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Distribution: CASS Dean’s Office Copyright @ 2017 College of Arts and Social
Sciences, MSU-IIT
Langkit is the official journal of the College of Arts and Social Sciences (CASS),
MSU-Iligan Institute of Technology, Iligan City. Published annually, it follows the
peer review process in evaluating submitted articles. CASS faculty members and other
researchers here and abroad are invited to submit papers of their researches or papers
read in seminars or conferences to the Langkit Editorial Board.
c/o Prof. Nelia G. Balgoa, DHS of the Department of English, CASS.
Langkit is a M’ranao word meaning a strip of multi-colored fabric, woven or

embroidered to decorate or enhance the design or style of the malong, a multi-purpose
long, skirt-like or barrel-form Maranao garment with open ends, both the top and the
bottom. Used as a verb, Langkit means to embroider or to decorate with lace.
- from Lexicon of Classical Literary Maranao Words and Phrases

compiled by Macaraya and Macaraya (1993)
EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor-in-Chief
Nelia G. Balgoa, DHS
Associate Editors
Maria Cecilia M. Ferolin, PhD Hilton J. Aguja, PhD

Ivie C. Esteban, PhD Odessa May D. Escalona, MA
Jamail A. Kamlian, PhD Chem R. Pantorilla, MA
Alvert D. Dalona, MA
Managing Editor
Helen R. Betonio, MAEd
Boylie A. Sarcina, MA
The Official Journal of the College of Arts and Social Sciences
Mindanao State University – Iligan Institute of Technology
Vol. 7 ISSN 2094-4640 2016-2017
TABLE OF CONTENTS
The Hushed Voices of Autism: TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chronicling Social and 1
Academic Experiences in College
The Judith
HushedS.Voices of Autism: Chronicing Social and
Cagaanan 1
Academic Experiences in College
State-Trait Anxiety
Judith Vis-À-Vis Linguistic Competence
S. Cagaanan 19
Among Sophomore College Students of Western
Mindanao State
State-Trait University
Anxiety Vis-À-Vis Linguistic Competence 19
Among
Mario Mark
Sophomore B. College
SelisanaStudents of Western
Mindanao State University
Assessment of Students’ English Oral Proficiency 39
Based on Mario
Degree Mark B. Selisana
Programs: Implications for
Admission Examinations
Assessment
Helen R.ofBetonio
Students’ English Oral Proficiency 39
Based on Degree Programs: Implications for
Varyasyong
Admission Leksikal ng mga Wikaing Bagobo-Tagabawa,
Examinations 63
Giangan at Obo-Manobo
Helen R. Betonio ng Lungsod Davao:
Pokus Sa Dimensyong
Varyasyong Leksikal ngHeyograpikal
mga Wikaing Bagobo-Tagabawa, 63
Giangan
Luden L. Baterina
at Obo-Manobo ng Lungsod Davao:
Pokus Sa Dimensyong Heyograpikal
The Mananambals and Their Functions in Philippine Culture
Luden L. Baterina 86
Lourd Greggory D. Crisol
The Efren Jone J. Oledan
Mananambals and Their Functions in Philippine Culture 86
Lourd Greggory D. Crisol
The Filipino Migrants
Efren in Japan: Reconstructing
Jone J. Oledan 97
Identity and Nation
The Nelia G.Migrants
Filipino Balgoa in Japan: Reconstructing 97
Identity and Nation
Nelia G. Balgoa
ii
EDITORIAL
With this issue, we address four research areas in the social sciences: language
teaching, linguistics, folklore, and migration. Using qualitative and quantitative
designs, the papers articulate the issues confronting teachers, students, and migrants.
The research sites include cities in the Philippines and Japan. As the research
landscapes become multidisciplinary, the six papers discuss the apparent connection
between teachers as instructors and teachers as researchers. Teaching is enhanced by
research, and research provides teachers new perspectives to students’ learning.
Corollary to this is the challenge of empirical data to link the micro level analysis to
the macro realities as a system of discourse of both students in the academe and migrant
Filipinos in other countries. This issue endeavors to reinvigorate the academic terrain
of conducting research with the ebb and flow of educational philosophies and
methodologies, extending its scope to identity construction and folk practices.
Teaching students with autism can be daunting when they are mixed with other
students who are different from them. But in a learning environment where this
concern is not adequately addressed in terms of support mechanism, the teacher has to
devise means to make the students feel that they are part of the class. The paper on
“The Hushed Voices of Autism: Chronicling Social and Academic Experiences in
College” by Judith S. Cagaanan looks into the lived experiences of students with
autism (SWA) at MSU-Iligan Institute of Technology. She explores the academic
performance of the students and their social experiences using semi-structured
interview. The phenomenological analysis of the data reveals that the will to succeed
in their academics is hampered by everyday personal tussles. Various themes are
identified and support system on their social and emotional needs are recommended.
A more focused quantitative study on anxiety among students at Western

Mindanao State University (WMSU), a state university in Zamboanga City was
investigated by the late Mario Mark B. Selisana, a PhD Language Studies student. His
study seeks to correlate State-Trait Anxiety with linguistic competence of ninety (90)
sophomore students. Using a standardized State-trait Anxiety Inventory (Speilberger
(1991) and the Linguistic Competence Test on grammar and vocabulary (Salian, 2012),
there is a significant relationship between anxiety and linguistic competence, but
gender and course do not influence state-trait anxiety and linguistic competence. In
addition, their language competence test on grammar and vocabulary is classified as
“very good user”, suggesting more exposure to critical skills that involve evaluation of
textual structure and lexical items. In this study, female and male students equally
perform in the linguistic competence task.
Higher Education Institution (HEI) English teachers recognize the shift from
grammatical versus functional syllabuses and cognitive versus experiential learning
styles. However, it has been observed that assessing language proficiency remains
grammar-based. The paper, “Assessment of Students’ English Oral Proficiency Based
on Degree Programs: Implications for University Admissions Examinations” by Helen
R. Betonio employs a modified oral proficiency test from the Texas Oral Proficiency
Test (TOPT). To measure the respondents’ oral proficiency on functions, content,
vocabulary, grammar, comprehensibility, and fluency, a one-way ANOVA test of
Equality of means is used, followed by Post Hoc Analysis in relation to degree
programs. The results show a significance level of 0.05 in all areas. This study has
implications to the MSU-System Student Admission and Scholarship Examination
(SASE) that has a Language Usage (LU) component. In some faculties of the Institute,
students’ SASE scores in LU are used as bases in program admissions. Thus, test
designers of SASE may revisit the test items of LU and reexamine them whether they
objectively represent the language needs of the examinees.
The implementation of K+12 Basic Education in the country has initiated

drastic reforms in the various curricula in the HEIs. With the Mother Tongue-Based
Multilingual Education (MTBLE) framework, indigenous languages are revitalized.
The paper “Varyasyong Leksikal Ng Mga Wikaing Bagobo-Tagabawa, Giangan at
Obo-Manobo ng Lungsod Davao: Pokus sa Dimensyong Heyograpikal” by Luden L.
Baterina argues that the three languages in Davao possess lexical variations but carry
the same meanings while one language does not share the lexical variations of two
languages. From the emerging variations, it is observed that each language has its
distinct way of using words related to their respective topographies.
This linguistic phenomenon within sociolinguistics falls within Labov’s

concept of language change that is partly a result of language contact. Using
Meyerhoff’s (2011) analytical method of free variation, the study contributes to the
growing literature on indigenous languages in terms of lexical variations.
Philippine folkways are intricately woven in our everyday lives. They do not
only define us; in fact, they symbolize the worlds of the unknown, simplified as
manifestations of supernatural powers. “The Mananambals and Their Functions in
Philippine Culture” by Lourd Greggory D. Crisol and Efren John J. Oledan, the paper
explores folk healing among practitioners in Iligan City. Reminiscent of the
anthropological tradition of Malinowski and folklore studies of Dorson, the findings
reveal that folk healers or mananambals attribute their craft to supernatural powers
while their ability to diagnose illnesses and diseases are guided by various spirits.
Similar to shamanism, these healers perform incantations to cure the patients, massage
affected body parts, and prescribe herbal medicine. They also use amulets and trinkets
to protect themselves from harmful spirits. Despite scientific advances in medical
science, this study reifies the Filipinos’ sense of community where the folk healers, at
least in Iligan City, still occupy a role and spirituality that remains grounded on folk
healing, beliefs, and practices.
The economics of migration in Philippine context has resulted in brain drain,

but Filipinos’ concept of nation in foreign lands keep them connected to the families,
friends, and relatives they left behind. The paper “The Filipino migrants in Japan:
Reconstructing Identity and Nation” by Nelia G. Balgoa interrogates the symbols and
representations of Filipino identity through a Barrio Fiesta held in Yokohama, Japan.
In depth interviews are used to document the migrants’ experiences while social
semiotics provide the analytical tool. While the Filipinos during the fiesta index their
identities through costumes and other semiotic resources of “Filipino-ness” in their
fiesta kiosks, the study argues that identities are reconstructed and that the concept of
nation is negotiated. As host country of the festival, Japan acts as a destabilizing entity,
breathing its physical presence to Filipinos’ expressions of “home” or nation. Being a
Filipino in Japan is a manifestation of multiple involvements that sometimes lead to
negotiation rather than assimilation of Japanese identity or assertion of a stable Filipino
identity.
The six articles in this issue reflect the dynamism of the College of Arts and
Sciences of MSU-IIT’s attempt to foster a culture of research among its students and
faculty members and the growing interdisciplinarity of research in the production and
generation of knowledge.
For and in Behalf of the Editor,
Dr. Ivie C. Esteban

English Department, CASS, MSU-IIT
November 2017
CASS Langkit Vol. 7, 2016-2017
The Hushed Voices of Autism: Chronicling Social

and Academic Experiences in College
Judith S. Cagaanan1
Abstract
The number of students with autism (SWA) attending college has

increased along with the growth of autism diagnoses in recent times.
Individuals with autism, despite very strong potential academic
advancement, often fail in college. Also, research on the academic
and social life of college students with autism has been sparse.
(American Psychiatric Association, 2013). The purpose of this study
is to explore the lived experiences of students with autism in
Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology (MSU -
IIT), one of the biggest state universities in the Philippines thereby
contributing to the existing literatures on autism and understanding
SWAs better. Using semi-structured interviews to gather data and
exploring the superordinate themes of academic and social life, this
study hoped to address the following issues: 1) what is the academic
performance of students with autism (SWA) who have sought a
college degree in MSU - IIT; 2) what are the reported social
experiences of these students?; and (3) what possible support
program can be provided to help these students? Through
phenomenological analysis, insights provided by participants
revealed that autistic college students in MSU- IIT have the strong
potential to succeed in their academic pursuits, but continually
struggle with social issues that threaten to sustain their academic
performance. Overall, results indicate the need for institutions of
higher education like MSU - IIT to provide comprehensive supports,
most importantly, in the social and emotional domains for students
with autism (SWA) to succeed in academic environments.
Keywords: Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), students with autism (SWA),

academic and social services
1
The author is a faculty member of the English Department, College of Arts and Social
Sciences, MSU-IIT, Iligan City. Email address: judith.cagaanan@g.msuiit.edu.ph.
1
INTRODUCTION
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) as described by the Diagnostic and

Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM-5) refers to ASD as a mental
health disorder stemming from a dyad of impairment; the social/communication
difficulties and the repetitive behavior and restricted interests. Also, autism is an
umbrella term for a group of developmental disorders which comes in a wide range,
hence, a “spectrum” of associated symptoms, and levels of deficiencies in behavior,
social and communication skills. There is not one autism but many types, caused by
different combinations of genetic and environmental influences. Included in this
spectrum of autism disorders are Autism/Autistic Disorder, Asperger’s Syndrome and
Pervasive Developmental Disorder – Not Otherwise Specified (PDD-NOS). Autism
affects one in two percent of the world’s population cutting across race, culture,
economic and political systems. Currently, nearly 1 in 50 children under 18 have been
diagnosed with an ASD. Apparently, autism spectrum disorder is the fastest growing
disability in the world. (World Health Organization, 2017).
Similarly, in the Philippines, the number of cases of children born with autism,
once considered a low-incidence phenomenon is becoming prevalent. Approximately
1.2 million Filipinos have autism and the number is rapidly increasing.
In 2007, the Asia-Pacific International Seminar on Education for Individuals

with Special Needs was held in Yokohama, Japan. Participants agreed in consensus
that the Education for All (EFA) goals on inclusive education for children and youth
with special needs be implemented by all countries worldwide. Hence, the Philippines,
is one with the world in protecting the right of every child with autism, while at the
same time recognizing their fullest potentials. The Philippine Constitution, Presidential
Decree No. 603, and the Magna Carta for Persons with Disability have special
mandates to uphold the right of all its citizens to quality education regardless of their
circumstance. In line with this mandate, the Department of Education (DepEd) is
instituted to create the Special Education (SPED) program that caters to various and
unique needs of students with disabilities such as autism. SPED as a specialized
education “earnestly seeks to make education inclusive and accessible to every Filipino
child by establishing a framework for special needs education implementation
nationwide. It also establishes inclusive education learning resource centers that will
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be the source of appropriate instructional materials, tools, devices, gadgets, and

equipment that educators can use in their classrooms to ensure that students with
special needs are properly supported and enabled to learn alongside their peers.”
(Guidelines in the Admission of Students with Disabilities, 2009, p.3) Sadly, however,
the country's education system is currently under- equipped to cater to the individual
and unique requirements of students with special needs. Parents find it difficult to
provide their children the education they need given only a few public schools have
Special Education (SPED) centers. The SPED program and most of its educators also
lack the necessary skills and training to accommodate students with special needs.
Despite the circumstance, a handful of students with autism, most with high
functioning cognitive abilities are able to make it through college. But in college,
students with autism (SWAs) are continually faced with even more daunting
challenges than in primary and secondary education such as navigating the campus,
participating in academic and social activities (National Council on Disability Affairs,
2017).
Globally, students with special needs in higher education has always been an
uphill battle. It is estimated that over forty percent (40%) of individuals with an ASD
enroll in college, but eighty percent (80%) of this population does not complete a
degree. (Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 2014). The most common problem is the lack
of autistic-specific accommodations. Consequently, students in the spectrum either fail
or drop out in college. A study conducted by Pennsylvania House of Representatives
(2008) confirmed this finding; thus, advised higher academic institutions to prepare
students with autism for college and prepare colleges for the arrival of students with
autism. Sadly, most universities and academic institution are ill equipped, thus ill
prepared, to deal with autistic students to succeed in academic environments.
Several universities abroad such as the University of Michigan, Syracuse

University and many other even before have long taken heed to this call and have put
programs in place to secure the academic success of these students with diverse needs.
In developing countries like the Philippines, however, there are still instances of
persons with disabilities not being admitted in colleges and universities due mainly to
seemingly lack of information and preparation by the school administrators and
teachers alike on how to handle students with disabilities, thus resulting to loss of
3
opportunity to enjoy their right to education. Despite this, the Philippines continues to
craft laws and policies to safeguard the right of every individual with autism to pursue
higher education. In fact, the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) issues the
CHED Memorandum Order (CMO) No. 23, Series of 2000 known as “Quality
Education for Learners with Special Needs in its commitment to raise the level of
educational attainment of persons with disability in the country. Firstly, it urges higher
educational institutions to admit learners with special needs. Secondly, it promotes
inclusion of SPED programs for teacher training institutions. Finally, it facilities that
academic equipment be modified to ensure quality education is made accessible to
learner with special needs. (Commission on Higher Education, 2017).
In Mindanao-State University - Iligan Institute of Technology (MSU-IIT),

every person with autism is never denied admission for as long as the student passes
the System Admission Exam for Admission and Scholarship (SASE). Recently,
students with autism (SWAs) are starting to trickle in the Institute. Interestingly,
incidents involving students with “weird” behavior, infuriating both classmates and
professors are becoming noticeable. Most importantly, these students with “quirks” are
apparently observed to start college with a strong academic potential, but gradually
digress falling into the cracks of tardiness, absenteeism, and eventually very poor
academic performance. Obviously, these students need immense help. Thus, this study
is designed to allow individuals with ASD to provide information regarding their
experiences and challenges as college students in MSU-IIT.
Furthermore, it is important to point out that neurobiological difference in

autism is viewed as a medical condition by the general community who consider autism
as a disability with a host of accompanying social and communicative deficits. Any
learning community could be baffled at SWAs’s social and communication issues and
misconstrued them as “weird”, “abnormal” or “mischievous” behavior. As such,
autistic individuals are treated as people with disabilities who need to be ‘fixed’”
(Bagatell, 2010). It goes without saying that traditionally people with autism have been
stigmatized as people with an abnormality. The Commission on Higher Education
(2017) highly encourages universities and colleges to include in their institutional
research agenda the understanding of the uniqueness and needs of all people with
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special needs for them to gain full access and fully benefit from the learning
opportunities.
Utilizing the framework of neurodiversity, the present study upholds the notion
of self-advocacy among individuals with autism and discusses possible applications to
policy and intervention by mobilizing the community to raise awareness of autism-
related issues, building stronger support systems and fostering notions of inclusion and
diversity in a society such as the academic community. (National Symposium on
Neurodiversity, 2011).
Furthermore, the concept of neurodiversity as applied in this study hoped to

heighten awareness on the presence of students with autism (SWA), recognize and
respect their social and academic challenges, and ultimately for the general community
to develop a positive acceptance of students with autism (SWA) as neurodiverse
individuals pursuing careers in academic institutions such as Mindanao State
University - Iligan Institute of Technology (MSU-IIT).
Currently, there is very little empirical work (e.g. Elias R, White SW.J, 2018;
Elias, R., Salinas, C. E., Capriola, N., Conner, 2016) guiding the development of
postsecondary programs for individuals with ASD. Within the context of
neurodiversity, the study hoped to give voice to a growing population of students who
have a strong potential for postsecondary success, but failed due to lack of awareness
and the accompanying struggles of an autistic person.
Utilizing interpretative phenomenological analysis, the study explored three

major distinct themes:1) academic performance of students with autism in MSU-IIT;
2) social experiences of these students; and 3) possible support programs of these
students to succeed in college?
5
METHODOLOGY
Locale
The Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology (MSU-IIT) is a

premier institution of higher learning in Mindanao. MSU - IIT is part of a university
system composed of ten constituent universities spread throughout ten campuses in
Mindanao. Established in 1968, its special mandate is to integrate the cultural
communities in Mindanao, especially the Muslims into the mainstream of the nation's
socio-cultural and political life by providing them with opportunities for quality and
relevant public education for self-development. Known for quality and affordable
education, MSU - IIT receives of admission applicants from almost everywhere in the
country. The University admits an average of three thousand freshmen students every
year through the Mindanao State University (MSU) System Admission and
Scholarship Examination (SASE). MSU-IIT has no known provisions and policies
regarding admission of SWAs and those with other disabilities.
Participants
Participants in the study are two male and two female students with autism
spectrum disorder. Three of the participants received formal diagnoses of ASD at age
three - years old. The study, however, included one ASD self-diagnosed autistic
student following the assumption that the stigma attached to autism makes it unlikely
for an individual to claim to have the diagnosis without the symptoms (Brownlow,
2010). Currently, participants are taking undergraduate courses at Mindanao State
University - Iligan Institute of University (MSU-IIT).
Homogeneous sampling was used in this study to describe in depth the lived
experiences of students with autism (SWA) in MSU - IIT. The data were all collected
using face-to-face and semi - structured interviews. No incentives were offered to
participants. Their real names, however, were kept confidential to protect privacy thus,
pseudonyms are used instead. Participants and their parents were informed about the
nature and purpose of the study. Finally, the study was granted approval by the
University.
6
Data Gathering Procedures

This is a phenomenological study which used semi-structured interviews
which were conducted face-to-face at different locations chosen by participants. Three
participants opted for a familiar location at the MSU-IIT campus. One interview,
however, was conducted in a nearby restaurant and the informant was accompanied by
a classmate.
To reiterate, all interviews were conducted one-on-one and in person within a

time frame preferred by participants who requested for personal contact during the
interview to help them “get the question right”. The interviews lasted from 30 minutes
to an hour. Data analysis was completed using interpretative phenomenological
analysis (IPA). To do this, each interview was analyzed individually according to
emerging patterns of the following themes: 1) social experiences 2) academic
experiences, 3) potential support and services.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The two male 19-year old participants indicated that English is their primary
language since they were not raised in the Philippines. On the other hand, the other two
eighteen year- old female participants had Cebuano as their first language. All four
students were diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder at an early age of three. Three
were eldest children, but one is a middle child in the family. The four participants do
not have formal disclosure of disability to any administrator or personnel of MSU -
IIT. Two female participants, however, indicated that they were comfortable enough
to disclose their disability to classmates and some professors. Parents of male
participants informed instructors of their disability the first tell-tale signs their sons had
trouble performing academically.
Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of Participants

John Gilbert Ivy Elize
Gender M M F F
Age 19 19 18 18
First English English Cebuano Cebuano
Language
7
Table 1. (Cont’d.)
No. of 2 3 2 1
Siblings
Ordinal First Second First First
Position
Primary PDD-NOS Asperger’s PDD-NOS Asperger
Diagnosis ’s
Formal None None None None
Disclosure
It is evident in the high Systems Admission School Examination (SASE)

scores and cumulative general percentile averages, the four students with autism
enrolled in MSU - IIT seemed show a strong potential to perform academically well as
evidenced by a high rating in the (SASE). Also, three participants are taking technology
and science courses. However, one participant was enrolled in the AB English program
which is a language and literature program. Participants are enrolled in degree
programs which are highly correlated to each of their admission scores with three
participants scoring high in science, math and language, but one was rated very poorly
in math but quite good in language use.
Over four semesters, three participants in the science and technology programs
were able to maintain a high level of academic performance as indicated in their
average cumulative grade of 1. 75. One was a consistent honor student in one of the
programs of the College of Business Administration and Accountancy (CBAA). Two
of the students with autism enrolled in the College of Engineering and Technology
(COET) and CBAA programs are consistent honor students who have a General
Percentile Average (GPA) for four semesters. Meanwhile, one participant enrolled in
one of the programs of the College of Arts and Social Sciences (CASS) is struggling
to keep his grades afloat. It is important to note that the student scored relatively high
in language use and English is his first language. An important issue emerged from this
result being that academic readiness is not a sure ticket for SWAs to perform
academically well.
8
Table 2: Academic Performance of Participants

John Gilbert Ivy Elize
SASE General
Rating 104 97 117 111
Cumulative
GPA 1.97 3.20 1.58 1.65
Delinquent
Grade 2 INCs 4 INCs None None
Remarks
Current 24 units 20 units 23 units 23 units
Academic
Load
Year Level Second-Year Third - Year Third - Year Third - Year
The academic performance of students in MSU - IIT are measured at the end
of each term using this grading system: 1.00 and 1.25 - Excellent; 1.50 and 1.75 - Very
Good; 2.00 and 2.25 - Good; 2.50 and 2.75 - Satisfactory; 3.00 - Passing 5.00 - Failure;
Inc. - Incomplete; Drp – Dropped
Academic Experiences
Using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis, participants in this study

discussed two superordinate themes of academic and social struggles. Embedded
within these major themes indicated their hopes for special support and
accommodation.
Firstly, participants reported a high degree of academic success. However, it

seems that such perceived academic success is constantly challenged. In response to
open - ended question on specific academic struggle, Ivy noted, “My greatest academic
struggle is working in groups because I prefer to work alone.” She further reported that
as much as possible, she avoids activities and organization that require social
interaction. Unfortunately, she cannot altogether drop socializing.
At most times, she had to take a backseat role during group requirements and
sulked in a corner when academic tasks require close interaction with classmates. In
9
one public speaking class, however, she found the courage to talk openly about her
autism. At present, Ivy reported getting overwhelmed with her major subjects and is
on the verge of failing three major subjects the next semester. She has been missing
classes for a number of times now and could be dropped by two of her professors due
to unexplained absences. Ivy indicated getting “sick and tired of endless studying and
doing worksheets” that she watched a good number of Korean movies on the internet.
Unfortunately, she was hooked to it and could not stop watching online movies even
during class hours.
On the other hand, Elize reported: “I am motivated to excel in academics. My

professors have been very good; they appreciate my diligence and are willing to spend
time outside of class discussing course content or expectations.” She said she is making
a number of friends because she is fun to be with. Her greatest issue, however, is some
classmates are calling her O. A. (overacting) and a professor in one of her subjects find
her “too noisy” to deal with and called her rude several times. She thinks Aspergers
made her “talk a lot and move a lot.” Many times, she failed to recognize social cues
of when to start or stop talking. All she knew is she has to talk incessantly and
immensely so anxiety will get in her way of socializing.
Meanwhile, John described his IIT life as a “rollercoaster”. Awarded “The Math
Wiz” and “Best in Calculus” several times in high school, John described himself as
having an exceptional talent in computer tinkering and Math. However, in MSU - IIT,
he had to enroll in Calculus several times until he was advised to shift to Information
Technology. John noted that it was not the lesson that stumped him, but rather decoding
what professors wanted especially that he could hardly understand Cebuano. Often
baffled by instructors’ instruction and overwhelmed by academic work, asking help
from his classmates or professors was extremely difficult especially when they
appeared busy. John had very few friends, so his mom had to call him often and
informed a few his of his professors about his disability for a few academic
considerations. John reported:
“My greatest academic struggle is preparing for exams and quizzes. I

tend to get anxious over the very long coverage and felt so overwhelmed
by it. But John added: “I have already overcome myself because my
mom taught me a lot about God and prayer.”
10
Finally, Gilbert is a student with autism who seems to find every academic
task an insurmountable hill to climb. In particular, he found it mindboggling to
remember class schedule, room assignments, and face as well as names of professors.
As a result, he missed a good number of course requirements and inevitably failed in
many of his subjects. Also, the student expressed vehement protest against having to
move to this country and enrolled in the AB English program. He said he is a very
good artist and wants to take an architecture course. When asked to describe his
academic experiences in the University, he wrote three times “hell, hell, hell”. When
asked why, Gilbert refrained from elaborating, but expressed serious concern that his
parents might know of his personal protest.
Social Experiences
On the whole, three participants reported a generally pleasant social

experiences. They found MSU - IIT peers friendly and professors helpful. However,
social and communication inadequacies keep them quite isolated. Three participants
reported having the greatest difficulty during their first year in college. Two
participants who were very close to families from distant places did not report getting
homesick. Instead, they relished their new independence, but getting into routines,
losing their way around the campus, and academic activities that require close social
interaction are painfully difficult. Consequently, participants either get sick or perform
poorly in classes. Eventually, these students have learned to adjust in their new
academic environment but with serious consequences in their academic performance.
In response to the open-ended question “What is your most difficult social

challenges?” Ivy reported, “I have made quite a number of friends already, but I still
have difficulty trying to mingle out because I prefer to be left alone”. However, once
in her public speaking class she delivered a piece which talked about her autism. The
classmates and professor were surprised since she apparently showed no signs of being
“abnormal”. Currently, Ivy showed extreme difficulties coping with academic
demands of major course load that she started missing classes a number of times and
could fail or drop several of her course subjects this semester. Apparently, she could
be dismissed from her academic program due to poor performance in major subjects.
11
On the other hand, Elize disclosed “talking a lot sometimes gets me into
trouble.” Elize reported getting overwhelmed by anxiety prior to a social or academic
activities. But she has learned to develop a strategy to overcome the “jetters”. She
either keeps totally quite or talk immensely. She revealed that talking a lot makes her
forget her anxiety while keeping quite overcomes her with paralyzing social fear. She
develops this talking strategy at age three from preschool teachers who devoted their
time improving her communication skill by giving her the most significant role in
school plays.
Meanwhile, another student John noted, “looking for a suitable boarding

house” whose owner and other occupants could understand my special need was
especially hard for me. His mom had to go door to door to every boarding house close
to IIT until she met a faculty member in the University whose daughter was also on
the spectrum. After two years, John was staying with a relative and now in a boarding
house which suits him well.
Sadly, one participant, Gilbert described his social encounters in the campus
as “hell”. He said most of his classmates ignored him while his professors did not
appreciate him. Gilbert was reluctant to elaborate his answers that classmates and some
of his professors were asked about their social encounters with Gilbert. They reported
social problems associated with him such as being aggressive, disrupting the classes
by asking never ending questions, drooling, and picking his nose.
Support Services and Programs
Table 3 in the next page shows the support services and accommodation as
reported by four participants as their desired support services and accommodations
maybe taken into consideration:
12
Table 3: Potential Support Services and Academic Accommodations

