818 GLACIAL LANDFORMS/Glacifluvial Landforms of Erosion

Price, R. J. (1969). Moraines, sandar, kames and eskers near suddenly or rapidly in the form of outbursts. Erosion
Breiðamerkurjökull, Iceland. Transactions of the Institute of is facilitated by high hydraulic potential caused by the
British Geographers 46, 17–43. cryostatic pressure of the ice or the hydraulic head
Price, R. J. (1970). Moraines at Fjallsjökull, Iceland. Arctic and
developed behind a barrier in a proglacial lake. The
Alpine Research 2, 27–42.
Rea, B. R., and Evans, D. J. A. (2003). Plateau icefield landsystems. type and resistance of bed material underlying a region
In Glacial Landsystems (D. J. A. Evans, Ed.), pp. 407–431. also controls the form and size of erosional landforms
Arnold, London. produced by these meltwater discharges.
Rea, B. R., Whalley, W. B., Evans, D. J. A., Gordon, J. E., and Most glacifluvial landforms of erosion were
McDougall, D. A. (1998). Plateau icefields: Geomorphology
formed when the great Pleistocene ice sheets of
and dynamics. Quaternary Proceedings 6, 35–54.
Russell, A. J., and Knudsen, O. (1999). Controls on the sedimen- North America and Eurasia produced and ponded
tology of the November 1996 jokulhlaup deposits, vast quantities of meltwater. The erosional landforms
Skeiðarársandur, Iceland. In Advances in Fluvial included vast channel systems, both subglacial and
Sedimentology (N. D. Smith, J. Rogers and A. G. Plint, Eds.), proglacial, and a variety of forms attributed to sub-
Special Publication No. 28, pp. 315–329. International
glacial sheet floods. In some cases, subglacial flows
Association of Sedimentologists.
Sharp, M. J. (1984). Annual moraine ridges at Skalafellsjökull, switched from an erosional to a depositional regime
south-east Iceland. Journal of Glaciology 30, 82–93. upon reaching the glacier terminus, typified by
Sissons, J. B. (1980). The Loch Lomond Advance in the Lake aggrading braided streams, sandar, or subaqueous
District, northern England. Transactions of the Royal Society fans of various types.
of Edinburgh: Earth Sciences 71, 13–27.
The discharges that formed large-scale glacifluvial
Speight, J. G. (1963). Late Pleistocene historical geomorphology of
the Lake Pukaki area, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of erosional forms had significant, global impacts
Geology and Geophysics 6, 160–188. because they were of such high magnitude. Many
Stokes, C. R., and Clark, C. D. (1999). Geomorphological criteria large-scale drainage systems in areas affected by gla-
for identifying Pleistocene ice streams. Annals of Glaciology ciation were formed or largely modified by discrete-
28, 67–74.
event, high-discharge meltwater flows. In places
Stokes, C. R., and Clark, C. D. (2001). Palaeo-ice streams.
Quaternary Science Reviews 20, 1437–1457. these channels constitute important aquifer systems,
Stokes, C. R., and Clark, C. D. (2002). Ice stream shear margin some of which are buried beneath multiple sheets of
moraines. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 27, glacial drift from earlier glaciations. In addition,
547–558. numerous studies have argued that the sudden release
Stokes, C. R., and Clark, C. D. (2003). The Dubawnt Lake palaeo-
of vast quantities of cold meltwater correlates with
ice stream: Evidence for dynamic ice sheet behaviour on the
Canadian Shield and insights regarding controls on ice stream periods of climatic change, possibly by altering ocea-
location and vigour. Boreas 32, 263–279. nic circulation patterns.
Vorren, T., and Laberg, J. S. (1997). Trough mouth fans— Four categories of processes and landforms are con-
Palaeoclimate and ice sheet monitors. Quaternary Science sidered in this article because they account for the
Reviews 16, 865–881.
majority of large-scale glacifluvial erosional forms:
(1) proglacial lake channel systems formed by glacial
lake outbursts, (2) tunnel channels formed by channe-
lized subglacial flows, (3) ice marginal (lateral) melt-
Glacifluvial Landforms of water channels associated primarily with cold-based
glaciers, and (4) a variety of erosional forms hypothe-
Erosion sized to have been formed by massive subglacial sheet
A E Kehew, Western Michigan University, MI, USA floods. This review of erosional landforms and related
M L Lord, Western Carolina University, NC, USA processes includes ideas that are universally accepted,
A L Kozlowski, Susquehanna University, Selinsgrove, such as a catastrophic flood origin of the Channeled
PA, USA Scabland in the USA, and a discussion of subglacial
ª 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. landforms attributed to fluvial erosion, which is
actively debated and controversial.

