Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Alimodian is a third class municipality in the Province of Iloilo, Philippines.

Geographically, located on the southwest portion of the Iloilo Province, known for its lush

vegetation, thick jungle forest, diverse wild life and plants it has a total land area of 14 482

hectares, its thick jungle forest is composed of different species of trees that contribute a

lot of the municipality.

Furthermore, Agony Hill, known to be the religious destination located in Alimodian

near the Aganan River is rich in natural resources. Within this religious place, there are

trees many are still ignorant of the use of trees and even what species they are.

A tree is a woody plant and is most often defined as a woody plant that has many

secondary branches supported clear of the ground on a single main steam or trunk with

clear apical dominance. Local trees found in Alimodian are Inyam (Antidesma sp.),

Bayugo, Balayong, Tuob, Lumboy, Native Agho, Lanite and Kamonsil. Wood from trees

is a building material, as well as a primary energy source in many developing countries.

The structural characteristics of trees in Agony Hill Alimodian, Iloilo is important

because they can be a source of food, medicine, or helping the place to beautify its

surroundings. The trees are also a source of shade ant it’s important to study the

biodiversity in our environment

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1.2 Statement of the Problem

This study focuses on determining structural characteristics of different trees existing

within Agony Hill. This is an evaluation in order to determine the different tree present in

Agony Hill. In this study, the community will know the importance of trees in our

environment. Like tree is a source of food, medicine that can heal wounds, or which tree

will give attraction to the visitors and will make Agony Hill more green and beautiful.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

General:

To determine the structural characteristics of different trees within Agony Hill

Alimodian, Iloilo.

Specifically, it aims to:

1. To identify the various species

2. To describe the community structure in terms of:

A. percentage occurrence and relative frequency;

B. average height;

C. density and relative density of trees; and

D. average stand basal area.

E. Index of diversity (Shannon Index of Diversity=H’) and Pielou Equitability/

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 Evenness Index (J’)

1.4 Significance of the Study

The most important ecological function of tree is protecting the land against soil

erosion, the wearing of topsoil due to wind and water. Trees provide protection from the

wind, the roots help solidify soil in times of heavy rain. In addition, trees store water

reserves that act as buffers for the ecosystem during periods of droughts.

This study is important so that the awareness of the people towards trees will develop

and so that people can identify various plant species within the Agony Hill. This study can

also be a basis for other researchers who aims to discover the uses of trees within Agony

Hill.

1.5 Scope and Limitations of the Study

The scope and limitations of this study of structural diversity of trees focuses only in

three selected transects within Agony Hill. The study will only identify and determine the

community structure of trees within Agony Hill to raise the awareness of people about its

importance.

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 Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Status of Tree Diversity in the Philippines

2.2 Community Structural Studies of Philippine Trees or Forest

1. Without variation, one disease or insect could destroy all the trees in a community.

Insect, pest and organisms can affect almost any tree, but usually these are not life

threatening. Occasionally, a disease or pest will appear and almost completely destroy a

particular tree species. Planting a variety of trees prevent one disease from destroying all

the trees in a community.

2. Trees come in different shapes and sizes. If given enough space to grow, trees have

characteristic shapes. Some shapes fit better in a space than others. Pyramidal- shaped trees

with dense persistent leaves provide less shade, but are better at breaking the wind nearer

the ground. A pyramidal- shaped tree also takes up more space near the ground. This means

less lawn to mow, but also less place to play. Size is also important in tree selection.

Knowledge of whether a two-foot seedling will grow into a 30’ tree with a 20’ spread or a

100’ tree with a 70’ spread is critical in deciding where to plant that seedling. Trees too

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large for a particular site can quickly crowd a house, block a view, or get tangled in power

lines.

3. Some trees are suited to certain locations, temperature, and soils. It is important not

only to determine if the tree fits the location, but if the location provides what the tree needs

to survive.

a. Temperature: The average lowest temperature of the year limits the range of many

trees. b. Soil and Moisture: Each tree species can tolerate wet or dry growing conditions

to a different degree. Some species do better in sandy soils. Some grow better in rocky or

clay-like soils. The soil in parking lots often contains a great deal of salt from winter de-

icing. The salt can affect growing conditions for many kind of trees. Honeylocust is a tree

that is very tolerant of many soil conditions, as well as salt. c. Light: Another important

environmental factor to consider is the amount of light the tree needs to grow. Some tree

species, like white birch and most pines, require full sunlight to grow. Other species are

more shade tolerant. Do not make the mistake of planting a tree where it is mismatched

with its need for light. d. Air pollution: Chemicals in the air vary from location to location.

Some tree are more tolerant than others of air pollution.