Support Services Reduced course load
Priority registration reduced course load
Housing accommodations personalized academic advising
Independence and Self-Sufficiency Peer mentor
Training
Opting out for spontaneous questions
Adjustment and Transition Program in the classroom or allow ample time
for verbal responses.
Guidance and counselling on life skills Alternative individual than group
such as personal hygiene, dorm classroom activities. At the same time,
decorum, time management and providing concrete examples for
organizational skills. complex topics in exams and
assignments.
Extensive mental health care Preferential seating in classroom
Academic and social skills training Provide a specific schedule and
appropriate for a university and adult priority time for assignment and exam
life such as the following: preparation as well as extended time
Academic planning and prioritizing for test taking. Provide ample and
Making advantage of academic detailed feedback on assignment and
opportunities exam.
Working independently and in groups
Negotiating the social nuance of
professor-student relationships.
Embedded within the superordinate themes of academic and social

experiences is the subtheme exploring on possible support services and
accommodations for students on the spectrum. Students with autism in the study
pointed out several times that they do struggle to adjust to the challenges of college
particularly in terms of the following: dormitory living, sudden independence,
rigorous classes, and a new social world in an academic environment such as the MSU-
IIT. The same list of challenges many typical college students may find very
challenging. However, for people with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD), the
transition can be more abrupt and dramatic. Unlike their typical peers, students with
autism generally still need other grown-ups like their parents but who are no longer
available, or welcome, to advocate for them in college campuses. Hence, SWAs’
struggles with communication, organization or interpreting social nuances can
multiply exponentially in college, away from the watchful eye and structured world of
13
parents, principals and special education teachers in previous schools. Also, college
students with autism are often tempted to keep their needs quiet. They see college as
a step toward independence and students on the spectrum who are determined to make
it on their own do not want to admit they need help. But they do need help
(VanBergeijk, Klin, & Volkmar, 2008). It is crucial then to listen to the “hushed
voices” of these students and take into considerations autism - specific services and
accommodations which do not necessarily jeopardize the academic standard of the
Institute.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The study showed that the School Admissions System Examination scores and
the General Percentile Average (GPA) of students with autism (SWA) indicate that
they are well prepared to pursue college education in the Institute. Notwithstanding,
students may have achieved a relatively high level of academic success while
struggling with the non-academic aspects of college such as navigating the social
environment and difficulties with communication and interaction with peers and
instructors. Furthermore, SWAs in MSU - IIT reported loneliness and suicidal
tendencies. These difficulties reveal the importance of offering emotional support to
these students in the form of developing social supports, advanced social skills
training, and offering counselling services. The implication of this conclusion is that
students with ASD require comprehensive support in the academic, social, and
psychological domains. Considering the increasing frequency with which college
students especially autistic individuals who are extremely vulnerable to anxiety,
depression, and other psychiatric problem, it may be more critical than ever before
that the University provides these students with services and programs to acquire more
advanced social skills and stress-coping strategies. The informants of the study have
varied levels of social and emotional needs despite their common diagnosis, it is
crucial to create autistic-specific programs and services addressing each of these
students’ unique challenges. Connected to this issue is that individuals with ASD do
not necessarily fulfill common stereotypes. It is a common misconception that autistic
people are primarily concentrated around math, computer and engineering, not liberal
arts or other fields of interest. Careful considerations must be made not to mistakenly
advised students with autism toward majoring in academic fields, when in reality they
14
can achieve success in a variety of college majors. Understanding the interests of the
individuals is very important when having these individuals participate in
college/career planning. Forcing these students to enroll in certain programs could
come with debilitating effects on the academic and psychological aspects of their life.
Besides emotional and social challenges, students with autism reported

encountering intense struggle to adjust to the challenges of college: finding a place to
stay, sudden independence, rigorous classes, and a new social world. While it is true
that typical students without autism may encounter the same challenges in the new
academic environment, however, for most people with an autism spectrum disorder
(ASD), the transition can be more abrupt, dramatic, painful and extremely difficult. It
is recommended that a student with autism peculiar needs for certain academic, social
and emotional supports be taken seriously.
Meanwhile, the likelihood for students with autism and their parents to
disclose their disability emerged from participants of the study casually informing
their peers and instructors about their diagnoses to solicit a few academic
considerations. The comfortable disclosure of this sample exemplifies the fourth and
final issue, which is the importance of self- disclosure for students with autism as a
pre-enrollment requirement in MSU - IIT. The disclosure of disability policy will be
crucial to provide a supportive campus of SWAs’ needs to become socially integrated
in the campus, developed advanced social skills, and success in college.
This study has limitations with the sample size being small while recruitment
of participants relied on acquaintances and self-reports. Therefore, it is recommended
that a large-scale study exploring the challenges and investigating the many issues
involving students with autism inevitable presence and growth in academic institution
be conducted.
15
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18
State-Trait Anxiety Vis-À-Vis Linguistic Competence Among Sophomore

College Students of Western Mindanao State University
Mario Mark B. Selisana2
Abstract
This study was undertaken to determine the state-trait anxiety and

linguistic competence of WMSU sophomore college students.
The objectives were to measure the degree of difference in state-
trait anxiety and the linguistic competence of college students
according to gender and course and to determine whether there is
a significant relationship. Descriptive-Correlational Quantitative
Research Design was used and Systematic Listing Sampling
Procedure was utilized. Data were collected using State-trait
Anxiety Inventory (STAI) adapted from Spielberger (1991), and
the Linguistic Competence Test (LCT) on grammar and
vocabulary used by Salian (2012). The results showed that the
sophomore college students of WMSU had “moderate anxiety”
based on STAI. In terms of grammar and vocabluary, the LTC
results showed that the respondents were classified as “very good
user”. There is a significant relationship between their state-trait
anxiety and their linguistic competence, but gender and course
of the respondents did not influence their state-trait anxiety and
linguistic competence. Since moderate state-trait anxiety can
influence college students’ high linguistic competence, there is a
need to expose them to challenging language classroom activities.
Gender and course do not affect state-trait anxiety and linguistic
competence which may be indicative of the progressive benefits
on the part of the language learning instructor and the English
department curriculum. Contrary to traditional notion that females
outperform males in linguistic competence task, the similar output
of males compared to females here can be viewed as progress
report for WMSU college students
Keywords: Psycholinguistics, state-trait anxiety, linguistic competence, gender,

course, correlation study
2
The author was a student of PhD in Language Studies program of the Department of English,
College of Arts and Social Sciences, MSU-IIT, Iligan City.
19
INTRODUCTION
Anxiety is described by psychologists as a subjective feeling of tension,

apprehension nervousness or worry associated with an arousal of the autonomic
nervous system (Spielberg, 1979). Although anxiety may manifest in different number
of ways depending on the individual and the specific situation causing it, psychologists
identified three forms namely: state anxiety, trait anxiety and situation specific anxiety.
State anxiety refers to the actual experience of anxiety and its effect on
emotions, cognition and behavior. It is the transient emotional state of feeling anxious
which can fluctuate over time and vary in intensity. It results in heightened level of
arousal and more sensitive autonomic nervous system which leads to a feeling of
energized or keyed-up or sensitive to what other people may say or think about them.
(Mc Intyre, in Young 1991).
On the other hand, trait anxiety refers to the stable predispositions to become
anxious in wide range of situations. It is regarded as a feature of the individual
personality and is viewed as a relatively stable trait overtime (Spielberger, 1983).
Thus, an important attribute in the conceptual development of the phenomenon of
anxiety is given to Spielberger (1983) who has made a distinction between state and
trait anxiety. Together with his companions, Gorsuch and Lushene, they then
developed the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory or STAI to ‘operationalize’ this
distinction. (Snezama Tovilovic et al) (Incomplete citation).
Spielberger (1983) and his colleagues stressed that the STAI has pedagogical
implication because it was developed to link anxiety and learning ability. This
instrument assists researchers to measure the levels of anxiety experienced by learners
or students. Moreover, the instrument is a standardized pencil and paper self-
questionnaire, which measures both state and trait anxiety at the same time
(Spielberger, 1983).
Linguists nowadays try to view language beyond its structure and grammar.
They insist that language has a very important role in lerning and development Razfr
& Rumenapp, 2014). This awareness has been postulated in two separate concepts,
20
namely linguistic competence and linguistic performance Chomsky (1991/1965).

Linguistic competence is a system of linguistic knowledge possessed by the native
speakers of a language. It is in contrast to the concept of linguistic performance, which
is governed by specific codes for communication by members within a community. In
Noam Chomsky’s theory, it is the unconscious knowledge of the language and
people with such competence have learned to utilize the grammar of their spoken
language to generate an unlimited amount of statements. Known as Generative
Grammar, the concept has been adopted and developed by linguists in the generative
tradition (Fernandez, 2011).
How competence and performance intersect in language learning can be

extended to acquire system and learned system (Krashen, 1985). Emphasizing
language acquisition as the most important among the five hypotheses in second
language learning, Krashen identified certain external factors that affect a learner’s
linguistic competence. For instance, it has been observed by English teachers and
professors in the tertiary level that students manifest certain behavioral patterns like
restlessness, mental blocks, tensions, stammering, stuttering, forgetfulness, visiting the
restrooms during classes and especially when there’s an exam. In Krashen’s
framework, these are manifestations of monitoring and filtering. According to Alvio’s
(2009) findings, individuals with low affective filters are better language learners and
better acquirers of the language than those with high affective filters.
It is imperative then that language teachers and professors develop an

awareness of the phenomenon of anxiety in terms of its causes and impact on the
linguistic competencies of the students in the learning classrooms. Likewise, they
should find practical measures and remedies in reducing any form of anxiety so that
the acquisition of the second language especially in English will be a challenging and
a rewarding experience. Hence, the purpose of this study was to correlate State-Trait
Anxiety to the Linguistic Competence of the students of Western Mindanao State
University.
21
METHODOLOGY
The study made use of the Descriptive Quantitative Correlational Research

Design. The study evaluated and correlated the level of state and trait anxiety to the
level of linguistic competence of the sophomore college students of Western Mindanao
State University. This method was appropriate since it involved quantitative data to
determine how state-trait anxiety affected the linguistic competence of the respondents
in terms of grammar and vocabulary. Likewise, the design helped answer the research
hypothesis whether there was a significant difference in the State-Trait Anxiety or in
their Linguistic Competence when data were grouped and analyzed according to their
gender and course.
The respondents were the ninety (90) sophomore college students from the
College of Home Economics, College of Teacher Education and the College of
Communications and Humanities who were enrolled in the English classes during the
first semester, S.Y. 2014 -2015. Systematic Listing Sampling Procedure was utilized.
Furthermore, this study made use of two (2) research instruments: a standardized State-
trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) adapted from Spielberger (1991), and the Linguistic
Competence Test used by Salian (2012) on grammar and vocabulary. Statistical tools
used in this study included mean, standard deviation, t-test for Independent Sample,
One-Way Analysis of Variance and Pearson Product Moment Correlation.
The study underwent the following stages: 1) conceptualization of the

problems and formulation of hypothesis and variables; 2) preparation of research
instruments; 3) data gathering, and 4) Analysis and Interpretation of data.
The target population were the sophomore college students taking up English
classes and were officially enrolled during the first semester at WMSU. Ninety (90)
respondents were selected from three colleges where thirty (30) came from the College of
Home Economics; (30) thirty from the College of Teacher Education and thirty (30) from
the College of Communications and Humanities. This study made use of systematic listing
sampling procedure. The official list of the students was taken from the Registrar’s Office,
and the students were selected according to the odd numbers until the desired number of
respondents were achieved. Fifteen (15) respondents were male while the other fifteen (15)
were female per college. Table 4.0 in the next page shows the respondents’ profile.
22
Table 4. Profile of the Respondents

Gender
Respondents M F Population
BSHRM 15 15 30
BSTEd 15 15 30
AB Eng 15 15 30
45 45 90
The study made use of two Standardized Test Questionnaires. The first was
the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) which measured two types of anxiety namely
the State anxiety and Trait anxiety at the same time. This inventory test was developed
by Charles Speilberger (1983) to make comparisons and assess different types of
anxieties in both clinical and medical settings, but may also be used in other fields of
research. Twenty (20) separate statements were used to measure State anxiety and the
other twenty (20) were statements to measure Trait anxiety. Scores for both anxiety
inventory may range from forty (40) to one hundred sixty (160) with higher scores
correlating greater or severe anxiety level, medial scores indicating average or
moderate anxiety level and low scores indicating low or mild anxiety level. Both scales
have anxiety absent and anxiety present statements. Each measure had a different rating
scale. The 4-point scale for State-anxiety are: 1) Not at all 2) Somewhat 3) Moderately
so 4) Very much so while the 4-point scale for Trait-anxiety are: 1) Almost never 2)
Sometimes 3) Often 4) Almost always. The Matrix of Test Specification is shown in
Table 5.
Table 5. Matrix of Test Specification for STAI Test
STAI Features Type objective Item Placement Total
Part I: State Anxiety Test
1. Anxiety Absent Rating scale 1-4 1-5, 10=11, 15-16,19-20 11
2. Anxiety Present Rating scale 1-4 6-9, 12-14,17-18, 9
Subtotal: 20
Paper II- Trait –Anxiety Test
1. Anxiety Present Rating scale 1-4 22, 24-25, 28-29,31-32, 11
35, 37-38, 40
2. Anxiety Absent Rating scale 1-4 21,23.26-27,30,33- 9
34,36,39
Subtotal: 20
23
The second was the linguistic competence test, a standardized unity- item test
on vocabulary and grammar to determine the respondents’ ability and competence in
the English class. The vocabulary test consisted of a 45-item test divided into three
levels: Easy (15 items), Average (15 items) and Difficult (15 items). The grammar test
was composed of Subject-verb agreement which consisted of twenty-five (25) items
and twenty (20) items on Verb tenses.
The respondents were tested on these two sub-categories since thesewere the
most common areas where students committed errors on grammatical features of the
language. The objective type of test used for vocabulary was Multiple choice with only
three choices, while the grammar type of test items used sentence completion and
identifying errors. This means that the items were assessed objectively and that there
was only one correct answer for every item. The Matrix of the Specification for the
Linguistic competence test is shown in Table 6.
Table 6. Matrix of Test Specification for the Linguistic Competence

Linguistic Feature Type of Objective Item Placement Total
Paper I: grammar
1.Tenses Sentence complete 1-15 15
items
2.Reference Error-recognition 1-15 15
items
3.Subject-verb Error-recognition 1-15 15
agreement items
Subtotal: 45
Paper II-vocabulary
Easy Multiple choice 1-15 15
Average Multiple choice 16-30 15
Difficult Multiple choice 31-45 15
Subtotal 45
24
Data Collection Procedure
As soon as the approval from the deans of the College of Home Economics,
College of Teacher Education and College of Communications and Humanities were
granted, the list of respondents was finalized, the schedule was set, and the venue to
administer the questionnaires to the 90 responsdents was prepared. Ethical Clearance
was sought and granted before administering the test questionnaires.
Thirty minutes (30) were allotted for the STAI questions and sixty (60) minutes
for the Vocabulary and Grammar test respectively. After all the respondents have
finished answering the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and Linguistic Competence Test,
all papers were retrieved. Answers were subsequently tabulated, coded, computed and
treated with Statistical tools for analysis and interpretation.
Data Analysis Procedure
The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory assesses both State and Trait separately.
Each type of anxiety test has its own scale for a total of forty (40) different statements.
For every answer, a respondent may get a score between I – 4 point. Scores may range
from twenty (21) as the lowest score and 160 as the highest possible score. Scores show
that (21-60) is interpreted as low anxiety level, (61 - 100) as moderate anxiety level,
(101-140) as high anxiety level and (141-160) as severely high anxiety level. Table 7.0
as adapted from Spielberger (1991) shows the score range, its scale range with its
adjectival rating equivalent. The presentation of the data was based on the 4-point
Likert scale weighted mean.
Table 7. State-Trait Inventory (STAI) Scale

Score Range Scale Range Adjectival Rating
141 - 160 3.1 - 4.0 Severely High Anxiety Level
101 - 140 2.1 – 3.0 High Anxiety Level
61 - 100 1.51 - 2.0 Moderate Anxiety Level
21 - 60 1.1 - 1.5 Low Anxiety Level
0 - 20 Did not attempt No assessable information
25
Scoring Procedure for the Respondent’s Linguistic Competence
For the Linguistic Competence Test for both vocabulary and grammar, every
correct answer, a respondent was assigned one point. The total score of the respondents
in the language competence test was explained using the following description:
A score of (82-90) means expert user, (73-81) means very good user, (64-72)
means good user, (55-36) means competent user, (46-54) means modest user, (37-45)
means limited user, (28-36) means extremely limited user, (19-27) means intermittent
user, and (10-18) means non user. If the respondent’s score was between (1-9), it meant
they did not attempt to answer the test. The scores were added to constitute the
respondent’s level of linguistic competence. Those data were tabulated, coded,
analyzed and interpreted.
Table 8. Respondents’ Linguistic Competence Rating Scale

SCALE LEVEL DESCRIPTION
82-90 Expert user Has fully operational command of the language;
appropriate accurate and affluent with complete
understanding.
Has fully operational command of the language with
Very good only occasional unsystematic inaccuracies and
73-81 user inappropriateness; misunderstanding may occur in
unfamiliar situation; handles complex detailed argument
well.
Has operational command of the language, though with
64-72 occasional inaccuracies, inappropriateness and
Good user misunderstanding in some situation; generally, handles
complex language well and understand fairly complex
language, particularly in familiar situation
Has generally effective command of the
55-63 Competent language despite some inaccuracies, inappropriateness
User and misunderstanding; can use and understand fairly
complex language, particularly in familiar situation.
Has partial command of the language, coping
46-54 Modest user with overall meaning in most situation, though is likely
to make mistakes; should be able to handle+D6 basic
communication in own field
26
Basic competence is limited to familiar situation; has
37-45 Limited user frequent problem in understanding and expression; is not
able to use complex language.
Extremely Coveys and understands only in general meaning in
28-36 limited user familiar situations; frequent breakdowns in
communication occur.
No real communication is possible except for the most
19-27 Intermittent basic information using isolated words or short formulas
user in familiar situations and to meet immediate needs; has
great difficulty understanding spoken and written
English.
Essentially has no ability to use the language beyond
10-18 Non-user possibly a few isolated words.
1–9 Did not attempt No assessable information.
the test
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
State-Trait Anxiety of Sophomore College Students as Respondents
Overall, the respondents show “moderate anxiety” as shown in Table 9. It can

be gleaned in this table that college students elicit MODERATE ANXIETY based on
the survey data. The mean score obtained by students is 2.0 with the standard deviation
of 0.37 which is considered a small value. It means that the college students are
homogeneously grouped in terms of their state-trait anxiety level.
Table 9. Overall State-Trait Anxiety of Sophomore

College Students as Respondents
Standard Adjectival
State-Trait Anxiety Mean Deviation Rating
Moderate
Sophomore College Students 2.0 0.37 Anxiety
Scale: 1.10-1.50- Low Anxiety; 1.51-2.0- Moderate High Anxiety;

2.10-3.10-High Anxiety; 3.10-4.0-Severely High Anxiety
27
On the Linguistic Competence of Sophomore College Students as Respondents
In general, the respondents are classified “very good user” of the English
language in both grammar and vocabulary components with the mean of 76.01. Table
10 presents the linguistic competence of the sophomore college students in grammar
and vocabulary. The students obtained the mean of 76.01 with the standard deviation
of 3.94 which is considered small. It implies that students are homogeneously grouped
in their level of linguistic competence in both components.
The linguistic competence data in this current study is divided into two
linguistic components: grammar and vocabulary. The results support the claim of
Canale and Swain’s (1986) on communicative competence theory. Linguistic
competence is one of the areas of communicative competence. It refers to the
knowledge of lexical terms, rules of morphology, syntax, sentence grammar and
semantics centered on the sentence-level grammar. In the present study, items in
grammar test measure the students’ skill in analyzing sentence level-grammatical
structure in the English language. Items in vocabulary test involved relevant lexical
items appropriate for college students’ level of comprehension.
Table 10. The Linguistic Competence of Sophomore College Students

Linguistic Competence Mean Standard Deviation Adjectival Rating
Sophomore College 76.01 3.94 Very Good User

Students
82-90 Expert User; 73-81 Very Good User; 64-72 Good User; 55-63 Competent User; 46-54
Modest User; 37-45 Limited User; 28-36 Extremely Limited User; 19-27 Intermittent User; 10-
18 Non-User; 1-9 Did not attempt the test.
On the Correlation between State-Trait Anxiety and Linguistic Competence of

the Respondents
There is a significant relationship between the respondents’ state-trait anxiety

and their linguistic competence. Table 11 presents the correlation matrix between the
students’ state - trait anxiety and their linguistic competence. A closer look at the table
shows that the r value of 0.80 with the corresponding p value of 0.04 is significant at
alpha 0.05. Hence, there is high correlation between the students’ state-trait anxiety
28
and their linguistic competence. It implies that the students state-trait anxiety level can
influence the students’ linguistic competence. In other words, the students’ moderate
anxiety level affects their high linguistic competence.
Table 11. Correlation Matrix: Students’ State-Test Anxiety Level and their
Linguistic Competence
Variables R p Interpretation
State-Trait Anxiety and Linguistic 0.80 0.04 High Correlation
Competence
* Significant at alpha 0.05; r=0.8 and above= High Correlation; r=-0.4-0.7
above=Moderate Correlation; r=0.3 and below= Low Correlation (Downie & Heath, 1984)
On the Difference in State-Trait Anxiety Based on Gender and Course
There is no significant difference in the students’ state-trait anxiety based on

gender and course. Hence, gender and course do not influence the sophomore college
students state-trait anxiety. Table 11 presents the difference between males and females
on their state-trait anxiety. As shown in this table, the male group obtained the mean
of 2.02 and the female group garnered 2.01. It is quite obvious that there is very
minimal mean difference of 0.02. Both males and females appear to manifest moderate
anxiety level. The t value of 0.43 with the corresponding p value of 0.67 is not
significant as the p value is greater than the alpha 0.05 probability. Thus, males and
females do not differ on their state-trait anxiety. It implies that gender does not
determine the students’ state-trait anxiety.
Table 12. Difference: Students’ State-Trait Anxiety Based on Gender

Variable Gender Mean Mean t P Interpretation
Difference
State-Trait Male 2.02 0.01 -0.43 0.67 Not Significant
Anxiety Female 2.01
* Significant at alpha 0.05.
Table 12 presents the difference in the students’ state-trait anxiety level based
on course groups: BSHRM, ABENG and BSED. The F value of 0.46 with the
corresponding p value of 0.71 is not significant because the p value is greater than the
alpha 0.05 probability. Hence, there is no significant difference in the students’ state-
29
trait anxiety when data are classified according to course groups. It can be inferred that
course groups as variable in this study does not determine the students’ state-trait
anxiety.
Table 13. Difference: Students’ State-Trait Anxiety Based on Course

BSHRM= 30; Mean Square F p Interpretation
ABENG= 30;
BSED=30Variable
State-Trait Bet. Within
Anxiety Groups Groups
0.03 0.07 0.46 0.71 Not Significant
* Significant at alpha 0.05
On the Difference in Linguistic Competence based on Gender and Course
There is no significant difference in the linguistic competence between males

and females; and based on course groups. Thus, gender and course groups were not a
factor affecting the sophomore college students’ linguistic competence. Table 13
presents the difference in the linguistic competence among the sophomore college
students when data are grouped according to gender. It shows that males got the mean
of 75.86 and females obtained the mean of 76.15. Obviously, there is minimal mean
difference of –0.29. As can be seen in this table, the t value of 0.35 with the p value of
0.73 is not significant inasmuch as the p value is greater than the alpha 0.05 probability.
Therefore, males and females do not differ in their linguistic.
Table 14. Difference: Students’ Linguistic Competence Based on Gender

Variable Gender Mean Mean T P Interpretation
Difference
Linguistic Male 75.86 -0.29 - 0.73 Not Significant
Competence Female 76.15 0.35
While Table 15 in the next page presents the difference in the students’
linguistic competence when data are classified according to course groups: BSHRM,
ABENG and BSED. A closer look at this table, it shows that the F value of 2.49 with
the p value 0.26 is not statistically significant because the p value appears to be greater
than the alpha 0.05 probability. Hence, there is no significant difference in the students’
30
level of linguistic competence based on course groups. It can be inferred that course
specialization does not necessarily determine the students’ linguistic competence.
Table 15. Difference: Students’ Linguistic Competence Based on Course

