North American Glaciation Overview

This passage provides a brief account of the glaciation in North America, focusing on the stages of
glaciation that occurred in the Central Lowlands and mountain regions. It describes the differences
between lowland and upland glacial formations, noting that the sedimentary deposits of the lowlands
tend to be finer and better preserved, while the uplands exhibit more quartz-rich debris and dissected
remains.
The text highlights the challenges of correlating glaciation events across different regions due to
varied topographies and glaciation styles. It discusses key glacial periods such as the Nebraskan,
Kansan, Illinoian, and Wisconsin stages, with a focus on the stratigraphic evidence, dating techniques,
and glacial deposits. The use of till sheets, soil stratigraphy, and landforms forms the basis of
classification in North America, unlike Europe, where pollen analysis plays a more significant role. Key
pioneers like Chamberlain and Leverett played major roles in formulating the classical glacial
schemes, while recent research has introduced more complexity, especially with radiometric dating
and the discovery of multiple glacial advances and retreats within the same stages. This evolving
understanding illustrates the intricate and multi-faceted history of North American glaciation.Each
stage, from the oldest Nebraskan glaciation to the more recent Wisconsin glaciation, presents unique
characteristics and challenges for geologists attempting to correlate events across different regions.
Below is an expanded breakdown of the key glaciations mentioned, along with important details for
each:

Nebraskan Stage

Origin and Stratigraphy: The Nebraskan Stage is one of the earliest recognized glaciations,
proposed based on a till found in Iowa, and later moved to eastern Nebraska where more
definitive till and outwash deposits were discovered.
Challenges in Definition: Despite its prominence in the classification of glacial stages, the
Nebraskan is poorly understood, largely due to the burial of most of its deposits, which
complicates efforts to clearly define it. Much of the early correlation was based on inadequate
information.
Multiple Advances: Evidence now indicates that the Nebraskan glaciation involved multiple
advances rather than a single event. Some dated volcanic ash (1.2 million years ago) and various
till deposits suggest the Nebraskan Stage spanned at least 500,000 years, with glacial activity
likely beginning around 2.0 million years ago.

Aftonian Stage

Characterized by Soil Development: The Aftonian Stage, an interglacial period following the
Nebraskan glaciation, is primarily recognized by the development of deep soil profiles (Aftonian
Soil) over Nebraskan till. These soils indicate prolonged exposure to weathering.
Semi-Arid Climate: Limited faunal evidence from the Aftonian suggests that parts of the region
experienced a semi-arid climate. These soils often contain well-developed B horizons, providing

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 clues to the climate conditions during this time.

Kansan Stage

Multiple Advances: The Kansan glaciation, which followed the Aftonian interglacial, is
recognized for its complexity, with multiple till sheets discovered, indicating several glacial
advances. In Illinois, it’s possible to subdivide the Kansan into distinct phases, correlating
deposits from different ice lobes.
Stratigraphic Significance: Kansan deposits cover much of the central United States, and the
end of the Kansan stage is marked by the formation of the Yarmouth Soil. Significant river
valleys, such as the Mississippi and Ohio, were already established by this time.
Tephra Dating: One of the most significant dating techniques for the Kansan stage comes from
volcanic ash (Pearlette Ash) embedded within sediments, allowing tephrochronology to refine
the dating of this period. This ash dates to around 600,000 years ago.

Yarmouthian Stage

Interglacial Interval: The Yarmouthian Stage is an interglacial period following the Kansan
glaciation. It is recognized by the development of the Yarmouth Soil, which shows signs of
prolonged weathering, indicating that this interglacial may have lasted several times longer than
subsequent ones.
Climatic Inferences: Pollen analysis and peat deposits in some regions, like Indiana, suggest
that the climate during the Yarmouthian period may have been warmer than the present,
though dating uncertainties complicate exact climatic reconstructions.
Disagreement on Existence: Some researchers, such as Deevey, questioned the existence of a
distinct Yarmouth Interglacial, suggesting that some deposits previously classified as
Yarmouthian might belong to other periods. Flint, however, defended the existence and
significance of the Yarmouth Soil as a major interglacial marker.

