CnH2n+2 – Paraffin Muriatic acid HCl

CnH2n-2 – acetylene John Dalton (British) – Dalton’s Atomic Theory

CnH2n – Olefin Antoine van Laurent Lavoisier (French) – Law of Conservation

of Matter – Father of Modern Chemistry
ROH – organic alcohol
Sir William Crookes (English) – cathode ray tube
ROR – ether
Joseph John Thompson (English) – Plum Pudding Model of
RCHO – aldehyde the atom – electrons (1897)
RCOR – ketone Robert Andrews Millikan (American) – Oil drop experiment –
RCOOH – org. acid 1.602x10-19 coul

RNH2 – amine Wilhelm Konrad Roentgen (German) – xray

R C=0 NH2 – amide Henri Antoine Becquerel (French) – spontaneous radioactivity

Marsh gas – CH4 Marya Slodowska Curie (British) – first woman to win a Novel
Prize for Physics
Hemiacetal – alc. + ald
Ernest Rutherford (New Zealand) – α- particle scattering
Hemiketal – alc. + ket. experiment – proton (1919) – gold foil experiment
Nitration – nitric acid + org. cpd James Chadwick (British) – neutrons (1932) – paved way to
atomic bomb and uranium 235
Sulfuric acid / alumina + org cpd. = dehydration
Charles Goodyear – vulcanization
Haber-Bosch process – ammonia manufacturing using Fe
catalyst Frederick Soddy – theory of isotopes
Wood alc. – methanol (today: by hydrogenation of CO) Werner Heisenberg (German) – one of the pioneers of
quantum mechanics – matrices
CCl4 – Freon 10
Gilbert Lewis (American) – “octet rule”
Ethanol – sugar fermentation
Democritus – matter in the form of atoms
Dextrorotatory – to the right
Neal Amundson – Father of Modern Chemical Engineering
Levorotatory – to the left
George Davis – ‘Founding father’ of ChemEng
Cane sugar – C12H22O11
Arthur D Little ‘American father’ of ChemEng – Unit Ops
Formaldehyde CH2O
Carl Bosch – N2 from air to ammonia – fertilizers
Urea – carbamide – CO(NH2)2
Margaret Hutchinson Rousseau – mass production of
Ethanol – C2H6O penicillin – designed the first commercial penicillin plant –
Glucose – dextrose – most abundant monosaccharide – deep-tank fermentation
C6H16O6 Dermot Manning – polyethylene to full-scale production by a
Chloroform – CHCl3 trichloromethane high-pressure reactor –plastics production

Acetyl salicylic acid – aspirin C9H8O4 (ASA) John H. Perry – Perry’s Handbook. Improved catalysts for
sulfuric acid production
Stearic acid – octadecanoic acid C18H36O2
George Rosenkranz – norethindrone – or progesterone –
O-phtalic acid C8H8O4 contraceptive pills
Trinitrotoluene C7H5N3O6 Trevor Kletz – Father of inherent safety
Soda ash – Na2CO3 Robert Langer – was awarded the Queen Elizabeth Prize for
Engineering for his pioneering work in chemical engineering
Caustic soda – NaOH
and drug delivery; is the most cited engineer ever with
Gypsum CaSO4 2H2O 170,000 citations
Edward Teller – Father of Hydrogen Bomb Quantum Numbers

Lewis Urry – Inventor of long-lasting alkaline batteries, while 1. Principal Quantum Numbers , n (1,2,3,4…) – Niels Bohr
working with EverReady
2. Azimuthal / Angular Momentum , l ( 0 to (n-1)) – Arnold
Warren K. Lewis has been called the father of modern Sommerfeld, slope of orbital
chemical engineering
3. Magnetic Quantum Number , ml (-l to 0 to +l) – Arnold
Germain Hess – Father of Thermodynamics Sommerfeld

Chemistry – the art of transformation- “alkemie” ; “al-kimia” 4. Spin Quantum Number , ms (+1/2 , -1/2) – Wolfgang Pauli

Pauli’s Exclusion Principle – no 2e- in an atom can have an

identical set of q.no.
Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC) – arises because of quantum
mechanical effects on a collection of entities called “bosons” Hund’s Rule of Multiplicity (Friedrich Hund) – the most
stable arrangement of an e- in a subshell is that with paired
Cornell and Weiman – Rb
This implies that if two or more orbitals of equal energy are
Einstein : E photon = hv = h c/‫ג‬ available, electrons will occupy them singly before filling
them in pairs.