4. A great diversity of trees means a greater diversity of wildlife. Trees play an

important role in the web of life that exists in a rural or urban forest. They provide food

and shelter to a variety of wildlife. Certain tree species can determine the insect, bird, and

even some mammal populations that exist in an area. Without that tree, the dependent

organism would not be present. Proper selection of trees and plants can provide beauty and

shade and, at the same time, provide a heaven for wildlife. Some of the basics to consider

when planting for wildlife include: a. Provide food and b. Provide cover

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 5. Diversity provides aesthetic value and stimulations. Trees provide beauty and add

value to a landscape. Trees simply make our lives more pleasant. They line our streets, cool

our air, trap dust, muffle noise, shield us from wind, shade our parks, screen unattractive

sites and bring wildlife to our backyards. Trees provide social benefits. Hospitals patients

have been shown to recover from surgery more quickly when their room offered a view of

trees. Some trees have showy spring flowers. Others have spectacular fall color. Certain

trees have tasty fruit, while others have fragrant or leaves. Planting different kinds of trees

enhances the community landscape throughout.

2.3 List of Philippine Threatened Tree Species

The Philippine is revered as a mega diversity country since it houses an astounding

multitude of species, most of which are endemic to the tropical country. However, many

species are dwindling in number mainly due to anthropogenic activities and habitat

degradation. Here is a list of Philippine species which are already classified by the IUCN

as threatened.

1. Waling- waling (Vanda sanderiana)

Dubbed as the “Queen of Philippine Orchids”. It is also worshipped as Diwata (fairy) by the

native Bagobos and discovered in the year 1882. It is the rarest, most beautiful, and most

expensive orchid among thousands of species that can be found in the country. It is also one

of the largest species of orchids in the world. Out of 8,000 species of flowering plants around

the world, 3,500 species can be found only in the country. The discovery of this wild flower

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has prompted cultivation of colorful and attractive hybrids that are now part of the world’s

multibillion-dollar orchid and cut flower industry.

2. Narra (Pterocarpus indicus)

Narra, (genus Pterocarpus), also called asana, padauk, mukwa, Burmese rosewood, or

Andaman redwood, genus of timber trees of the pea family (Fabaceae), native to Asia and

Africa. Narra wood is primarily used for cabinetwork; it is usually red or rose colour, often

variegated with yellow. The wood is hard and heavy, and the pattern of the grain and the

colouring are hardly equaled by any other timber. The name refers especially to Pterocarpus

indicus, or India padauk, noted for the ability of its wood to take a high polish. The trees

bear alternate compound leaves that are typically hairy on one or both sides and feature five

to nine leaflets. The orange or yellow flowers are borne in panicle clusters and produce

winged one-seeded legumes. The trunks of several species are surrounded by huge buttresses

extending outward and upward for about 5 metres (15 feet).

3. Philippine Date Palm (Phoenix hanceana Naud. var. philippinensis Becc.)

Kanyon, Luplupak or (Lilium philippinense Baker) or its family name is Liliaceae is a herb

reaching a height of up to 60cm. Basically leaves are green, simple, alternate, narrow, and

tapering at both ends. They measure from 8 to 15cm long and 0.5 to 1.3 cm wide, with

midrib and the lateral veins elevated beneath. The flowers are solitary, funnel-shaped,

white outside and flushed wine-purple or purplish-striped inside. Fruit capsule is

cylindrical with many brown winged seeds. Its habitat is open fields in medium to high

altitudes. Where its conservation status vulnerable while its threats is over-collection for

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 ornaAlmaciga (Agathis philippinensis )mental use; conversion of land for agricultural and

other purposes.

4. Almaciga (Agathis philippinensis )

A tree 45-60 m tall, 1.8-6 m in girth, with a conical crown and with somewhat pendent

branches. Bark reddish-gray, thick, with numerous resin blisters. Branches cylindrical to

angular, subverticillate, dull light green. Bud rounded, with few, imbricate scales. Juvenile

leaves distinctly acuminate, 7 cm long by 3 cm wide, oval, with an acute apex. Adult leaves

dark green, leathery, narrow, non-acuminate, 4-5 cm long by 1.5-2 cm wide, rounded at the

apex, petiole 3-8 mm long. Trees produce abundant resin from the wood. Male strobili to

2.5 cm long; microsporophylls hump-shaped due to a broadly depressed flange which

occupies 1/2 of the exposed surface; pollen sacs 3-6. Female cone globular, 7.5-12 cm long;

exposed part of the scales much less than the total width of the scale, upper corners of scales

are broadly rounded and thin, scales with a prominent scallop on lower third of each scale

margin. Seed to 1.3 cm long, one wing to 1.3 cm long, another much shorter.