Introduction
Glacial Lake Outbursts
The vast amount of meltwater released from glaciers
Overview
has enormous erosional capacity. Temporary
impoundments of meltwater occur on top of, within, Glacial lake outbursts, or jökulhlaups, are very high
at the base of, and in front of the ice. The magnitude magnitude floods caused by the sudden drainage of
and intensity of erosion is greatest when these water from a glacial lake. Glacial lakes form on, in,
impoundments release sediment-deficient meltwater under, or in front of glaciers and are inherently
 GLACIAL LANDFORMS/Glacifluvial Landforms of Erosion 819

Figure 1 Upstream view of jökulhlaup on Skeiará river, Iceland.

This flood occurred in 1996 and was triggered by a subglacial Figure 2 Waterfalls (about 60 m high) in cataract and gorge
volcanic eruption. Photograph by Magnus T. Gudmundsson. eroded by the Spokane Floods of the Channeled Scabland.
Eroded basalt and loess landscape is in the background.
Photograph by Mark Lord.
unstable. Outbursts occur in many present-day gla-
ciated regions, such as Iceland, Alaska, the
Himalayas, and the Andes (Fig. 1). Flood discharges the Columbia Plateau of northwestern United
typically exceed background rates by orders of mag- States. Bretz, based on years of fieldwork, was com-
nitude and, during the Pleistocene, carved out spec- pelled to argue for a catastrophic flood, the Spokane
tacular landscapes by flows of unparalleled Flood, to explain the eroded basalt and loess land-
magnitude. In fact, glacial lake outbursts account scape containing a network of proglacial channels,
for the top seven floods ever known to have occurred bedrock cataracts, streamlined islands, dry valleys,
in the world (O’Connor and Costa, 2004). and boulder deposits (Fig. 2). His hypothesis was
Floodwaters from Pleistocene glacial lake outbursts widely rejected for some scientific reasons, including
were highly erosive and created a characteristic suite the lack of a known water source for the flood, but
of landforms, now widely accepted to have been more importantly because the idea of a catastrophic
formed by catastrophic floods. The geomorphic origin to a landscape was viewed as an assault on the
record of outbursts is most significant from principle of uniformitarianism – the foundation of
Pleistocene glaciations because of the high magnitude modern geology. In the 1960s, Bretz’s outrageous
of flows, up to 18  106 m3 s 1 (Baker et al., 1993). hypothesis became widely accepted, now well sup-
The emphasis here, therefore, is on Pleistocene glacial ported by, among other things, a water source
lake outburst erosional landforms, although valuable (Glacial Lake Missoula), giant current ripples, and
insights into outburst processes have been gained by high-altitude imagery (Fig. 3). This fascinating story
observations of modern jökulhlaups (Cenderelli and
Wohl, 2003).

Recognition of Pleistocene Glacial

Lake Outbursts
For more than a century, the incongruity in size
between underfit present-day streams and overfit
valleys has been apparent. Furthermore, numerous
studies suggested that the overfit valleys were paleo-
channels – not valleys, as evidenced by uniformity in
size over long distances and regular meander wave-
lengths, that conveyed much higher discharges than
present during the Pleistocene. Many of these same
channels are now widely recognized to have been
formed by glacial lake outbursts. This acceptance
was not the case when Bretz (1923) first proposed a
catastrophic flood origin for the Channeled
Scabland: an anastomosing network of channels, Figure 3 Landsat image of Channeled Scabland, WA, USA.
covering an area of appoximately 40,000 km2, in Flood flows were from the northeast toward the southwest.
820 GLACIAL LANDFORMS/Glacifluvial Landforms of Erosion

Figure 4 Proglacial lakes and spillways along the southwestern margins of the Laurentide Ice Sheet. From Kehew AE and Teller JT
(1994) History of late glacial runoff along the southwestern margin of the Laurentide Ice Sheet. Quaternary Science Reviews 13: 859–877.

in the evolution of scientific ideas is well described of outbursts, the magnitude of each flood event, the
(e.g., Baker et al. (1987)). erosional capability of the outbursts, the timing of
Today, dozens of investigations have shown that the floods, and the source of flood waters (Benn and
glacial lake outbursts were not unique to the Evans, 1998). Spillway systems that formed by out-
Channeled Scabland; they were a common, if not bursts along the southern margins of the Laurentide
inevitable, process during Pleistocene glaciations as Ice Sheet, though not as dramatic as the Scabland
the land, ice sheets, water sources, and drainage path- landscapes, share many of the erosional landforms
ways were in a continuous state of flux. Channel and have been well documented (Kehew and Lord,
systems, mostly glacial lake spillways, have been 1987). The most ubiquitous erosional landform cre-
attributed to glacial lake outbursts throughout the ated by outburst floods is a trench-shaped channel
glaciated interior of North America (Fig. 4), Siberia, with steep sides, and a relatively uniform width and
Scandinavia, and elsewhere. depth (Fig. 5). The size of the channel varies with
flow magnitude, geologic setting, and flow history
Glacial Lake Outburst Erosional Landforms among other things. Spillways that formed by out-
The Channeled Scabland is clearly the most-studied bursts in the Great Plains of North America are typi-
area formed by outburst floods. Many landforms cally 1–3 km wide and 25–100 m deep (Kehew and
now used as indicators of catastrophic floods were Lord, 1987). Common erosional landform types pro-
first described in this region (Baker, 1973). Although duced by outbursts are summarized in Table 1.
the landforms of the Scablands are accepted to be General models for the sequence of development of
formed by very high magnitude flows, several aspects flood-eroded landscapes have been developed based
relating to the origin of the Channeled Scabland are on studies of the Channeled Scabland, outburst spill-
actively studied and questioned, such as the number ways in the Great Plains, and experimental flume
 GLACIAL LANDFORMS/Glacifluvial Landforms of Erosion 821