A: mass no. = protons + neutrons M I

Z: atomic no. = protons A E

AmXZa R E

Isotope – same Z

Isotone – same no. of n° Ionization energy – energy needed to remove an electron

from a gaseous atom
Isoelectronic – same no. of e-
Electron affinity – energy always associated with the
Isobar – same A ADDITION of e-

Aufbau Principle - e- fill atomic orbitals of the LOWEST avail. Electronegativity – ABILITY of an atom to “attract” e- toward
Energy levels before occupying higher levels itself

Diamagnetic – all e- are spin-paired > <

Paramagnetic – there’s unpaired e- -ic -ous

Group>period ~ non-metal -ate -ite

Group = period ~ metalloid Cl- hypochlorite

Zeff – effective nuclear charge ClO2- chlorite

Zeff = Z – 𝜎 ClO3- chlorate

Ex. 18Ar : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 ClO4- perchlorate

𝜎 = 2 + 2 + 6 = 10 HClO3 – chloric acid

Zeff = 18 – 10 = 8 HBrO2 – bromous acid
Ex. N(7) for 2p e- Colligative Properties of Solutons (Non-electrolyte solutions)
7N : 1s2 2s2 2p3 Boiling Pt. Elevation (BPE) : ΔTb = Tb,soln – Tb,solvent = Kbm
- Take out 1 e- Freezing Pt. Depression (FPD) : ΔTf = Tf,solvent – Tf,soln =
- Determine 𝜎 ∶ 𝜎 = 0.35 ( 4e −) + 0.85 (2e-) = 3.1 Kfm
Zeff = 7-3.1 = 3.9
0.35 Vapor Pressure Lowering : ΔP = Psolvent – Psolution
0.85 Raoult’s Law : PA = XAPA°
1.00
ΔP = Psolvent – Xsolvent Psolvent K>1 more products

= (1-Xsolvent)Psolvent = Xsolute Psolvent K<1 more reactants

Osmotic Pressure: ∏ = iMRT K=1 equal amts.

P<∏ : osmosis low solute high solute K>Q -

P=∏ : osmosis stops K<Q 

P>∏: reverse osmosis Le Chatelier’s Principle “Equilibrium Law”- when a system in

chemical equilibrium is disturbed by a change in V,T,or[C], the
system shift in equilibrium composition in a way that tends to
Van’t hoff factor counteract this change of variable.

Ί = 1 (non-electrolyte) P V ng

i>1 (electrolyte) Exo- release heat

Degree of ionization, α Formal charge – the charge of the individual atom in a

molecule or a polyatomic ion
α = Ί -1 / v -1
FC = no. of valence e- - no. of nonbinding e- -1/2 of the
v = no. of ions in the sol’n bonding e-

Ex. –C FC = 7-6-1/2 (2) = 0

Empirical Gas Laws

Boyle : P α 1/V Polar NH3 SO2 H2S C2H5OH

Charles : V α T Polar (unsymmetrical)
Amonton : P α T Net dipole
Avogadro : V α n Non-polar CHCl3 H2 N2 O2 CO2 CH4 C2H4 noble gases
toluene alkynes gasoline

Polar (symmetrical)
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
Non-polar bonds
PT = PA + PB
No net dipoles
PA = nART / V ; PB = NBRT / V
Like dissolves likes
PT = nT (PA/NA)

nA/nT = PA/PT
Intramolecular forces – keeps molecules together (i.e.
chemical bonding)
hybridization of I atom in IF5 is sp3d2 Intermolecular forces – attractive force bet. molecules
Georg Brandt – Cobalt, 1739 keeping matter in solid/liquid phase

