out and drag away from the anchor position.
To this end, the weather conditions, state of currents and tides should be
continuously monitored throughout the watch period.
Normal procedure for the watch officer at anchor would be to regularly verify the
ship‟s position.
Where dragging is suspected, the ship‟s position would be expected to change.
16) Hopefully, the above situation would be avoided by either extinguishing the
fire or bringing it under control by injecting CO2 before the tugs arrive.
Assuming that the actions already taken have not been entirely successful:
17) Shut off the exhaust blower of that hold, in case it is on.
18) Close the hatch and batten it down.
19) Make sure that there is nobody inside the hold. Seal off the entrance and
post a sentry there to prevent anyone from going inside. This is a very
important because somebody may go inside, without the knowledge of the OOW
and subsequently lose his life when CO2 is injected.
20) Shut the fire dampers on the ventilator coamings of that hold.
21) Inject CO2 into the hold.
22) In case any boundary of the hold is getting warm, cool it by spraying water
from the fire main, wherever practicable.
23) After injecting CO2 into hold, it is NOT advisable TO OPEN THE HATCH UNTIL
The Master specifically decides to so.
lowering.
c. The Chief Officer would be in charge of the Attack Party at the seat of the
fire.
3) Announce on the Public Address System (PAS), „Our Ship has run aground‟.
4) The Master will rush to the bridge on hearing 2 & 3 above. This saves the time
required to inform him by telephone.
5) Mark the position quickly, for future reference, by pressing the „Man overboard‟
button on the GPS receiver. Such a button is available on most of receivers.
6) Inform engine room:
a. Vessel has run aground.
b. Change over to higher sea suction.
c. Sound all tanks and bilges of engine room.
d. Report any leak or damage as soon as it is noticed.
7) Switch steering from auto to manual.
8) If the ship has a log sensor unit protruding below the hull, retract it.
9) Display signal for vessel aground.
10) Mark the own ship‟s position, by a cross on the chart, for ready reference by
the Master. Clearly write the latitude, longitude, ship‟s time and UTC of the
incident. These particulars will be required for sending out radio messages later
on.
11) Keep a record of all events, and their timings, in the Bridge Notebook.
12) Entries in the Ship‟s Logbook should be made at a subsequent, convenient
time.
13) Carry out Master‟s orders. Orders, such as those listed below, should be
anticipated by the OOW and, if and when necessary, he should remind the
Master.
14) Render first aid to any persons on board who may have suffered injuries –
the sudden arrest of the ship‟s movement may have caused them to lose their
balance and get hurt.
15) Communications officer to send „Urgency Signal”.
16) One seaman and a cadet (if there is no cade on board, then another seaman)
to sound all tanks and bilges and report. A report should come to the bridge, by
portable VHF, as soon as each sounding is obtained.
17) The OOW should have the Tank and Bilge Sounding Book brought to the
bridge for reference.
18) As soon as each sounding is obtained, the OOW should note it down in the
bridge notebook, compare it with the last recorded sounding of the bilge or tank
and then report the sounding and its variation to the Master.
19) One nautical officer to read the draft forward and aft and report to the
bridge.
20) The drafts reported should be noted in the Bridge Notebook.
21) Start pumping out water from those water tanks and bilges where the
sounding has increased.
22) If pumping out does not cause any change of sounding, it means that the
compartment is bilged.
23) If the sounding drops while pumping out, but increases thereafter, it means
that there is a leak into the compartment – pumps could ensure buoyancy from
that compartment and consequent decrease of mean draft and change of trim.
24) Carry out the procedures contained in SOPEP of the ship.
25) Further actions will be to:
a. Ensure safety of life of those on board.
b. Limit any further damage to ship.
c. Minimize environmental pollution.
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Q) List out the various publications and manuals you would require for
safe navigation. (July-16)
Ans:- The nautical publication required for passage planning:-
The list of publications to be consulted when planning an Ocean Passage are as
follows :-
1) Ocean Passages for the World
2) Mariner's Handbook
3) Chart catalogue
4) NP 5011
5) Routeing chart
6) Ocean Current charts and current atlases
7) Ice Charts
8) Sailing Directions
9) Admiralty Tide Tables
10) Admiralty List of Lights and Fog Signals
11) Admiralty List of Radio Signals
12) Distance Tables
13) Guide to Port Entry
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Q) Explain the difference between Raster and Vector Charts. (Sept-17, Jan-
17, Jan-16)
Ans:- Difference between Raster Chart and a Vector Chart
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pilot card are available for use without the necessity of conducting special
manoeuvring trials.
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Q) Explain the Pivot point of vessel and effect of wind on ship handling?
(Aug-16, July-16, May-16)
Ans:- Pivot Point:-
The turning effect of a vessel will take effect about the ship‟s „pivot point‟ and
this position, with the average design vessel, lies at about the ship‟s Centre of
Gravity, which is generally nearly amidships (assuming the vessel is on even keel
in calm water conditions).
As the ship moves forward under engine power, the pivot point will be caused
to move forward with the momentum on the vessel. If the water does not exert
resistance on the hull the pivot point would assume a position in the bow region.
However, practically the pivot point moves to a position approximately 0.25
of the ships length (L) from the forward position.
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Similarly, if the vessel is moved astern, the stern motion would cause the
Pivot Point to move aft and adopt a new position approximately 0.25 of the ship‟s
length from the right aft position.
The pivot point at anchor:- It should be noted that when the vessel goes to anchor
the pivot point moves right forward and effectively holds the bow in one position.
Any forces acting on the hull, such as from wind or currents, would cause the
vessel to move about the hawse pipe position.
Use of the rudder can, however, be employed when at anchor, to provide a
„sheer‟ to the vessel, which could be a useful action to angle the length of the
vessel away from localized dangers.