Table 1 Erosional landforms produced by glacial lake outbursts

Landforms Characteristics

Trench-shaped channels Commonly parallel to ice margins

(Fig. 5) and connect or bisect glacial lake
beds
Anastomosing channel Network of channels may be from 1
pattern to 100’s of kilometers wide
Streamlined erosional Erosional residuals, given long
residuals (islands) enough flow, will assume a
(Fig. 6) lemniscate form that minimizes
fluid drag
Dry valleys (channels) Variable sizes, commonly on upland
areas above deeper inner
channels
Perched (hanging) Variable sizes
Figure 5 Oblique aerial photograph of inner channel and
channels
shallow, anastomosing channels on scoured uplands, Souris
Longitudinal grooves Flow parallel grooves interpreted to
Spillway, southeastern Saskatchewan. Flow was to the east (top
(Fig. 5) be formed by secondary circulation
to bottom). Photograph by Mark Lord.
cells; up to 3 m high in Scablands
and up to 2 m high in Great Plains
studies (Baker et al., 1987; Kehew and Lord, 1987; Cataracts (Fig. 2) Dry falls in the Channeled Scabland
and Shepard and Schumm, 1974, respectively). Initial is 5.5 km wide and 120 m high,
probably formed by the
stages of flooding overwhelm the landscape and coalescence of potholes eroded by
cause broad scouring, shallow anastomosing chan- vertical vortices (Baker et al.,
nels, and, in some cases, transverse erosional ripples. 1987)
With increased duration, the flow becomes more Potholes and obstacle Occur at scales of meters to
organized as the bed deforms, which is reflected in scour depressions hundreds of meters
Transverse erosional Scarce landform present in well-
longitudinal grooves and streamlined hills. ripples preserved parts of Great Plains
Continued flow leads to selective deepening to form outburst flow paths (up to 1.2 m
inner channels, which progressively enlarge by cap- high with about 40 m wavelengths)
ture of more flow laterally and by upstream knick- Erosional scarps Commonly cut into terraces or valley
point migration. A spillway formed by a long sides
duration or repeated outburst floods can convey all Compiled from Baker VR (1973) Paleohydrology and
flow in one channel and may contain only a few very sedimentology of the Lake Missoula flooding in eastern
well streamlined hills (Fig. 6). Washington. Geological Society of America Special Paper 144.
Geological Society of America; Kehew AK and Lord ML (1987)
Glacial-lake outburst along the mid-continent margins of the
Hydrologic Characteristics of Pleistocene Laurentide Ice Sheet. In: Mayer L and Nash D (eds.) Catastrophic
Glacial Lake Outbursts flooding. Proceedings of 18th Annual Binghamton Symposia in
Geomorphology, pp. 95–120; Baker VR, Greeley R, Komar PD,
The cataclysmic failure of ice dams impounding large Swanson DA, and Waitt RB Jr. (1987) Coloumbia and Snake
glacial lakes released huge volumes of water, more River Plains. In: Graf WL (ed.) Geomorphic systems of North
than 2,000 km3 in the Channeled Scabland, in a mat- America, Centennial Special Volume 2, pp. 403–468. Boulder,
ter of days to weeks (O’Connor and Baker, 1992). CO: Geological Society of America.
Outburst flows were highly erosive and, at least in
much of the Great Plains spillway systems, became 500 m deep and velocities up to 45 m s 1; the unit
hyperconcentrated as they ripped through generally stream power generated by this flood is estimated to
weak, fine-grained materials that underlie the region have been 106 W m 2. Paleohydrologic studies of
(Lord and Kehew, 1987). The sedimentary record of lower magnitude outbursts typically estimate dis-
outburst floods is scarce in spillways, is present in charges to be between 104 and 106 m3s 1 (see Benn
some glacial lakes that received floodwaters, but is and Evans (1998) for summary). The specific char-
mostly present in the marine offshore. acteristics of the erosional landscapes carved by these
The largest documented outburst flood occurred in tremendous flows varied not just with discharge, but
south-central Siberia in the Altay Mountains, which with flow mechanics (e.g., flow regime, cavitation,
carved out gorges and produced megaripples in huge and secondary circulation), flow boundary materials,
gravel bars analogous to those in the Channeled sediment availability, flow duration, flood hydro-
Scabland (Baker et al. 1993). Peak discharge is esti- graph, and flow history (Baker, 1973; Kehew and
mated to have been 18  106 m3 s 1 with flows up to Lord, 1987; O’Connor and Baker, 1992; Cenderelli
822 GLACIAL LANDFORMS/Glacifluvial Landforms of Erosion

