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Fly ash – waste management and overview : A Review

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Recent Research in Science and Technology 2014, 6(1): 30-35
ISSN: 2076-5061
Available Online: http://recent-science.com/

Fly ash – waste management and overview : A Review

Aakash Dwivedi* and Manish Kumar Jain**

Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad-814004, Jharkhand, India

Abstract
Fly ash (FA)-a coal combustion residue of thermal power plants has been regarded as a problematic solid waste all over the
world. India has some of the largest reserves of coal in the world. Indian coal has high ash content and low calorific value.
Nearly 73% of the country’s total installed power generation capacity is thermal of which coal-based generation is 90%. Some
85 thermal power stations, besides several captive power plants use bituminous and sub-bituminous coal and produce large
quantities of fly ash. High ash content (30% - 50%) coal contributes to these large volumes of fly ash. Current annual
production of Fly ash, a by-product from coal based thermal power plant (TPPs), is about 112 million tones (MT). Some of the
problems associated with Fly ash are large area of land required for disposal and toxicity associated with heavy metal
leached to groundwater. Fly ash, being treated as waste and a source of air and water pollution till recent past, is in fact a
resource material and has also proven its worth over a period of time. The present paper reviews the potential applications for
coal fly ash as a raw material: as a soil amelioration agent in agriculture, use, in highway embankments, in construction of
bricks, as an aggregate material in Portland cement, filling of low lying areas etc in the manufacture of glass and ceramics, in
the production of zeolites, in the formation of mesoporous materials, in the synthesis of geopolymers, for use as catalysts and
catalyst supports, as an adsorbent for gases and waste water processes, and for the extraction of metals. Thus fly ash
management is a cause of concern for the future. This article attempts to highlight the management of fly ash to make use of
this solid waste, in order to save our environment.

Keywords: Fly ash, particulate matter, thermal power plants, waste management, water pollution.

INTRODUCTION

India is the third largest producer of coal and coal based well as on human health [6]. Metals present in the ashes are
thermal power plant installations in India contribute about 70% of the originated from the composition of the coal used in combustion,
total installed capacity for power generation [1]. However, the combustion conditions, removal efficiency of air pollution control
bituminous and sub-bituminous coals used contain over 40% ash device and method of coal fly ash disposal [7].
content. At present, 120-150 million tons of coal fly ash is generated
from 120 existing coal based thermal power plants in India [2]. Coal
fly ash is an industrial waste generated from coal combustion
process in thermal power plants. It is a fly ash, a coal combustion
residue having a complex heterogeneous mixture of amorphous and
crystalline phases and is generally fine powdered
ferroaluminosilicate material with Al, Ca, Mg, Fe, Na and Si as the
predominant elements. The coal fly ash also contains significant
amounts of toxic metals such as As, Ba, Hg, Cr, Ni, V, Pb, Zn and Se
characteristically enriched in coal fly ash particles [3-5]. The coal fly
ashes occupy more space in the premises of industrial plants and
are mixed with water to discharge into fly ash settling ponds or land
fills. Large quantities of coal fly ashes are stored in the form of waste
heaps or deposits, whose contamination poses a serious threat to
the environment as a major source of inorganic pollution. The
behavior of many metal pollutants and the release of such metals
Fig 1. Fly ash production (million tonnes/year) in different countries
during storage can have deleterious effects on the environment as
(source: http://www.tifac.org.in)

Metals present in the ashes are originated from the compo-

*Corresponding Author Large number of innovative alternate building materials and low cost
Aakash Dwivedi construction techniques developed through intensive research efforts
Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Indian School of Mines, during last three to four decades satisfies functional as well as
Dhanbad-814004, Jharkhand, India specification requirements of conventional materials/techniques and
provide an avenue for bringing down the construction cost. Fly Ash,
Email: aakashdwivedi4@gmail.com
an industrial by-product from Thermal Power Plants (TPPs), with
Recent Research in Science and Technology 2014, 6(1): 30-35 31