5. Philippine Camia (Hedychium philippinense K. Schum.)

Philippine Garland or Philippine Camia is an epiphytic herb with 1 to 3 stems. The terminal

flowers are white with a shade of yellow and with crinkled margins. The fruit is a three-sided

capsule which turns orange-yellow and bears dark red seeds. Its family name is

Zingiberaceae while its local name is Camia, White Ging. Philippine Camia is epiphytic

grew on trunks and branches of trees in primary forests at altitudes 900 to 1,800m. And its

conservation status is very rare.

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6. Dendrobium (Dendrobium schuetzei)

Dendrobium schuetzei is native to the Philippines. They grow in the north of the island of

Mindanao, in the provinces of Surigao and Agusan. They often occurs near Dendrobium

dearei, in dense forests, at heights of 300-910 m.

It is a small to medium sized, hot growing epiphyte, which reaching a height of 15-40 cm,

with erect, 12 noded, 10-30 cm long stems with many, narrowly ovate, suberect, coriaceous,

obscurely bilobed apically, 6-10 cm long leaves. It can bloom in the winter and fall on a

short, 3 to 4 flowered raceme with fragrant, waxy flowers that is longer than the leaves and

arising from bracts near the apex of the cane. The flowers are 6.0-9.5 cm in diameter and

after opening are completely flat. All elements of the flower are white. The lip may have

purple wisps at the base. The mark is emerald green. The dorsal petal is oval-lanceolate,

pointed and curved. The lateral outer petals are triangular, sharp and have bulges. Widely

oval to round petals of the inner whorl have a tiny sharp tip. A three-spherical lip on the bent

side plots, and a wide, oval-ovoid central plot is curled along the edge and indented at the

top.

7. Pitogo (Cycas wadei)

Cycas wadei is readily distinguished by the combination of its often branched habit, narrow

leaflets (moatly 4-5 mm wide), usually 2-ovuled megasporophylls and the distinctly ribbed

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stony layer (sarcotesta) of its seeds. Only Cycas curranii shares the ribbed sclerotesta,

although seeds of the latter are two times larger than those of C. wadei. C. curranii also has

leaflets that are about two times broader.

Chapter III

Materials and Methods

3.1 Description of the Study Area

Alimodian is a third class municipality in the Province of Iloilo, Philippines. According to

the 2017 census, it has a population of 40,176 people. The municipality is making up 2.89%

of the provincial land area of Iloilo. It has some rugged terrains, as well as ample flatlands

for agriculture while a high percentage consists of forest land. (Figure 1)

3.2 Materials

 Straw for plotting

 Foot-ruler

 Universal indicator paper

 Field thermometer

 Camera

 Log book

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11
Figure 1. Map of the Philippines and Panay Island (inset) highlighting Panay Island and

the Municipality of Alimodian.

3.3 Methods

1. Establish three 10 x 10m plots along three points of transect.

2. Measure and identify all plants inside each of the 10 x 10m plot.

a.) Trees

b.) Saplings

c.) Wildings

2.1 Record all data on a log book. Take photographs (leaves, fruits, flowers, whole plant)

of each.

2.2 Take measurements

a. Tree- measure the GBH (Girth at Breast Height)

b. Height

3. Take physico- chem.

a. Air/ soil temperature

b. pH of soil

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c. Salinity of soil

A. Measuring the distance of plots B. Sample plot

C. Laying out of straws around the plot

D. Measuring 1.3 m from the ground E. Measuring the GBH of the tree

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 Figure 2. Field Sampling

3.3.1 Collection of Data

The study involved the following activities: ocular survey, analysis of community

structure and measurement of ambient environmental parameters.

3.3.1.1 Ocular Survey

Identification of species, selection of sites for the transect survey were the major

concerns of this phase.

3.3.1.2 Analysis of Community Structure

3.3.1.2.1 Selection of Sites and Establishment of Sampling Plots

Data gathering was conducted from January to February 2019. Selected site was

representative of the general area of Agony Hill.

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 The selected sites were further assessed using the transect line plots method adopted

from Mueller- Dombois and Ellenberg (1974). This method is employed in detailed,

scientific and quantitative characterization of tree community where estimates abundance,

density, basal area, growth, and other ecological parameters are measured. Data on density,

species composition, basal area, zonation (if present), and growth stages were gathered.

Growth was categorized into three stages: seedlings (wildings), saplings and trees. Seedling

was characterized as a plant individual with a height of less than one meter, sapling as a

plant individual with a height more than one meter but with less than four centimetres

diameter and tree as a plant individual with at least 4 cm DBH. The use of these terms all

throughout the study followed these definitions.

A transect line was laid perpendicular to the edge of the selected stand starting from

the last tree at the lower part of the forest to the last tree at the upper part of the area.

Sampling plots (100-m2 per plot) were established along the transect line. Within the plots,

the trees, saplings, and seedlings were identified and counted. Trees were measured for

their diameter breast at height. A total of three transects were laid out and with three plots

each.