Variable Mean Square F p Interpretation
Linguistic Bet. Within
Competence Groups Groups
36.73 14.75 2.49 0.26 Not Significant
* Significant at alpha 0.05; BSHRM- Bachelor of Science in Hotel and Restaurant
Management; ABENG=Bachelor of Arts in English; Bachelor in Secondary Education.
Based on the findings of this study, it is safe to conclude that moderate state-
trait anxiety can influence the college students’ high linguistic competence. Hence, it
is necessary for college students to be exposed to challenging language classroom
activities that will bring about “little stress” to push students to develop their linguistic
competence skills involving higher order thinking skills such as analysis and
evaluation of grammatical textual structure and lexical items needed for
comprehension.
According to Lehrer, Goldman & Strommen (1990), anxiety can have both
positive and negative effects on language learning performance. It can be beneficial
on EFL students when exposed with a "little stress" to be able to focus and to aim for
accuracy in their performance. Hence, moderate anxiety refers to that “little stress” that
language teachers need to expose students in classroom activities.
Corollary to this assumption, Brown (2007) emphasized this “little stress”

pertaining to the task or activity, may be facilitative, in that, establishing certain level
of stress through challenge or discipline shall lead students to concentrate and to strive
for higher learning outcome. Similarly, Occhipinti (2009) defines facilitating anxiety
as the positive force which may lead the student to become even more motivated for
language learning.
31
Facilitative and debilitative anxiety normally works in tandem, serving to

motivate and warn the student. Facilitative anxiety motivates students to ‘fight’ the
new learning task, prepares the student emotionally to approach the learning task as a
challenge. Debilitative anxiety, however, motivates the students to flee the new
learning task and stimulates the individual emotionally to adopt avoidance behavior
(Scovel in Horwitz and Young, 1991).
Hussain (2011) claimed that facilitative anxiety is associated with the notion
that it helps in learning and the performance of the learners is increased. Sometimes
facilitative and debilitative work together and sometimes one does not exist. It is
depending on the situation in which the learner performs. However, as the research
studies indicated above, only moderate level of anxiety gives maximum better result.
The findings in the current study are also supported by Krashen’s Affective
Filter Hypothesis (1981). This monitor model of second language learning states that
when the affective filter is high, there is tension. When there is high level of anxiety
and the classroom environment is very threatening, then learning will not take place.
However, when the affective filter is low then learning will take place. In Krashen’s
(1981) model, it could be implied that the moderate anxiety can fall within the category
of low level anxiety. In fact, in Krashen’s i+ 1 hypothesis, students should be exposed
to activities that would challenge them (a bit higher than their “comfort zone”).
Challenging tasks as shown in previous research can cause students to be moderately
anxious and can lead them to manifest better language learning proficiency.
Data in this current study is supported by A. Madrazo (2010). It was found that
De La Salle University (DLSU) college students also elicited “moderate” test anxiety
level.
In addition, gender and course do not affect state-trait anxiety and linguistic
competence. The equality on the variables under study may be indicative of the
progressive benefits on the part of the language learning instructor and the English
department curriculum. Contrary to traditional notion that females outperform males
in linguistic competence task, the similar output of males compared to females here
can be viewed as progress report for WMSU college students who garnered “very good
32
user” label in this current grammar and vocabulary tests. Same is true with equality of
linguistic competence among BSHRM, BSED and ABENG who also obtained high
linguistic competence in both grammar and vocabulary tests.
Horwits’ (2001) study focused mainly on language anxiety and achievement

and assumed that gender is one of the social issues that causes anxiety. Learning
experiences like perceiving life under one’s control, instrumentality, like self-
confidence, independence and competitiveness fully mediate gender and anxiety with
language learning.
However, in the local study involving WMSU college students, C. Madrazo

(2006) found that gender does not influence test anxiety level. In the same vein, A.
Madrazo (2010) found no significant difference between male and female college
students of DLSU, Manila on test anxiety. Hence, both research studies involving
college students support the findings of the current study based on gender.
As regards, same results in state-trait anxiety based on gender and course,

language learning curriculum instruction should be geared towards challenging and
providing the college students more exposure to classroom activities to develop
analysis and evaluation skills that will develop their optimal linguistic competence s
necessary for them to process the English language not merely as an abstract
conceptual structure but a communicative process of engaging themselves as a social
and analytical being.
Based on the findings of this study, it is safe to conclude that moderate state-
trait anxiety can influence the college students’ high linguistic competence. Hence, it
is necessary for college students to be exposed to challenging language classroom
activities that will bring about “little stress” to push students to develop their linguistic
competence skills involving higher order thinking skills such as analysis and
evaluation of grammatical textual structure and lexical items needed for
comprehension.
In addition, gender and course do not affect state-trait anxiety and linguistic
competence. The equality on the variables under study may be indicative of the
33
progressive benefits on the part of the language learning instructor and the English
department curriculum. Contrary to traditional notion that females outperform males
in linguistic competence task, the similar output of males compared to females here
can be viewed as progress report for WMSU college students who garnered “very good
user” label in this current grammar and vocabulary tests. Same is true with equality of
linguistic competence among BSHRM, BSED and ABENG who also obtained high
linguistic competence in both grammar and vocabulary tests.
As regards, same results in state-trait anxiety based on gender and course,

language learning curriculum instruction should be geared towards challenging and
providing the college students more exposure to classroom activities to develop
analysis and evaluation skills that will develop their optimal linguistic competence s
necessary for them to process the English language not merely as an abstract
conceptual structure but a communicative process of engaging themselves as a social
and analytical being.
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37
Assessment of Students’ English Oral Proficiency Based on Degree Programs:

Implications for Admission Examinations
Helen R. Betonio3
Abstract
Set in a Philippine state university, this study sought to investigate if

there is a significant difference between college students’ English oral
proficiency when they are grouped according to their current degree
programs. The sample was drawn from 147 sophomore college
students who belong in one of the eight (8) degree programs. These
students have taken a Speech Communication class during the
previous semester. Using an oral proficiency test patterned from and
a modified form of the Texas Oral Proficiency Test (TOPT), the
students’ English oral proficiency was assessed in terms of function,
content, vocabulary, grammar, comprehensibility and fluency. A one-
way ANOVA test of Equality of means in oral proficiency was used
to analyze the data. This was followed by Post Hoc Analysis of each
aspect of oral proficiency in relation to each degree program. Results
show that there is a highly significant difference in the oral
proficiency level of students in all areas, given by the significance
value of 0.000 with 5% level of significance. Research results serve
as basis for recommendations geared towards revisiting the language
usage (LU) requirement set by the university in each degree program.
Keywords: language assessment, English oral proficiency, language usage in

admission exams
3
Sciences, MSU-IIT, Iligan City. Email: helen.betonio@g.msuiit.edu.ph.
38
INTRODUCTION
Learning and developing proficiency in the English language has become a

necessity in the 21st century. This is a reality that is also corroborated by Ellis as cited
by Bandiala (2013) who states that "the capacity to use English in an appropriate
manner as well as the knowledge of syntax and lexis is basic to survival today". It has
even become a prerequisite for an individual to become part of the international society
(Lee, n.d.). In fact, this language is studied at every school level in 112 countries where
it is not a native language and is either a foreign or second language (Quirk et al., 1985
in Mamhot et al., 2013).
This reality about the importance of good English proficiency specifically in

the speaking skills is relevant especially in the discussions in the ASEAN context.
Hengsadeekul, Hengsadeekul, Koul, & Keawkuekool wrote in 2010 that “English is
no longer a matter of preference but a necessity” (p.1) especially during the start of
ASEAN community merging in 2015 which will lead to a tighter competition among
ten nations. In fact, different Asian countries strive to address English language
proficiency problems. In Malaysia, for example, Zaaba (n.d.) mentions that in a survey
conducted by the Federation of Malaysian Manufacturers, one of the major reasons
why some graduates are not able to land a job is due to their low speaking proficiency
in the English language (as cited in Arsad, Buniyamin & Manan, n.d).
According to Xi, Bridgeman and Wendler (2014), in the 20th century foreign
university admissions, it has become a common practice to consider the applicants’
language proficiency so that “Typically, a minimum cut score on English language
tests is established to screen applicants who are non-native speakers of English”
(pp. 318–319). This practice has required prospective international students to
take the TOEFL or IELTS which are two of the globally accepted standard English
language tests.
In the Philippine Higher Education context, university entrance exams that

serve as admission criteria or “keys” to opening doors for students to be enrolled in a
certain degree program include ‘Language Usage / English Language Usage items. It
is evident that the setting of such cut- off scores rests upon the widely accepted
39
assumption that a certain level of language proficiency is necessary for academic

success (Cotton & Conrow, 1998; Kerstjens & Nery, 2000 as cited in Yan and Cheng,
2015). This proficiency in the language also interplays with other factors that shape
academic success including personal qualities, cultural background, previous
education, teaching, and support (Carroll, 2005; Feast, 2002 as cited in Sawir, 2012).
Recent researches in the Philippine context have explored Filipino students’

English proficiency and its relationship to academic success. Magbanua (2016)
determined the English proficiency of 305 college students across various degree
programs and findings reveal that they have very satisfactory proficiency in terms of
grammar, satisfactory in terms of spelling but are not proficient in terms of vocabulary.
Racca and Lasaten (2016) found a significant relationship between the high school
students’ satisfactory English language proficiency and their academic performance in
Science, Math and English.
Though these researches have determined the English proficiency of students,

there has been a dearth of studies in the Philippine context that explored the difference
of English proficiency of college students, primarily oral proficiency, across degree
programs and examined its implications in the language usage requirement of the
university admission examination. Thus, this study aims to explore the latter and
contribute to the existing body of literature in applied linguistics and language
pedagogy in the Philippine context, particularly in Mindanao State University System,
one of the biggest state universities in the country.
This study is grounded in Dell Hymes’ Communicative Competence Theory

and Cummin’s Theory of Cognitive/Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) and
Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS).
Communicative Competence was a term introduced by Dell Hymes into

discussions of language use and second or foreign language learning in the early 1970s
(Savignon, 1987). Dell Hymes (2003) define Communicative Competence as “the
ability that enables a person to communicate functionally and interactively” (as cited
in Tao, 2011, p.13). Robles (2011, p. 20) also cites Hymes by explaining the term as
40
“the interaction of grammatical (formally possible), psycho-linguistic (feasible),

sociocultural (contextually appropriate) systems of language”.
Hymes (1972) in Salleh (2000) offers a description of communicative

competence as a term that refers to the capabilities of a person that include knowledge
about the correct language use. He also elaborates that the role of non-cognitive factors
also determines one’s competence. It is also dependent on ideas and language use.
Competence is defined by Savignon (1987) in terms of the “expression,

interpretation, and negotiation of meaning and looks to both psycholinguistic and
socio-cultural perspectives in second language acquisition (SLA) to account for
its development” (p.134).She used the term communicative competence to
characterize the ability of classroom language learners to deal with other speakers, to
make meaning, different from their ability to recite dialogues or perform on tests of
grammatical knowledge.
James Cummins introduced the theoretical constructs of BICS and CALP in

the 1980s in the field of Bilingual education. Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills
(BICS) describes the development of conversational fluency in the second language,
whereas Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) describes the use of
language in decontextualized academic situations (“BICS/CALP: Basic
Interpersonal…”, n.d.). As Cummins explains it,
“CALP or academic language proficiency develops through social

interaction from birth but becomes differentiated from BICS after the
early stages of schooling to reflect primarily the language that children
acquire in school . . . The notion of CALP is specific to the social context
of schooling, hence the term “academic”. Academic language proficiency
can thus be defined as “the extent to which an individual has access to
and command of the oral and written academic registers of schooling”
(Cummins, 2000, p. 67).
According to Baker (2006) BICS occurs in face-to-face `context embedded´

situations. CALP, on the other hand, is said to occur in 'context reduced' academic
situations which use higher order thinking skills.
41
These two constructs by Cummins are utilized in the various speaking tasks of
the oral proficiency test used to assess the college students’ English oral proficiency,
Statement of the Problem

1. What is the English oral proficiency level of the second year students who have
taken English 3 in the previous semester in the specific oral sub-component skills:
function, content, vocabulary, grammar, comprehensibility and fluency?
2. Is there a significant difference in the English oral proficiency level of the students
when grouped according to course / degree program?
Statement of Hypothesis
Below is the hypothesis of the study which was tested at 0.05 level of
significance:
Ho1: There is no significant difference in the English oral proficiency level of the
students when grouped according to their degree program.
METHODOLOGY
This study set in one of the campuses of the Mindanao State University System
employed a Quantitative- Correlational research design. Using Sloven’s formula, a
sample size of 147 sophomore college students during the 2nd semester of 2014 out
from the 284 sophomore students who have taken the Speech Communication class
during the previous semester (2nd semester, A.Y. 2012-2013) was determined. The
degree programs in the university were not well represented since not all degree
programs take the Speech Communication class every second semester. However,
most of them are from the College of Education. The number of respondents based on
the population was determined through the use of stratified random sampling. The
distribution of the students per class is shown in Table 1 in page 46.
The main research instrument is patterned from Texas Oral Proficiency Test
(TOPT) 2007. The TOPT is a simulated oral proficiency interview which was
developed in French and Spanish as a test of speech skills to be used by the state in
42
America as part of its certification testing program for French, Spanish, and bilingual
education teachers (Stanfield and Kenyon, 1991). This study utilized a shortened
version in English which lasted from 7-10 minutes and used to assess each of the
student’s English oral proficiency in terms of oral sub-component skills: function,
content, vocabulary, grammar, comprehensibility and fluency. It can be argued that the
TOPT is also an appropriate tool for this study since these students are bilingual and
even multilingual speakers. The tasks were limited and categorized only into three:
picture speaking tasks, topic speaking tasks and situation speaking tasks. Each task
category has a set of three specific tasks. These tasks which were considered
appropriate for the level of the second year students include describing an activity,
narrating in past time, narrating in future time, giving instructions, stating advantages
and disadvantages, hypothesizing on a personal topic, speaking with tact, persuading
someone and giving advice. Furthermore, each specific task has a speaking prompt
which did not anchor to any lesson plan but were formulated by the researcher. Also,
students’ experiences and activities were considered in creating these prompts. The
students were given 20 seconds to read the speaking tasks presented. They also had a
prescribed thinking time and answering time for each prompt which were indicated in
each of the speaking tasks. The time depended on the complexity of the task or
prompts.
Three qualified raters assessed individually the English oral proficiency of the
147 respondents; thus each respondent was rated by three raters. Cronbach’s Alpha
was used to test the inter-rater reliability and found a significant difference of α value
< 0.00) which implies that the ratings are independent and reliable. In the next page is
the scoring scale adapted from Mamhot et al. (2013).
43
One-way ANOVA test and T-test for Equality were used for the test of
significant difference. Also, Tukey B was used for the Post Hoc analysis. Furthermore,
it was also used to determine if there was a significant difference in the English oral
proficiency of the students when grouped according to course / degree program.
Course / Degree Program
Table 1 in the next page shows the distribution of respondents by course or

degree program. Students from Bachelor of Science in Business Administration
(BSBA) major in Marketing had the greatest number of respondents with 16.33%.
Degree programs such as Bachelor of Science in Secondary education (BSE) major in
Biology, BSE Chemistry, BSE Drafting Technology (DT) and Technology and (BSE)
Livelihood Education (TLE) all come from the College of Education (CED). It shows
that a great bulk of the students who have taken English 3 in the previous semester
come from this college.
Table 1: Students’ Course or Degree Program
Course Frequency Percent

BS Marketing 24 16.33%
BS Accountancy 23 15.65%
DEST 12 8.16%
BSE Bio 19 12.93%
AB English 23 15.65%
BSE Chem 20 13.61%
BSE TLE 7 4.76%
BSE Drafting 19 12.93%
Total 147 100.00%
44
English Oral Proficiency Level
In general, the over-all English oral proficiency level of the sophomore

students is 2.9116 as shown in Table 2.
Function has the highest mean, followed by comprehensibility, grammar and

content. Moreover, the last two ranks are occupied by vocabulary and fluency,
respectively.
Table 2. Mean Distribution of the Oral Proficiency Level

of the Respondents
Oral Proficiency N Minimum Maximum Mean Verbal
Description
Function 147 1.67 4.83 2.9984 Good
Content 147 1.33 4.83 2.9098 Good
Vocabulary 147 1.33 4.83 2.9048 Good
Grammar 147 1.33 4.17 2.9107 Good
Comprehensibility 147 1.33 4.83 2.9391 Good
Fluency 147 1.33 4.83 2.8095 Good
Over-all Mean 147 1.39 4.53 2.9116 Good
Based on the scoring scale, the mean proficiency of 2.9116 falls in the range
between 2.5 - 3.49 which has a verbal description of Good. It is also evident in Table
2 that all sub-oral component skills fall also in this description.
A speaker who obtains a mark of 3 in a scale of 1-5 based on the Texas Oral
Proficiency Test Rubric is described as an Advanced Speaker. A speaker who obtains
3 possesses the following description based from the Texas Oral Proficiency TestTM
(2007).
45
Figure 1. Excerpt from Texas Oral Proficiency Test Manual (2007)
Oral Proficiency Sub-Component Skills
The first oral sub-component skill is function which refers to the task’s
communicative purpose. Based on Table 2, in terms of function, the mean proficiency
is 2.9984. Thus, these students completed the task stated with “clear description,
narration, explanation, advice advantages/ disadvantages, summary and apology”
(Texas Oral Proficiency TestTM, 2007). The second aspect is content which is a feature
of oral proficiency that deals with the adequacy and organization of information
(TOPTTM,2007). Results show that the content mean proficiency is 2.9098. This value
still falls in the scale of 3. Thus, the content was "appropriate, sufficient, complete, and
clear (TOPTTM,2007). Further, vocabulary is the third feature of oral proficiency. This
deals with the "appropriateness of word choice" (TOPTTM, 2007). Students earned an
average of 2.9048 which still falls in the scale of 3. This means that the students used
"adequate words..., and most words were formed correctly although regionalism was
still evident" (TOPTTM, 2007). The fourth one is Grammar which refers to "syntax,
usage and errors related to them" (TOPTTM,2007). In this oral sub-component skill,
students obtained a mean rating of 2.9107 which still falls in the scale of 3. The student
showed "fairly accurate forms appropriate to task although there were some errors in
verb tense..." (TOPTTM,2007). Nonetheless, these "errors were handled well by most
of the respondents" (TOPTTM,2007). Comprehension deals with the respondents’
46
“pronunciation, structure (answer) and the way the ideas are

expressed..."(TOPTTM,2007). The result shows that the mean rating is 2.9391 which
still fails in the scale of 3. A rating of 3 means that majority of the students showed
"generally appropriate pronunciation, intonation, enunciation; volume can be
understood by anyone” (TOPTTM,2007). Lastly, (in terms of fluency, the student
earned the lowest mean rating which earned the lowest mean rating which is 2.8095
but which still falls in the scale of 3. This means they showed a "general flow of idea.
This means they showed a "general flow of ideas with occasional hesitation
and rephrasing; Also, with moderate quantity of speech for task" (TOPTTM,2007).
Table 3. Mean Distribution of the Oral Proficiency Level of Students

Grouped According to their Course
Over-all Description
Comprehensibility
Description
Vocabulary
Grammar
Function
Content
Fluency
Verbal
N
Course
BS Marketing 23 3.13 3.0 3.04 3.06 3.12 2.93 3.04 Good
BS
Accountancy 23 3.31 3.28 3.12 3.23 3.18 3.11 3.21 Good
DEST 12 2.58 2.28 2.36 2.5 2.39 2.03 2.36 Good
BSE Bio 20 3.02 2.83 2.98 2.85 2.93 2.78 2.90 Good
AB English 23 3.44 3.47 3.39 3.36 3.38 3.34 3.40 Good
BSE Chem 21 2.65 2.64 2.62 2.66 2.67 2.67 2.65 Good
BSE TLE 6 2.73 2.61 2.67 2.33 2.56 2.61 2.59 Good
BSE Drafting 19 2.63 2.54 2.54 2.58 2.69 2.40 2.56 Good
47
Significant Difference in the English Oral Proficiency Level of the Students

When Grouped According to Course / Degree Program
The students with the highest mean oral proficiency level are students enrolled
in AB English while the students with the lowest mean oral proficiency level are those
who are enrolled in DEST. All respondents, except those students taking up DEST,
were rated to be of good oral proficiency level. To further analyze if these figures have
a significant difference, one-way anova test was used.
Table 4 shows that there is a highly significant difference in the oral

proficiency level of students in all oral sub-component skills given by the significance
value of 0.000 with 5% level of significance. This implies that the oral proficiency of
the students are significantly different when students were compared from one course
or degree programs.
Table 4. One-way ANOVA Test of Equality of Means in

Oral Proficiency
Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 14.842 7 2.120 12.672 .000
Function Within Groups 23.257 139 .167
Total 38.098 146
Between Groups 20.238 7 2.891 12.878 .000
Content Within Groups 31.205 139 .224
Total 51.443 146
Between Groups 15.167 7 2.167 10.110 .000
Vocabulary Within Groups 29.790 139 .214
Total 44.956 146
Between Groups 15.095 7 2.156 11.569 .000
Grammar Within Groups 25.909 139 .186
Total 41.004 146
Between Groups 13.795 7 1.971 10.881 .000
Comprehensibi Within Groups 25.176 139 .181
lity Total 38.972 146
48
Between Groups 20.003 7 2.858 12.647 .000
Fluency Within Groups 31.406 139 .226
Total 51.408 146
Between Groups 15.892 7 2.270 16.768 .000
Over-all Mean Within Groups 18.820 139 .135
Oral Total 34.712 146
Proficiency
This is in consonance to Razmjoo and Movahed (2009) findings which showed

a significant difference between the participants' language proficiency when grouped
according to their majors. Iranian students with different majors were different with
regard to their proficiency levels and this difference was both significant and
meaningful. The students of Humanities and Social sciences, engineering and
architecture outperformed other students
Specifically, the significant difference in the oral sub-component skills across

the degree programs was also determined with the use of Tukey B as the statistical tool
for Post hoc analysis. In terms of function, Table 5 shows that the students enrolled in
the Diploma in Electronic Systems Technology (DEST), BSE Drafting Technology
(BSEDT), BSE Chemistry (BSE Chem), BSE Technology and Livelihood Education,
and BSE Biology (BSE Bio) do not differ in their function oral proficiency level.
Similarly, the students enrolled in BSE Biology, BS in Business Administration
(BSBA), and BS Accountancy (BSA) do not differ in their function oral proficiency
level. Likewise, students in BS in Business Administration, BS Accountancy and AB
English have the same function oral proficiency level.
The significant difference in the mean function oral proficiency levels among
the respondents grouped according to course was explained by the significant
difference of the mean function levels of the students taking up DEST, BSE DT, BSE
Chem and BSE TLE from the students enrolled in BSBA, BSA, and AB English.
Students enrolled in the latter courses have a higher function oral proficiency level
when compared to the other students.
49
Table 5. Post Hoc Analysis on the Significant Difference of

Means in Function
Subset for alpha = 0.05
Course N 1 2 3
DEST 12 2.5825
BSE DT 19 2.6316
BSE Chem 21 2.6519
BSE TLE 6 2.7250
BSE Bio 20 3.0165 3.0165
BSBA 23 3.1309 3.1309
BSA 23 3.3122 3.3122
AB English 23 3.4439
Means for groups in homogenous subsets are displayed.
In terms of content as shown in Table 6, it is evident that DEST students

obtained the lowest mean of 2.2775 which has a high significant difference from the
highest mean 3.4726 obtained by the AB English students. Moreover, the mean
obtained by BSBA students does not differ from the mean obtained by the Education
majors (subset 1 and BSE Bio). Also, only the BSA students’ function mean does not
differ from the program with the highest mean, AB English.
Table 6. Post Hoc Analysis on the Significant Difference

of Means in Content
Course N 1 2 3 4
DEST 12 2.2775
BSE DT 19 2.5437 2.5437
BSE TLE 21 2.6117 2.6117
BSE Chem 6 2.6357 2.6117
BSE Bio 20 2.8345 2.8345
BSBA 23 3.0000 3.0000
BSA 23 3.2826 3.2826
50
Table 7 below shows that the same group of degree courses / programs
(subset1 and subset2) that did not differ in content also do not differ in terms of
vocabulary. It is interesting to note that BSE TLE’s mean vocabulary does not differ
from BSBA, BS Bio, BSA and English. Still, the vocabulary mean obtained by BSBA
students does not differ from the mean obtained by the Education majors (subset 1 and
BSE Bio). Likewise, BSE Bio, BSBA, BSA, AND AB English students have the same
vocabulary mean. This is in contrast to the findings of Magbanua (2016) which reveal
that college students in a certain university are not proficient in terms of vocabulary.
Out of 305 respondents, only 71 students were rated as satisfactory.

of Means in Vocabulary
Course N 1 2 3 4
DEST 12 2.3608
BSE DT 19 2.5442 2.5442
BSE Chem 21 2.6186 2.6186
BSE TLE 6 2.6667 2.6667 2.6667
BSE Bio 20 2.9830 2.9830 2.9830
BSBA 23 3.0357 3.0357 3.0357
BSA 23 3.1230 3.1230
However, if BSE TLE students had shown to be at par with other degree
programs with high mean in terms of function, it obtained the lowest mean in terms of
grammar as shown in Table 8. Its mean grammar of 2.333 has a highly difference from
the highest mean 3.3626. Still, the same degree programs in subset 1 that did not differ
in function, content and vocabulary also do not differ in terms of grammar.
Interestingly, BSE Chem students’ grammar mean proficiency does not differ from
BSE Bio and BSBA’s grammar mean proficiency.
51
Moreover, this is the first time that DEST students did not occupy the lowest
mean proficiency. Consistently, BSA, BSBA and AB English do not differ at all in
their grammar mean proficiency.

of Means in Grammar
Course N 1 2 3 4 5
BSE TLE 6 2.3333
DEST 12 2.5000 2.5000
BSE DT 19 2.5789 2.5789
BSE Chem 21 2.695 2.695 2.6595
BSE Bio 20 2.8500 2.8500 2.8500
BSBA 23 3.0583 3.0583 3.0583
BSA 23 3.2326 3.2326
In terms of comprehensibility, the same pattern has emerged as shown in Table

9. Still, the same degree programs in subset 1 that did not differ in function, content,
vocabulary and grammar also do not differ in terms of comprehensibility. BS Bio
students’ mean proficiency has no significant difference with BSBA and BSA.
Likewise, AB English, BSA and BSA have also no significant difference in their
obtained mean. DEST is way lowest in its mean of 2.3883.

of Means in Comprehensibility
Course N 1 2 3 4
DEST 12 2.3883
BSE TLE 6 2.5583 2.5583
BSE Chem 21 2.6667 2.6667
BSE DT 19 2.6853 2.6853
BSE Bio 20 2.9250 2.9250
52
BSBA 23 3.1152 3.1152
BSA 23 3.1813 3.1813
Lastly, as shown in Table 10, in terms of fluency, there is a different pattern

since from the same group (subset 1 – DEST, BSE TLE, BSE CHEM and BSE DT)
which consistently did not differ in terms of content, vocabulary, grammar and
comprehensibility, only two degree programs remain that do not differ, DEST and BS
DT. This means that, BSE TLE and BSE Chem have shown a better mark in terms of
fluency compared to DEST and BS DT. Ideally, BS DT students’ fluency should have
differed from DEST since students from this course will be using the language more
in work context in the future than DEST students.