current annual generation of approximately 112 million tones and its as a source of air pollution constitutes fly ash. The fine particles of fly
proven suitability for variety of applications as admixture in ash reach the pulmonary region of the lungs and remain there for
cement/concrete/mortar, lime pozzolana mixture (bricks/blocks) etc. long periods of time; they behave like cumulative poisons. The
Cement and Concrete Industry accounts for 50% Fly Ash utilization, submicron particles enter deeper into the lungs and are deposited on
the total utilization of which at present stands at 30MT (28%). The the alveolar walls where the metals could be transferred to the blood
other areas of application are Low lying area fill (17%), Roads & plasma across the cell membrane (fig. 1). The residual particles
Embankments (15%), Dyke Raising (4%), Brick manufacturing (2%) being silica (40–73%) cause silicosis. All the heavy metals (Ni, Cd,
and other new areas for safe disposal of fly ash is in paint industry, Sb, As, Cr, Pb, etc.) generally found in fly ash are toxic in nature [9].
agriculture etc [8]. Fly ash can be disposed-off in a dry or wet state. Studies show that
wet disposal of this waste does not protect the environment from
migration of metal into the soil. Heavy metals cannot be degraded
biologically into harmless products like other organic waste. Studies
also show that coal ash satisfies the criteria for landfill disposal,
according to the Environmental Agency of Japan. According to the
hazardous waste management and handling rule of 1989, fly ash is
considered as non-hazardous. With the present practice of fly-ash
disposal in ash ponds (generally in the form of slurry), the total land
required for ash disposal would be about 82,200 ha by the year 2020
at an estimated 0.6 ha per MW. Fly ash can be treated as a by-
product rather than waste [10].

Laws and Legislation of Disposal of Flyash

Historically, wastes have always created a disposal problem.

The problem of flyash disposal has assumed such an enormous
Fig 2. Utilization (%) of total produced fly ash in different countries scale in the country that the Ministry of Environment and Forests
(Source: http://www.tifac.org.in) (MoEF) issued a regulation on 14 September 1999 specifying
normative levels for progressive utilization of flyash. According to the
Effluent and disposal regulation, it is mandatory for the existing (old) and new coal based
thermal power plants to utilize 100% of the flyash produced in a
Disposal and management of fly ash is a major problem in stipulated time horizon. The new coal thermal power plants are
coal-fired thermal power plants. Fly ash emissions from a variety of required to use 100% of the flyash produced within nine years of
coal combustion units show a wide range of composition. All commencing operation. The old power plants, however, are required
elements below atomic number 92 are present in coal ash. A 500 to achieve 100% flyash utilization goal with in 15 years from the date
MW thermal power plant releases 200 mt SO2, 70 t NO2 and 500 t of issue of the regulation [11].
fly ash approximately every day. Particulate matter (PM) considered

Table 1. Thermal power generation, coal consumption and ash generation in India
(Source: Current Sc 1792 IENCE Vol. 100,No. 12, 25 June 2011)

1995 54,000 200 75

2000 70,000 250 90
2010 98,000 300 110
2020 137,000 350 140

Fig 3. Penetration of tiny particles into the lungs.( Source:- Current Sc 1792 IENCE Vol. 100,No. 12, 25 June 2011)
32 Dwivedi and Jain

Classification of fly ash Fly ash produced from the burning of younger lignite or sub
bituminous coal, in addition to having pozzolanic properties, also has
Fly ash particles are generally spherical in shape and range in some self-cementing properties. In the presence of water, Class C fly
size from 0.5 µm to 100 µm. They consist mostly of silicon dioxide ash will harden and gain strength over time. Class C fly ash
(SiO2), which is present in two forms: amorphous, which is rounded generally contains more than 20% lime (CaO). Unlike Class F, self-
and smooth, and crystalline, which is sharp, pointed and hazardous; cementing Class C fly ash does not require an activator. Alkali and
aluminum oxide (Al2O3) and iron oxide (Fe2O3). Fly ashes are sulfate (SO4) contents are generally higher in Class C fly ashes [12].
generally highly heterogeneous, consisting of a mixture of glassy
particles with various identifiable crystalline phases such as quartz, Class F fly ash
mullite, and various iron oxides.
Two classes of fly ash are defined by ASTM C618: Class F fly The burning of harder, older anthracite and bituminous coal
ash and Class C fly ash. The chief difference between these classes typically produces Class F fly ash. This fly ash is pozzolanic in nature,
is the amount of calcium, silica, alumina, and iron content in the ash. and contains less than 10% lime (CaO). Possessing pozzolanic
The chemical properties of the fly ash are largely influenced by the properties, the glassy silica and alumina of Class F fly ash requires a
chemical content of the coal burned (i.e., anthracite, bituminous, and cementing agent, such as Portland cement, quicklime, or hydrated
lignite) [13]. lime, with the presence of water in order to react and produce
cementitious compounds. Alternatively, the addition of a chemical
Class C fly ash activator such as sodium silicate (water glass) to a Class F ash can
lead to the formation of a geopolymer [12].