Q) Draw the turning circle diagram of a ship and define the following
terms: Advance, Transfer, Drift Angle, Tactical Diameter (May-17, July-16)
Ans:- Turning Circle:- The circle is the path of the ship‟s pivot point as it executes
a 360° turn. In shallow water, the rate of turn is likely to be decreased, so the
vessel will have a larger turning circle.
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Advance:-
Defined by the forward motion of the ship, from the moment that the vessel
commences the turn.
It is the distance travelled by the vessel in the direction of the original course
from commencing the turn to completing the turn.
It is calibrated between the course heading when commencing the turn, to when
the vessels head has passed through 90°.
Transfer: -
Defined by that distance which the vessel will move perpendicular to the fore
and aft line from the commencement of the turn.
The total transfer experienced during a turn will be reflected when the ship‟s
head has moved through a course heading of 180°.
The amount of transfer can be calibrated against the ship‟s change of heading
and is usually noted at 90° and 180°.
Tactical diameter –
Tactical diameter is defined by the greatest diameter scribed by the vessel from
commencing the turn to completing the turn.
When the vessel is trimmed by the stern, the tactical diameter of turn is
increased.
When the vessel is trimmed by the head, the tactical diameter of turn is
decreased.
The vessel with a list will take longer to execute the turn, and when turned into
the list, will develop a larger circle.
The vessel with a right-hand turn propeller, if making a turn to port, will end up
with a smaller diameter than starboard due to the effect of transverse thrust
Final diameter – Is defined as the internal diameter of the turning circle where
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no allowance has been made for the decreasing curvature as experienced with
the tactical diameter.
Drift angle:
Drift angle is the angle between the axis of a ship when turning and the tangent
to the path on which it is turning.
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Track Reach is defined as a distance along the vessel‟s track that the vessel
covers from the moment that the “full astern” command is given until ahead speed
changes sign.
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Q) With the help of suitable sketch define the following: Transfer (Sept-17)
Ans:- Transfer:- Defined by that distance gained by a vessel engaged in a turning
manoeuvre which is perpendicular to the original course.
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Q) With the help of suitable sketch define the following: Scope (Sept-17)
Ans:- Scope:- The amount of anchor cable deployed, measured from the mouth of
the hawse pipe to the anchor crown „D‟ shackle.
Q) Write short notes on the following: Bow cushion & Bank suction (Nov-
17)
Ans:- Bow Cushion and Bank Suction Effect:-
In a restricted channel, when the ship moves near the bank, the bow is pushed
away from the bank, an effect known as bow cushion, and the vessel is bodily
attracted toward the bank, an effect known as bank suction.
The bank cushion results from high pressure buildup between the bank and the
bow of the ship, and the bank suction is caused by loss of pressure and
increased velocity of water in the restricted space between the vessel and the
bank.
Define Squat, list various Shallow water effects experienced by the vessel
on entering shallow channel. (Nov-17, March-16)
Ans:- Squat:-
In figure 6-3 the ship is running on even keel with a small under keel clearance
and, therefore, water which would normally pass under the ship is now severely
restricted.
This result in two things, firstly the build of water ahead of the ship, longitudinal
resistance pushes the pivot point back from P to PP and the steering lever is
reduced. Secondly the water being forced under the bow, at a higher speed than
normal, creates a low pressure and loss of buoyancy. The ship will now 'Squat
by the Bow' which in turn makes the problem even worse. Several cases have
been reported of large ships running in shallow water and experiencing bow
sinkage of up to 2 metres!
The effect can be extremely rapid, with the ship out of the channel and aground
in just a few minutes. Excessive speed is the main contributing factor under
such circumstance; reduced speeds are essential to avoid such violent forces
building up.
Trim is also important and in some districts the pilotage authority may refuse to
handle certain ships if they are trimmed by the head and may even request a
small trim by the stern. The latter does, in any case, improve the steering lever
and therefore the handling of a ship, it may also be intended as an allowance for
squat by the bow and very much a decision based upon local knowledge and
experience.
Effect:-
Water displaced by the hull is not easily replaced.
Bow wave and stern wave increase in height.
Trough becomes deeper and after part is drawn downwards.
Under keel clearance decreases.
Blockage factor (S):- it is the ration between cross section of the vessel and cross
section of the canal or river. Squat varies with blockage factor as.
Squat S0.81
So, in confined water, squat is more than in open water.
effects of your vessel is subjected. When: Passing close to river bank (Nov-
16) OR
Define Shallow water, list various shallow water effects experienced by
the vessel on entering shallow channel. (March-16)
Ans:- Shallow Water:-
It would be wrong to imply that bank effect is only experienced within the
domain of canals and rivers with steep sided banks, as illustrated in figure 6-6.
To a ship running in shallow water, with adjacent but gently shelving mud or
sand banks, such as low lying estuarial areas, figure 6-7, the effect can be far
more insidious and violent.
There are many cases, in the archives of casualty investigation, where
groundings and collisions have occurred in such areas, due to drastic loss of
control, whilst the ship was under the combined influence of shallow water and
bank effect.
One noticeable feature in some of these casualties, is the tendency of the Master
to immediately reduce revolutions, or even stop the engine, when faced with the
ship sheering the wrong way and apparently failing to respond to progressively
larger angles of helm. Whilst this is of paramount importance, if it is evident
that grounding or collision is imminent, in other circumstances it is suicide. Hard
over rudder and a healthy 'kick ahead' are essential to regaining control.
These are of course generalities and every event is dictated by a set of unique
circumstances.
It is clear that many ships work daily in shallow water without any problems
what so ever, just occasionally however, all the ingredients, shallow water, bank
effect, excessive speed, poor trim, come together and combine in an insidious
manner to create another casualty.
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