of Means in Fluency
Course N 1 2 3 4
DEST 12 2.0275
BSE DT 19 2.4037 2.4037
BSE TLE 6 2.6117 2.6117
BSE Chem 21 2.6662 2.6662
BSE Bio 20 2.7840 2.7840
BSBA 23 2.9274 2.9274
BSA 23 3.1083 3.1083
A pattern can be observed from function to fluency subsets. The degree

programs which belong to the College of Education (BSE DT, BSE TLE and BS Chem)
except for BSE Bio had consistently showed no difference in all the oral sub-
53
component skills from DEST students. This is a significant finding that needs to be
addressed since these students are expected to be better than the students enrolled in a
diploma program. These are Education majors -the future high school teachers. Even
though they are not English majors or they will not be teaching English in the real
context, competence in oral English proficiency is still imperative since English is used
as a medium of instruction in high school most of the time and textbooks are written
in English. To quote Robles (2011), “The teacher’s competence in using the language
affects constantly the learner’s achievement”. Moreover, Savignon (as cited in Robles,
2011) states that to ensure that the daily instruction is “meaningful, effective and
functional, teachers must be equipped with the capability to function in a genuine
communicative setting”.
On the other hand, the 3-year program Diploma in Electronic Systems

Technology has constantly occupied the bottom rank in the five oral sub-component
skills except for grammar. In fact, it is the only course / program whose students were
rated to have a satisfactory verbal description in their mean general oral proficiency.
This result still needs to be addressed even if one can expect less from this group of
students from a diploma program. Even then, these students will most probably become
skilled workers working outside the country. Thus, it is even more imperative for them
to have fluency in the language when communicating inside their future foreign
workplace.
Table 11. Post Hoc Analysis on the Significant Difference of

Means in Oral Proficiency
Course N 1 2 3 4
DEST 12 2.3575
BSE DT 19 2.5637 2.5637
BSE TLE 6 2.5850 2.5850
BSE Chem 21 2.6495 2.6495
BSE Bio 20 2.8990 2.8990
BSBA 23 3.0435 3.0435
BSA 23 3.2061 3.2061
54
It can be inferred that the students who belong to degree programs with
language use (LU) requirement in the System Admission Scholarship Examination
(SASE) were able to justify their score since it was also demonstrated in their speaking
test or TOPT ratings. Even if the SASE LU result was based on a written test, the result
can still serve as a basis of the student’s linguistic knowledge which relates also to their
linguistic performance in the oral proficiency test. These degree programs that require
at least 40 in the language requirement are BSA, BSBA, and AB English. It was shown
clearly in Table 4 that there was no significant difference found in the English oral
proficiency level of the students belonging in these degree programs.
Table 12 below shows the Language requirement (LU) or cut-off LU score

required for a student to be admitted in the specific degree program.
Table 12. Language Requirement in the System Admission

and Scholarship Exam (SASE)
COURSE/DEGREE PROGRAM LANGUAGE

REQUIREMENT
BS Business Administration 40
BS Accountancy 40
Diploma in Electronics Systems Tech. None
BSE Biology None
AB English 40
BSE Chemistry None
BSE Technology and Livelihood Education None
BSE Drafting Technology None
Source: Admissions Office (as of 2014)
It is also important to note that among the degree programs that have no LU
requirement of 40, students from BSE Biology have shown a good oral proficiency
mean that can be at par with degree programs that have an LU requirement. BSE
Biology students have consistently showed no significant difference in all their oral
55
sub-component skills with BSA and BSBA students. There is a good implication since
BSE Bio students are future teachers. Also, a few of them may have enrolled in this
degree as a preparatory for medicine although BS Biology is more prevalent.
However, AB English students’ mean oral competence was just the same with
BSA and BSBA students. This is worth noting since these students are expected to
have a highly significant difference in their oral proficiency from students in other
courses because the language is their major.
CONCLUSIONS
The MSU-SASE as a University admission test is not only administered for

admission purposes but also serve to place prospective students to the various programs
that the university offers. This is the primary reason why certain degree programs have
a specific Language Usage requirement. However, LU requirement is not implemented
in all the degree programs of the university. The university admission should re-visit
the setting of university language usage requirement further considering that English
proficiency is a predictor of academic success.
The results have implications in the current language usage requirement set by
each department / program in the university. It can provide initial groundwork in
revisiting the cut-off score for language usage (LU) in the various departments. This
pertains especially to the programs offered in the College of Education where students
are expected to become teachers after graduation.
Furthermore, the Admissions Office can revisit the language use (LU)
requirement in some degree programs that have not implemented any LU requirement
for many years. This will also give them preliminary guide into examining specific
degree programs that greatly need a requirement in language usage (LU). Curriculum
makers can also consider the idea that students who are Education majors should be
required to enroll in two to four English courses that will focus in improving their oral
English skills.
56
Given that the MSU System aims to produce globally competitive graduates,
English proficiency as a vital skill of these future members of the workforce should be
considered from the start of the admission process to ensure that high academic
standards are upheld. It is therefore imperative to provide a better screening procedure
in the admission process by increasing the language cut off scores in some degree
programs and setting language scores for the rest of the degree programs.
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Varyasyong Leksikal ng mga Wikaing Bagobo -Tagabawa, Giangan at Obo-

Manobo ng Lungsod Davao: Pokus sa Dimensyong Heyograpikal
Luden L. Baterina4
Abstrak
Pagsusuri sa varyasyong leksikal ng mga wikaing Bagobo-

Tagabawa, Giangan at Obo-Manobo ang pag-aaral na may pokus sa
heyograpikal na dimensyon. Kwalitatibo ang disenyo ng isinagawang
pag-aaral at sinunod ang metodong indehinus na pamamaraan ng
paglilikom at pag-analisa ng mga datos. Ginamit sa analisis ng datos
ang Free Variation ni Meyerhoff (2011) na naglilinaw ukol sa pag-
aaral ng mga varyabol at mga varyant ng wika. Ito rin ang konteksto
ng kaisipan ni Labov tungkol sa Language Change (nasa
Meyerhoof, 2011). Mula sa pagsusuri, nagkakaroon ng varyasyong
leksikal sa mga wikang nabanggit batay sa mga salitang magkaiba
ang anyo ngunit pareho ang kahulugang taglay ng mga ito. May
magkatulad rin ang anyo at parehong kahulugan sa tatlong wikain at
ang varyasyong may pareho sa dalawang wikain ngunit naiiba sa isa.
Sa mga varyasyong umusbong, kapansin-pansin ang pagkakaroon ng
kani-kanilang paraan ng paggamit ng wika ayon na rin sa
topograpiyang kanilang kinabibilangan. Dito nakakabuo ng
katangian ng kanilang wika at nagbubunsod ng pagbabagong
sosyolohikal na nagaganap sa wikaing kanilang ginagamit.
Mga Susing Salita: Varyasyon, Wikain, Tagabawa, Giangan, Obo-Manobo
INTRODUKSYON
Ang tuloy-tuloy na pakikibaka sa pamumuhay ng tao sanhi ng nagbabagong

panahon, karanasan, modernisasyon at iba pa ay nakapagbabago rin sa wika na
nakaaapekto sa pagiging indibidwal at sa lipunang ginagalawan. Ang pagbabagong ito
ay maaaring kaganapang panloob at panlabas ng pisikal na kapaligiran na
4
Ang may-akda ay kasalukuyang nagtuturo ng mga asignaturang Filipino sa College of Arts
and Sciences ng University of Southeastern Philippines, Bo. Obrero Campus, Lungsod Davao.
61
makapagdudulot ng pagbabago sa kasaysayan, kultura, at wika mismo. Nagbubunsod

rin ng malaking impak sa tao dahil sa kanyang pangangailangang umakma sa paligid.
Ang nabuong wika na dulot ng pagbabago ng kasaysayan at kultura ay

tinatawag na Varayti ng Wika. Ang pagkakaroon ng varayti ay nasa ilalim ng larang
ng pag-aaral ng wika na sosyolingguwistiko ayon sa pinagbatayan ng pagiging
heterogenous ng wika. Nag-uugat ang mga varayti ng wika sa pagkakaiba-iba ng mga
indibidwal at grupo, maging ng kani-kanilang lokasyon, interes, gawain, pinag-aralan
at iba pa. Nahahati sa dalawang dimensyon ang varayti ng wika - ang dimensyong
heograpiko at dimensyong sosyal (Constantino, 2006) at nagkakaroon ng varyasyon
ang mga ito.
Dayalek ang tawag sa varayti na nabubuo sa dimensyong heograpiko. Kilala

rin ito sa tawag na wikain. Ito ay ginagamit sa isang partikular na rehiyon, lalawigan o
pook, malaki man o maliit (Bernales, et al., 2013). Halimbawa rito ang isang wika na
ginagamit sa iba-ibang rehiyon tulad ng Ilocano na ginagamit sa Ilocos, Baguio, La
Union, at iba pa; Bicolano sa Kabikulan, Cebuano ng Cebu at sa iba’t ibang lugar sa
Mindanao, Surigaonon ng Surigao, Tausug ng Jolo at Sulu at Tawitawi, Chavacano ng
Zamboanga, at Davaoeño ng Davao. Nagkakaroon ito ng set ng naiibang mga
bokabularyo, sa punto o tono, at maging sa estruktura ng pangungusap. Ang dayalek o
wikain ay terminong tumutukoy sa mga sub-varieties ng isang wika. Ayon kay
Meyerhoff (2011), masasabing may mga distinctive features o palatandaan sa lebel ng
pagbigkas, bokabolaryo at estruktura ng pangungusap ang isang dayalek. Kabilang din
sa uri ng dayalek bilang bahagi ng varayti ng wika ang mga wikain o dayalekto ng mga
katutubo o ng mga Indigenous People (IP’s). Sila ay may taglay na wika at kulturang
natatangi na naglalarawan ng kanilang identidad, paraan ng pamumuhay, at higit sa
lahat sa wikain na nagsisilbing kakanyahan nila mula sa iba pang pangkat etniko.
Maraming grupo ng IP’s sa bansa ang makikita, kabilang dito ang tribung Bagobo na
maaaring Tagabawa, Giangan (kilala rin na Klata) at mga Obo-Manobo (sub-group
ng Bagobo na tinatawag bilang Obo o Manuvu) na naninirahan sa Lungsod Davao.
Larawan ang mga tribung ito ng makukulay na tradisyong binibigkis ng

kanilang wika. Maging ang kanilang mga karanasan at saloobin ay masasalamin sa
wikaing kanilang ginagamit. Maaaring sabihing may malaking ambag sa kanilang
62
pamumuhay ang wika na nagsisilbing daluyan ng kanilang natatanging kultura. Tulad

ng maraming pangkat sa mundo, ang pagkawala ng identidad at pagkabaon sa limot ay
malimit nilang kinatatakutan. Mainam, kung gayon, na balikan at tuklasin ang uri ng
kaibhan at pagkakapareho ng kanilang mga wikain upang maisatitik ito.
Marami-rami na ring pag-aaral ang isinasagawa ukol sa mga grupong ito

ngunit ang pag-isahing pag-aralan ang ukol sa baryasyon ng kanilang mga wika ay
hindi pa halos natatalakay o nababasa sa mga nakasulat. Mahalaga ang ganitong paksa
upang magamit na basehan sa pagkakatulad at pagkakapareho ng mga tribung ito.
Gayundin ang mapangalagaan ang kanilang mga terminong kultural at tradisyung
pinaniniwalaan na maaaring makatulong din sa pagpapaunlad ng wikang Filipino.
Bilang bahagi ng mamamayang Pilipino, ang mailarawan ang kahalagahan ng kanilang
mga wikain (bilang repositoryo) ay isang hakbang upang makilala at lalong
mapahalagahan ang kanilang etnikong pangkat. Magsisilbi rin itong hanguan ng
mayamang karanasan, kultura at kasaysayan ng bansa lalo na ng mga Bagobo-
Tagabawa, Bagobo-Giangan at Obo-Manobo ng Lungsod Davao.
Paglalahad ng Suliranin
Nilalayon ng pag-aaral na alamin ang leksikal na varyasyon sa mga wikaing

Bagobo na Tagabawa, Giangan at Obo-Manobo ng Lungsod Davao na nakapokus sa
dimensyong heyograpikal. Upang matamo ang mga layuning ito, sinikap ng
mananaliksik na masagot ang mga tiyak na katanungan: (1) Ano-ano ang mga
pagkakakilanlan ng mga wikaing Tagabawa, Giangan at Obo-Manobo ng Lungsod
Davao ukol sa varyasyong leksikal nito? (2) Paano nakakaapekto ang heyograpikong
kanilang kinabibilangan sa pagkakaroon ng mga varyasyong leksikal na ito? (3) Anong
linggwistikal na katangiang ang makikita sa mga wikaing Bagobo-Tagabawa, Giangan
at Obo-Manobo na may kagnayan o kaibahan sa wikang Filipino batay sa leksikon?
Ang Varayti at Varyasyon ng Wika
Komplikado at malawak ang usaping varayti at varyasyon ng isang wika.

Nagsimula itong pagtuunan ng pansin ng mga dalubwika noong ika-18 siglo bilang
isang pag-aaral sa larang ng sosyolinggwistika (Cobbet binanggit sa Williams 1992).
63
Ito ay nag-uugnay sa katayuan ng tao at sa kanyang panlipunang ugnayan bilang “class

nature” na bahagi ng varayti ng wika. Nagsilbi itong bunga ng pag-usbong ng mga
klase-klasing teorya at konsepto sa larang ng pag-aaral ng wika hanggang sa
kasalukuyan. Unang naging kaisipan sa larang ng sosyolinggwistika ang hakang ang
wika ay wikang panlipunan at pang-indibidwal, na ayon kay Sapir (1949) ay
maituturing na gamit o kasangkapan sa sosyalisasyon. Hindi magiging ganap o buo
ang ugnayang sosyal kung wala ito. Ayon naman kay Saussure (1915), may dalawang
bumubuong seryeng magkakaugnay ang wika, ito ay ang langue o signifier at parole
o signified. Ang langue o signifier ay tumutukoy sa kabuuang set ng mga gawaing
pangwika na nagiging lunsaran upang umunawa at maunawaan. Samantala, parole o
signified ang gamit ng wika sa pagsasalita. Mahalaga ang langue dahil ito mula sa
ugnayang panlipunan na nakaugat sa kakayahang magsalita at sa pagsama-sama ng
mga mahahalagang kombensyon na gamit ng isang grupo sa lipunang kanyang
kinabibilangan. Lumitaw ang isa pang ideya at pananaw ukol sa wika ni Fishman
(1970), na tumutukoy sa idyolek o paraan ng paggamit ng indibidwal sa wika mula sa
kanyang kakayahang mapagsama-sama ang iba’t ibang paraang panlinggwistika at
panlipunang aspekto. Nabuo ang iba’t ibang anyo ng wika mula rito na lumikha naman
ng dalawang hati ng varyabilidad ng isang wika. Ang heyograpiko na tinatawag na
dayalekto at sosyal na tinatawag na sosyolek na matatagpuan sa isang komunidad
lamang. Heyograpikal ang pagkakaroon ng linggwistikong dayalekto tulad ng
Cebuano-Iligan, Cebuano-Cagayan de Oro at Cebuano-Davao. Sosyal naman na
varyidad ng wika ang nagdudulot ng mga rejister o rehistro ng wika at mga jargon.
Nagbubunsod din ito sa pagkakaiba ng uri ng mga indbidwal at mga grupo ng tao na
dahilan naman upang mabuo ang konsepto ng heterogenous na wika. Kung gayon,
hindi lamang kasangkapan ang wika sa komunikasyon bagkus ito ay larawan ng
pinagsama-samang pwersa ng magkaibang kultural at panlipunang mga gawain
(Venuti, 1998).
Varayti ng pananalita naman ang termino ni McFarland (1983) sa pagbabago

o pagkakaroon nang pagsulong ng wika para umaangkop sa pagbabago-bago ng
panahon. Ang pagpapaliwanag niya ay nakatuon sa pagkakaroon ng konseptong
idyolek. Idyolek ang varayti ng wika na may kinalaman sa pagsasalita ng isang
indibidwal. Naobserbahan niyang patuloy na nagkakaroon ng pagbabago ang varayti
sa pananalita na nakagawiang gamitin ng iba’t ibang nagsasalita upang tumugon at
64
sumabay sa pagbabago ng kanyang paligid. Hindi lamang nagtapos sa idyolek ang pag-
uugat sa varayti ng wika kundi kasama rin dito ang tinatawag na dayalek o wikain. Ang
dayalek ay matutukoy sa pagkakaiba-iba ng aksent (punto), leksikograpiya (estruktura
ng mga katawagang ginamit) o paraan ng pagbigkas sa isang wika. Kaya pwedeng
sabihing ang pagbubuo sa usaping varayti ng wika ay makikilala sa tatlong uri-- ang
rehiyunal o heyograpiko, sosyo-ekonomiko at kultural, at ang idyolek.
Teoritikal na Batayan
Inilatag ni Meyerhoff (2011) ang free variation na tumutukoy sa ideya na ang

ibang pagkakaiba-iba ay kahalinhinan ng iba pa na walang anumang malinaw na
hadlang sa pagkakabigkas o pagkakabuo ng isang partikular na konteksto o sa isang
partikular na ispiker. Ang pananaw na ito ay naging paraan sa paglilinaw ukol sa pag-
aaral ng mga varyabol at mga varyant ng wika. Ang varyabol ay tumutukoy sa kabuuan
o bahagi ng pagbabagong taglay na pag-aaralan samantalang ang varyant naman ay
tumutukoy sa kung paano ang aktwal na paggamit ng varyabol sa wika lalo na sa
pagbigkas. Sinusugan naman ang ideyang ito ni Labov tungkol sa kanyang pananaw
sa pagbabago ng wika o language change (nabanggit sa Meyerhoff, 2011) na isang uri
ng pagbabago sa wika ukol sa panahon na maaaring mangyayari sa ponolohikal,
morpolohikal, semantikal at sa ebolusyunaryong panlinggwistik. Diin dito ng mga
dalubhasa na mainam pag-aralan ito kapag nangyari na ngunit ayon naman kay Labov,
may matatag na ugnayan sa pagitan ng baryasyong makikita sa mga ispeker ng
komunidad sa isang partikular na panahon, at sa pangmatagalang proseso ng
pagbabago na kadalasang pinag-aaralan ng mga dalubhasa sa linggiwstikang historikal.
Ipinakita niya ang ugnayan ng pagbabagong synchronic variation (tumutukoy sa
kasalukuyang pagbabago) na nagiging ugat ng diachronic change (pagbabagong
nabuo pagkalipas ng magkakasunod na panahon). Ang relasyong ito ay nangyayari
kapag kinokonsidera ng mabuti ng isang mananaliksik ang mga non-linguistic
constraints ng synchronic variation tulad ng edad ng ispeker, trabaho, pag-uugali o
mga hangad at iba pa.
65
Konseptwal na Batayan
Mahalagang malaman ang pagkakaiba at pagkakapareho ng paraan ng

pagsasalita ng mga taong nagsasalita ng wikaing matatagpuan sa isang lugar bunsod
ng pakikipagtalastan o sosyalisasyon (Sapir, 1949; Labov 1972). Matukoy rito ang mga
posibling pinagmulan sa pamamagitan ng masusing pagsusuri sa pagkakapareho at
pagkakaiba ng wikang ito. Isang katotohanan rin na nagbabago ang isang wika sanhi
ng pagkabuo ng sitwasyong heograpikal, sosyal, o maging ng sariling estilo ng ispiker
sa pagsasalita (Venuti, 1998; Thurlow, 2004:120).
Ayon kay Fishman (1980), sa kabila na ang mga tao ay may iba’t ibang paraan
ng pagamit ng wika ito ay magiging daan upang mapagsama-sama sa iba’t ibang
paraang panlinggwistiko at panlipunan aspekto ang mga tao sa lipunan o pamayanan.
Dahil sa pinagsasaluhang wika, napagsama-sama rin ang mga tao batay sa wikang
kanilang ginagamit. Mula sa pahayag na ito ay nabuo ang ideya ukol sa iba’t ibang
anyo ng wika na nagkakaroon ng varyabilidad -- ang heyograpiko at ang sosyal na
pagkakahati na matatagpuan sa isang komunidad lamang. Sanhi ng hating o
dimensyong heyograpiko ang pagkakabuo ng tinatawag na varayting dayalekto o
wikain.
Ang mga dayalek o wikain ay lumalago at nagbabago habang dumadami ang

gumagamit nito sa komunidad. Maaaring mula sa orihinal na pinagmulan ay
nagkakaroon ito ng varyason na maaaring mangyayari sa bahaging ponolohikal,
morpolohikal, sintaktikal at maging sa semantikal. Isang patunay dito ang pagkakabuo
ng mga leksikong katangian ng bawat wikain upang ipakita ang baryasyong angkin ng
bawat isa.
Mula sa mga konseptong ito, ang pagkakaroon ng iba’t ibang varyasyon ng

wikain sa isang lugar ay makikita rin sa mga wikain ng mga Bagobo na Tagabawa,
Giangan at maging ng sub-group nitong Obo-Manobo. Ang pagsusuri sa leksikal na
katangian ng mga wikaing ito ay magpapakilala sa varyasyong taglay pati na rin sa
varayting nabubuo.
66
Ang Etnikong Grupong Tagabawa, Giangan at Obo-Manobo
Maraming nagsasabi na halos magkakapareho ang tatlong grupo na ito lalo na

sa kanilang wikang ginagamit. Sa tingin ng bawat pangkat na ito, magkakaiba sila kaya
binibigyan sila ng karampatan na maging hiwalay sa isa’t isa ng pamahalaan ng
Lungsod Davao. Itinuturing sila na may sari-sariling mga tradisyon, paniniwala at lalo
na sa wika. Ayon sa pag-aaral nina Dubois & Dubois (2006) ng Summer Institute of
Linguistics:
The Tagabawa language belongs to the Manobo subfamily of Philippine

languages. The Tagabawa people refers themselves as Bagobo, a
designation also applied to and used by speakers of Guiangan (Jangan
or Dyangan), a different language not belonging to the Manobo
subfamily.
Maaaring tama ang nagawang pag-analisa sa kanilang wika sa bawat grupo

ayon sa isinagawang pag-aaral ng mga eksperto. Gayunpaman, hindi rin
mapapasubaliang para sa mga tagapagsalita ng mga wikang ito, hindi sila
magkakatulad mula wika hanggang sa kulturang kinagisnan at paniniwala. Dagdag pa
nina Dubois & Dubois (2006), pinapalagay na iisa lamang ang wikang ginagamit,
partikular sa ponema ng buong wikang nakapalibot sa isang semicircular area sa may
bandang timog-kanluran at timog-silangan ng Mt. Apo. Ito ang dahilan sa
pagpapalagay na ang Manuvu at Bagobo ay may wikang magkakalapit. Nagkakaroon
ng kanya-kanyang pamayanan at sari-sariling wika at kultura ang bawat isa. Maliban
dito halos magkakatabi lamang ang mga ito kaya ang ugnayan sa kalapit lugar ay
maaaring nakakaimpluwensya nang malaki sa buhay ng mga naninirahan sa
komunidad ng Mt. Apo.
Mula sa orihinal na sinasakupan ng komunidad sa Mt. Apo, nagkaroon ng

eksplorasyon sa lugar at migrasyon sa mga kasapi ng tribu upang humanap ng lugar
para sa lumalaking pamilya na bunga ng pag-aasawahan (intermearriage). Ang tatlo ay
nagtagpo sa kanlungan ng Lungsod Davao sa pamamagitan ng Davao Ilog na pareho
nitong madadaanan.
67
Ang salitang Davao ay tinatawag noon bilang Davoh ng mga orihinal na Obo,
Duhwow naman ng mga Giangan at Dabu ng mga Tagabawa. Patunay ito na ang
tatlong grupo ay may malalim na ugnayan mula pa noon hanggang nakabuo ng kanya-
kanyang pamayanan sa lungsod kung saan sila nananahan sa kasalukuyan. Dala-dala
ang kanilang identidad at sariling mga wikain. Nagkaroon sila ng kanya-kanyang lugar
at komunidad sa Lungsod Davao. Dito rin nagpapakilala ng kanilang teritoryo kasama
na rin ng kanilang mga kultura. Ang impluwensya ng lugar kung saan sila makikita ay
nagdudulot ng pagbabago sa kani-kanilang mga wika at nagpapakilala sa kung anong
grupo ang kanilang tinataglay. Nagkakaroon ng distingsyon at pagkilala ang mga ito
partikular sa mga grupong Tagabawa, Giangan at Obo-Manobo.
Ang mga Tagabawa ay mga Bagobo na naninirahan sa bahaging Toril ng

Lungsod Davao. Sa Poblasyon ng Davao, naging hangganan ng teritoryo ng mga
Bagobo ang Davao Ilog, at sa unahang bahagi ay makikita naman ang mga Giangans
at Atas. Sa kasalukuyan ay mahirap nang mataya ang akmang populasyon bunsod ng
karamihan sa kanila ay naasimila na sa grupong bisaya.
Ang pangalang Bagobo sa konsepto ng mga taga-Lungsod Davao ay

tumutukoy sa mga Tagabawa na nangangahulugang “mula sa timog.” Hindi kasali ang
mga tribung Giangan at Obo-Manobo (Manuvu) ngunit sa kasalukuyan, ang pangalang
Bagobo ay malawakang ginamit. Orihinal na tinutukoy nito ang mga Bagobo na
kinilala ng mga Kastila noon na nanggaling sa sentro ng Santa Cruz at sa mga kalapit
na lugar. Ito ang mga Tagabawa.
Ang mga Giangan naman ay may maliit lamang na teritoryong nasasakupan

mula Catalunan hanggang Calinan ng Lungsod Davao. Kilala rin sila sa tawag na
Klata, Guangan, Guiangan, Gulangan, Diangan, at Jangan na may kahulugang Forest
Dweller. Attow naman ang tawag sa kanilan ng mga Manuvu at Eto naman ang tawag
ng mga Tagabawa sa kanila. Naging hangganan ng Tagabawa at Giangan ang Lipadas
Ilog. Ang Talomo Ilog naman ay nagsisilbing boundary ng mga Tagabawa, Klata at
Obo-Manobo. Ang Ilog Davao ay naging hangganan sa pagitan ng mga Bagobo-
Tagabawa at mga Giangan sa hilaga at silangang bahagi ng Lungsod Davao. Ang mga
Giangan maliban sa magaling na mga mangangaso ay kinatatakutan na mga
mandirigma at magagaling sa larangan paggawa ng mga kagamitan. Sa larangan ng
68
literatura, ang mito ukol sa unang babae at lalaki ay nagmula sa kulturang Giangan. Si
Tuglay bilang unang lalaking Bagobo ay isang salitang Giangan at Tuglibong, ang
unang babaeng Bagobo.
Ang mga Obo-Manobo naman ay nananahan sa Marilog, Distrito ng Baguio,

