3.2 J.A.

Beachy 1

3.2 Subgroups
from A Study Guide for Beginner’s by J.A.Beachy,
a supplement to Abstract Algebra by Beachy / Blair

28. In Zn , show that if gcd(a, n) = d, then h[a]n i = h[d]n i.

Note: This result is very useful when you are trying to find cyclic subgroups of Zn .
Solution: We need to show that h[a]n i ⊆ h[d]n i and h[d]n i ⊆ h[a]n i.
First, to show that h[a]n i ⊆ h[d]n i, note that a = dq for some q ∈ Z, since d is a
divisor of a. Then [a]n = q[d]n , which shows that [a]n ∈ h[d]n i by applying Proposi-
tion 3.2.6 (b).
To show that h[d]n i ⊆ h[a]n i, recall that we can write d = ma + nq for some m, q ∈ Z,
since the greatest common divisor of a and n can be written as a linear combination
of a and n. Then d ≡ ma (mod n), and so [d]n = m[a]n ∈ h[a]n i.

29. Find all cyclic subgroups of Z12 .

Solution: We need to find h[a]i for all congruence classes [a] ∈ Z12 .
h[1]i = Z12
h[2]i = {[0], [2], [4], [6], [8], [10]}
h[3]i = {[0], [3], [6], [9]}
h[4]i = {[0], [4], [8]}
h[5]i = {[0], [5], [10], [3], [8], [1], [6], [11], [4], [9], [2], [7]}.
At this point we should have used Problem 28, which guarantees that h[5]i = h[1]i =
Z12 since gcd(5, 12) = 1.
h[6]i = {[0], [6]}
Now, to save time in the calculations, we will use Problem 28. The remaining elements
generate subgroups that we have already found. In fact, you can see that the subgroups
of Z12 correspond to the divisors of 12.
h[7]i = h[1]i = Z12 since gcd(7, 12) = 1.
h[8]i = h[4]i since gcd(8, 12) = 4.
h[9]i = h[3]i since gcd(9, 12) = 3.
h[10]i = h[2]i since gcd(10, 12) = 2.
h[11]i = h[1]i = Z12 , since gcd(11, 12) = 1.

30. Find all cyclic subgroups of Z×

24 .
Solution: You can check that x2 = 1 for all elements of the group. Thus each nonzero
element generates a subgroup of order 2, including just the element itself and the
identity element [1].
3.2 J.A.Beachy 2

31. In Z×
20 , find two subgroups of order 4, one that is cyclic and one that is not cyclic.
Solution: To find a cyclic subgroup of order 4, we need to check the orders of elements
in Z×
20 = {±[1], ±[3], ±[7], ±[9]}. It is natural to begin with [3], which turns out to
have order 4, and so H = h[3]i is a cyclic subgroup of order 4.
The element [9] = [3]2 has order 2. Since 92 ≡ 1 (mod 20), the subset K = {±[1], ±[9]}
is closed under multiplication. Since H is a finite, nonempty subset of a known group,
Corollary 3.2.4 implies that it is a subgroup. Since no element of H has order four, it
is not cyclic.
32. (a) Find the cyclic subgroup of S7 generated by the element (1, 2, 3)(5, 7).
Solution: We have
((1, 2, 3)(5, 7))2 = (1, 3, 2),
((1, 2, 3)(5, 7))3 = (5, 7),
((1, 2, 3)(5, 7))4 = (1, 2, 3),
((1, 2, 3)(5, 7))5 = (1, 3, 2)(5, 7),
((1, 2, 3)(5, 7))6 = (1).
These elements, together with (1, 2, 3)(5, 7), form the cyclic subgroup generated by
(1, 2, 3)(5, 7).
(b) Find a subgroup of S7 that contains 12 elements. You do not have to list all of
the elements if you can explain why there must be 12, and why they must form a
subgroup.
Solution: We only need to find an element of order 12, since it will generate a cyclic
subgroup with 12 elements. Since the order of a product of disjoint cycles is the least
common multiple of their lengths, the element (1, 2, 3, 4)(5, 6, 7) has order 12.
33. Let G be an abelian group, and let n be a fixed positive integer. Show that
N = {g ∈ G | g = an for some a ∈ G}
is a subgroup of G.
Solution: We will use Proposition 3.2.2.
(i) Suppose that g1 and g2 belong to N . Then there must exist elements a1 and a2 in
G with g1 = an1 and g2 = an2 , and so g1 g2 = an1 an2 = (a1 a2 )n . The last equality holds
since G is abelian.
(ii) The identity element e belongs to N since it can always be written in the form
e = en .
(iii) If g ∈ N , with g = an , then g−1 = (an )−1 = (a−1 )n , and so g −1 has the right
form to belong to N .
34. Let K be the following subset of GL2 (R).
   
a b 
K= ∈ GL2 (R) d = a, c = −2b

c d
3.2 J.A.Beachy 3

Show that K is a subgroup of GL2 (R).