Fig 4. Typical ash colors (Class „F‟ & „C‟ Fly ash)
(Source:- International journal of emerging trands in Engineering and Development Issue1, Vol 1August2011)

Fly ash utilization

Fly Ash Based Cement
During the last 30 years, extensive research has been carried
out to utilize the fly ash in various sectors, as this is not considered As per the specifications of Bureau of Indian Standards fly
as hazardous waste. Broadly, fly ash utilization programmes can be ash upto 35% can be used in manufacture of PPC, while worldwide
viewed from two angles, i.e. mitigating environmental effects and there are examples of countries that permit upto 55% utilisation of fly
addressing disposal problems (low value–high volume utilization) [9]. ash in PPC production. Setting aside 25% of cement production for
Following are some of the potential areas of use of fly ash:- OPC for such applications, the balance 75% can be PPC with an
average fly ash content of 30% [14]. It would consume around 25 MT
Development of Fly Ash Based Polymer Composites as Wood fly ash, replacing same amount of cement clinker and resulting in net
Substitute saving Rs. 2500 crore [15].

Fly ash based composites have been developed using fly ash Role of bio-amelioration of FA on soil
as filler and jute cloth as reinforcement. The technology on fly ash
Polymer Composite using Jute cloth as reinforcement for wood Recent investigations suggest that FA can find better
substitute material can be applied in many applications like door application if combined with organic amendments such as cow
shutters, partition panels, flooring tiles, wall panelling, ceiling, etc. manure,press mud, paper factory sludge, farmyard manure, sewage
This technology has been developed by Regional Research sludge,crop residues and organic compost for improvement of
Laboratory, Bhopal in collaboration with Building Materials & degraded/marginal soil [16]. Few beneficial combined effects of FA
Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC) and TIFAC. One and organic matter on soil have been found such as reduced heavy-
commercial plant has also been set up based on this technology metal availability and killing pathogens in the sludge [17]; improved
near Chennai [13]. soils through higher nutrient concentrations,better texture,lower bulk
Recent Research in Science and Technology 2014, 6(1): 30-35 33

density, higher porosity and mass moisture content and higher Nearly one third of our thermal power stations are at or near
content of fine-grained minerals [18]; enhanced the biological activity to pit heads. Most of these mines cart sand for backfilling from river
in the soil [19]; reduced the leaching of major nutrients [20]; and beds, which are normally 50-80 kms away. Apart from the royalty,
beneficial for vegetation [21]; .Use of swine manure with FA huge amount of expenditure is incurred on transportation of sand. It
increased the availability of Ca and Mg balancing the ratio between is estimated that about 15-20 million tonne of ash per annum can be
monovalent and bivalent cations (Na++ K+/Ca2+ Mg2+), which safely consumed in minefills yielding a saving of about Rs. 150 crore
otherwise proves detrimental to the soil [22]; Co-utilization of ‘slash’ a year [14].
a mixture of FA, sewage sludge and lime in the ratio of 60:30:10 had
beneficial soil ameliorating effect. ‘Slash’ incorporation in soil showed Fly Ash in Road Construction
positive effects on soil pH and Ca, Mg and P content and reduction
in the translocation of Ni and Cd [23] and enhanced growth and yield Fly ash can be used for construction of road and embankment.
of corn, potatoes and beans in pot trials. So, amendment with FA will Saves top soil which otherwise is conventionally used, avoids
enhance agricultural sector for crop production. Further, organic creation of low lying areas (by excavation of soil to be used for
amendment application will provided anchorage and growth of the construction of embankments) [8]. Fly Ash may be used in road
plant on a FA dumping site [24]. construction for: Stabilizing and constructing sub-base or base;
upper layers of pavements; filling purposes. Concrete with Fly Ash
Fly ash bricks (10-20% by wt) is cost effective and improves performance of rigid
pavement; Soil mixed with Fly Ash and lime increases California
The Central Fuel Research Institute, Dhanbad has developed Bearing Ratio (CBR), increased (84.6%) on addition of only Fly Ash
a technology for the utilization of fly ash for the manufacture of to soil. National Highway Authority of India (NHAI) is currently using
building bricks [9]. Fly Ash can be used in the range of 40-70%. Our 60 lakh m3 of Fly Ash and pr oposed to use another 67 lakh m3 in
current clay brick production exceeds 100 billion bricks a year. In future projects.
such circumstances and when fly ash brick is technically acceptable,
economically viable and environment friendly, it may not be wrong to Embankment
target to produce at least 2 billion fly ash bricks per year. It would
consume about 5 million tonne of flyash/year, yielding a net saving of Fly ash properties are somewhat unique as an engineering
around Rs. 20 crores per annum. Fly ash bricks have a number of material. Unlike typical soils used for embankment construction, fly
advantages over the conventional burnt clay bricks. Unglazed tiles ash has a large uniformity coefficient consisting of clay-sized
for use on footpaths can also be made from it. Awareness among the particles. Engineering properties that will affect fly ash use in
public is required and the Government has to provide special embankments include grain size distribution, compaction
incentives for this purpose [21]. characteristics, shear strength, compressibility, permeability, and
frost susceptibility. Nearly all fly ash used in embankments are Class
Fly ash in distemper F fly ashes [9]
In view of the growing need for development of road
Distemper manufactured with fly ash as a replacement for infrastructure in the country, conservative estimates show that about
white cement has been used in several buildings in Neyveli, Tamil 15-20 MT ash can be used in construction of road and flyover
Nadu, in the interior surfaces and the performance is satisfactory. embankments per annum in the vicinity of TPPs. This would yield a
The cost of production will only be 50% that of commercial distemper saving of around Rs. 100 crore per year [16].
[9].
Roller compacted concrete
Fly ash-based ceramics
Another application of using fly ash is in roller compacted
The National Metallurgical Laboratory, Jamshedpur has concrete dams. Many dams in the US have been constructed with
developed a process to produce ceramics from fly ash having high fly ash contents. Fly ash lowers the heat of hydration allowing
superior resistance to abrasion [9]. thicker placements to occur. Data for these can be found at the US
Bureau of Reclamation. This has also been demonstrated in the
Ready mixed Fly ash concrete Ghatghar Dam Project in India [14].