Henry Cavendish – Hydrogen, 1766 Ionic bonding NaCl, NH4NO3, LiCl

PCl5 trigonal bipyramidal Ion-dipole KBr in H2O

Cohesion – intermolecular attraction bet. like molecules Hydrogen bonding H2O NH3 HF C3H8O (H-N,H-O,H-F)

CCl4 doesn’t dissolve in water Dipole-dipole H2S Ch3Cl HI

ICl4 has a square planar geometry London forces Ar (l) Iw (s) BF3 Kr

118 elements; 94 occur naturally Increase: melting pt, BP, Hvap, Hf,surface tension, specific
heat, viscosity
Chemical Equilibrium (Gases)
Decrease: vapor pressure
Kp = Kc (RT) Δng
 Transuranium elements (Z>92) – very radioactive

Radioactivity – spontaneous emission of radiation Binding energy – amt of energy released during a nuclear
transformation
α (2+) β(1-) –Both affected by an electric field
ΔEbind = Δmc2
‫ – ג‬has no particles and no charge
Δm = mass defect = mproducts-mreactants

C=speed of light
Amu = 1.66054x10-24 g
Eunbound > Ebound
Angstrom Å - unit of length to measure atomic dimensions
Cd – used in central rods ; good n° absorber
1 Å = 10-10 m
In solution, glucose exists as an equilibrium mixture of the
1-5 Å : diameters of atoms open-chain form and cyclic hemiacetal forms
10-4 Å : nucleus An aqueous solution of glucose behaves as an aldehyde
Nuclide – atom of a specific isotope because its cyclic hemiacetal, the predominant form, is in
equilibrium with the free aldehyde form.
Ion – charged particle formed by the removal or addition of
an electron

Cation (+) :: Anion (-) Alkyne is an e- -rich molecule and therefore reacts as a
nucleophile
Metal atoms tend to lose electrons
23 – Del Factor to reduce the number of cells in a fermenter
Non-metal atoms tend to gain electrons from 1010 viable organisms to one

Polyatomic ions – joined atoms that have a net positive or net ί= moles of particles in solution/moles of solute dissolved
negative charge

Reduction of carbonyl group – most general method for

Predicting ionic charges preparing alcohol

Alkali 1+ N-terminal amino acid residue is given first in the systematic

nomenclature of peptides
Alkaline 2+
Acids + metals = gas
Halogens 1-
Cisplatin PtCl2(NH3)2 – anti-cancer drug
Group 6A 2-
Phenol – most acidic among ethanol, methanol and butanol
Organic cpd. Contains Carbon; Inorganic cpd : everything else
I2, C8H18, and CCl4 are non-polar
Otto Hann – father of the atomic age; father of nuclear
chemistry Allosteric – if an enzyme is inhibited non-competitively by
the product
Nucleons – mixture of protons and neutrons = mass number
Acid – product of the hydrolization of an ester
Radioactive decay – the process in w/c nucleus
spontaneously disintegrates giving off radiation (CH2OH)2 ethylene glycol

Nuclear fission – heavy nucleus splits into lighter nuclei and Antimony – stibnite, Vannoccio Birguccio
energy is released
Glycine – smallest of all amino acids
Nuclear fusion – two or more atomic nuclei collide at very
high speed and join to form a new type of atomic nucleus Asn – Aspargine

Magic number (p+ or n°) : 2,8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126 Formic acid – weakest acid in the group (perchloric acid, hcl,
nitric acid)
Nuclear force – bet. nucleons- very short distances only
(femtometers) Arrhenius – proposed theory of electrolytic dissociation