Calinan at Tugbok na bahagi ng Lungsod Davao. Ayon sa mga impormante ng pag-
aaral, nararapat na tawag sa grupong ito ay Manuvu basi sa pangalan ng tribu at ang
termino ay nanggaling mismo sa kanila. Ang salitang Obo na nangangahulugang “tao”
ay ang tawag ng mga Tagabawa sa mga Manuvu dahil sa hindi nila kayang bigkasin
ang ponemang /v/ na taglay ng salitang Manuvu. Obo-Manobo naman ang ginawang
tawag sa isang nag-aaral ukol sa kanila at nailathala sa mga babasahing dyornal. Kahit
ganun pa man pareho lamang ang tinutukoy kapag makakarinig ka ng pangalan na Obo
(kasalukuyang pinaikling tawag), Obo-Manobo at Manuvu.
Basi sa nakasanayang tradisyon sa pagpapakasal at paglilipat ng tahanan ng

ikinakasal, masasabing ang mga Obo-Manobo ng Distrito ng Baguio at kalapit na lugar
sa lungsod ay nanggaling sa bahagi ng Hilagang Cotabato partikular sa Magpet ngunit
ang iba rin daw ay nanggaling sa Butuan. Sa katunayan ang wika ng mga Obo-Manobo
ay maiklasipika na bahagi ng pamilyang wikang Manobo (Dubois & Dubois, 2006)
dahil sa halos magkakatulad na tradisyon at wika ang matutunghayan sa mga ito ng
Agusan-Manobo, Kulaman-Manobo, pati na ang Dibabawon at Bagobo-Tagabawa.
Ang mga Obo-Manobo o Manuvu bagamat magkakaiba ang lugar ng mga Tagabawa,
Giangan at Obo sa lungsod ay tinitingnan pa rin na iisa lamang ang kanilang
pinagmulan. May pagkakapareho pa ring taglay ang mga ito lalo na sa wikain kaya
tinatawag silang sub-group ng mga Bagobo bukod sa kinokonsidera sila na mga
nangungunang etnikong grupong nananahan sa lungsod.
METODOLOHIYA NG PAG-AARAL
Ang pananaliksik ay gumamit ng disenyong kwalitatibo sa pagsusuri ng mga

empirikal na datos. Sinunod ang metodong indehinus na pamamaraan sa paglilikom at
pag-analisa ng mga impormasyong nakalap. Ang mananaliksik ay gumawa ng listahan
ng mga salita ng mga posibling salitang ginagamit sa pang-araw-araw (partikular ang
salitang-ugat) gamit ang wikang cebuano na magsisilbing basehan ng ginawang
69
hambingan ng mga salita sa mga wikain. Ito rin ang nagsisilbing gabay sa ginawang
interbyu ng mga impormante at nagkaroon din ng pagrekord habang isinasagawa ang
interbyu.
Gumawa ng pag-uuri at klasipikasyon upang mapadali ang pagtukoy sa

varyasyon ayon sa bahagi ng pananalita na pang-uri, pandiwa, at pangngalan mula sa
isinagawang pagtatranskrayb ng interbyu at pagpupuno sa ginawang listahan. Sa pag-
analisa, tiningnan ang mga kategoryang leksikal ng mga nalikom na salita at inuri-uri
ang mga ito. Mula sa wikang cebuano na tinumbasan ng mga terminong wikain ng
pinag-aaralan ay ginawan ito ng pagsasalin sa wikang Filipino at matapos na maisalin
ay tinipon ayon sa dapat na pagkakasunod-sunod at pinabalideyt ito sa mga balideytor.
Nangalap din ng iba pang mapagkakatiwalaang mga sanggunian na tumatalakay ukol
sa paksa ang mananaliksik upang patatagin ang pagtalakay sa kanilang bahagi ng
pananalita at sa pagkakakilanlan sa varyasyong leksikal ng tatlong etnikong grupo.
RESULTA AT DISKUSYON NG PAG-AARAL
Ang varyasyong leksikal sa pag-aaral na ito ay tumutukoy sa pagkakatulad at

pagkakaiba ng mga termino sa iba’t ibang wikain ng tatlong grupong Bagobo na mga
Tagabawa, Giangan at Obo-Manobo. Lumabas sa isinagawang pag-aaral mula sa
nakalap na mga salitang aabot ng mahigit 100 mga piniling salita (basi sa krayterya at
salitang-ugat) ang mga sumusunod basi sa isinagawang klasipikasyon.
May naitalang 33 mga salitang magkakaiba ang anyo o termino sa bawat

dayalekto ngunit pareho lamang ang kahulugang taglay ng mga ito. Binubuo ng 13
mga salitang pandiwa, 17 na mga salitang pang-uri at 3 sa pangngalan. Nasa ibaba ang
halimbawa ng mga salitang makikita sa binuong talahanayan.
70
Talahanayan 1. Mga salitang magkakaiba ang anyo o termino sa bawat dayalekto

Talahanayan 1. Mga salitang magkakaiba
ngunit pareho lamangang
anganyo o termino sa bawat dayalekto
kahulugan
ngunit pareho lamang ang kahulugan
Giangan Tagabawa Obo-Manobo Salin sa Filipino
Giangan
Pandiwa Tagabawa Obo-Manobo Salin sa Filipino
Pandiwa
tedo tindag lohi-nat tayo
tedo tindag lohi-nat tayo
balleng uli livod uwi
balleng uli livod uwi
meela dagga iloaggâ higa
meela dagga iloaggâ higa
Pang-uri
Pang-uri
lepa maripa moalibmit marumi
lepa maripa moalibmit marumi
tappe karaan tapoay luma
tappe karaan tapoay luma
pèta loammas mamos Basa (wet)
pèta loammas mamos Basa (wet)
Pangngalan
Pangngalan
angnga bata anak anak
angnga bata anak anak
onopawwo kaki kakoay Nakatatandang
onopawwo kaki kakoay Nakatatandang
kapatid
simbalay somballe sumbawoy kapatid
kapitbahay
simbalay somballe sumbawoy kapitbahay
Ang mga salitang ito ay batay sa resulta ng isinagawang interbyu gamit ang
listahan Ang mgasalita
ng mga salitang
na ito ay batay
inihanda. sa resulta ngnaiiba
Mapapansing isinagawang
ang anyo interbyu
ng mgagamit
salitaang
sa
listahan
bawat termino. Maaaring sabihing halos hindi magkakalapit ang mga tunog at salita sa
ng mga salita na inihanda. Mapapansing naiiba ang anyo ng mga salita sa
bawatkultural
mga termino. naMaaaring
terminong sabihing
ginagamithalos
nghindi
bawatmagkakalapit ang mga tunog
grupo. Sa klasipikasyon ngatpandiwa,
salita sa
mga kulturalnagkakaiba-iba
makikitang na terminong ginagamit ng bawat grupo.
ang mga terminong Sa klasipikasyon
ginagamit ng bawat grupo ng pandiwa,
tulad ng
makikitang nagkakaiba-iba ang mga terminong ginagamit ng bawat
salitang higa sa Filipino na may katumbas bilang meela, dagga at iloaggâ. Sa grupo tulad ng
pang-
salitang
uri tulad higa sa Filipino
ng salitang nakaraan
tappe, may katumbas
at tapoay bilang
ay maymeela, daggasaatFilipino
katumbas iloaggâ.naSa pang-
salitang
uri tulad ng salitang tappe, karaan at tapoay ay may katumbas
luma. Sa pangngalan naman tulad ng salitang angnga, bata, at anak, may sa Filipino na salitang
luma. Sa pangngalan
pakahulugang naman filipino.
anak sa salitang tulad ngIilan lamangangnga,
salitang ito sa mgabata, at anak, salita
halimbawang may
pakahulugang
ngunit sa salitang
anak may
mapapansing filipino.hiram
mga salitang Iilan na
lamang ito ginagamit
kanilang sa mga halimbawang salita
tulad ng karaan,
ngunit mapapansing may mga salitang hiram na kanilang ginagamit
bata at uli sa wikang Tagabawa at ang salitang anak naman ng mga Obo na maaring tulad ng karaan,
bata at ulihiniram
parehong sa wikang Tagabawa
sa wikang at ang salitang anak naman ng mga Obo na maaring
Cebuano.
parehong hiniram sa wikang Cebuano.
71
71
Kahit na may sarili silang termino sa isang bagay ngunit hindi maiiwasang
magamitKahit na ibang
nila ang may sarili silang
termino termino
at hiram sa isang
sa ibang wika.bagay ngunit
Marahil hindi maiiwasang
ay bunsod ito ng lugar
magamit
na kanilangnilakinabibilangan
ang ibang termino
kungatsaanhiram sa ibangiba
maraming wika. Marahil
pang wikangaynakapalibot
bunsod itosangkanila
lugar
onakaya
kanilang
ay sa kinabibilangan
pagkakaroon kung saan maraming
ng malakas iba pang wikang
na impluwensya nakapalibot
ng wikang Cebuano sa bilang
kanila
olingua
kayafranca
ay sa ng pagkakaroon ng malakas na impluwensya ng wikang Cebuano
buong Lungsod Davao. Maaaring nakikitaan nila ng kapanatagan ang bilang
lingua franca
wikang ito kungng buong Lungsod
kaya niyakap at Davao.
bukas naMaaaring
ginamit.nakikitaan nila ding
Matatandaan ng kapanatagan
maraming mga ang
wikang ito kung kaya niyakap at bukas na ginamit. Matatandaan ding
dayong kristiyanong Cebuano sa lugar na kinabibilangan nila kung saan nagkakaroon maraming mga
dayong
din sila kristiyanong
ng interaksyon Cebuano
sa isa’tsaisa.
lugar na kinabibilangan
Gayundin nila kung
ang pagpapakasal ngsaan
mganagkakaroon
katutubo sa
din
mgasila
dayongsainteraksyon sa isa’t isa. Gayundin
lugar ay nagbubunsod ang pagpapakasal
din ng pagbabago ng wikangng mga katutubo
kanilang sa
ginagamit
mga dayo sa lugar ay nagbubunsod din ng pagbabago ng wikang kanilang
na maaaring magsisimula sa kanilang mga anak at maging bahagi na rin ng kanilang ginagamit
na maaaring
termino magsisimula
sa kalaunan sa kanilang
tulad ng mga hiram mgana anak at maging
salitang kanilangbahagi na rin ng kanilang
ginagamit.
termino sa kalaunan tulad ng mga hiram na salitang kanilang ginagamit.
Sa kasalukuyan ay marami na ring mga Tagabawa, Giangan at Obo ang
marunong Sanakasalukuyan ay ng
ring magsalita marami na ring
iba pang wikamga
tuladTagabawa,
ng wikang Giangan
Cebuano,atTagalog
Obo angat
marunong
Ingles na ring
bunsod magsalita
na rin ng dala ng
ng iba pang wika tulad
modernisasyon kungng wikang
kaya hindiCebuano, Tagalog na
na maikagugulat at
Ingles bunsod na rin ng dala ng modernisasyon kung kaya hindi na maikagugulat
may mga hiram na salitang nahahalo sa kanilang pang-araw-araw na gamit ng mga na
may mga hiram na salitang nahahalo sa kanilang pang-araw-araw na gamit ng mga
termino.
termino.
Makikitang may mga salitang umusbong na magkakatunog ang anyo at may
parehongMakikitang
kahulugan.may
Maymga salitang
naitalang 21umusbong
mga salita na
angmagkakatunog angnaanyo
kategoryang ito, at may
binubuo ng
parehong kahulugan. May naitalang 21 mga salita ang kategoryang ito, na
9 na pandiwa, 3 mga pang-uri at 9 na mga salitang pangngalan na makikita angbinubuo ng
9 na pandiwa,mga
halimbawang 3 mga
salitapang-uri
sa ibaba.at 9 na mga salitang pangngalan na makikita ang
halimbawang mga salita sa ibaba.
Talahanayan 2. Mga salitang umusbong na magkakatunog
Talahanayan
ang2.anyo
Mgaat salitang umusbong
may parehong na magkakatunog
kahulugan
ang anyo at may parehong kahulugan
Giangan
PANDIWA Tagabawa Obo-Manobo Salin sa Filipino
PANDIWA
hówat suwat suwat magsuklay
hówat suwat suwat magsuklay
hábbot segbát sebbót damo
hábbot segbát sebbót damo
mullas bollas bullas bihis
mullas bollas bullas bihis
metád atad atód hatid
metád atad atód hatid
72
72
Talahanayan 2. (Cont’d.)
prito prito prito prito
prito prito prito prito
ekkát ikát ekat tali
PANG-URIekkát ikát ekat tali
mámmis
PANG-URI mammis mammis matamis
mámmis mammis mammis matamis
mettam mitám mitam maitim
mettam mitám mitam maitim
minit minit monit mainit
minit minit monit mainit
PANGNGALAN
bayao
PANGNGALAN bayao bayaw hipag
bayao bayao bayaw hipag
pamilya pamilya pamilya pamilya
pamilya pamilya pamilya pamilya
appo apo apô apo
appo apo apô apo
batad batad battad mais
batad batad battad mais
kodda koda kuda kabayo
kodda koda kuda kabayo
ápoy apoy apoy apoy
ápoy apoy apoy apoy
lossong lusong lusong Lusong
lossong lusong lusong Lusong
Sa grupo ng mga salitang ito, mapapansing hindi nagbabago ang gamit ng mga
salitang Sahiram
grupotulad ng prito
ng mga at pamilya
salitang na siyang
ito, mapapansing nanatili
hindi sa orihinal
nagbabago nitong
ang gamit nganyo
mga
gayundinhiram
salitang ang mga
tuladsalitang
ng prito bayao at apo na siyang
at pamilya maaaring hiniram
nanatili sa wikang
sa orihinal Cebuano.
nitong anyo
Nagkakaroon
gayundin ang lamang ng kaunting
mga salitang bayaopagkakaiba
at apo na sa kung paano
maaaring nila sa
hiniram binibigkas ang isang
wikang Cebuano.
salita tulad nglamang
Nagkakaroon salitangngapoy sa Filipino
kaunting na maysamga
pagkakaiba kungkatumbas ápoy sa Giangan
nabinibigkas
paano nila ang isangat
parehotulad
salita namang apoy saapoy
ng salitang Tagabawa at Manuvu
sa Filipino na mayngunit naiiba lamang
mga katumbas ang sa
na ápoy bigkas nito.at
Giangan
pareho namang apoy sa Tagabawa at Manuvu ngunit naiiba lamang ang bigkas nito.
Kapansin-pansin din ang paggamit ng mga dobleng letra sa mga salita tulad ng
lossong,Kapansin-pansin
kodda, battad, mettam at iba pa na
din ang paggamit ng natural na ginagawa
mga dobleng letra sang bawat
mga salitadayalekto
tulad ng
sa anyo ng pagpapahaba ng pagbigkas ng mga salita. Gayundin ang kaunting
lossong, kodda, battad, mettam at iba pa na natural na ginagawa ng bawat dayalekto kaibhan
ng anyo
sa ponemang /h/ at /s/ sang
ng pagpapahaba mga hówat
salitang ng
pagbigkas suwat,
mga atsalita. hábbot,ang
Gayundin segbát at sebbót,
kaunting na
kaibhan
nagkakaiba
ng ponemangsa/h/mga at /s/patinig at pagbabago
sa mga salitang hówat atngsuwat,
isang hábbot,
katinig. segbát
Patunay na halos
at sebbót, na
nagkakaiba sa mga patinig at pagbabago ng isang katinig. Patunay na halos
73
73
nagkakatulad ang mga terminong kanilang ginagamit sa kabila ng iba-iba ang grupo
nila. Mapapansin
nagkakatulad ang rin
mganaman na ang
terminong grupongginagamit
kanilang Giangan sa ay kabila
ang kadalasang
ng iba-ibagumagamit
ang grupo
ng
nila.ponemang
Mapapansin/h/ kaysa Tagabawa
rin naman na ang at grupong
Obo. Gayundin
Giangan ang
aypagamit ng ponemang
ang kadalasang /m/ at
gumagamit
/b/
ng ponemang /h/ kaysa Tagabawa at Obo. Gayundin ang pagamit ng ponemang /m/ito
na may kaparehong sitwasyon ng paggamit ng mga Giangan. Ang pangyayaring at
/b/ bunsod
ay pa rin ng kultural
na may kaparehong sitwasyonnilang
ng katangian
paggamit ngsa mga
pagsasalita
Giangan.at Ang
pagbigkas kung kaya
pangyayaring ito
nakakabuo
ay bunsod pa ng rin
iba’tngibang istilonilang
kultural ng pagbigkas
katangianang
sa bawat grupo.at pagbigkas kung kaya
pagsasalita
nakakabuo ng iba’t ibang istilo ng pagbigkas ang bawat grupo.
Nagkakaroon din ng leksikal na varyasyon sa pagkakatulad ng anyo ang
mga salita na may din
Nagkakaroon ng leksikal
parehong na varyasyon
kahulugan subalit sa pagkakatulad
kaiba ang termino ng anyo ang
sa isang
pangkat.
mga salita Ang naganitong senaryo ay
may parehong nagbubunsod
kahulugan ng pagiging
subalit kaiba angiba attermino
pagkakilanlan ng
sa isang
tribung
pangkat. Bagobo. Gayundin
Ang ganitong sa uri ay
senaryo ng nagbubunsod
wika na kanilang pinagmulan.
ng pagiging Sapagkakilanlan
iba at klasipikasyonngA
ukol
tribungsa,Bagobo. Gayundin
pagkakatulad sa uriatngkahulugan
ng anyo wika na kanilang
sa wikapinagmulan.
ng Tagabawa Sa at
klasipikasyon
Obo-Manobo A
ngunit
ukol sa,kaiba sa Giangan,
pagkakatulad ay nakatala
ng anyo ng 28 sa
at kahulugan mga salita
wika ng na nagpapakita
Tagabawa ng ganitong
at Obo-Manobo
kategorya,
ngunit binubuo
kaiba ng 9 naaysalitang
sa Giangan, nakatalapandiwa,
ng 28 mga 10 salita
na pang-uri at 9 na pangngalan.
na nagpapakita ng ganitong
Makikita sa ibabang talahanayan ang mga halimbawa ng mga salita.
kategorya, binubuo ng 9 na salitang pandiwa, 10 na pang-uri at 9 na pangngalan.
Makikita sa ibabang talahanayan ang mga halimbawa ng mga salita.
Talahanayan 3. Klasipikasyon ng mga salitang magkakatulad
Talahanayan 3. ng anyo sa iba’t-ibang
Klasipikasyon ng mga wika
salitang magkakatulad
ng anyo sa iba’t-ibang wika
PANDIWA
PANDIWA
Battik ánno annow bangon
Battik ánno annow bangon
moong tanggás tong-ngas balot
moong tanggás tong-ngas balot
maggas Lullo lollô hugas
maggas Lullo lollô hugas
nau pánog panag baba
nau pánog panag baba
mannik penek penek akyat
mannik penek penek akyat
eád onsad unsad upo
eád onsad unsad upo
PANG-URI
PANG-URI
hámá madat marat pangit
hámá madat marat pangit
74
74
leywo mabbaba mabbava maliit
leywo mabbaba mabbava maliit
kólat magasa mahasa payat
kólat magasa mahasa payat
masse masin ma-assin maalat
masse masin ma-assin maalat
paya dakál dakka malaki
paya dakál dakka malaki
tèe matággas motaggas Matigas
tèe matággas motaggas Matigas
PANGNGALAN
PANGNGALAN
ino ina ina ina
ino ina ina ina
omo am’ma ama ama
omo am’ma ama ama
gerapawwo adi ari Nakababatang kapatid
gerapawwo adi ari Nakababatang kapatid
ula odan uran ulan
gehot
ula baboy
odan bavoy
uran baboy
ulan
gehot baboy bavoy baboy
áppos mingkó mingkô pusa
áppos mingkó mingkô pusa
Ang Obo-Manobo ay pinaniniwalaang ibang tribu kaya hindi kauri ng mga
Bagobo. Ang
MulaObo-Manobo
sa datos, makikitang halos magkasintulad
ay pinaniniwalaang silakaya
ibang tribu sa leksikal na bahagi
hindi kauri ng mga ng
dayalektong
Bagobo. MulaTagabawa. Patunay ritohalos
sa datos, makikitang ang mga salitang mingkó
magkasintulad sila sa at na am’ma
mingkô,
leksikal bahagi ng at
ama, masin at ma-assin, ina at ina, penek at penek, at Lullo at lollô
dayalektong Tagabawa. Patunay rito ang mga salitang mingkó at mingkô, am’ma at na naiiba lamang
sa punto
ama, ng pagbigkas
masin at ma-assin, na ina
maari namang
at ina, penekwalang makabuluhang
at penek, at Lullo at pagkakaiba.
lollô na naiiba lamang
sa punto ng pagbigkas na maari namang walang makabuluhang pagkakaiba.
Mapapansin rin sa Tagabawa at Obo na nagkakapalitan sila sa paggamit ng
ponemang /d/ at /r/ tulad
Mapapansin rin sangTagabawa
mga salitang odannaat nagkakapalitan
at Obo uran, madat at sila marat, at ari at adi
sa paggamit ng
na kapareho
ponemang /d/ang tuntunin
at /r/ tulad ngsamga
wikang Filipino.
salitang odanGayundin sa mgaatponemang
at uran, madat /o/ at
marat, at ari at adi
/u/
tulad ng lullo at lollô, at onsad at unsad, at ponemang /a/ at /o/ tulad
na kapareho ang tuntunin sa wikang Filipino. Gayundin sa mga ponemang /o/ at /u/ ng mga salitang
matággas
tulad ng lullo motaggas,
at at pánogat at
lollô, at onsad panag,
unsad, at tanggás
at ponemang /a/atat tong-ngas
/o/ tulad ng na
mgamalayang
salitang
nagkakapalitan. Kapansin-pansin rin ang pagkakapalitan ng mga
matággas at motaggas, pánog at panag, at tanggás at tong-ngas na malayang ponemang /b/ at /v/
tulad ng mga salitang
nagkakapalitan. baboy at bavoy,
Kapansin-pansin at mabbaba
rin ang at mabbava
pagkakapalitan ng mgaatponemang
ng mga ponemang
/b/ at /v/
tulad ng mga salitang baboy at bavoy, at mabbaba at mabbava at ng mga ponemang
75
75