3.3.1.2.2 Identification of Species

Species were identified during the ocular and transect surveys. References used in

the identification were from reliable internet websites. Each species was described down

the specie level. Plant characteristics such as inflorescence, color, and shape of leaves and

15
root system were noted to help in the identification process. The various species were

photographed and photos were used for verification of species identification.

3.3.1.2.3 Measurement of GBH

Girth breast at height was determined using a tape measure. GBH was expressed in

centimetres. The measurement of the GBH was taken at 1.3 meters above the ground.

3.3.1.2.4 Measurement of the Height

3.3.1.3 Measurement of Environmental Parameters

Determination of physiochemical parameters was done during sampling.

3.3.1.3.1 Air Temperature

A field thermometer was used to record the ambient air temperature.

3.3.1.3.2 pH of soil

A pH meter was used to determine the acidity of soil.

3.3.1.3.3 Salinity of soil

A universal indicator paper was used to determine the salinity of soil.

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3.4 Analysis of Data

The community structure was determined following the formulas adopted from

Odum and Barrett, (2005). Microsoft Excel program was used to facilitate computations.

3.4.1 Basal Area

𝜋(0.5)2
a.) Wilding BA =
4

𝜋(2.0)2
b.) Sapling BA =
4

𝜋(𝐷𝐵𝐻)2
c.) Tree BA = cm2
4

𝐷𝐵𝐻
Where DBH =
𝜋

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 ∑ 𝐵𝐴
Stand BA = m2ha-1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑡

3.4.2 Plant Density (Plants per hectare)

𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑥 10,000

Plants/hectare =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑡

3.4.3 Relative Density

𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑥 100

Relative Density =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠 (𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑒𝑠)

3.4.4 Relative Frequency

𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑥 100

Relative Frequency =
∑ 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠

3.4.5 Relative Dominance

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐵𝐴 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑥 100

Relative Dominance =
𝐵𝐴 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠

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3.4.6 Importance Value

IV = ( ∑ 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦) + (∑ 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦) + (∑ 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑒)

3.4.7 Shannon Index of Diversity (H’)

𝑁𝑖 𝑁𝑖
H’ = ∑𝑠𝑖=1 ( ) log ( )
𝑁 𝑁

Where: Ni= importance value of species i

N= sum of importance values of all species

𝑠
N= ∑𝑖=1 𝑁𝑖

Where: s= total number of species in the sample

3.4.8 Pielou Equitability/ Evenness Index (J’)

J’ = H”/log s

Where: s= the number of species

3.5 Documentation

A DSLR camera was used to take photographs of plant specimens.

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 CHAPTER IV

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Species Identified

Gmelina philippensis

An erect, branched, nearby glaborous shrub or small tree 3 to 8 m high, usually with few

stout spines on the trunk and branches. Leaves elliptic, 4 to 8 cm long, entire, apex usually

rounded or obtuse, base acute. Flowers in short, terminal racemes, each subtended by a

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large, pale-green bract. Calyx green, about 5 mm long, truncate or obscurely denticulate.

Corolla yellow, about 4 cm long. Fruit fleshly, yellow, pear-shaped, about 2 cm long,

glaborous.

Eucalyptus wandoo

Eucalyptus wandoo is an attractive medium-sized tree with smooth white bark. While

relatively slow growing, it is drought tolerant, has excellent ornamental attributes and

produces excellent honey. It is also considered moderately salt tolerant with potential for

rehabilitation of saline soils. Eucalyptus wandoo produces one of the toughest and most

durable woods of any eucalypt. In the past it was used for railway sleepers, poles, flooring

and for heavy and light construction. The bark was also formerly harvested as a commercial

source of tannin. Natural stands of this species are now valued for their watershed

protection and in the past were a major source of honey.

Evergreen tree 5-10 m tall, usually produces a clear trunk, slow growth rate, can live up to

15 years, roots are moderate to deep or shallow and spreading. Excellent for clayey sites,

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wood density is moderate to high (greater than 600 kg/ cubic meter). Special products are

flowers that produce nectar for honey production, pollen has value for apiculture. Its

shallow roots may outcompete adjacent plants.

Terminalia catappa

Terminalia catappa is a large tropical tree in the leadwood tree family, Combretaceae, that

grows mainly in the tropical regions of Asia, Africa, and Australia. It is known by the

English common names country-almond, Indian-almond, Malabar-almond, sea-almond,

and tropical-almond and false kamani.

The tree grows to 35 m (115 ft) tall, with an upright, symmetrical crown and horizontal

branches. It has corky, light fruit that are dispersed by water. The seed within the fruit is

edible when fully ripe, tasting almost like almond. As the tree gets older, its crown becomes

more flattened to form a spreading, vase shape. Its branches are distinctively arranged in

tiers. The leaves are large, 15–25 cm (5.9–9.8 in) long and 10–14 cm (3.9–5.5 in) broad,

ovoid, glossy dark green, and leathery.