Solution: We will use the compact condition given in Corollary 3.2.3, and so we first
note that K is nonempty because it contains the identity matrix. The elements of K
a b
have the standard form , with nonzero determinant. Given two elements
−2b a
of K, we have the following product, which has a nonzero determinant.
  −1    
a1 b1 a2 b2 a1 b1 1 a2 −b2
=
−2b1 a1 −2b2 a2 −2b1 a1 a22 + 2b22 −2b2 a2
 
1 a1 a2 + 2b1 b2 −a1 b2 + b1 a2
= 2
a2 + 2b2 −2b1 a2 + 2a1 b2 2b1 b2 + a1 a2
2
 
1 a1 a2 + 2b1 b2 −a1 b2 + b1 a2
= 2
a2 + 2b22 −2(−a1 b2 + b1 a2 ) a1 a2 + 2b1 b2
The product belongs to K, showing that K is a subgroup of GL2 (R).
Comment: We’ve used the form for the inverse of a 2×2 matrix given in Section 3.1.

35. In G = Z×21 , show that H = {[x]21 | x ≡ 1 (mod 3)} and K = {[x]21 | x ≡ 1 (mod 7)}
are subgroups of G.
Solution: The subset H is finite and nonempty (it certainly contains [1]), so by
Corollary 3.2.4 it is enough to show that H is closed under multiplication. If [x]
and [y] belong to H, then x ≡ 1 (mod 3) and y ≡ 1 (mod 3), so it follows that
xy ≡ 1 (mod 3), and therefore [x] · [y] = [xy] belongs to H.
A similar argument shows that K is a subgroup of Z×
21 .

36. Suppose that p is a prime number of the form p = 2n + 1.

(a) Show that in Z×
p the order of [2]p is 2n.
Solution: Since 2n + 1 = p, we have 2n ≡ −1 (mod p), and squaring this yields
22n ≡ 1 (mod p). Thus the order of [2] is a divisor of 2n, and for any proper divisor
k of 2n we have k ≤ n, so 2k 6≡ 1 (mod p) since 2k − 1 < 2n + 1 = p, and hence 2k − 1
cannot be divisible by p. This shows that [2] has order 2n.
(b) Use part (a) to prove that n must be a power of 2.
Solution: The order of [2] is a divisor of |Z× n
p | = p − 1 = 2 , so by part (a) this implies
that n is a divisor of 2n−1 , and therefore n is a power of 2.
Comment: Part (b) gives a group theoretic proof of Exercise 1.2.23 in the text, which
states that if n ∈ Z+ and 2n + 1 is prime, then n is a power of 2.

37. In√the multiplicative

√ √group√ C of complex numbers, find the order of the elements
×

2 2 2 2
− + i and − − i.
2 2 2 2
Solution: It is probably easiest to change these complex numbers from rectangular
coordinates into polar coordinates. Each has magnitude 1, and you can check that
√ √ √ √
2 2 2 2
− 2 + 2 i = cos(3π/4) + i sin(3π/4) and − 2 − 2 i = cos(5π/4) + i sin(5π/4).
3.2 J.A.Beachy 4

Since 8( 3π
4 ) = 6π, it follows from DeMoivre’s theorem on powers of complex numbers
√ √
2 2
that (cos(3π/4) + i sin(3π/4))8 = cos(6π) + i sin(6π) = 1. Thus − 2 + 2 i has order
√ √
2 2
8 in C× . A similar argument shows that − 2 − 2 i also has order 8.

38. In the group G = GL2 (R) of invertible 2 × 2 matrices with real entries, show that
  
cos θ − sin θ 
H= θ ∈ R
sin θ cos θ 

is a subgroup of G.
Solution: We have H ⊆ G since each element of H has determinant 1.
Closure: To show that H is closed under multiplication we need to use the familiar
trig identities for the sine and cosine of the sum of two angles.
  