/g/ at /h/ tulad ng salitang magasa at mahasa na pawang kakikitaan din ng ganitong
malayang
/g/ pagkakapalitan.
at /h/ tulad Kapansin-pansin
ng salitang magasa at mahasadinnanapawang
gumagamit ng dobleng
kakikitaan din ngmga letra
ganitong
bilang tanda ng pagpapahaba ng kanilang pagbigkas tulad ng mga salitang am’ma,
malayang pagkakapalitan. Kapansin-pansin din na gumagamit ng dobleng mga letra
ma-assin,
bilang tandaat iba pa.
ng pagpapahaba ng kanilang pagbigkas tulad ng mga salitang am’ma,
ma-assin, at iba pa.
Lumabas din sa pag-aaral na may mga kakaibang salita sa Giangan na halos
walang kapareho sa Tagabawa at Obo tulad ng mga salitang adi at ari na may tumbas
Lumabas din sa pag-aaral na may mga kakaibang salita sa Giangan na halos
na salitang
walang kaparehogerapawwo na nangangahulugang
sa Tagabawa at Obo tulad ng mga nakababatang kapatid,
salitang adi at masyadong
ari na may tumbas
malayo at hindi makikitang magkalapit ang mga ito. Gayundin sa
na salitang gerapawwo na nangangahulugang nakababatang kapatid, masyadong mga salitang áppos,
gehot,
malayotoe, tèe, paya
at hindi at maggas.
makikitang Ang ibang
magkalapit salitaito.
ang mga naman tulad ng
Gayundin kagyo,
sa mga hábbot,
salitang ula,
áppos,
ino, omo, masse, putte, at iba pa ay kakikitaan naman ng kaunting pagkakatulad sa
gehot, toe, tèe, paya at maggas. Ang ibang salita naman tulad ng kagyo, hábbot, ula,
termino
ino, omo,ngmasse,
mga Tagabawa
putte, at at
ibaObo-Manobo.
pa ay kakikitaan naman ng kaunting pagkakatulad sa
termino ng mga Tagabawa at Obo-Manobo.
Sa klasipikasyon B ukol sa pagkakaroon ng mga salitang may pagkakatulad
ng anyo at kahulugan subalit kaiba ang termino sa Tagabawa, mapapansing iilan
Sa klasipikasyon B ukol sa pagkakaroon ng mga salitang may pagkakatulad
lamang
ng anyoang
at mga naitalang
kahulugan salitakaiba
subalit na nagkakapareho
ang terminoang Giangan at Obo-Manobo
sa Tagabawa, mapapansing mula
iilan
sa 100 salitang nakalap. Nasa ibaba ang halimbawang talahanayan na nagpapakita
lamang ang mga naitalang salita na nagkakapareho ang Giangan at Obo-Manobo mula ng
pagkakatulad.
sa 100 salitang nakalap. Nasa ibaba ang halimbawang talahanayan na nagpapakita ng
pagkakatulad.
Talahanayan 4. Klasikipikasyon ng mga salitang may pagkakatulad ng anyo
Talahanayanat4.kahulugan subalit kaiba
Klasikipikasyon angsalitang
ng mga terminomaysa Tagabawa
pagkakatulad ng anyo
at kahulugan subalit kaiba ang termino sa Tagabawa
Giangan Tagabawa Obo Salin sa Filipino
angngáy kangi angoy kuha
Giangan Tagabawa Obo Salin sa Filipino
angngáy
malegánnoy kangi
dappan angoy
malihannoy kuha
maganda
malegánnoy
Lamme dappan
Manto malihannoy
lammî maganda
bago
Lamme
bolle Manto
dukilám lammî
bullî bago
gabi
bolle dukilám bullî gabi
Makikitang ang pagkakatulad ng dalawa sa mga terminong ginagamit na
nagkakaiba lamang sa pagbigkas gamit ang mga patinig at dobleng mga letra tulad ng
Makikitang ang pagkakatulad ng dalawa sa mga terminong ginagamit na
salitang angngáy
nagkakaiba lamangatsaangoy. Gayundin
pagbigkas ang mga
gamit ang salitang malegánnoy
patinig at dobleng at
mgamalihannoy na
letra tulad ng
magkatulad
salitang lamang
angngáy at ngunit
angoy.nagkakapalitan ang ponemang
Gayundin ang salitang /g/ at at
malegánnoy /h/.malihannoy
Ang ganitongna
magkatulad lamang ngunit nagkakapalitan ang ponemang /g/ at /h/. Ang ganitong
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76
senaryo ng pagkakapreho ng Giangan at Obo-Manobo ay hindi rin maipagtataka dahil

matatandaang
senaryo ang lugar ngngDistrito
ng pagkakapreho GianganngatBaguio sa Lungsod
Obo-Manobo Davao
ay hindi ay dating teritoryo
rin maipagtataka dahil
ng mga Giangan.
matatandaang angNagkakaroon
lugar ng Distritong intermarriage sa pagitanDavao
ng Baguio sa Lungsod ng mga ay Obo-Manobo at
dating teritoryo
Giangan at patunay dito ang pangalang Datu Baguio na isang Manuvu
ng mga Giangan. Nagkakaroon ng intermarriage sa pagitan ng mga Obo-Manobo at na ipinangalan
sa lugar. at
Giangan Kahit na may
patunay ditodistingsyon
ang pangalang angDatu
lugarBaguio
ng mganaGiangan sa Distrito
isang Manuvu ng Baguio
na ipinangalan
ngunit hindi
sa lugar. Kahitmaikakaila na kasama ang
na may distingsyon nilalugar
sa komunidad ang mga
ng mga Giangan sa Obo-Manobo. May
Distrito ng Baguio
kalayuan naman
ngunit hindi sa kanilanaang
maikakaila lugar ng
kasama nilamga
sa Tagabawa.
komunidad ang mga Obo-Manobo. May
kalayuan naman sa kanila ang lugar ng mga Tagabawa.
Sa klasipikasyon C naman ukol sa pagkakaroon ng pagkakatulad ng mga
terminong
Sa Tagabawa at Giangan
klasipikasyon C namanngunit
ukol kaiba naman sa Obo-Manobo,
sa pagkakaroon ng pagkakatulad makikita ang
ng mga
pagkakapareho ng paggamit
terminong Tagabawa ng mga
at Giangan dobleng
ngunit kaibaletra tuladsa
naman ngObo-Manobo,
salitang allangmakikita
at tappeang
na
matutunghayan
pagkakapareho ng sa talahanayan
paggamit ngsa ibaba
mga ang iba
dobleng pang
letra halimbawa.
tulad ng salitang allang at tappe na
matutunghayan sa talahanayan sa ibaba ang iba pang halimbawa.
Talahanayan 5. Klapikasyon ng mga salitang may pagkakatulad ng mga terminong
TalahanayanTagabawa at Giangan
5. Klapikasyon ngunit
ng mga kaibamay
salitang naman sa Obo-Manobo
pagkakatulad ng mga terminong
Tagabawa at Giangan ngunit kaiba naman sa Obo-Manobo
meppê pamippi laba laba
meppê pamippi laba laba
momeng gáming Iluto Saing
momeng gáming Iluto Saing
dato dato mayaman mayaman
dato dato mayaman mayaman
lallak rarak aukoy kaibigan
lallak rarak aukoy kaibigan
ugang ogang anuhang byanan
ugang ogang anuhang byanan
allang allang Pana-adsang katulong
allang allang Pana-adsang katulong
tappe dappe kamping kakambal
tappe dappe kamping kakambal
Sadyang naiiba lang ang katumbas ng mga termino nito sa Obo-Manobo

marahil Sadyang
ay sa kung paanolang
naiiba nilaang
ito ginamit
katumbas sa ng
kanilang kultura at
mga termino komunidad
nito kasama
sa Obo-Manobo
ang dalawa
marahil pang
ay sa kunggrupo.
paanoKahit
nila pa
ito man malayo
ginamit ang heyograpikong
sa kanilang kinabibilangan
kultura at komunidad kasama ng
mgadalawa
ang Tagabawa
pangatgrupo.
Giangan ngunit
Kahit hindimalayo
pa man pa rin ang
maisasantabi na angkinabibilangan
heyograpikong dalawang ito ngay
mga orihinal
Tagabawana at
tinatawag
Giangannangunit
grupong Bagobo
hindi pa rinkaya may mgana
maisasantabi salitang pareho paitoring
ang dalawang ay
mga orihinal na tinatawag na grupong Bagobo kaya may mga salitang pareho pa ring
77
77
matatagpuan sa kanilang mga wika. Maaaring sabihing pinaghiwalay ng lugar sa

matatagpuan sa kanilang
bagong pamayanan ngunit mga wika.
maaring Maaaring
iisang sabihing
lugar lamang angpinaghiwalay ng lugar sa
kanilang pinanggalingan.
bagong pamayanan ngunit maaring iisang lugar lamang ang kanilang pinanggalingan.
Napag-alaman din na may pagkakatulad ng anyo at kahulugan ng mga
terminongNapag-alaman
Tagabawa, din na may
Giangan at pagkakatulad
Obo-Manobo. ng anyo at kahulugan
Mapapansing nagkakaroon ngito
mga
ng
terminong
pagbabago ng Tagabawa, Giangan
mga ponema at Obo-Manobo.
na maaaring Mapapansing
nasa palitan nagkakaroon
ng mga katinig, ito ng
pagkakaltas
pagbabago ng mga ponema na maaaring nasa palitan ng mga katinig, pagkakaltas
at pagdaragdag ng ponema na makikita ang mga halimbawang salita sa talahanayan
at ibaba.
sa pagdaragdag ng ponema na makikita ang mga halimbawang salita sa talahanayan
sa ibaba.
Talahanayan 6. Klapikasyon ng mga salitang magkakatulad ng mga terminong
Talahanayan 6. Klapikasyon
Tagabawa at Gianganngngunit
mga salitang magkakatulad
kaiba naman ng mga terminong
sa Obo-Manobo
Tagabawa at Giangan ngunit kaiba naman sa Obo-Manobo
malinanam mananam ananam masarap
malinanam mananam ananam masarap
mássum mallasám ma-assom maasim
mássum mallasám ma-assom maasim
mangngá kamanga kamangâ hasa
mangngá
pakkaa kamanga
pakan kamangâ
akaan hasa
pakain
pakkaa pakan akaan pakain
hámmák malomák mamak malambot
hámmák malomák mamak malambot
kasido karasido kasidô bolo
kasido
ollo karasido
pangolo kasidô
pangu bolo
pangulo
ollo pangolo pangu pangulo
kloabbaw karaboa Kaavow kalabaw
kloabbaw karaboa Kaavow kalabaw
Ang mga salitang tulad ng hámmák at mamak ay nagkakaroon ng pagbabago

ng mga Ang mgabunsod
ponema salitangngtulad ng hámmák
palitan at mamak
ng mga katinig. ay nagkakaroon
Gayundin ang mgang pagbabago
salitang ollo,
ng mga ponema
pangolo, pangu,bunsod ng palitan
kasido, ng mgana
at karasido katinig.
nagingGayundin
resulta ang
ng mga salitang ollo,
pagkakaltas at
pangolo, pangu, kasido, at karasido na naging resulta ng pagkakaltas
pagdaragdag ng ponema. Ang ganitong senaryo ng pagbabagong leksikal sa tatlong at
pagdaragdag
wika ngnatural
ay nagiging ponema. Ang ganitong
lamang. senaryo
Mapapansin ngmga
na ang pagbabagong leksikalay
grupong Giangan samahilig
tatlong
wika
sa ay nagiging
pagpapaikli ngnatural lamang.
mga salita Mapapansin
na maaaring na angbahagi
sa huling mga grupong Giangan
ng pagbigkas, ay mahilig
at marahil ay
sa pagpapaikli ng mga salita na maaaring sa huling bahagi ng pagbigkas, at
sanhi ng mabilisang pagbigkas. Maaaring nakasanayan na nila ito kapag nagsasalitamarahil ay
sanhinangatmabilisang
lalo pagbigkas.
bulubunduking lugar Maaaring nakasanayan nila.
din ang kinaroroonan na nila ito kapag nagsasalita
Mapapansin ring hindi
lalo na at bulubunduking lugar din ang kinaroroonan nila. Mapapansin ring hindi
78
78
lamang nangyayari sa wikaing Giangan ang pagkakaltas at pagdaragdag kundi maging

sa Tagabawa at Obo-Manobo rin. Malimit naman na nagdaragdag ng ponema ang
wikaing Tagabawa tulad ng salitang malomák, karasido, pangolo at karaboa. Batay
sa pag-aaral nina DuBois & DuBois (2006), ang ibang varayti ng wikaing Tagabawa
lalo na sa bahagi ng Hilagang Cotabato ay nahihilig gumamit ng ponemang /r/ bilang
pagdaragdag.
Gayundin ang wikaing Obo-Manobo nagkakaroon din ng ganitong pagbabago

sa pagdaragdag at pagkakaltas. Madalas nangyayari sa wikaing Obo-Manobo ang
pagkakaltas sa unang katinig tulad ng salitang akaan at ananam na nawala ang mga
unang letra. Nagkakaroon din ng pagdaragdag gamit ang dalawang sunurang letra o
double phonological segments tulad ng ma-assom at kaavow. May nagaganap din na
pagbabago ng pagpapahaba gamit ang dobleng letra tulad ng mallasám, mangngá
at ma-assom na ginagamitan ng hypen (-) bilang palatandaan ng glotal.
Sa kabuuan, ang varyasyong leksikal ng wikaing Tagabawa, Giangan at Obo-

Manobo batay sa heyograpikong dimensyon ay may mga sumusunod na
pagkakakilanlan: 1) Halos magkakalapit lamang na varayti ang mga dayalekto o
wikaing Tagabawa, Giangan at Obo-Manobo. 2.) Nagkakaroon ng varyasyon sa
termino at pagkakaiba ng baybay. Batay sa ginawang pagsusuri sa mga magkakapareho
at magkakaibang mga termino, nakita naman ang sumusunod na mga katangian: A)
Nagkakaroon ng maraming terminong magkakapareho ang mga Tagabawa at Obo-
Manobo kaya maaaring isa ito sa basehan kung bakit kinokonsidera silang sub-group
ng Bagobo kahit pa man napabilang ang sa pamilyang Manobo; B) Ang Giangan na
kaparehong grupong Bagobo ng Tagabawa ay kakikitaan ng maraming kaibhan ang
mga ito. Maaaring may kinalaman ang lokasyon ng kanilang komunidad kung saan
nakakabuo sila ng mga kakaibang termino kaysa Tagabawa. Gayundin ang iba pang
mga salik tulad ng intermarriage at kalakalan ay maaaring may malaking kinalaman
sa pagbabago ng wika; at, 3) Kahit na magkakaibang grupo ang tatlo ay pinag-iisa pa
rin sila bilang mga Bagobo ngunit hindi pa opisyal na iisang angkan ang
pinanggalingan, marami pang dapat na pag-aaral ang isasagawa para rito. Sa
kasalukuyan ang Obo-Manobo ay kinilala bilang isang subgroup pa rin ng Bagobo.
79
Ang varyasyong leksikal ng wikaing Tagabawa, Giangan at Obo-Manobo ay

masasabing nabuo bunsod ng lugar o heyograpikong kanilang kinaroroonan. Basi sa
topograpikong taglay ng kani-kanilang lugar ay nakakabuo sila ng natatanging paraan
sa pagbigkas ng kanilang mga salita lalo na sa pagpapabilis ng pagbigkas at pagbibigay
ng tuon o emphasis sa kanilang sinasalita. Dahil dito ay nakakabuo sila ng sosyal na
varayti na identidad ng kanilang wika at kultura. Hindi maisasantabi ang pagkakabuo
ng mga termino na nagsisilbing identidad ng grupo at lugar na kinabibilangan. Ang
mga katangiang ito ay sanhi sa pagkakabuo ng varyasyon ng kanilang mga wika bilang
isang dayalakto o wikaing ginagamit.
Ang katangian ng wikaing Tagabawa, Giangan at Obo-Manobo ay masasabing

natural na taglay bilang linggwistikal na katangian ng wikang napabilang sa mga
wikain ng Pilipinas. Makikita rin ang mga varyasyong ito sa iba pang wikain ng bansa
at maaaring pinagkakaiba lamang nito sa wikang Filipino ang ukol sa ponemang
taglay. Gayundin ang mga katinig ay halos hindi nagkakaiba sa kung ano ang taglay
ng wikang Filipino. Maaaring ang mga ponemang taglay ng wikang indehinus ay
maaari maging batayan sa pagpapaunlad ng wikang Filipino para bumagay sa iba pang
salitang hindi kayang tumbasan nito.
KONKLUSYON AT REKOMENDASYON
Batay sa isinagawang pag-aaral masasabing may malaking epekto ang

heyograpikal na dimensyon sa tatlong wikain – ang Tagabawa, Giangan at Obo-
Manobo na pinaghahambing gamit ang iba’t ibang teorya ng varayti at varyasyon ng
wika. Maaaring sabihing nasa iisang varayti lamang ng wika na napabilang sa pamilya
ng Manobo ngunit nagkaroon ng ilang mga salik bunsod na rin sa lokasyon na
kinalalagyan nila kaya nabuo ang panibagong varayti ng wika. Ang varyasyong taglay
ng kanilang mga termino sa leksikal na bahagi ay nagdulot ng malaking impluwensya
a magbago ng kanilang wika batay na rin sa heyograpikal na katangian. Ito rin ay
magiging identidad nila upang ipakilala ang kanilang grupo at mapreserba ang wika at
kulturang mayroon ang Tagabawa, Giangan at Obo-Manobo.
80
Mahalaga, samakatwid, na nagkaroon ng hiwalay na pag-aaral sa varayti at

varyasyon sa wikaing Tagabawa, Giangan at Obo o Manuvu sa iba pang lugar o karatig
lugar ng Lungsod Davao upang masuri ang kanilang mga wikain. Hindi pa masyadong
nagalugad ang sintaktika at morposintaktika na mga paksa sa mga wikaing ito na
makatutulong naman sa kodipikasyon ng kanilang wika. Ito ay mahusay na paksa na
pag-aaralan.
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Solatorio, L. (2013). Wika at Komunikasyon. Mutya Publishing House, Inc.
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Brainard, S & Vander Molen, E. (2005). Word Order Inverse Obo Manobo. In Summer
Institute of Linguistics. Hsiu-chuan Liao and Carl R. Galvez Rubino, (Eds.),
Current issues in Philippine linguistics and anthropology: Parangal kay
Lawrence A. Reid. Manila: LSP and SIL. pp. 364-418. Retrieved from
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Fishman, J. (1970). Sociolinguistics. Newsburry House Publishing Inc.
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Giles, H., et al. (Eds.). (1991). Context of Accommodation: Developments in Applied

Sociolinguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
McFarland, C. (1983). A Linguistic Atlas of the Philippines. Linguistic Society of the

Philippines.
Meyerhoff, M. (2011). Introducing Sociolinguistics. The Routledge: Oxon, Oxford.
Poplack, S. (1993). Variation Theory and Language Contact. In Preston, D. R. (Eds.),

American Dialect Research. Philadelphia: John Benjamin B.V. Retrieved from
www.nwav43.illinois.edu/workshop/documents/Poplack-workshop
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Oriental. Asai Pacific Journal of Education, Arts and Sciences. Vol. 1, No. 5,
November 2014. Retrieved from www.apjeas.apjmr.com
Pasion, R. (2015). Yang Pagbul’lók-bul’lok: Varyasyon ng Wikang Mandaya sa Ilang

Munisipalidad ng Davao Oriental. Asia Pacific Journal of Multidisciplinary
Research, Vol. 3, No. 2, May 2015. Retrieved from
www.apjmr.com/.../APJMR-2015-3-2-006-Yang-Pagbullok-bullok...By_.-Dr.-
Pasion....
Ramos, J. (1986). Wika, Komunikasyon at Lipunang Filipino. Komite sa Teksbuk sa

Komunikasyon sa Filipino. Departamento ng Filipino at Panitikan ng Filipino.
Kolehiyo ng Sining at Panitikan. Unibersidad ng Pilipinas-Diliman Quezon.
Rousseau, J.J. (1950). The Social Contract and Other Discourse. New York: Dutton.
Rubrico, J. (2011). Filipino Variety of Davao: A Linguistic Description. Isang binasang

papel sa 11th Philippine Linguistics Congress, NISMED University of the
Philippines, Diliman, Quezon City, 7-9 December 2011. Retrieved from
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descripti...
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San Buenaventura M. (1985). Ang Kaganapang Sikolohiyang Pilipino sa

Pagsasakatutubo, Pagka-Agham at Pagka-Filipino. Ang Sikolohiyang Pilipino
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California Press.
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83
The Mananambals and Their Functions in Philippine Culture

Lourd Greggory D. Crisol5
Efren Jone J. Oledan
Abstract
This qualitative study attempts to look into the practice of folk

healing used by mananambals or folk healers in Iligan City,
Philippines. It also looks into the functions that these traditional
practitioners serve in the Philippine culture. Anchored in the
functionalist theory in anthropology by Bronislaw Malinowski and
supplemented by the national folklore theory by Richard Dorson,
this study attempts to answer the following questions: (1) What are
the backgrounds and practices of the mananambals? (2) What do
the mananambals’ background and practices reveal of Filipino
culture? (3) From these reflections, what functions do the
mananambals have in Philippine culture? Upon analysis, it was
revealed that these mananambals obtained their healing abilities
through supernatural means. In terms of diagnosing illnesses, they
examine certain body parts and bodily functions, but still also ask
for guidance from spirit guides. They cure illnesses by using
certain folk medicines, incantations, and traditional massage. For
protection from harm and illnesses, they use natural means but
these are accompanied by amulets and trinkets. Moreover, it was
found out that for Filipinos, health and illness are deeply rooted in
spiritual and folk beliefs. More importantly, these mananambals
remind Filipinos of the value of community and spirituality.
Keywords: folk healing, Filipino culture, traditional medicine, national folklore

theory, mananambal
5
The first author is a faculty member of the English Department, College of Arts and Social
Sciencs, MSU-IIT, Iligan City. Email: lourdgreggory.crisol@g.msuiit.edu.ph. The second
author teaches at the College of Arts and Sciences, St. Michael’s College. E-mail:
jongoledanxj@gmail.com.
84
INTRODUCTION
According to the World Health Organization (2001), the age-old wisdom of

the people of every country has been crystalized into different systems of traditional
medicine, each nation having its own system. Some of these traditional systems are
well established, supported by theories and rich experience and recorded in writing,
such as the Indian system of Ayurveda, the Muslim system of Unani, traditional
Chinese medicine, ancient Greek medicine and the systems that evolved from it, and
the humoral theory and therapy of Latin America. Whether sophisticated or not, the
systems of traditional medicine served as the only means of health care for ages till
modern biomedicine came into being. In contrast to modern biomedicine, which was
founded on the basis of modern natural sciences, most traditional systems of medicine
originated in and developed according to the principles of ancient schools of
philosophy.
In the Philippines, the practice of folk medicine is thought to have existed for
hundreds of years, even before the colonization by the Spaniards. The roots of
traditional medicine appear to have originated from the practices of ethnic and
indigenous groups of Filipinos. The assumption is that the spectrum of traditional
medicine in the Philippines has been brought about by the influences mainly of ethnic
Chinese traditional medicine systems, local folklore, and experiments with the use of
medicinal resources. Thus, the Philippines, due to influence from centuries of Spanish
colonization, has merged its ancestral beliefs with formal Christian influence. The use
of amulets to ward off sickness and, to be protected from natural disasters and even
from man-made aggression is combined with prayers adapted from churches (World
Health Organization, 2005).
In Iligan City, which is a predominantly Catholic city situated in Northern

Mindanao, this is also the case. According to Del Fierro and Nolasco (2013), a
traditional healer in Cebuano society (which Iliganon society belongs to) is called
mananambal. A mananambal is a local medicinal doctor who resorts to indigenous
means of treating patients who are in pain or have been long suffering from various
forms of illness caused by supernatural factors. Moreover, these folk practitioners are
also sought out first because they are relatives, neighbors, friends, and friends of
85
friends. These personal linkages are important in Philippine society for they provide a
basis for trust about the effectiveness of known healers, their low fee, and ease of
communication (Tan, 2006). However, due to the prevalent use of modern treatments,
the number of people who go these folk healers have significantly decreased. Because
of this, the folk healers are placed on the fringes of Philippine society and culture. As
supported by Berdon et al. (2016), as time passes by, the belief in folk medicine and
its practice is already slowly diminishing. Because of new inventions in medicine
brought about by modernity, many people rely more on professional medical
practitioners who use science or modern medicine to cure diseases.
This folkloric research aims to study the functions of these traditional

practitioners in Philippine culture amidst this background. According to Eugenio
(2007), “folklore” refers to the “lore” or traditional learning of the “folk,” which can
be any group of people bound together by some common factor such as language,
religion and occupation.
Primarily, this study is anchored in the theory of functionalism in

anthropology. Used in folklore studies, it claims that every folklore item must have a
function. Here, the expectation is that every proverb, tale, folk belief, or ballad (and
even folk beliefs and practices) must satisfy some important cultural, social, or
psychological function. This view of the functional in folklore is parallel to Bronislaw
Malinowski’s position that everything in human life must have a function (Green,
1997). Every detail of a culture (and this most certainly would include its folklore) has
a function. Every social institution has a need to satisfy, and so does every item in a
culture. For folklorists, this means that even the smallest item one collects, such as a
single folk belief, has a function to perform both at the level of the individual and at
the level of the society and the culture (Green, 1997).
In this study, the mananambal is subjected to a functionalist analysis in the

context of Philippine culture.
Additionally, since this research will touch on the mananambals and their
functions in Philippine culture, the theory of functionalism will be supplemented with
Richard Dorson’s national folklore theory. This theory generally focuses on the
86
distinctive qualities of folklore in each individual country (Dorson, 1963). Further,

according to Lopez (2006), the rise of nationalism and the growth of folklore
movement frequently took place hand in hand in countries; therefore, the nationalistic
approach to folklore was the logical companion to the romantic nationalism of the
nineteenth century. Scholars in European countries searched feverishly for the “soul”
of their respective peoples as revealed in their native languages, folktales, folk songs,
folk epics, and historical legends glorifying the deeds of their national heroes. Thus,
the Grimm brothers of Germany, Asbjornen and Moe of Norway, Elias Lonnrot and
the Krohns of Finland, Vuk Karadzic of Serbia, Douglas Hyde of Ireland, to name a
few, sought the national elements in their respective traditional lore. If the powerful
nations like the USA (and European countries) find it necessary to employ folklore to
enhance national pride and bolster international prestige, it is easy to understand how
and why small countries have used folklore as a vehicle to assert their cultural
independence and identity. Moreover, the nation’s effort to establish a Filipino national
identity has encouraged the nationalistic approach to Philippine folkloristics. Thus, by
highlighting the mananambals, their functions in Philippine culture, and what they
reveal of Philippine culture, the fabric of the Filipino national identity is somehow
reinforced.
Furthermore, this study attempts to answer the following questions:
1. What are the backgrounds and practices of the mananambals in terms of

healing abilities, diagnoses, types of treatment, and protection or warding
off impending harm and illnesses?;
2. What do the mananambals’ background and practices reveal of Filipino

culture?
3. According to these reflections, what functions do the mananambals have

in Philippine culture?
87
METHODOLOGY
This research is qualitative in design and uses in-depth interview in collecting

the data. Three mananambals in Iligan City, Philippines were interviewed and served
as key informants. These folk healers have been practicing the craft for ten years and
thus authority can be established. Sets of guide questions were prepared and the
interviews were conducted in Cebuano, the first language of the informants. Interviews
lasted from 30 minutes to an hour. Quoted portions of interviews were then translated
into English. Interviews were recorded and then were transcribed. Observation of the
mananambals practicing healing was also done to add to the data.
The Mananambals and their Healing Abilities
Data from the interviews of these folk healers reveal that they obtained their
healing abilities through supernatural means. For the first mananambal, she inherited
the healing paraphernalia from her grandmother and grandfather, who were also folk
healers.
On the other hand, the second mananambal claimed that she obtained her
healing abilitie through a dream, which then started her mission for healing. According
to her:
Gidamgo lang ko usa ka adlaw. Pahiluton ko sa akong anak anha

manghilot sa uban. Naay babaye nga tiguwang. Itumon siya, puti og
taas ang iyang buhok. Basta tiguwang na. Natural lang iyang bisti.
Wala ko kaila niya. Nakita nako siya nga nagduyan duyan sa bagon.
Niingon siya sa akoa, “Hiluta sah imong anak anha ka manghilot
sa uban.” Atong tingura, napiang ang tiil sa akong anak, napandol.
Paghilot nako niya, naulian man. Wala pa ko nagdahum nga tinood
diay to, kay naay napiang pud sa amoa. Nagdula siya og basketball.
Paglanding sa iyang tiil, natakilpo. Gidayungan siya og upat ka
tawo. Nasugatan ko nila sa kalsada gikan namaligya og bingka,
miingon sila, “Hilota, Nang, bi kay dili kalakaw.” Paghilot nako,
deretso man nakalakaw. Mao to ang sinugdanan. Miingon ko,
88
“Salamat, Ginoo, kay imo kong gitagaan. Makatabang ko sa isig-