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The trees are monoecious, with distinct male and female flowers on the same tree. Both

are 1 cm (0.39 in) in diameter, white to greenish, inconspicuous with no petals; they are

produced on axillary or terminal spikes.

Muntingia calabura

Muntingia calabura is a shrub or tree up to 12 m tall with spreading branches. The leaves

are alternate, distichous, oblong or lanceolate, 4–15 cm long and 1–6 cm wide, with toothed

margin and covered in short hairs. The flowers are small (up to 3 cm wide), solitary or in

inflorescences of 2-3 flowers; with 5 lanceolate sepals, hairy; 5 obovate white petals; many

stamens with yellow anthers and a smooth ovoid ovary. Fruit, an edible berry, red at

maturity, about 1.5 cm wide.

M. calabura is native to southern Mexico, the Caribbean, Central America, and western

South America south to Bolivia and Argentina. It is present in tropical climate in disturbed

lowland areas from sea level to 1000 m of elevation. The fruits are edible and in some cases

sold in markets, as can be eaten raw or processed as jam; leaves can be used for making

tea. There are also traditional medicinal uses reported for the leaves (headaches, prostate

23
problems, reduce gastric ulcers), bark (antiseptic), flowers (antiseptic, reduce swelling,

antispasmodic) and fruits (respiratory problems; antidiarrheic)

Mangifera indica

Mangifera Indica is a large evergreen tree in the anacardiaceae family that grows to a

height of 10-45 m, dome shaped with dense foliage, typically heavy branched from a

stout trunk.

The leaves are spirally arranged on branches ,linear-oblong ,lanceolate-elliptical, pointed

at both ends, the leaf blades mostly about 25-cm long, reddish and thinly flaccid when

first formed and release an aromatic odour when crushed. The seed is solitary, ovoid or

oblong ,encased in a hard ,compressed fibrous endocarp.

It is native tropical Asia and has been cultivated in the Indian subcontinent for over 4000

years and is now found naturalized in most tropical countries.

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Parts used: Roots, bark, leaves ,fruits, seeds, flowers and kernels are used.

Shorea contorta

Shorea contorta is an evergreen tree that can grow up to 50 metres tall. The straight bole’s

usually unbranched for 15 - 20 metres, it can be 60 - 150cm in diameter with buttresses

[701, 848]. The tree is commonly harvested from the wild for its wood, which is traded

internationally.

The heartwood is creamy white to pinkish white, becoming light brown with age,

sometimes with the presence of white lines; it is not clearly demarcated from the 5 - 9cm

wide band of sapwood. The texture is coarse; the grain straight or interlocked with a visible

darker silver figure on quartersawn wood. The wood is light in weight, soft, moderately

durable, being susceptible to fungi, dry wood borers and termites. The wood seasons well

with only a slight risk of checking or distortion; once dry it is moderately stable in service.

It can be worked with normal tools, though these need to be kept sharp because there are

risks of tearing in edging and a tendency to woolliness; nailing and screwing are poor;

25
gluing is correct. The wood has many uses including for interior joinery and panelling,

boxes and crates, plywood, moulding.

Theobroma cacao

The cacao tree is an evergreen that grows to about 15 to 25 feet. The fruits and flowers of

the cacao tree grow directly from its trunk. The tree grows an oblong fruit commonly

called a pod, which can be four to 12 inches long. When the pod is young it is green in

color, and can turn yellow, red or purple when ripe. Each pod contains 20 to 60 reddish-

brown cocoa beans up to an inch long, which are usually arranged in five rows

surrounded by a sugary pulp. Pods are usually harvested at the end of the wet, or rainy,

season. It takes seven to 14 pods to produce one pound of dry cocoa beans.

Cacao trees usually grow below altitudes of 1,000 feet in areas that receive about 4 inches

of rain per month. They cannot survive in very dry weather and thrive in climates with

high humidity and rainfall. These plants are shade-tolerant and thrive in moist, nutrient-

rich, well-drained, deep soils. Because cacao trees grow well in the shade, the rainforest

does not need to be cut down in order to grow cocoa. While cocoa likely originated in the

26
lowland rainforests of the Amazon River basins of South America, it is now found as far

north as the south of Mexic

Antidesma bunius

Bignay is an oval-shaped berry-like fruit which grows in bunches similar to grapes. It is

endemic to the Philippines and cultivated mainly in Malaysia and Singapore. It belongs to

the Euphorbiaceae family and characterized by a range of color shades like yellow, purple,

green and red. The fruit tastes like currants and cranberries that are sweet, pungent with a

hint of sourness. Its fruiting season starts from August to September and blooms during the

months of April to August. The size of fruit is about 8 mm in length and plant’s height

reaches approximately 30 meters.