Morphology
Despite a general orientation subparallel to longitu-
dinal flow lines of the glacier, tunnel channel drai-
nage patterns are highly variable, including
predominantly single isolated straight channels,
braided networks, dendritic networks, radial, sub-
parallel channels (Fig. 7) and anastomosing and ana-
branching systems (Fig. 8; Sjogren et al., 2002;
Clayton et al., 1999; Brennand and Shaw, 1994;
Mooers, 1989; Wright, 1973).
Channel morphologies are equally diverse and
include straight-walled channels of uniform width
(Figs. 9 and 10), crenulated channels that expand
Figure 6 Oblique aerial photograph of streamlined hill in the
and contract, and subtle channels only recognizable
Souris-Hind spillway, southern Manitoba; flow was to north (upper
right to lower left). Photograph by Mark Lord. as linear chains of lakes or depressions (Fig. 10).
Many tunnel channels display steep walls similar to
outburst spillways, but other channels display irregu-
and Wohl, 2003). For example, unit stream power has lar widths and depths associated with pressurized
been used successfully to relate hydraulic conditions to subglacial meltwater flow and variable degrees of
different types of erosional processes and landforms. posterosional infill. Longitudinal profiles of flow
paths may be undulating and have convex-up or
reverse gradients that flow uphill, cross drainage
Tunnel Channels divides, and trend oblique to the regional slope
(Fig. 11) (Kozlowski et al., 2005; Clayton et al.,
Overview
1999; Wright, 1973). In other areas, tunnel channels
Tunnel channels, or tunnel valleys (also known as occur as isolated, hanging, channel sections adorning
tunneldale or rinnentaler), are large meltwater chan- uplands without integration to other channels or
nels eroded into sediment or rock at the base of an ice modern drainage.
sheet. Channel dimensions reach >30 m deep, 4 km Channel dimensions range from 0.15 to 6 km in
wide, and more than 100 km long. Tunnel channels width and 2 to 150 km in length, but the majority of
have a wide variety of morphologies and associated channels are 0.5–2.5 km wide and 5–40 km long.
landforms, and occur in drainage systems covering Channel depths of 10–50 m are common, with most
extensive areas. ranging between 20 and 30 m, although subsurface
The widespread distribution of tunnel channels in studies of deeply buried tunnel channels document
the area of the Laurentide and Scandinavian Ice depths in excess of 100 m (Piotrowski (1993) and
Sheets has important implications for ice-sheet references therein). Other subsurface investigations
dynamics and glacial meltwater regimes (Clayton have indicated that the subtle surface expression of
et al., 1999; Brennand and Shaw, 1994; Mooers, some channels is attributed to burial or partial burial
1989; Wright, 1973). Although literature on tunnel by thick sequences of younger sediment that obscures
channels is abundant, controversy exists around the the true depth of the channel bottoms (Clayton et al.,
mechanism of tunnel channel genesis and the impli- 1999), as illustrated in Figure 12. Despite a general
cations of meltwater volumes associated with chan- lack of adequate subsurface information and a scar-
nel size. As yet no unified theory on their formation city of exposures, available studies suggest that a
can adequately explain the observed diverse wide range of sedimentary sequences fills or partially
morphologies, landform associations, and substrate fills tunnel channels (Benn and Evans, 1998;
lithologies (O’Cofaigh, 1996). Brennand and Shaw, 1994; Piotrowski, 1993).
The terms ‘tunnel valley’ and ‘tunnel channel’ have
often been used interchangeably to denote subgla- Landform Associations
cially eroded drainage courses. However, these Tunnel channels are often closely associated with
terms may also have genetic implications (Clayton drumlins, eskers, moraines, glacifluvial meltwater
et al., 1999; Mooers, 1989). In this discussion the fans, and hummocky topography. For example,
term ‘tunnel channel’ is used to describe landforms Clayton et al. (1999) and Cutler et al. (2002) proposed
interpreted as large subglacial channels without a that tunnel channels develop beneath a frozen submar-
specific genetic origin. ginal zone by the sudden release of meltwater
 GLACIAL LANDFORMS/Glacifluvial Landforms of Erosion 823

Sn
ak
e

M I N

River
N E S
St . C
Lake Finlayson

r oi
O T A
M Mille Lacs

x
or
ain
e

Location Map Sandstone

Kn
ife
Ke
ttl
e
Hinckley

Riv
er

Rive
r
Snake Pine City
r
ve
Ri

Ru
m

St. Croix
Ri
ve
r

Princeton Cambridge River

Sunrise
St. Cloud

M
iss
iss
ip
M

pi
iss
iss
ip
pi

Tunnel valley
Ri
ve Esker
r
Drumlin
Ri
ve
r SCAL E
terrace 0 5 10 Miles
Elk River
0 5 10 Kilometers

Figure 7 Subparallel tunnel channels and associated landforms of the Superior Lobe, Minnesota, USA. From Wright HE Jr. (1973)
Tunnel Valleys, glacial surges, and subglacial hydrology of the Superior Lobe , Minnesota. In: Black R, Goldthwait R, and Willman H
(eds.) The Wisconsinan Stage, Geological Society of America Memoir 136, pp. 251–276.