Though Ready Mix concrete is quite popular in developed Asphalt concrete

countries but in India it consumes less than 5 percent of total cement
consumption. Only recently its application has started growing at a Asphalt concrete is a composite material consisting of an
fast rate. On an average 20% Fly ash (of cementitious material) in asphalt binder and mineral aggregate. Both Class F and Class C fly
the country is being used which can easily go very high. In ready mix ash can typically be used as a mineral filler to fill the voids and
concrete various ingredients and quality parameters are strictly provide contact points between larger aggregate particles in asphalt
maintained/controlled which is not possible in the concrete produced concrete mixes. This application is used in conjunction or as a
at site and hence it can accommodate still higher quantity of fly ash replacement for, other binders (such as Portland cement or hydrated
[25]. lime) [14]. For use in asphalt pavement, the fly ash must meet
mineral filler specifications outlined in ASTM D242. The hydrophobic
Minefills nature of fly ash gives pavements better resistance to stripping. Fly
ash has also been shown to increase the stiffness of the asphalt
34 Dwivedi and Jain

matrix, improving rutting resistance and increasing mix durability [8]. for plant growth, helps improve the economic condition of local
inhabitants; crops grown on fly ash amended soil are safe for human
consumption & groundwater quality is not affected [8].
Use of Fly Ash in Agriculture Use of fly ash in agriculture has also proved to be
economically rewarding. The improvement in yield has been
Agriculture and waste land management have emerged as recorded with fly ash doses varying from 20 tonne/hectare to 100
prime bulk utilization areas for fly ash in the country. It improves tonne/hectare. On an average 20-30% yield increase has been
permeability status of soil; improves fertility status of soil (soil health)/ observed Out of 150 million hectare of land under cultivation, 10
crop yield; improves soil texture; reduces bulk density of soil; million hectares of land can safely be taken up for application of fly
improves water holding capacity/porosity; optimizes pH value; ash per year. Taking a moderate fly ash dose of 20 mt per hectare it
improves soil aeration; reduces crust formation provides micro would consume 200 million tonne flyash per year. This is more than
nutrients like Fe, Zn, Cu, Mo, B, Mn; provides macro nutrients like K, the annual availability of fly ash, therefore the shortfalls would be met
P, Ca, Mg, S etc; works as a part substitute of gypsum for from accumulated 1500 million tonne stock of fly ash (available in
reclamation of saline alkali soil and lime For reclamation of acidic ash ponds). The fly ash treated fields would give additional yield of 5
soils; ash ponds provides suitable conditions and essential nutrients million tonne foodgrains per year valued at about Rs. 3000 crore [15].

Table 2. Economic benefits of fly ash management

S.No Utilisation Fly Ash Consumption (Million Savings per year (rupees in
. tonnes/year) crore)
1 Cements 25 2500
2 Roads and Embankments 15-20 100
3 Minefills 15-20 150
4 Bricks 5 20
5 Agriculture 200 3000
Total 5770 around 1.2billion US$

CONCLUSION thermal power stations, is in fact a valuable resource material.

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