Bignay is indigenous to several parts of Southeast Asia including Philippines and India’s

lower Himalayas other than Sri Lanka (As per the World Agroforestry Centre). There are

around 100 species that are majorly found in Southeast Asia. Indonesia and the Philippines

are the two nations which are leading the world’s market by producing the most significant

quantity of this fruit. From its native regions, bignay spread to Hong Kong, New Guinea,

Hawaiian Islands, Florida, Vietnam, Singapore, etc.

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In India, it grows in humid and hotter regions of eastern and southern Himalayas. Bignay

is majorly found on the eastern borders of Nepal including the ranges of Manipur and

Arunachal Pradesh in India.

Phanera purpurea

Phanera purpurea is a small to medium-size deciduous tree growing to 17 feet (5.2 m) tall.

The leaves are 10–20 centimetres (3.9–7.9 in) long and broad, rounded, and bilobed at the

base and apex. The flowers are conspicuous, pink, and fragrant, with five petals. The fruit

is a pod 30 centimetres (12 in) long, containing 12 to 16 seeds. Leaves are alternate.

28
Swietenia macrophyla

Typically the mahogany tree can grow up to 150 feet high, and 12 feet in diameter. But the

average diameter is only about 5 feet. Often the first limb is over 50 feet up. The bark has

a dark color and is fairly smooth. The leaf is a compound leaf, so there are several distinct

leaflets on a single stem. The tree grows small, purple-yellow flowers. When in bloom

there can be hundreds of these flowers on the tree.

The seeds grow in a woody capsule (the fruit) that doesn't hang from the branch, instead it

stands straight up. This fruit isn't like the soft flesh of a peach, instead it is more woody.

They are also called 'sky fruit'. The fruit can be up to 6 inches long. The seeds are same

color of a good Mahogany wood.

29
Senna siamea

Senna siamea, also known as Siamese cassia, kassod tree, cassod tree and cassia tree, is a

legume in the subfamily Caesalpinioideae. It is native to South and Southeast Asia,

although its exact origin is unknown. It is a medium-size, evergreen tree growing up to 18

m with yellow flowers.

Siamese senna is a medium-size, evergreen tree with a crown that is usually dense and

rounded when young, later becoming irregular and spreading with drooping branches. It

grows up to 18 metres tall, with a short, straight bole that is up to 30cm in diameter

The tree is particularly valued for its high quality firewood, and it is widely cultivated in

the tropics both for this and for its many uses in agroforestry systems. It is also grown as

an ornamental and frequently planted along the sides of roads.

30
Azadirachta indica

Grows as a statuesque woodland, shade and crop tree in many tropical and subtropical

countries. As well as its many practical uses it’s also ornamental, bearing 10inch-long

,fragrant, white spring flowers. It’s natural growing range and the areas where humans

have planted it, taking advantage of its tolerance for tough conditions. The ornamental

shade tree is used for large gardens and also can grow in containers on patios or indoors.

Suited to full-sun or partial-shade sites with well-drained soil, neem tree grows quickly to

50 to 75 feet tall and wide. The tree requires a sunny position when grown as an indoor

plant.

31
Gliricidia sepium

Is a medium-sized tree that grows 10 to 12meters high. The bark is smooth,and its color

can range from a whitish gray to deep red-brown. The flowers are located on the end of

branches that have no leaves. These flowers have a bright pink to lilac color that is tinged

with white. A pale yellow spot is usually at the flower’s base. The leaves have

significant variability in their morphology. The male and female flowers are produced on

the same inflorescence, averaging 20 male flowers to each female flowers or 10 male

flowers to each female flower. The fruits are produced in winter, or there may be several

crops during the year if soil moisture is good and temperatures are sufficiently high. The

seed are mature when the capsule changes from green to yellow.

32
Jatropha curcas

The leaves have significant variability in their morphology. In general, the leaves are

green to pale green, alternate to subopposite, and three- to five-lobed with a spiral

phyllotaxis. Male and female flowers are produced on the same inflorescence, averaging

20 male flowers to each female flower, or 10 male flowers to each female flower. The

inflorescence can be formed in the leaf axil. Plants occasionally present hermaphroditic

flowers. Fruits are produced in winter, or there may be several crops during the year if

soil moisture is good and temperatures are sufficiently high. Most fruit production is

concentrated from midsummer to late fall with variations in production peaks where

some plants have two or three harvests and some produce continuously through the

season. The seeds are mature when the capsule changes from green to yellow.

33
Artocarpus heterophyllus

Is adapted to humid tropical and near-tropical climates. The Jackfruit tree is handsome

and stately. In the topics it grows to an enormous size, like a large eastern oak. The leaves

are oblong, oval, or elliptic in form 4 to 6 inches in length, leathery, glossy, and deep

green on color. Male and female flowers are borne in separate flower-heads. Male

flower-heads are on new wood among the leaves or above the female. The stalks of both

male and female flower-heads are encircled by a small green ring. Jackfruit is the largest

tree-borne fruit in the world, reaching 80 pounds in weight and up to 36 inches long and

20 inches in diameter. The exterior of the compound fruit is green or yellow when ripe.