42° 15′

0 100 Km

10 km
Break in slope
Lineaments
Drumlins
Hills with >25′ relief
N
85° 15′

Upland
Lowland

42°

Figure 8 Anabranching system of tunnel channels and associated landforms of the Saginaw Lobe, south-central Michigan, USA.
Modified from Sjogren DB, Fisher TG, Taylor LD, Jol HM, and Munro-Stasiuk MJ (2002) Incipient tunnel channels. Quaternary
International 90: 41–56.
824 GLACIAL LANDFORMS/Glacifluvial Landforms of Erosion

12
00
L

1150
Location 120
0 E
25
0 100 km S 119
3
T 11
11
55 BM
50
A R 1100

35 T I 10
80
10
73 10
1050 76
E 1100
V
S
E 30 Bois

B Sto R
10 Sp lue ne Brule
River 16 rin
gs La s Br
10
nd idg
25 ing e
F
1050 36 O 110
0
R 1180
10
94
E 29

11
50
S
Jerset

L
X1
77 To
wn T NO
2 4
ha RT 12
G
ll H 13

H
0 .5 1 mi
G 31
0 .5 1 km 12

G
N 07 CO
UN
120
0
TR
Y

12
11

I
00
76
0
120 NA
12 TIO
07 NA

H
L
Cree

Figure 9 Straight-walled tunnel channel of uniform width in northwestern Wisconsin with post-formational gullies (G). Channel is
located in the Lake Minnesuing 7.5 min. quadrangle, contour interval 10 ft (approx. 3 m). Modified from Clayton L, Attig JW, and
Mickelson DM (1999) Tunnel channels formed in Wisconsin during the last glaciation. In: Mickelson DM and Attig JW (eds.) Glacial
Processes Past and Present. Geological Society of America Special Paper 337, 69–82. Geological Society of America.

Flow
Flow
Flow

500 m 500 m 500 m

(A) Contour interval - 3 m (B) Contour interval - 3 m (C) Contour interval - 5 m

Idealized cross section Idealized cross sections Idealized cross section

? esker
? ? ?

Diamicton Bedrock (sandstone) Profile in depression Boulder lags

Figure 10 Topographic examples from digital elevation models of three common channel forms and idealized channel cross sections
associated with tunnel channels; (A) Linear chains of lakes or depressions; (B) crenulated channels that expand or contract; and
(C) straight-walled channels. From Sjogren DB, Fisher TG, Taylor LD, Jol HM, and Munro-Stasiuk MJ (2002) Incipient tunnel channels.
Quaternary International 90: 41–56.
 GLACIAL LANDFORMS/Glacifluvial Landforms of Erosion 825

Figure 11 Digital elevation model of south-central Michigan displaying a series of anastomosing Saginaw Lobe tunnel channels (red
lines) with segments that flowed uphill and crossed drainage divides (dashed white lines on DEM and inset profiles) to feed a subaerial
outburst flood in the Central Kalamazoo River Valley. Modified from Kozlowski AL, Kehew AE, and Bird BC (2005) Outburst flood origin of
the Central Kalamazoo River Valley, Michigan, USA. Quaternary Science Reviews 24: 2354–2374.

impounded upglacier in the thawed-bed zone where  are most distinct within several kilometers of the
drumlins occur (Fig. 13). These channels cut through ice margin;
the terminal moraine, where they end at the apex of  have undulatory longitudinal profiles with uphill
large, coarse-grained glacifluvial fans (Figs. 13 and reaches; and
14). Where active ice margins were in close proximity  often breach moraines and terminate at large,
but not necessarily in synchronicity, some tunnel chan- coarse-grained glacifluvial fans.
nels display crosscutting relationships with younger
landforms and have been interpreted as palimpsest
tunnel channels (Kehew et al., 1999). These crosscut- Origin
ting relationships may be used to establish or constrain
Most of the controversy surrounding tunnel channels
relative timing of glacial events in complex glaciated
centers on the models proposed to explain their
regions where the chronology of events is poorly con-
formation (O’Cofaigh, 1996) and relationships to
strained (Kozlowski et al., 2005; Kehew et al., 1999).
various landform associations (Benn and Evans,
Although widely varying in morphology, drainage
1998). There is a fundamental difference in interpre-
pattern, and associated landforms, there is a general
tation between those who use the term ‘tunnel chan-
consensus that tunnel channels:
nel’ to represent bankfull meltwater flow during one
 are usually straight and lack tributaries except for or more discharge events (Clayton et al., 1999) and
postglacial gullies; those who use the term ‘tunnel valley,’ which implies
826 GLACIAL LANDFORMS/Glacifluvial Landforms of Erosion