Illinoian Stage

Large Ice Coverage: The Illinoian glaciation followed the Yarmouthian interglacial, and ice
covered nearly 90% of Illinois. It is divided into three substages: Liman, Monican, and Jubileean,
based on stratigraphic and soil development patterns.
Substages: The Illinoian is complex, with the Liman Substage reflecting extensive loess
deposition, while the Monican and Jubileean Substages were marked by repeated ice advances
and retreats. The Jubileean advance, in particular, is notable for its moraine ridges, which
indicate constructional topography, though it is still classified within the Illinoian Stage based on
soil dating.
Peat and Pollen Evidence: In the Don Valley area of Toronto, Illinoian glacial deposits contain
organic remains and pollen sequences that suggest the climate may have been warmer than
today, though there is some debate about whether these deposits are correctly classified.

Sangamonian Stage

Warm Interglacial: The Sangamonian Stage represents the warm interglacial period that
followed the Illinoian glaciation. It is characterized by the development of the Sangamon Soil,
which can be found over large parts of the Midwest and central United States.
Widespread Soil Development: The Sangamon Soil varies greatly across regions due to
changing climates and topography. In more arid regions, it transitions into prairie and desert

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 soils, while in the Great Plains, it developed a deep B horizon, indicating extensive weathering.
The soil cuts across previously infilled valleys, providing a marker for the interglacial.
Organic Remains: Some regions, particularly in Indiana and Toronto, have well-preserved
organic deposits from the Sangamonian period, allowing researchers to infer warmer conditions
than today. The absence of independent radiometric dating for the Sangamon Soil, however,
leaves some uncertainties about the exact duration and conditions of the interglacial.

Wisconsin Stage

Most Recent Glaciation: The Wisconsin glaciation is the most recent and well-documented
stage of glaciation in North America, divided into Early, Middle, and Late Wisconsin sub-stages.
Its deposits are extensive and have been studied using radiocarbon dating, providing much
more precision than earlier stages.
Subdivisions:
Early Wisconsin: Characterized by moderate ice advances, particularly in the St. Lawrence
and Great Lakes regions, where ice dammed rivers to form lakes like Lake Scarborough.
Middle Wisconsin: This was a cooler period with less extensive glaciation, and is marked by
interstadial conditions, where the ice partially retreated but did not disappear entirely. The
Port Talbot and Plum Point Interstadials reflect periods of relative warmth and soil
development.
Late Wisconsin: The Late Wisconsin saw the most significant glacial advance, covering
much of the Great Lakes and surrounding regions. The formation of the Great Lakes is tied
to the retreat of the Wisconsin glaciers. This period also saw the development of major end-
moraine systems that are still prominent in the landscape today.
Major Advances and Retreats: The Wisconsin glaciation was highly dynamic, with multiple
phases of glacial advance and retreat. The Valderan Substage, for example, witnessed a
significant ice advance during which ice moved southward by about 320 km to Milwaukee.
Two-Creekan Event: One of the most significant deglaciation phases during the Late Wisconsin
period occurred during the Two-Creekan interval, around 11,850 BP, which was followed by a
brief readvance of the Valders ice.
Radiocarbon Dating: Radiocarbon dating has revolutionized the understanding of the
Wisconsin glaciation, allowing for more precise dating of ice advances and retreats, particularly
in the later parts of the stage.

Key Takeaways

Complexity of Glaciation: The glacial history of North America is highly complex, with multiple
advances and retreats, sometimes within the same glacial stage. This makes correlation across
regions difficult, especially due to differences in topography and glaciation style.
Importance of Soil and Till Analysis: Much of the classification of these stages is based on the
analysis of tills (glacial deposits), soils, and landforms. Unlike in Northern Europe, pollen analysis
has been less useful in North America, except in specific cases.
Radiometric Dating Advances: Radiocarbon dating and tephrochronology have played key
roles in refining the timeline of glaciation, particularly for the more recent Wisconsin stage.
However, older stages, such as the Nebraskan and Kansan, remain more difficult to date
precisely.

The stratigraphy and sedimentology of these glaciations provide crucial insights into the climatic
history of North America, illustrating the vast environmental changes that occurred during the
Pleistocene.

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