The seed is ¾ to 1-1/2 inches long and ½ to ¾ inches thick and is white and crisp within.

34
Syzygium cumini

A slow growing species , it can reach height of up to 30m and can live more than 100

years. Its dense foliage provides shade and is grown just for its ornamental value. At the

base of the tree , the bark is rough and dark grey, becoming lighter grey and smoother

higher up. The wood is water resistant because of this it is used in railway sleepers and

to install motors in wells. It is sometimes used to make cheap furniture and village

dwellings through it is relatively hard to work on. The leaves which have an aroma

similar to turpentine, are pinkish when young, changing to leathery, glossy dark green

with a yellow midrib as they mature. The leaves are used as food for livestock , as they

have good nutritional value.

35
Anthocephalus chinensis cf.

This plant grows in the sub-Himalayan tract at latitudes from 9°S to 27°N. The plant is

found from Nepal eastward to Bangladesh, India (Assam Province and Chotanagapur

district at Bihar Province), Myanmar, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Papua

New Guinea. It is a large, fast growing species with spreading branches. The tree can reach

up to 20-30 m in height. In the dry season, the tree sheds its leaves. The tree flowers in

May through July. The flowers are yellow in color.

36
4.2 Structural Characteristics of Trees within Agony Hill, Alimodian, Iloilo

4.2.1 Average Height of Trees

14

12

10

Figure 20. Average height of trees within Agony Hill, Alimodian, Iloilo, February 2019.

Tree height ranged from 4.25 to 12.97 m for trees found in the sample plots. Eucalyptus

wandoo was the tallest species while Switenia macrophyla was the shortest tree (Figure

20).

37
4.2.2 Average Diameter at Breast Height (cm) of trees

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

Figure 21. Average Diameter at Breast Height (cm) of trees within Agony Hill, Alimodian,

Iloilo, February 2019.

Muntingia calabura had the largest average diameter at breast height at 124 cm while the

least was Shorea contorta at 14.25 cm (Figure 21).

38
4.2.3 Basal area (cm2/m2) of trees

8000

7000

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

Figure 22. Basal Area (cm2/m2) of trees within Agony Hill, Alimodian, Iloilo, February

2019.

Eucalyptus wandoo had the largest basal area among the trees found inside the plots while

Syzygium cumini and Anthocephalus chinesis cf. had the least (Figure 22).

39
4.2.4 Stand Basal Area (m2/ha2) of trees

20

18

16

14

12

10

Figure 23. Stand Basal Area (m2/ha2) of trees within Agony Hill, Alimodian, Iloilo,

February 2019.

In terms of stand basal area, Eucalyptus wandoo had the largest basal area at 17.39 m2/ha2

(Figure 23).

40
4.2.5 Stems per hectare (trees + saplings + wildings) of trees

3500

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

Figure 24. Stems per hectare (trees + saplings + wildings) of trees within Agony Hill,

Alimodian, Iloilo, February 2019.

Gmelina philippensis had the most numerous stems at 3275 per ha while Muntingia

calabura and Anthocephalus heterophyllus had only 25 stems per hectare (Figure 24).

41
4.2.6 Tree density (n ha-1) of trees

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

Figure 25. Tree density (n ha-1) of trees within Agony Hill, Alimodian, Iloilo, February

2019.

In terms of tree density, Eucalyptus wandoo had the highest at 375 n ha-1 while Muntingia

calabura, Theobroma cacao, Syzygium cumini, and Anthocephalus chinesis cf. only had 25

individuals per hectare (Figure 25).

42
4.2.7 Sapling density (n ha-1) of trees

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

Figure 26. Sapling density (n ha-1) of trees within Agony Hill, Alimodian, Iloilo, February

2019.

Among the saplings, Gmelina philippinensis had the highest sapling density (Figure 26).

43
4.2.8 Wilding Density (n ha-1) of trees

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

Figure 27 .Wilding density (n ha-1) of trees within Agony Hill, Alimodian, Iloilo,

February 2019.

Gmelina philippinesis had the most number of wilding density (Figure 27).

44
4.2.9 Relative Frequency of trees

Gmelina philippensis
Eucalyptus wandoo
Terminalia catappa
Muntingia calabura
Mangifera indica
Shorea contorta
Theobroma cacao
Antidesma bunius
Phanera Purpurea
Switenia macrophyla
Senna siamea
Azadirachta indica
Gliricidia sepium
Jatropha cureas
Artocarpus heterophyllus
Syzygium cumini
Anthocephalus chinensis cf.