Moraine Hummocky terrain

Tunnel channel
Fan
Ice
Dru
mli
ns
Tunnel
river Paleozoic rock

Tunnel Figure 13 Idealized block model of tunnel channels and spatial

channel relationships of associated landforms observed in Wisconsin,
USA. Note uphill flow path and termination of channel at an out-
(A) wash fan through a breach in a moraine. Modified from Clayton L,
Attig JW, and Mickelson DM (1999) Tunnel channels formed in
Wisconsin during the last glaciation. In: Mickelson DM and Attig
JW (eds.) Glacial Processes Past and Present. Geological
Society of America Special Paper 337, 69–82. Geological
Society of America.
Outwash

Ice
Tunnel
channel

(B)

Partly buried tunnel channel

Outwash

Tunnel
channel

(C)
Figure 12 Schematic cross-sectional diagram of: (A) tunnel
channel formation; (B) preservation; and (C) modification during
and after burial by younger deposits. From Clayton L, Attig JW,
and Mickelson DM (1999) Tunnel channels formed in Wisconsin
during the last glaciation. In: Mickelson DM and Attig JW (eds.)
Glacial Processes Past and Present Geological Society of
America Special Paper 337, 69–82. Geological Society of
America.

Figure 14 Digital elevation model of a Saginaw Lobe tunnel

gradual erosion by flows much smaller than the channel fan in south-central Michigan, USA. Note channel
dimensions of the valley (Mooers, 1989; Boulton ascends in elevation to the apex of the fan, which is the highest
and Hindmarsh, 1987). feature on the landscape and delineates a former ice margin.
Also, the collapsed appearance of the channel extending through
Although multiple models of formation have been
the medial and distal portions of the fan suggests the channel
proposed, most fall into four categories: (1) cata- extended beyond this margin and had been occupied prior to
strophic meltwater floods; (2) time-transgressive ero- burial.
sion; (3) subglacial sediment deformation and piping;
and (4) polygenetic origin (Fig. 15). Catastrophic
meltwater release (Fig. 15A) is the most commonly for large-scale transient events. Several researchers
suggested mechanism for tunnel channel formation have suggested that formation of tunnel channels is
and, although differences in opinion exist over the largely controlled by glacier-bed conditions and the
exact nature of the flow regime, most authors argue presence of a permafrost seal at the glacier margin
 GLACIAL LANDFORMS/Glacifluvial Landforms of Erosion 827

that has been suggested for the development of tunnel

Tunnel valleys (Boulton and Hindmarsh, 1987). In this model,
Ice Air
channel
Water
steady-state meltwater flow over deforming subglacial
sediment is unable to infiltrate into subjacent aquifers
because of the low transmissivity of the deforming
(A) beds. As a result of high fluid pressure, piping is
initiated in the substrate to sustain meltwater dis-
Tunnel charge and maintain glacier equilibrium. Sediment
Ice Air
Water valley
that enters the meltwater conduit by creep or piping
is entrained and transported downglacier initiating the
formation of a depression or channel (Fig. 15C). In
(B) time, this process leads to the gradual formation of a
valley much larger than the hydraulic conduit.
Ice Air
Tunnel The diversity in tunnel channel morphology, drai-
Water valley
nage patterns, and substrate suggests a polygenetic
origin for some channels, which may involve pregla-
cial, subglacial, and subaerial erosion (Sjogren et al.,
(C) 2002; Clayton et al., 1999; Benn and Evans, 1998;
O’Cofaigh, 1996; Brennand and Shaw, 1994). Once
Collapsed formed, tunnel channels may be reoccupied during
Ice Air pipe
Water multiple glacial advances or glaciations (Benn and
Evans, 1998). Finally, one or more of the basic
mechanisms acting in tandem may explain some tun-
(D) nel channels. Hooke and Jennings (in press), for
Figure 15 Schematic diagram illustrating proposed models of example, propose the combination of piping and cat-
tunnel channel formation. (A) Catastrophic meltwater floods; (B) astrophic flow for the formation of tunnel channels
time-transgressive erosion; (C) subglacial deformation; and (D) in Minnesota and Wisconsin.
hydraulic sapping or piping and collapse. From Clayton L, Attig
JW, and Mickelson DM (1999) Tunnel channels formed in
Wisconsin during the last glaciation. In: Mickelson DM and Attig
JW (eds.) Glacial Processes Past and Present. Geological Society Ice Marginal (Lateral) Meltwater Channels
of America Special Paper 337, 69–82. Geological Society of
Overview
America.
Channels eroded along or adjacent to former ice
margins are referred to as lateral meltwater channels.
(Hooke and Jennings, in press; Clayton et al., 1999; These channels often occur in parallel, inset
Wright, 1973). The source of meltwater remains a sequences, delimiting the gradual retreat of a former
contentious issue and significant subglacial reservoirs glacier. Although not completely restricted to cold-
of meltwater are required for rapid erosion of chan- based glaciers, lateral meltwater channels are best
nels in the scale of those observed. developed where glaciers are frozen to their beds.
Alternatively, Mooers (1989) suggested that the for-
mation of large erosional troughs in Minnesota Occurrence and Origin
resulted from time-transgressive discharge of seasonal Cold-based glaciers are most common in polar
supraglacial meltwater that accessed the subglacial regions such as the Canadian Artic Islands. Dyke
system via crevasses and moulins. Valley formation, (1993) mapped the landforms on several islands
as opposed to channel formation, resulted incremen- that supported ice caps during the last glaciation.
tally from vertical and lateral planation of subglacial The ice caps are now thought to be part of the innui-
meltwater streams (Fig. 15B). This model, which tian Ice Sheet (Dyke et al., 2002), which was conflu-
accounts for the association of eskers and meltwater ent with the Greenland and Laurentide Ice Sheets.
fans sometimes observed with tunnel channels, does The thermal regime of these glaciers at the time of
not require catastrophic flows, and does not require their maxium extents consisted of cold-based inter-
permafrost to act as a hydraulic seal. In this model, iors and warm-based marginal areas. During degla-
small subglacial flows gradually eroded the observed ciation, they became entirely cold-based. Because
valleys as the ice margin retreated. cold-based glaciers have minimal subglacial melt-
Subglacial deformation in conjunction with piping, water, melting and meltwater production is confined
or groundwater sapping, is another formational model to the ice surface. During the ablation season,
828 GLACIAL LANDFORMS/Glacifluvial Landforms of Erosion