cos θ − sin θ cos φ − sin φ
sin θ cos θ sin φ cos φ
 
cos θ cos φ − sin θ sin φ − cos θ sin φ − sin θ cos φ
=
sin θ cos φ + cos θ sin φ − sin θ sin φ + cos θ cos φ
 
cos θ cos φ − sin θ sin φ −(sin θ cos φ + cos θ sin φ)
=
sin θ cos φ + cos θ sin φ cos θ cos φ − sin θ sin φ
 
cos(θ + φ) − sin(θ + φ)
= ∈ H.
sin(θ + φ) cos(θ + φ)
Identity: To see that the identity matrix is in the set, let θ = 0.
 −1  
cos θ − sin θ cos(−θ) − sin(−θ)
Existence of inverses: = ∈ H.
sin θ cos θ sin(−θ) cos(−θ)

2 1
39. Compute the centralizer in GL2 (R) of the matrix .
1 1
   
2 1 a b
Solution: Let A = , and suppose that X = belongs to the cen-
1 1 c d
tralizer of A in GL  2 (R). Then we  must
 have XA
 = AX, so doing  this calcu-

2a + b a + b a b 2 1 2 1 a b
lation shows that = = =
2c + d c + d c d 1 1 1 1 c d
 
2a + c 2b + d
. Equating corresponding entries shows that we must have 2a +
a+c b+d
b = 2a + c, a + b = 2b + d, 2c + d = a + c, and c + d = b + d. The first and
last equations imply that b = c, while the second and third equations imply that
a = b + d = c + d, or d = a − b. On the other hand, any matrix  of this form com-
2 1
mutes with A, so the centralizer in GL2 (R) of the matrix is the subgroup
1 1
  
a b 
 a, b ∈ R and ab 6= a2 − b2 .
b a−b 
3.2 J.A.Beachy 5

40. Prove that any infinite group has infinitely many subgroups.
Solution: First note that if a has infinite order, then hai has infinitely many subgroups,
one for each positive integer n, namely han i. Suppose that G has only finitely many
subgroups. Then it certainly has only finitely many cyclic subgroups. Each element of
G generates a finite cyclic subgroup, so G is contained in the union of a finite number
of finite sets, and therefore it must be finite.

ANSWERS AND HINTS

41. Let G be a group, and let a ∈ G, with a 6= e. Prove or disprove these statements.
(a) The element a has order 2 if and only if a2 = e.
(b) The element a has order 3 if and only if a3 = e.
(c) The element a has order 4 if and only if a4 = e.
Hint: Statements (a) and (b) are true, but (c) is false.
43. Is {(x, y) ∈ R2 | y = x2 } a subgroup of R2 ?
Answer: No, since the closure property does not hold.
44. Is {(x, y) ∈ R2 | x, y ∈ Z} a subgroup of R2 ?
Answer: Yes.
51. Let G be a group, with a subgroup H ⊆ G. Define N (H) = {g ∈ G | gHg−1 = H}.
Show that N (H) is a subgroup of G that contains H.
Hint: To show that N (H) is closed under formation of inverses, you must show that
gHg−1 = H implies g−1 Hg = H.
53. In each of the groups O, P , Q in the tables in Section 3.1 of the Study Guide, find the
centralizers C(a) and C(ab).
Answer: The group O is abelian, so C(a) = O and C(ab) = O. In both groups P and
Q, we have C(a) = hai and C(ab) = {e, ab, a2 , a3 b}.
58. (a) Characterize the elements of GL2 (R) that have order 2.
Answer: Case 1: If det(A) = 1, then A = ±I2 .
a b
Case 2: If det(A) = −1, then A = , with a2 + bc = 1.
c −a
(b) Which of the elements in part (a) are
 upper triangular?
  
1 b −1 b
Answer: ±I2 and matrices of the form or
0 −1 0 1
(c) Is {A ∈ GL2 (R) | A2 = I} a subgroup of GL2 (R)?
(d) Does the set of upper triangular matrices in {A ∈ GL2 (R) | A2 = I} form a
subgroup of GL2 (R)?
Answer: The answer to both (c) and (d) is no.
 
a b
59. (a) Characterize the elements of order 3 in GL2 (R) that have the form .
c 0
Show that there are infinitely many such elements. 
−1 b
Answer: These elements have the form , for any nonzero b ∈ R.
− 1b 0
3.2 J.A.Beachy 6
   
1 1 0 1
61. In GL2 (R), let A = , which has infinite order, and let B = . Find
0 1 −1 0
the order of B, and find the order of AB.
Answer: B has order 4, and AB has order 3.
64. (a) Find the cyclic subgroup of S6 generated by the element (1, 2, 3)(4, 5, 6).
(b) Find the smallest subgroup of S6 that contains (1, 2, 3) and (4, 5, 6).
Answer: The subgroup in part (a) has order 3; the one in part (b) has order 9.