Figure 28. Relative frequency of trees within Agony Hill, Alimodian, Iloilo, February

2019.

The most frequently occurring was Gmelina philippinensis, Eucalyptus wandoo,

Antidesma bunuis and Phanera Purpurea while Terminalia catappa, Shorea contorta,

Theobroma cacao, Switenia macrophyla, Senna siamea, Azadirachta indica, Gliricidia

sepium, Jatropha cureas, Syzygium cumini, Anthocephalus chinesis cf. had only 16.67

individuals per hectare (Figure 28).

45
4.2.10 Relative Density of trees

Gmelina
Eucalyptus wandoo
Terminalia catappa
Muntingia calabura
Mangifera indica
Shorea contorta
Theobroma cacao
Antidesma bunius
Phanera purpurea
Switenia macrophyla
Senna siamea
Azadirachta indica
Gliricidia sepium
Jatropha cureas
Artocarpus heterophyllus
Syzygium cumini
Anthocephalus chinensis cf.

Figure 29. Relative density of trees within Agony Hill, Alimodian, Iloilo, February 2019.

Gmelina philippinensis has the highest relative density while Antidesma bunuis and

Anthocephalus chinesis cf. were the least (Figure 29).

46
4.2.11 Relative Dominance of trees

Gmelina philippensis
Eucalyptus wandoo
Terminalia catappa
Muntingia calabura
I
Shorea contorta
III
Antidesma bunius
Bauhinia purpurea
VI
Agho
VIII
IX
Kurason
XI
XII
Anthocephalus chinensis cf.

Figure 30. Relative dominance of trees within Agony Hill, Alimodian, Iloilo, February

2019.

The area was dominated by Eucalyptus wandoo at 392.91% (Figure 30).

47
4.2.12 Importance Value

500

450

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

Figure 31. Importance value (rel freq, rel den, rel dom) of trees within Agony Hill,

Alimodian, Iloilo, February 2019.

Eucalyptus wandoo was the most important species (Figure 31).

48
4.2.13 Plant composition (%) by category trees

Wildings

Saplings

Trees

Figure 32. Plant composition (%) by category trees within Agony Hill, Alimodian, Iloilo,
February 2019.

The wildings were in greater proportion than trees and saplings (Figure 32).

49
4.2.14 Species diversity (H’) and equitability index (J’)

3
2.70615

2.5

1.63

1.5

0.5

0
Diversity index H' Equitability index J'

Figure 33. Species diversity (H’) and equitability index (J’) of trees within Agony Hill,
Alimodian, Iloilo, February 2019.

Index diversity was high at 1.63 and also a high equitability index of 2.70615
(Figure 33).

50
 CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Results of the study showed the following:

1. Tree height ranged from 4.25 to 12.97 m for trees found in the sample plots.

Eucalyptus wandoo was the tallest species while VI was the shortest tree (Figure

20)

2. Sarisa had the largest average diameter at breast height at 124 cm while the least

was Shorea contorta at 14.25 cm (Figure 21).

3. Eucalyptus wandoo had the largest basal area among the trees found inside the plots

while XII and XIII had the least (Figure 22).

4. Gmelina had the most numerous stems at 3275 per ha while Sarisa and XIII had

only 25 stems per hectare (Figure 23).

5. In terms of tree density, Eucalyptus wandoo had the highest at 375 n ha-1 while

Sarisa, III, XII, and XIII only had 25 individuals per hectare (Figure 24).

6. Among the saplings, Gmelina had the highest sapling density (Figure 25).

7. Among the saplings, Gmelina had the highest sapling density (Figure 26).

8. Gmelina had the most number of wilding density (Figure 27).

9. The most frequently occurring was Gmelina, Eucalyptus, IV and Bauhinia Purpurea

while Talisay, Shorea contorta, III, VI, Agho, VIII, IX, Kurason, XI, XII, XIII has

only 16.67 individuals per hectare (Figure 28 ).

10. Gmelina has the highest relative density while Sarisa and XIII were the least

(Figure 29).

11. The area was dominated by Eucalyptus wandoo at 392.91% (Figure 30).

51
 12. Eucalyptus wandoo was the most important species (Figure 31)

13. The wildings were in greater proportion than trees and saplings (Figure 32).

14. Index diversity was high at 1.63 and also a high equitability index of 2.70615

(Figure 33).

Recommendations:

1. Monitor the development of the Agony hill by doing yearly structural study using

the same plots.

2. Determine other physic-chemical parameters to explain growth and development

of trees species.

3. Label the trees with their scientific

4. Science classes should as a laboratory for their field studies to increase awareness

and value of the Agony Hill.

5. Plant more indigenous tree species in the Agony Hill.

52
 CHAPTER IV

LITERATURE CITED

53