interpreted as the result of direct action of glaciers

upon their beds. A historical summary of the melt-
water hypothesis (Shaw, 2002) reviews the major
points of the hypothesis and includes a comprehen-
sive citation of the literature.

Bedrock Erosional Forms

Glacier beds composed of hard bedrock exhibit a wide
variety of erosional marks and forms. Some, such as
striations, were clearly formed by glacial abrasion.
Other exposures, in which the bedrock surface is
shaped into an assemblage of smoothed, streamlined
forms, are more difficult to interpret. The name ‘P-
Figure 16 A series of sub-parallel, nested lateral meltwater
channels, Melville Peninsula, Nunavut, Arctic Canada. Channels
forms’ (plastically molded) has been applied to these
developed adjacent to a cold-based ice margin. (Photograph by features, with the interpretation that they were pro-
Lynda Dredge; Reproduced with the permission of the Minister of duced primarily by the action of plastically deforming
Public Works and Government Services Canada, 2006 and ice. Kor et al. (1991) concluded instead that these
Courtesy of Natural Resources Canada, Geological Survey of forms were the product of a turbulent, viscous fluid
Canada.)
– sediment-rich subglacial meltwater – and suggested
the generic term ‘S-forms’ (sculpted). In their study
meltwater from the ice and adjacent areas, if the area on the northeastern side of Georgian Bay, Lake
topography slopes toward the glacier, drains toward Huron, the forms range in size from centimeters to
the ice margin and then along the margin in the tens of meters. Their classification of the forms is
direction of land slope. Channels are eroded by this shown in Figure 17. Formation by meltwater, rather
meltwater flow. As the ice margin retreats, new chan- than plastically deforming ice, or till, is based on form
nels replace those from the last period of meltwater analogy to marks produced by experimental erosion
flow, perhaps even forming on an annual basis of cohesive or hard substrates by turbulent fluid flows.
(Dyke, 1993). In this way, a series of meltwater The process envisioned for the formation of S-forms
channels develops as the ice retreats (Figure 16). by meltwater involves the action of vortices and other
As a result of the very minor amount of subglacial flow structures impinging on an irregular bed (Kor
erosion and deposition performed by cold-based gla- et al., 1991). One of these flow structures, the horse-
ciers, lateral meltwater channels represent the most shoe vortex (Shaw, 1994), is illustrated in Figure 18,
significant landforms produced by these ice masses. and an exposure of sculpted bedrock on Kelley’s
The closely spaced, parallel orientation of the chan- Island, Lake Erie is shown in Figure 19. The
nels suggests frequent abandonment in favor of new Georgian Bay flood was estimated by Kor et al.
ice marginal channels during orderly ice margin (1991) to have been 70 km wide and 10 m deep, with
retreat, and the channels are therefore useful in map- a velocity of 5–10 m s 1, producing a discharge of
ping and defining the pattern of glacial retreat. (0.4–0.7)  107 m3 s 1.
Although most common in cold-based glaciers, Pair (1997), in a study of bedrock erosional forms
lateral meltwater channels may also form adjacent in northern New York, reached the conclusion that,
to temperate glaciers. Dyke (1993) attributes these although many of the forms were indicative of melt-
occurrences to deflection of surface water to the mar- water erosion, they were limited to bedrock valleys in
gin by high subglacial meltwater fluid pressures or to which channelized subglacial drainage would have
intermittently or permanently frozen basal conditions been concentrated. Pair also points out that plastic
during ice retreat. deformation of basal ice over an irregular bedrock
surface would prevent the kind of broad decoupling
Subglacial Sheetfloods – The Meltwater of the ice from its bed required by the meltwater
hypothesis.
Hypothesis
Overview Drumlins, Rogens, Hummocky Terrain,
and Megaflutes
Erosion of glacial substrates by subglacial sheet-
floods, also known as the meltwater hypothesis, pro- Although the immense discharges required by the
vides an alternative explanation for the formation of meltwater hypothesis attract continued criticism,
many glacial landforms that are traditionally there is general agreement that at least some of the
 GLACIAL LANDFORMS/Glacifluvial Landforms of Erosion 829