katawo.”
(I just had a dream one day. I have to massage and heal my child
before I would do it to others. There was this old woman. She
had a dark complexion and long white hair. Really, she was
already old. Her clothing was just natural. I did not exactly know
who she was. I saw her swinging on some tree vines. She said to
me, “Massage and heal your child before you do that to others.”
That time, my child sprained a foot after stumbling. When I
massaged it, it was healed. I had not expected that that would
come true because someone also had a sprain in our place. He
played basketball. When his foot landed on the ground, it twisted.
Four men carried him. When they met me in the street, after I
sold my rice cakes, they told me, “Could you please massage and
heal him because he cannot walk.” When I massaged his foot, he
was immediately healed. That was the start. I said, “Thank you,
Lord, you have given me this gift. I can help my fellow men and
women.”) (Authors’ translation)
The third informant revealed that she got her healing abilities through a spirit
guide called an abyan. As supported by the study of Berdon et al. (2016), most of the
mananambal claim that their healing abilities originated from their ancestors and are
passed on through the next generation, while some confessed that they obtained their
healing abilities through apparitions. Furthermore, a folk healer, according to Lieban
(1967), is said to have an unusual connection with the spiritual world, which is derived
from his or her mystical patron, in order to uphold the power to heal, thus, the
connection with abyans for other mananambals.
Folk Practices
It was revealed from the answers of the informants and through observation
that the mananambals diagnose illnesses mostly by physical means such as feeling the
pulse, checking the eyes, or inspecting the throat with the use of paraphernalia such as
a flashlight. This is the case for the two mananambals, but the third diagnoses illnesses
by asking the abyan. This goes to show that although the mananambals have strong
inclinations for the supernatural, they still root themselves in naturalistic causations.
89
This is supported by Lopez (2016), when she mentioned that other circumstances that
cause illness are irregularities in sleeping, eating, and bodily functions. Furthermore,
stress, worry, anxiety, grief, loss, and unsettling experiences cause disequilibrium,
which are all part of Filipino folk beliefs concerning health and illness. Moreover, Tan
(2008) offers some theories that can be used which can be used as a framework over
this seemingly amorphous clatter of beliefs in folk medicine, or in the case this study,
pagpanambal. Beliefs about the causes of illness can be categorized into three: magical
beliefs, which can be attributed to illnesses due to human manipulation of forces, which
can be inflicted by a barangan or sorcerer; religious beliefs, which pertain to illnesses
due to supernatural forces, which an engkanto or nonhuman spirit is capable of and
naturalistic theories, which talk about illnesses caused by natural processes such as bad
air.
Curing Illnesses
Interviews also reveal that these mananambals can cure various kinds of
illnesses which are caused by supernatural or natural forces. Illnesses such as ubo
(cough); rayuma (rheumatism) / artraytis (arthritis); kabuhi (gas pain); bughat
(relapse); problema sa pagburos (pregnancy problems); piang (sprain), hilanat (fever),
bayuok (mumps); and katol-katol (rashes) are said to be caused by nature. They cure
these illnesses through hilot (folk massaging), burning incense, and brewing
concoctions. These folk-healing methods are accompanied by various materials such
as oils, holy water, and other folk medicines.
On the other hand, the illnesses which they claim to be caused by supernatural
forces are buyag (hexes), exorcism, giwakwak (bothered by non-human dark
creatures); or giengkanto (bothered by nonhuman spirits). For these kinds of illnesses,
they use various methods of healing such as praying, reading incantations from libro
sa oracion (book of incantations), or burning incense. These prayers and incantations
are accompanied with materials such as holy water, lana (oil), bronze weapons, garlic,
and papaya flowers.
90
Furthermore, these mananamblas not only heal but also do mystical tasks, such
as finding lost items or identifying thieves. As mentioned by Lopez (2006), the Filipino
lives in two worlds: the physical world and the spirit world. The “personalistic agents”
(i.e., a human, nonhuman, or deity) are believed to cause illness. For example, a witch
or a sorcerer “plants” foreign objects in the body of a person or poisons him. This
physical attack causes an imbalance but can be treated by a shaman, who removes the
damaging object or uses counter sorcery. Nevertheless, the mananambal may utilize a
wide variety of treatments for their patients which might include decoctions, poultices,
fumigation, anointing, cupping, incantation, and diverse magical procedures.
Moreover, every healing procedure is accompanied by prayers. The mananambal
makes use of prayers, specifically identified as orasyon (chant), in treating whatever
ailments or diseases. Often, these orasyon are written in Latin, which is known to be
the language of God (Berdon et al., 2016).
Protection from / Warding Off Impending Harm and Illnesses
The informants also revealed that that there are varied ways of protecting or
warding off impending harm and illnesses. These involve very practical tasks like
living a healthier lifestyle, drinking vitamins, exercising, protecting oneself from
natural forces, or even using religious means such as prayers or holy articles like
crosses. Protection could also come in the form of certain practices such as the chanting
on candies, coins, and lemons. This also goes to show that indeed, the Chinese have an
influence on Philippine folk healing because these are also the practices in feng shui.
Once again, this is a clear depiction of how, although panambal is anchored in natural
causes, the practice still relies heavily on the supernatural and the mystic.
A Reflection of Philippine Culture
According to the analysis, it could be inferred that for Filipinos, there is a clear
overlap between the spiritual world and the physical world. This is supported by the
claim of Lopez (2016) that “health and illness for Filipinos are deeply rooted in
spiritual and folk beliefs.”
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Second is that faith and religion plays an important role in the lives of Filipino
people. According to the answers of the mananambals, they often make use of prayers
and orasyon to ask help from God and saints in the healing of their patients. They also
mentioned the use of holy articles for protection and holy water for curing. This reveals
how Filipinos value spirituality.
Another one is that Filipinos are ready to help the people in their community.
This was evident when one of the mananambals mentioned helping someone in the
neighborhood who got injured from playing basketball. These close, personal ties are
important in Philippine society, for they provide a basis for trust about the effectiveness
of known healers, their low fee, and communication (Tan, 2006).
Lastly, it could be inferred that Filipino culture is indeed a mixture of various

influences, such as Chinese, Spanish, and the indigenous. These influences are
revealed in the practice of feng shui, the use of Latin prayers and catholic articles, and
the application of folk medicines, respectively.
The Functions of the Mananambals in Philippine Culture
From the data analysis, it could be inferred that the mananambals function as
one of the links between the physical world and the spiritual world. They function as a
reminder to Filipino people that this world is not just of the physical but also of the
spiritual. They also reinforce the Filipino belief of the mystical and how one could
experience harm or wellness depending on the results of the interactions between the
invisible world and the visible world.
Next, the mananambals reinforce the Filipino people’s faith in God. They
serve this function by showing to their patients that with prayers and supplications from
a supreme being, they can be cured.
Third, the mananambals function as a reminder to the Filipino people about

the importance of personal linkages. Most of these mananambals do not really ask for
payment for their service; instead they claim that this is heartily given and in the service
to God. This is a reflection of how Filipinos value people more than wealth.
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Lastly, the mananambals function as a melting pot of different cultures. They

embody the indigenous and the foreign in Filipino culture. This is shown in the folk
healing practices. Moreover, it is through culture bearers like these that the Filipino
people are reminded of their rich heritage.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This paper was able to discuss folk healing in the context of Iligan City,
Philippines. Mainly, it discussed the intricate processes and procedures involved in the
folk healing by mananambals and why these practices still hold relevance in the
Filipino culture today.
It can be concluded that through the practice of going to the mananambals, the
lives of the Iliganons are indeed somehow linked to the spiritual and supernatural.
Furthermore, although folklore cannot substitute history and literature, it can add
valuable knowledge about people that the historian is not likely to obtain in other ways.
Everywhere in tale and song, the past is alive as it was felt by common folk. By its
very nature, folklore is living history (Boswell & Reaver, 1962), and only when these
culture bearers’ lives are set down in the permanence of ink and paper can their stories
live on to reach the coming generations. Finally, culture bearers such as these
mananambals in other parts of the country, should be given more societal and academic
attention because they serve important functions in Philippine culture.
REFERENCES
Berdon, J. et al. (2016). Unveiling Cebuano traditional healing practices. Asia Pacific
Journal of Multidisciplinary Research Vol. 3.
Boswell, G., & Reaver, J. R. (1962). Fundamentals of folk literature. Oosterhout, The
Netherlands: Anthropological Publications.
Del Fierro, R., & Nolasco, F. (2013). An exploration of the ethno-medicinal practices
among traditional healers in southwest Cebu, Philippines. Retrieved from:
ejournalofscience.org
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Dorson, R. (1963). Current folklore theories. Chicago, USA: The University of

Chicago Press.
Eugenio, D. (2007). Philippine folk literature: an anthology. Diliman, Quezon City:

The University of the Philippine Press.
Green, T. (1997). Folklore: an encyclopedia of beliefs, customs, tales, music, and art.
Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, Inc.
Lieban, R. (1967). Cebuano sorcery: malign magic in the Philippines. Lambda Alpha
Journal, 78-79.
Lopez, M. L. (2006). A handbook of Philippine folklore. Dilliman, Quezon City,

Philippines: University of The Philippines Press.
Tan, M. L. (2008). Revisiting usog, pasma, kulam. Quezon City: University of the
Philippines Press.
World Health Organization (2001). Harmonization of traditional and modern

medicine. New Delhi: WHO Regional Office of Southeast Asia.
World Health Organization (2005). WHO global atlas of traditional, complementary,

and alternative medicines. Kobe, Japan: WHO Center for health development.
94
The Filipino Migrants in Japan: Reconstructing Identity and Nation

Nelia G. Balgoa6
Abstract
Transnationalism, or the multiplicity of involvements that international

migrants sustain in both home and host countries, allow migrants to
reconstruct their own identity, proving that identity is an ongoing
process and always changing. Using social semiotics as an analytical
tool and in depth interviews among the Filipino migrants as
methodology, this paper interrogates the symbols and representations
manifested in a big Philippine Festival (Barrio Fiesta) held in
Yokohama, Japan and analyzes the processes by which Filipino
migrants in Japan reconstruct their identity and to what extent these
symbols are internalized by them. The paper shows that objective
reality enables these migrants to locate their identities while subjective
realities fragment their reconstruction. Identities can be contradictory
and therefore semiotic resources are not enough to fully recapture the
nuances of these dislocations. The Filipino migrants’ subjective reality,
in relation to these shared resources and significations must also be
considered. This reconstruction of identity shows that being a Filipino
in Japan is not fixed and essential and that the idea of nation crosses
beyond geographical borders and thus can be both negotiated.
Keywords: identity, Filipinoness, transnationalism, Filipino migration, Japan,

social semiotics
INTRODUCTION
The development of migration studies necessitates reexamination of the

widely held notions of identity construction and the meaning of nation.
Transnationalism, a pronounced feature of globalization and defined by Basch et al.
(1994:6) as the processes by which immigrants forge and sustain multi-stranded social
relations that link together their societies of origin and settlement, can be an important
6
Sciences, MSU-IIT, Iligan City. Email: nelia.balgoa@g.msuiit.edu.ph.
95
framework and context which can challenge and explain the new meanings and
reconstruction of the terms nation and identity.
Studies on transnationalism vis-à-vis identity and nation deal with attempts of

the migrants to assimilate, negotiate their identity and finally exercise their own
agencies in their host countries. Diaspora, as a concept, used to be closely linked to
issues on identity. However, for most scholars, diaspora, which tend to be characterized
by migrants’ strong orientation towards the homeland, coupled with a longing to return
once independence is granted did not take into consideration the transgressions of
national boundaries and the new ways by which migrants experience and enact their
membership in the host countries (Soysal, 2000). This is because migrants do not leave
their origins and past behind, they take them with them and by maintaining their
networks, they begin to act as conduits between the two or more nations where they
have connections (Koopmans and Satham, 2001). There is then the blurring of social
and geographical space, loosening of boundaries between countries and in the process
migrants tend to imagine, negotiate and position their notions of identity and nations.
Thus, the normative conceptions of citizenship, nation and identity cannot adequately
explain the changes and meanings of contemporary citizenship and the idea of nation.
The ambivalence of these terms and their nuances need to be explored and studied.
The formation of identity is anchored on “objective” and “subjective”

elements. Objective elements are depicted as the properties shared by all members of
the social identity unit such as symbols, myths, language, religion, ethnicity,
geography, the mode of life, common history, values, traditions. Identity is shaped by
the internalization of these elements by the implied units and determining which of
these elements are priorities in shaping their identity. The subjective elements are
defined as the relative indication of to what extent the internalization process of the
objective elements are carried out. A strong subjective consciousness and perception
is very important in defining the features in constructing national identity (Inac and
Unal, 2013).
It is within this context that this paper attempts to contribute to the existing
body of literatures on how the concepts of nation and identity can be reconstructed.
The term reconstructed is used because the meanings and definitions are derived from
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contextualization which are based on the migrants’ experiences and cultural practices
in their host country. Taking Japan and the Filipino migrants as case studies and using
social semiotics as an analytical tool, this paper analyzes how Filipino migrants
reconstruct the notion of nation and national identity by studying the symbols used and
found in “Barrio Fiesta”, a “Filipino” festival held in Yokohama, Japan. It analyzes the
processes and strategies that Filipino migrants employ as they participate in the
political, social and economic activities of their host country yet at the same time
engage and maintain ties with their country of origin. Moreover, through the use of in-
depth interviews among the Filipinos who participated in the festival, this paper will
show to what extent Filipino migrants internalize these shared symbols.
In this article, basic assumption about the discursive construction of nation and
identity will be discussed as to provide working definitions for these terms. It will be
followed by discussion of social semiotics as an analytical tool and framework and an
analysis on how Filipino nation and Filipino identity are reconstructed. This will be
substantiated by data gathered from in-depth interviews of Filipino migrants in Japan
and how they internalize “nation” and “Filipino” identity.
The Discursive Construction of Nation and National Identity
The idea of nation has been challenged in studies that concern globalization.
Benedict Anderson’s (1983) influential definition and understanding of nation as an
imagined community signifies that nations are to be understood as mental constructs.
The contention that a nation is imagined does not mean that a nation is false, or unreal
or to be distinguished from true communities. Rather, he proposes that a nation is
constructed from popular processes through which residents share nationality in
common.
Anderson (1983) outlined three processes which the nation can be imagined:
it is imagined as limited, sovereign and as a community. Its elastic, finite and
geographic boundaries make it limited. These boundaries compel one nation to self-
define or set itself against other nations. Anderson is thus arguing for social
construction of nations as political entities that have a limited spatial and demographic
extent, rather than organic, eternal entities. As a concept which developed in the 18 th
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century to replace previous monarchical or religious orders, the idea of nation is

imagined to be sovereign. In this manner, a nation was a new way of conceptualizing
state sovereignty and rule which would be limited to a defined population and territory
over which the state, in the name of nationality, could exercise power. Finally, it is
imagined as a community because regardless of the actual inequality and exploitation
that may prevail in each, the nation is always conceived as a deep, horizontal
comradeship. This develops feelings of solidarity and affinity among its members to
the extent that millions of people would die for these imaginings.
Related to this definition is Pierre Bourdieu’s notion of habitus. Habitus is a

complex of common ideas, concepts or perception schemes of related emotional
attitudes shared with a specific group. It can also refer to similar behavioral
dispositions of a group of person all of which are internalized through “national”
socialization. In this sense, national identity can be regarded as a sort of habitus.
Emotional attitudes may refer to how members of a specific group determine the “in
group” in one hand and the “out group” on the other hand. Identities are always
constructed along with the construction of sameness/difference dichotomies.
The construction of national identity builds on the emphasis on a common

history, and history has always to do with remembrance and memory. Maurice
Halbwachs (1983) notion of collective memory allows members of a group to identify
a connection between rather theoretical discourses on national identity and myths,
symbols and rituals of everyday life. National consciousness makes use of group
symbols from different areas of everyday life and defines conventionalized structures
as group-specifics rules which are presented on the symbolic level in the form of re-
presentation, re-symbolizations and theatrical manifestations as well as in objects and
materials.
While Halbwach’s focus is on the concept of memory, Stuart Hall (1994)

emphasizes the role culture plays in the construction of nations and national identities.
He describes nations not only as political constructs but also as systems of cultural
representations by means of which an imagined community may be interpreted. People
are not only citizens by law, they also participate in forming the idea of the nation as it
is represented in their national culture. A nation is a symbolic community constructed
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discursively. Members who have the power to design national identities and national
cultures aim to link membership within a certain political nation state and to identify
with a certain national culture such that culture and state become identical. All modern
nations, Hall added, are culturally hybrid because space and territories have become
temporal and because of the processes of globalization which lead to the emergence of
multiple identities.
Social Semiotics and the Reconstruction of Nation and National Identity
The above discussion shows the discursive nature of nation and identity. This
section attempts to explain how semiotics as an analytical tool can be used effectively
to analyze discourses about nations and national identities. Social semiotics originated
in the work of Halliday who argued that the grammar of the language is not a code, not
a set of rules for producing correct sentences but a “resource for making meanings”.
With this, the idea of “language” can be extended to all semiotic modes-- anything that
can convey message or meaning can be a text which can be interpreted. “Grammar”
can refer to resource as the actions and artefacts used to communicate whatever means
they are produced--- whether physiologically—a frown, a smile or anything bodily
related or by means of technology –paper, ink or computer softwares. Traditionally,
they are referred to as signs, which for Saussure is a union of the signifier and a
signified. For example, the frown is a signifier to signify disapproval. In social
semiotics, the term “resource” is used instead for sign because it implies an
arbitrariness of usage, depending on how or in what context it is used, contrast to sign
which gives the impression that it is somehow pre-given and not affected by use. Thus,
in social semiotics, resources are signifiers, observable actions and objects that have
been drawn into the domain of social communication and that have a theoretical
semiotic potential constituted by all their past uses. These potentials and uses might be
considered relevant based on their specific needs and interests. These potentials can
best operate in a given social context; social contexts also have rules or practices that
regulate how specific semiotic resources can be used or leave the users relatively free
in their use of the resource (Van Leeuwen, 2005).
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In this study, the semiotic resources to be studied are signs which are
considered to be essentially Filipino. These are signs that are shared collectively by
Filipinos -- economic, religious or political signs and are recognized to nationally
identify and represent them as nation. These semiotic resources will then be analyzed
for its “meaning potentials” –explore the signifiers and study their meanings within the
social context. In this case, the “how” is much more important than the “what”, thus
the processes or strategies on how these signs are used and given meaning by the
Filipino migrants in Japan reveal their objective and subjective perceptions on what it
means to be Filipinos in Japan, thereby discoursing the meaning of the terms Filipino
identity and nation. It is also important to consider how Filipinos are regulated by the
political and cultural conditions of the host country, thereby restraining their
perceptions and manifestations of their identity.
Three dimensions will be considered in this paper on how the idea of nation
and national identity- in essence the “Filipinoness” is reconstructed by Filipino
migrants in Japan:
1. The cultural, economic, religious and political resources found in the

festival.
This involves identification of signs that represent the Filipino migrants used
in celebrating the two festivals. These can range from food, religious icons,
advertisements, program, costumes, dresses, politicians, guests.
2. The sign system and the social contextualization
Semiotic resources cannot be taken in isolation. They function in a sign system

which is the relations between signs and the meanings that are derived from it. This is
the language of the signs and to analyze the language is to find out the discursive or
the meaning making processes that are involved when meanings are either derived
from or constituted to signs. This means that meaning is constructed around cultural
assumptions and regulating orders embedded in these resources. In this paper, the
semiotic resources will be studied according to how they are used, who used them, how
they relate to the other resources and what concepts they signify. Signifiers of the
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resources such as space, color, depth, utterances, gestures, facial expressions will be
considered in studying the sign system.
3. Objective/subjective elements and perceptions of nation and national

identity
Interviews from a number of Filipino migrants who participated in the festivals

will substantiate the objective/subjective construct of nation and national identity.
This dimension explores the personal perceptions of these migrants on their identity
as Filipinos in Japan and in what spaces or settings do they feel the sense of “nation”
and “Filipino”. More specifically, this dimension tries to analyze how do the Filipinos
redefine and reposition their identity in the host country.
METHODOLOGY
This paper uses observation and in-depth interviews in gathering the data. The
main source of data is the “Barrio Festival”, an annual gathering of Filipino migrants
in Yokohama, Japan. In the year that the research was done, the festival was one of the
most significant and most important because it commemorated the arrival of General
Artemio Ricarte, one of the first Filipinos to arrive in Yokohama. Interviews of
Filipinos who participated in the festival were also conducted. Informants are officers
of the various organizations which helped organized the festival, Filipino wives who
got married to Japanese and became permanent residents and those who have lived in
Japan for at least five years. These are also the Filipinos who regularly participate in
the said festival.
The researcher also observed the flow of the program, the booths and spatial
arrangement of the festival. Semiotic resources such as the costumes, the conversation,
food and other material cultures were also noted and observed.
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Filipino Migrants in Japan in Focus: From Assimilation to the Exercise

of Agency
As of 2014, the number of Filipinos in Japan is about 214,000 which is about

10.5 percent of the total foreign population of Japan and the third largest migrant group
after the Koreans and Chinese. Filipino migration to Japan peaked in the 1980s when
the migration flows have become increasingly feminized. This means that more women
than men migrated for jobs as nannies, maids, housecleaners, cooks and entertainers
and in other helping professions and service occupations. Filipino migration to Japan
by this time is basically characterized by women entering Japan to work mainly as
entertainers. Filipino entertainers or the more official sounding Filipino Overseas
Performing Artists (OPAs) end up in a variety of service jobs catering to male clients,
including dancing and prostitution (Tyner 1997; 19). Tyner claims that the growth of
female migration to Japan was founded on the particular construction of a particular
image of Filipina sexuality by the media and social institutions. Aside from the OPAs,
the Filipino-Japanese intermarriage is a major aspect of Filipino migration to Japan.
Records of the Commission on Filipino Overseas (CFO) show that there were 5,771
marriages in 1992 between Japanese men and Filipino women. In 2006 this number
grew to 12,150, but began declining steadily following the revision of the immigration
law, dropping to 3,118 in 2013. Another factor affecting figures for international
unions is the increased efforts by the government to crack down on fake marriages
involving foreign women.
The image of Filipino women in Japan, that of as entertainers and as Ajia no

hanayome (Asian brides) reinforces the notion that Filipino women marry Japanese
men for purely economic reasons. This notion tends to view marriage between
Japanese men and Filipino women in a very negative perspective. Ballescas (1992) for
example asserts that aside from the assurance and security of being able to stay
permanently in Japan through a spouse visa, Filipino women, mostly entertainers,
believe that they can be permanently secure once they marry a Japanese man because
often, before marriage, the men would promise regular financial support for their
families in the Philippines. Studies in the 1980s until the late 1990s tend to portray
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Filipino in these international marriages as powerless, isolated, culturally disoriented

and incapable of decision making. Furthermore, marriage for women is a heavy
endeavor because they feel that they are housemaids rather than housewives. Other had
become victims of domestic violence but still opted to remain in Japan because of their
children (Almonte 2001). The prevailing literature for the past decades on these
Filipino brides reveals that despite their presence in Japan for more than 30 years,
academic and advocates tend to situate these Filipinas within a particular gender and
sexual roles and geographical locations (Suzuki 2003). Particularly, the discourse on
these women since the late 1980s has sustained earlier representations, stressing the
structural and institutional oppression of women while taking little notice of their
agency (Suzuki 2005; 2003). This continued even in the 1990s and during this time,
discussions of domestic violence against foreign women in Japan have been similarly
based on a narrow view of Filipino women as indirectly victimized by Japanese men.
Related researches, however, in the late 1990s, cast further doubts about the
simplified images of the OPAs as passive victims found in earlier literatures. Fuwa and
Anderson (2002), for example, illustrates the place of human agency in his discussion
of the wider contexts of international labor migration including Filipino OPAs. The
picture and stereotypes of Filipino women, which is considered by Filipinos as
negative and derogatory, disallows the view of these women as “active female migrants
positively contributing to society by providing reproductive and productive work
(Nakamatsu, 2005).
Another pronounced manifestation of the exercise of agency of these Filipino

migrants is how they accumulate strategies and move out of the confines of their being
entertainers and hostesses in bars and how they “make their own world” and integrate
both the cultures of their host and country and country of origin. These assimilation
strategies enable the Filipino wives to feel that they are part of the Japanese society.
This assimilation strategy, however, according to more recent studies, ignores

the capacity of a people to develop their own meaningful identity and denies the
possibility of having multiple identities (Bao, 2005). It also obscures the diversity of
people and tends to overlook the power within the politics of the host country. Thus,
as Filipino migrants participate in the cultural and social dynamics of Japan, they also
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interact with fellow Filipinos, build social networks and form communities. These
communities show the active and apparent transnationalism of Filipino migrants,
enabling them to create their own space and reconstruct their identities.
Filipino transnational communities in Japan always come in the form of

religious organizations. This is because religion is an aspect of Filipino lives where the
Filipino migrants can best assert their identity and where they can establish their ties
to other Filipino migrants. Tigno (2007) argues that religious and religiosity are deeply
rooted in the Filipino national psyche. The celebration of the Eucharist provides a
social outlet and support network to Filipinos who are lonely and depressed overseas
and reproduces their “Filipinoness” in the process. Furthermore, Japanese are not
deeply religious people and thus, this aspect of social activity can be easily given up
and allowed especially to their Filipino wives.
Recent studies on Filipino transnational communities also reveal these can be

sites where new subject positions can emerge or negotiated. These are spaces where
processes of identification can be formed and how Filipino migrants essentialized their
identity and culture, then negotiate it in the context of their interaction with the
Japanese and Japan’s political and social structure. As their personal and intimate lives
are manifested in these communities, these spaces have taken new forms by revealing
the complexities of Filipino migration to Japan and how Filipino migrants translate and
form other modes of identification.
The Yokohama Barrio Fiesta: The Filipino Transnational Communities
Yokohama is considered to be as a special city by most Filipinos in Japan. In

1963, then Manila Mayor Antonio Villegas visited Yokohama and two years after, a
sister city agreement was concluded between these two cities. Historical ties can be
established between the Philippines and Yokohama. A memorial for Artemio Ricarte
was erected in the Yamashita Park where the festival was held. Ricarte was a Philippine
General who fought with revolutionaries against the Spanish and who landed in
Yokohama in 1915 when he was exiled by the American forces.
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There are more than 20,000 Filipinos who live in the Kanagawa Prefecture and
most of them are Filipino women who worked as entertainers and got married to
Japanese men. A number work in factories and companies. The largest Filipino
organization in Yokohama is Community A7 which is composed not only of Filipino
migrants living in the Kanagawa Prefecture but also their Japanese husbands and
children.
The 2013 Philippine Barrio Fiesta, which was held on September 28-29, 2013
was organized mainly by Community A and was supported by the Philippine Embassy
of Tokyo, the City of Yokohama and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Press
releases from the Philippine Embassy pegged the number of people at around 100,000
and was intended” to be a showcase of the best of Philippine culture, promoting
friendship between Filipinos and Japanese and bringing together members of the
Filipino community from different parts of Japan”. The Festival’s opening ceremony
was graced by a number of dignitaries led by the Former President of the Philippines
and Mayor of Manila Joseph Ejercito Estrada, Deputy Mayor of Yokohama Nobuya
Suzuki, MOFA Deputy Director General Kenji Kanasugi and Philippine Ambassador
to Japan Manuel M. Lopez. Ambassadors and diplomats from member states of the
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) were also present. Relative
therefore, to other “barrio fiestas” celebrated by other Filipino organizations in other
parts in Japan such as Nagoya and Osaka, the Yokohama festival is the showcase of
what “Philippines” is in Japan.
“Barrio Fiesta”: Nomenclature and Sign Making
“Barrio” is a Spanish term which literally means neighborhood or in the

Philippine context these are cohesive places sharing for example traditions and
religious practices such as feast days. Barrio denotes rural character or a rural village.
Barrio, as a political unit grew out of “barangays”, or family villages which originally
referred to a group of boats and their passengers who migrated to the Philippines.
“Barrio fiestas”, therefore, are festivals, usually in honor of a patron saint, held
annually, with much fanfare and food. Barrio Fiesta, taken together and within the
7
Upon the request of informants of confidentiality, real names will not be used.
105
context of Filipino migration to Japan speaks of honoring and celebrating tradition and
of going back to the “native” or the indigenous.
The Yokohama Barrio Fiesta is replete with these. During the parade for
example, which is one of the highlights of the events, Filipino migrants donned on
tribal costumes, danced to the beat of tribal music and proudly proclaimed that these
are the “real” Filipinos. Semiotically, these speak of meanings. In this sense, the best
source of identity is the indigenous identity. Thus, to be a Filipino is to go back to the
roots, to go back to the nature of things and as what Gellner (1983) claims “to identify
the essentials of a national character which remain unchanged through the vicissitude
of history, changeless, eternal”. These tribal costumes and music, apparently, for the
Filipino migrants in Japan are the constants that best symbolically represent the
Philippines. (Refer to Figures 1 and 2)
Figure 1. The Filipino migrants wearing indigenous costumes during the parade
106
The order of the parade reflects representation of history of the Philippines

from the pre-Spanish Period to the Spanish period. There is no conscious effort to
represent the periods after these specific times. According to one of the organizers,
“this is because the pre-Spanish and Spanish Periods of Philippine history is the “most
historical” of all. The emphasis is on the religiosity of the Filipinos. The religious icons,
participation of the organizations which claim to be religious in nature, all these linked
the present to the past, shared and reclaimed. What the organizers probably imply is
that Philippine traditions, despite the onslaught of modernity, were maintained and
preserved. Thus, reconstruction of nation and identity of the Filipino migrants in Japan
in this festival is to “recapture the past, restore past identity, and to turn back time
where Filipino traditions are deeply rooted. It is to relocate the origin of this particular
nation.
Figure 2. The traditional dances performed by the Filipino migrants in Japan
On the other hand, the folk and the traditional symbols are intercepted with the
modern signs of globalization and the transnational activities of the Filipino migrants.
These can be seen in the advertisements of banks and companies which process the
remittances of the Filipino migrants to the Philippines. The broadcasting company
which shows Filipino programs to Japan hands out pamphlets and materials to
aggressively entice Filipino migrants to subscribe to the channel. Filipino
organizations also set up stalls to sell Filipino food, religious trinkets and icons and
other items which are staples souvenirs which are not easily acquired in Japan and
107
which Filipinos only get to have or eat when another Filipino will go home and bring
them as souvenirs (See figure 3). As a characteristic of diaspora therefore, the idea of
“home” and “longing for the homeland” are best represented by these semiotic
resources.
Figure 3. Religious icons sold by Filipino migrants
Traditions, however, are ephemeral in this festival. The donning of the tribal
costumes and the dances and the music are best captured in the moment of the parade.
The clapping and the appreciation from both Filipinos and other nationalities are
fleeting and the feeling of nostalgia gone quickly. However, in the two day festival,
the regular and the most persistent features are the companies that thrive on the
economic ability of the Filipino migrants that comes in the form of giving discounts
for subscriptions, of selling telephone and internet cards and of giving freebies to
promote Filipino products specifically targeted to the Filipino migrants who long to
get a taste of what Filipino and the Philippines are. (Please see figures 4, 5, 6). The
straddling of the “folk” and the “modern”, recapturing the past and living the present—
reconstruct nation and national identity.
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Figure 4. A Filipino cargo and logistics company and its booth
Figure 5. A major Filipino bank and its booth
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Figure 6. One of the Japanese banks where Filipinos send their remittances
The presence of the Mayor Joseph Estrada and the Yokohama Deputy Mayor
Noboya Suzuki asserts the strong political ties between two cities. It is a strong
indication that the occasion is supported and recognized by the Japanese government.
This cooperation is best signified in the two effigies that are most noticeable upon
entering the park (Figure 3). One of the effigy is a woman wearing the traditional
Japanese kimono while on his right is a male wearing the traditional Filipino barong
Tagalog. On both of them is a sash that indicates the name of one of the biggest sending
company in the Philippines which has operations in all parts of the world, especially
where there is a big number of migrants.
110
Figure 7. Mayor Estrada and other Japanese officials cutting the ribbon
to open the festival
According to one of the officers of Organization A, it is much easier to

facilitate the event as compared to church based activities because it is strongly
endorsed by the Philippine Embassy (church activities, like the celebration of Station
of the Cross, which is the reenacting the Passion of Christ and thus entails having the
procession around the neighborhood is not permitted by the local government and thus
need to be confined within the church premises). Thus, when Mayor Suzuki
acknowledges the importance of festivals such as the Barrio Fiesta of the Philippines
in strengthening the ties between the two countries and the contribution of Filipino
migrants to the economy and labor force of Japan, it also signifies how the Filipino
migrants are now perceived to be able to create spaces outside the stereotype notions
of being entertainers and mere laborers, exercise their agencies in the attainment of a
more dignified and respected occupations according to the standards of the host
country. Perhaps, the best semiotic resource to signify is the person who oversees and
leads the celebration: the president of Organization A. Standing side by side with local
government officials of Japan and the Philippines and exchanging pleasantries with
ambassadors from ASEAN countries, this female Filipino migrant signifies an upward
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social and economic mobility, which practically all Filipino migrants in Japan aspire
for.
Figure 9. Effigies representing the Philippines and Japan
Mayor Estrada reiterates this signification of the changing perspective of the

Filipino migrants in Japan. Speaking in a mixture of Filipino and English, pausing in
between for the Japanese translation, his message attempts to be humorous and at times
deprecating. He acknowledges the political ties between Yokohama and Manila and
expresses his gratitude for the city for absorbing in the Filipino migrants. Like any
speech of a local government delivered in front of Filipino migrants outside the
Philippines, it extols on the contribution of the migrants to keep the Philippine
economy afloat. The Barrio Fiesta, according to Estrada and as said countless times
before, is the showcase of Filipino culture and identity and encourages the Filipinos in
Japan “to make their fellow Filipinos proud of them”. Taken in totality, the speech is
familiar and predictable but nonetheless, given the context and the political condition
is the proper and the correct thing to say. Estrada is also a unifying symbol for all
Filipino migrants who are gathered in this festival. In his traditional “barong tagalog”,
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considered to be the national costume of male Filipinos, Estrada’s presence enabled

the Filipinos in the crowd to disregard their ethnic differences and identity.
The Subjective Reality: Othering the Filipinos and the Philippines in Japan
Reconstruction of Filipino identity and nation, as reflected in this traditional

Filipino festival is best perceived from the strategies and processes which Filipino
migrants in Japan try to employ in order to manifest the shared symbols and
significations of what seem to be essentially Filipino. Filipino migrants in Japan
identify with each other because of these “traditional and folk” semiotic resources.
On the other hand, interviews with a number of Filipino migrants in Japan after
the festival reveal that beyond these significations, they have different constructs of
Filipino identity and nation. The concept of nation and identity is always built and
constructed along the lines of similarities/differences. Although Filipino migrants
admit that they feel their “Filipinoness” during the festival and that the best way to
express this identity is through these signs and symbols, internalization of beyond these
is quite weak as revealed by the interviews.
Jessa, for example, claims that aside from these activities, she would not rather
not interact with other Filipinos.
I do not get anything good from the members or from joining the
organization. I get benefit from my God. Sometimes, I don’t want
to be a Filipino because all they do is destroy each other. They
should be more formal. They don’t have any right to be arrogant.
Jessa’s identification of being a Filipino is somewhat anchored on her belief

in God. Religion, specifically that of the Catholic faith, is an indelible aspect of Filipino
culture. The Philippines claims to be the only predominantly Christian nation in Asia
and is among the leading countries that deploy their citizens for overseas work (Figer
2010:1) Tigno (2007: 3) also argues that “religious practice and religiosity are deeply
rooted in the Filipino national psyche” and provides social outlet and social network.
113
On the other hand, Maureen finds other more “meaningful” spaces in her
construct of her identity in the Eucharistic mass:
I feel my being a Filipino when I hear the mass in Filipino; the priests
are Filipinos; the songs are in Filipino. Because of this, I can identify
more with the mass than with being with Filipinos.
In this sense, Maureen seems to equate the mass with her “Filipinoness”. It is
in the mass where she can find solace and comfort while interacting with other
Filipinos usually mean trouble and more difficulties in Japan.
This is somewhat reinforced by another migrant. When asked whether she

feels being a Filipino when interacting with other Filipinos in the organization, she
answered carefully:
Some members are different perhaps because they come from

different regions of the Philippines. It’s not that I don’t like
to…(hesitates)…People are different…..different
personalities…nothing important…
It is quite predictable that these differences do not surface during the festival.
The Filipino migrants’ identity and their sense of being a nation are constructed along
these lines. However, another discourse seems to surface as revealed by their
experiences outside that of the festival.
Ambivalence is also apparent when migrants are asked about their being
Filipino outside the organization. Yeng, for example, dislikes the conflicts that ensue
among members. She attributes this to the feeling of regionalism that arises every time
Filipinos gather. For example, those who come from Manila tend to gather in one group
and those who come from Mindanao also form their own group. Because of the
animosity among members, Yeng feels that she is not one of them:
Yes, I am a Filipino but I am not that kind of Filipino. We are the

same but we are also different. My relationship with the other
members is just okay.
114
Subsequent interviews with Yeng reveal that “that kind of Filipino” that she
is referring to are those Filipinos who are noisy, engage in bickering and conflict and
dress like an “entertainer”. In Japan’s context, For Yeng at least, these projections of
a Filipino must be avoided and not emulated.
These interviews reveal that the Filipino migrants’ subjective construction of

nation and identity do not reinforce the feelings or perceptions exhibited in the festival.
What is revealed, on the other hand, is somewhat an emphasis on the differences that
they experience or feel outside this specific space. Subjective identity, for these
Filipino migrants, is an examination of their inner self, as in the case of Jessa, and a
conscious effort to be different from other Filipinos, as in the cases of Yeng and the
search for identity in other space, in the case of Maureen.
CONCLUSIONS
The reconstruction of nation and identity among Filipino migrants in Japan

can be multi-dimensional. The objective component is easily discernible and can come
in the form of semiotic resources such as signs and symbols that are shared by Filipinos
in Japan. Certain spaces, such that of the Barrio Fiesta in Yokohama, allow these
resources to emerge and to be utilized and such may foster unity and similarities, of
remembering tradition and acknowledging the folk and indigenous. These are
attributes which may pave the way for the reconstruction of a national identity and that
sense of nation. On the other hand, the subjective reality, which involves self-
processing and self-examination emphasizes on the differences rather than the
similarities among Filipino migrants in Japan in the reconstruction of these concepts.
They find stronger identification in other spaces such as religion.
Within the context of international migration therefore, identity and nation, as

shown by the Filipino migrants in Japan, are slippery notions. This is because in the
influx of globalizing forces, these concepts are shifting and dislocated. Objective
reality enables these migrants to locate their identities while subjective realities
fragment their reconstruction. Identities can be contradictory and therefore semiotic
resources are not enough to fully recapture the nuances of these dislocations. The
Filipino migrants’ subjective reality, in relation to these shared resources and
115
significations must also be considered. These will make the relationship between the
public and economic spheres of the migrants and their internalization and projection
more predictable and understandable.
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117
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122
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221-232. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2007.08.002
123
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Sanchez, D., & King-Toler, E. (2007). Addressing disparities consultation and

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Journal article, more than two authors, accessed online
Van Vugt, M., Hogan, R., & Kaiser, R. B. (2008). Leadership, followership, and
evolution: Some lessons from the past. American Psychologist, 63(3), 182-196.
doi:10.1037/0003-066X.63.3.182
Article from an Internet-only journal
Hirtle, P. B. (2008, July-August). Copyright renewal, copyright restoration, and the

difficulty of determining copyright status. D-Lib Magazine, 14(7/8).
doi:10.1045/july2008-hirtle
Journal article from a subscription database (no DOI)
Colvin, G. (2008, July 21). Information worth billions. Fortune, 158(2), 73-79.
Retrieved from Business Source Complete, EBSCO. Retrieved from
http://search.ebscohost.com
Magazine article, in print
Kluger, J. (2008, January 28). Why we love. Time, 171(4), 54-60.
Newspaper article, no author, in print
As prices surge, Thailand pitches OPEC-style rice cartel. (2008, May 5). The Wall
Street Journal, p. A9.
124
Newspaper article, multiple authors, discontinuous pages, in print
Delaney, K. J., Karnitschnig, M., & Guth, R. A. (2008, May 5). Microsoft ends pursuit
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Kidder, T. (1981). The soul of a new machine. Boston, MA: Little, Brown & Company.
Two authors, in print
Frank, R. H., & Bernanke, B. (2007). Principles of macro-economics (3rd ed.). Boston,
MA: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
Corporate author, author as publisher, accessed online
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2000). Tasmanian year book 2000 (No. 1301.6).
Canberra, Australian Capital Territory: Author. Retrieved from
http://www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ausstats/subscriber.nsf/0/CA2568710006989...
$File/13016_2000.pdf
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Gibbs, J. T., & Huang, L. N. (Eds.). (2001). Children of color: Psychological

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125
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Labajo, J. (2003). Body and voice: The construction of gender in flamenco. In T.

Magrini (Ed.), Music and gender: perspectives from the Mediterranean (pp. 67-
86). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Two editors
Hammond, K. R., & Adelman, L. (1986). Science, values, and human judgment. In H.
R. Arkes & K. R. Hammond (Eds.), Judgement and decision making: An
interdisciplinary reader (pp. 127-143). Cambridge, England: Cambridge
University Press.
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126
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Encyclopedia set or dictionary
Sadie, S., & Tyrrell, J. (Eds.). (2002). The new Grove dictionary of music and
musicians (2nd ed., Vols. 1-29). New York, NY: Grove.
Article from an online encyclopedia
Containerization. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved May 6, 2008, from

http://search.eb.com
Encyclopedia article
Kinni, T. B. (2004). Disney, Walt (1901-1966): Founder of the Walt Disney Company.
In Encyclopedia of Leadership (Vol. 1, pp. 345-349). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
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Government report, accessed online
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2005). Medicaid drug price
comparisons: Average manufacturer price to published prices (OIG publication
No. OEI-05-05- 00240). Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from
http://www.oig.hhs.gov/oei/reports/oei-05-05-00240.pdf
127
Government reports, GPO publisher, accessed online
Congressional Budget Office. (2008). Effects of gasoline prices on driving behavior

and vehicle markets: A CBO study (CBO Publication No. 2883). Washington,
DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved from
http://www.cbo.gov/ftpdocs/88xx/doc8893/01-14-GasolinePrices.pdf
Technical and/or research reports, accessed online
Deming, D., & Dynarski, S. (2008). The lengthening of childhood (NBER Working
Paper 14124). Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
Retrieved July 21, 2008, from http://www.nber.org/papers/w14124
Document available on university program or department site
Victor, N. M. (2008). Gazprom: Gas giant under strain. Retrieved from Stanford
University, Program on Energy and Sustainable Development Web site:
http://pesd.stanford.edu/publications/gazprom_gas_giant_under_strain/
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Videocassette/DVD
Achbar, M. (Director/Producer), Abbott, J. (Director), Bakan, J. (Writer), & Simpson,

B. (Producer) (2004). The corporation [DVD]. Canada: Big Picture Media
Corporation.
Audio recording
Nhat Hanh, T. (Speaker). (1998). Mindful living: a collection of teachings on love,

mindfulness, and meditation [Cassette Recording]. Boulder, CO: Sounds True
Audio.
128
Motion picture
Gilbert, B. (Producer), & Higgins, C. (Screenwriter/Director). (1980). Nine to five

[Motion Picture]. United States: Twentieth Century Fox.
Television broadcast
Anderson, R., & Morgan, C. (Producers). (2008, June 20). 60 Minutes [Television
broadcast]. Washington, DC: CBS News.
Television show from a series
Whedon, J. (Director/Writer). (1999, December 14). Hush [Television series episode].

In Whedon, J., Berman, G., Gallin, S., Kuzui, F., & Kuzui, K. (Executive
Producers), Buffy the Vampire Slayer. Burbank, CA: Warner Bros..
Music recording
Jackson, M. (1982). Beat it. On Thriller [CD]. New York, NY: Sony Music.
Undated Web site content, blogs, and data
For content that does not easily fit into categories such as journal papers, books, and
reports, keep in mind the goal of a citation is to give the reader a clear path to the source
material. For electronic and online materials, include stable URL or database name.
Include the author, title, and date published when available. For undated materials,
include the date the resource was accessed.
Blog entry
Arrington, M. (2008, August 5). The viral video guy gets $1 million in funding.
Message posted to http://www.techcrunch.com
Professional Web site
National Renewable Energy Laboratory. (2008). Biofuels. Retrieved May 6, 2008,

from http://www.nrel.gov/learning/re_biofuels.html
129
Data set from a database
Bloomberg L.P. (2008). Return on capital for Hewitt Packard 12/31/90 to 09/30/08.
Retrieved Dec. 3, 2008, from Bloomberg database.
Central Statistics Office of the Republic of Botswana. (2008). Gross domestic product
per capita 06/01/1994 to 06/01/2008 [statistics]. Available from CEIC Data
database.
Entire Web site
When citing an entire Web site (and not a specific document on that site), no Reference
List entry is required if the address for the site is cited in the text of your paper.
Witchcraft In Europe and America is a site that presents the full text of many essential
works in the literature of witchcraft and demonology
(http://www.witchcraft.psmedia.com/).
Source: Cornell University Library. (April 2011). APA citation style. Retrieved July
9, 2013, from http://www.library.cornell.edu/resrch/citmanage/apa
130
LIST OF REVIEWERS
DR. PIA C. ARBOLEDA is an Associate Professor and Coordinator of the Filipino

and Philippine Literature Program in the University of Hawai’i at Manoa. She is a poet
and creative writer who holds a Doctor of Arts degree in Language and Literature
(major in Literature) and a master’s degree in Language and Literature (major in
Filipino). Prior to joining University of Hawai’i in Manoa in 2008, she served as
Visiting Professor at Osaka University, Osaka, Japan for four and half years. She was
also an Assistant Professor in Filipino at University of the Philippines Manila and
Instructor at De La Salle University, Philippines.
DR. MARITA B. DE LEON is a faculty member of the Psychology program in the

Department of English, Humanities and Social Sciences, Lansing Community College,
Lansing, Michigan, USA. She has been teaching for 20 years, starting as a teaching
assistant at Michigan State University (East Lansing, Michigan), and as associate
professor at De La Salle University (Manila, Philippines). She obtained her Ph.D. in
Developmental Psychology at Michigan State University and completed postdoctoral
research training at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan where she
focused on rehabilitation research on mild traumatic brain injuries. She has
publications on the topics of concussions, stroke, chronic stress and fatigue, and
cognitive rehabilitation.
DR. FRANCISCO PERLAS DUMANIG is an Assistant Professor at the English

Department, University of Hawaii at Hilo, Hilo, Hawaii, USA. He used to be an
Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Languages and Linguistics, University of Malaya,
Buraimi University College, UCSI University, Inti International University, Far
131
Eastern University, University of the East, Mapua Institute of Technology and

Technological Institute of the Philippines. His researches are published in Cambridge
Language Teaching Journal, Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development,
Multilingual Language Policy and International Journal of Bilingual Education and
Bilingualism. His research interests include Discourse Analysis (Language, Migration
and Identity), language teaching, cross-cultural communication and World Englishes.
DR. RODNEY C. JUBILADO is currently the Chair and Associate Professor of the
Department of Languages, Division of Humanities, University of Hawai’i at Hilo,
Hilo, Hawai’i. He holds the degree of PhD in Theoretical Linguistics from the National
University of Malaysia and his Master of Arts in Linguistics from the University of the
Philippines. His researches include formal linguistics, migration, Southeast Asian
Studies, and heritage education. He has also published various research articles in peer-
reviewed journals and with Routledge.
DR. LINDA A. LUMAYAG is currently a Research Associate at Asia-Europe

Institute in University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. She holds a PhD in
Sociology from Universiti Putra Malaysia. Her research interests are on transnational
labor, marriage migration in Southeast Asia, undocumented children in Sabah, coastal
communities and comparative regulations of Southeast Asia and Latin America. She
has been a recipient of research grants from University of Malaya and the Southeast
Asian Research Exchange Program (SEASREP). She has published articles in Asian
Studies Review and has written chapters in books.
DR. GYO MIYOHARA is Professor of the Center for Global Initiatives, the Graduate
School of Human Science, and the School of Foreign Studies at Osaka University. He
132
has a Ph.D. in Social Anthropology from Tokyo Metropolitan University. His field of
research is social anthropology, minority studies, and ethnographic science on East and
Southeast Asia. His current research is on the unwritten and written of texts of Han
script between Mainland China and the peripheries in East and Southeast Asia. The
major interest of the fieldwork is to describe the process of translation and the
involvement of migrants, when ideas, information and technologies transmitted from
one place to another.
DR. JOCELYN C. PINZON currently works at the College of Communication, Arts,

and Design, University of the Philippines Cebu. She finished her Ph.D. in Comparative
Literature at the University of the Philippines. Her research interest is in cultural
studies. Her most recent publication is Remembering Philippine History: Satire in
Popular Songs.
DR. NEIL M. SATOQUIA obtained his PhD in Language Education and M.Ed. in
ESL from the University of the Philippines Diliman and his BA in English Linguistics
from MSU-Iligan Institute of Technology. He was Editor-in-Chief of the Philippine
Journal for Language Teaching published by PALT, Inc. for five years. He also served
Reading Association of the Philippines and Philippine Association for Language
Teaching, Inc. as a board officer for more than a decade. As a Full Professor, he taught
at University of Santo Tomas, University of the East, and Emilio Aguinaldo College
in Manila prior to becoming a University Professor in Saudi Arabia. Currently, he
teaches Second Language Acquisition Theories, English for Academic Purposes, and
The Teaching of Listening, Speaking, and Vocabulary at Abu Dhabi Women’s College
in the United Arab Emirates.
133
DR. ANGELA OKTAVIA SURYANI, M.Si is a faculty member of the Faculty of

Psychology, Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia. She holds
a Doctorate in Cross-cultural Psychology from Tilburg University, The Netherlands in
2014. She specializes in psychological measurement and cross-cultural psychology
research methods. Her researches are on psychological tests constructions and
adaptation, as well as cross-cultural psychological aspects comparisons. She is also
active in assessment of Catholic organizations, such as seminaries and religious order.
The assessments for these organizations involve organizational management analysis
and psychological assessments.
134
135
136
MSU-IIT: VISION
A world-class institution of higher learning

renowned for its excellence in science and technology
and for its commitment to the holistic development
of the individual and society
MISSION
To provide quality education for the industrial and socioeconomic

development of Mindanao with its diverse cultures through
relevant programs in instruction, research, extension
and community involvement
CASS Mission
To promote a peaceful and sustainable society

through the development of globally competent,
socially responsible, culturally sensitive and
humanistic scholars and professionals
Published by:
College of Arts and Social Sciences

MSU-Iligan Institute of Technology
Andres Bonifacio Avenue, Tibanga
9200 Iligan City, Philippines
Telephone No: +63-63-221-4068
Website: http://www.msuiit.edu.ph/academics/colleges/cass/index.php
Email Address: cass.dean@g.msuiit.edu.ph

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Credits

Layout, Cover Design and Production: Boylie A. Sarcina

c/o Prof. Nelia G. Balgoa, DHS of the Department of English, CASS.

Langkit is a M’ranao word meaning a strip of multi-colored fabric, woven or

- from Lexicon of Classical Literary Maranao Words and Phrases

Maria Cecilia M. Ferolin, PhD Hilton J. Aguja, PhD

Vol. 7 ISSN 2094-4640 2016-2017

A more focused quantitative study on anxiety among students at Western

The implementation of K+12 Basic Education in the country has initiated

This linguistic phenomenon within sociolinguistics falls within Labov’s

The economics of migration in Philippine context has resulted in brain drain,

For and in Behalf of the Editor,

Dr. Ivie C. Esteban

The Hushed Voices of Autism: Chronicling Social

The number of students with autism (SWA) attending college has

Keywords: Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), students with autism (SWA),

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) as described by the Diagnostic and

In 2007, the Asia-Pacific International Seminar on Education for Individuals

be the source of appropriate instructional materials, tools, devices, gadgets, and

Several universities abroad such as the University of Michigan, Syracuse

In Mindanao-State University - Iligan Institute of Technology (MSU-IIT),

Furthermore, it is important to point out that neurobiological difference in

Furthermore, the concept of neurodiversity as applied in this study hoped to

Utilizing interpretative phenomenological analysis, the study explored three

The Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology (MSU-IIT) is a

Data Gathering Procedures

To reiterate, all interviews were conducted one-on-one and in person within a

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of Participants

It is evident in the high Systems Admission School Examination (SASE)

Table 2: Academic Performance of Participants

Using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis, participants in this study

Firstly, participants reported a high degree of academic success. However, it

On the other hand, Elize reported: “I am motivated to excel in academics. My

“My greatest academic struggle is preparing for exams and quizzes. I

On the whole, three participants reported a generally pleasant social

In response to the open-ended question “What is your most difficult social

Meanwhile, another student John noted, “looking for a suitable boarding

Support Services and Programs

Table 3: Potential Support Services and Academic Accommodations

Embedded within the superordinate themes of academic and social

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Besides emotional and social challenges, students with autism reported

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental

Autism Spectrum Disorder in College. (2009). Retrieved from National Council on

Bagatell, N. (2010). From cure to community: Transforming notions of

Brownlow, C. (2010). Presenting the self: negotiating a label of autism. J Intellect

Commission on Higher Education. (2017). Guidelines in the admission of students with

Drake, S. (2014). College experience of academically successful students with autism.

Engström I, Ekström L, Emilsson B. (2003). Psychosocial functioning in a group of

Higher Education Opportunity Act 2008. (n.d.). Retrieved from

National Symposium on Neurodiversity at Syracuse University. (2011). Retrieved

Nicholas W. Gelbar, N.W., Shefcyk, A., & Reichow, B. (2015). A Comprehensive

State-Trait Anxiety Vis-À-Vis Linguistic Competence Among Sophomore

This study was undertaken to determine the state-trait anxiety and

Keywords: Psycholinguistics, state-trait anxiety, linguistic competence, gender,

Anxiety is described by psychologists as a subjective feeling of tension,

namely linguistic competence and linguistic performance Chomsky (1991/1965).

How competence and performance intersect in language learning can be