Transverse Forms Nondirectional Forms

rs
ssf
r
If

(H) Undulating surface

(D) Transverse Stoss-side

trough furrow
(A) Muschelbruch
Longitudinal Forms
r mf
mr
(I) Pothole
If spindle
Open

(E) Spindle flutes

(B) Sichelwanne

spindle
Closed

(C) Comma form (G) Furrow

(F) Cavetto

Figure 17 Classification of S-forms, interpreted to be eroded on rock surfaces by subglacial meltwater. From Kor PSG, Shaw J, and
Sharpe DR (1991) Erosion of bedrock by subglacial meltwater, Georgian Bay, Ontario: A regional view. Canadian Journal of Earth
Sciences 28: 623–642.

Remnant
ridge

Vortex instability
Free flow
Obstacle
Shoulder

Free flow

Boundary
layer Rim

Horseshoe
Vortex vortex
line
Vortex amalgamation
Groove Maximum
scour
Figure 18 Erosion of bedrock by a horseshoe vortex in subglacial meltwater. From Shaw J (1994) Hairpin erosional marks, horseshoe
vortices and subglacial erosion. Sedimentary Geology 91: 269–283.

S-forms observed on bedrock surfaces were eroded in mostly unconsolidated materials and traditionally
by turbulent subglacial meltwater. The meltwater attributed to direct glacial action as the result of
hypothesis encounters an even greater degree of con- subglacial megafloods. This extension of the hypoth-
troversy, however, in the explanation of drumlins, esis was initially applied to the Livingstone Lake
rogens, and hummocky terrain, landforms occurring drumlin field in northern Saskatchewan. Form
830 GLACIAL LANDFORMS/Glacifluvial Landforms of Erosion

controversial. Other problematical aspects of the

meltwater hypothesis include the lack of erosional
landforms beyond the ice margins from which mega-
floods emerged, and the lack of evidence for the huge
meltwater reservoirs necessary for the generation of
megafloods. Clarke et al. (2005) contend that both
the production of sufficient meltwater and its storage
on top of or beneath ice sheets are unlikely without
special circumstances.

See also: Fluvial Environments: Sediments. Glacial

Figure 19 Exposure of a sculpted bedrock surface on Kelley’s Landforms: Introduction; Glacial Land Systems. Glacial
Island, Lake Erie. Photograph by Alan Kehew. Landforms, Sediments: Glacifluvial Landforms of
Deposition; Glacigenic Lithofacies.
analogy of the drumlins to the inverted sole of a
turbidite bed led to the inference that the drumlins
References
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the waning phases of the flood (Shaw and Kvill, Missoula flooding in eastern Washington. Geological Society of
America Special Paper 144. Geological Society of America.
1984). Shaw et al. (1989) estimated the total volume
Baker, V. R., Benito, G., and Rudoy, A. N. (1993). Paleohydrology
of water released as 84  103 km3. of Late Pleistocene superflooding, Altay Mountains, Siberia.
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nal structure at land surface led to the broadening of Baker, V. R., Greeley, R., Komar, P. D., Swanson, D. A., and
the meltwater hypothesis to include drumlins formed Waitt, R. B., Jr. (1987). Columbia and Snake River Plains. In
Geomorphic Systems of North America (W. L. Graf, Ed.),
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rather than scour of the base of the ice (Shaw and Society of America, Boulder, CO.
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623–642. The deformation of bedrock and Quaternary sedi-
Kozlowski, A. L., Kehew, A. E., and Bird, B. C. (2005). Outburst ment into large moraines has been widely reported
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Mooers, H. D. (1989). On formation of the tunnel valleys of the tonic sediment–landform association are recognized:
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block moraines; (3) cupola hills; and (4) megablocks
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O’Cofaigh, C. (1996). Tunnel valley genesis. Progress in Physical glacitectonic moraine ridges are those in which gla-
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O’Connor, J. E., and Baker, V. R. (1992). Magnitudes and impli- constitute >25% of the unit area of the moraine.
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Other types of moraine, such as push moraines,
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Geological Survey Circular 1254, 13p. landforms may be composed of pre-Quaternary bed-
Pair, D. L. (1997). Thin film, channelized drainage, or sheetfloods rock, pre-existing Quaternary sediments, or contem-
beneath a portion of the Laurentide Ice Sheet: An examination
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Piotrowski, J. A. (1993). Tunnel-valley formation in northwest may be covered by a carapace of glacitectonite or
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deformation or a combination of the two. Ductile
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