Neutron serves as nuclear binders of protons. 20 α-amino acids make up diff protein in humas
Turnbull’s blue- ferrous ferricyanide Proust’s Law –different samples of the same compound
always contain its constituent elements in the same
Clostridium botulinum – a potential contaminant – most proportion by mass
resistant to heat sterilization
Democritus “atomos” word
Eugene Goldstein – discovered e-
Tetrahydrocannabinol – chemical responsible for most of
n1 n2 series marijuana’s psychological effects
1 2->infinity Lymann Chiral – molecule that doesn’t contain a plane of symmetry
2 3->infinity Balmer Amines are organic derivatives of ammonia
3 4->infinity Paschen Transferase- catalyze transfer of groups
4 2->infinity Brackett Ligases – catalyze bond formation

Hydrolases – catalyze hydrolysis

1/‫ = ג‬R (1/n12 -1/n22) Fructose is the sweetest among lactose and glucose.
R const. 16 Quantum – smallest quantity of energy that can be emitted
or absorbed in the form of electromagnetic radiation
Gamma ray – most penetrating ray
Heisenberg principle – it is impossible to know
Friedrich wohler – urea from ammonium cyanide simultaneously both the momentum and the position of a
particle
Human: Carbon::Universe: Hydrogen
Angular momentum number – describes the orientation of
Aceto:vinegar the orbital in space
Lactic: pickles Acetone – has the lowest viscosity at 20C among : blood,
Aspergillus: soy sauce water, mercury

Strepto: antibiotic

Progesterone – most important progestin Kazimierz Funk – “vitamin”

Na2C2O4 – sodium oxalate Dorothy Hodgkin - Vit. B12 – most chemically complex within

Vmax Km Melamine C3H6N6

C _ Vegetable oils can be converted to fuel by hydrogenation in

the presence of 2 catalyst.
N _
In the most stable conformation of trans-1,4-
U dimethylcyclohexane, equitorial, equitorial are the positions
methyl group occupy.
Glutathione C10
Unstructured and Distributed – assumption and model in cell
Alcohol will cause an IR absorption of 3500/cm kinetics
LiAlH4 is the most powerful reducing agent that is used in the Transition state – possesses a definite geometry ; max on the
reduction of carboxylic acids and esters PE diagram
In Fisher esterification, the common products are the ester H2 SO2 CH4 N2 : H2 deviates LEAST from ideal behavior
and water
½ - value of unpaired e- for magnetic spin quantum number
Potassium carbonate - K2CO3 has 2 eq.
Low pressure and high temperature – ideal gas
Primary standards for NaOH soln: KHP, Benzoic acid, sulfuric
acid Polar: NH3 and H2O
Chromite-FeCr2O4-oxide mineral belonging to the spinel Non-polar: CO2 CH4 Br2
group
A – arbeit : “work”

Fugacity – escaping tendency of fluids

Allotropes of the same element always have the same X-rays, ultraviolet rays, visible light, infrared radiation:
atomic mass.
Ultra violet rays has the most energy per photon
H-H bond angle = 104.5°
The formal charge on S in SO2 = -1
3 or 4 billion years ago, the earth’s atmosphere is believed to
compose of methane, H2O, NH3 Zwitterions – two charge ions

Stratosphere – where the highest concentration of OZONE is O2 has no unpaired e- and therefore is diamagnetic
observed. CH4, SF6, Cl2, SO2 : SO2 is one of the principal gases that is
Settling chamber-closed compartments that use responsible for acid rain
gravitational force to extract dust and mist for large particles 1/1837 that of the proton is the mass contribution of an e- in
Thermal inversion – a cold layer of air becomes trapped by a an atom
layer of warmer air above due to a lack of wind circulation NiCl – hygroscopic
Kyoto Protocol – global treaty that aims to regulate emissions mRNA – carries genetic information from DNA to the
of greenhouse gases ribosomes; carries the code that directs the synthesis of
Table salt soln, sugar solution, BaCl, KCl : BaCl will give the proteins
highest boiling at 1 atm ampotheric – can act as acid or base
R-12 freons or chlorofluorocarbons Lecithins – phosphatidyl cholines; synthesized in the liver
Ozone – for disinfection; very unstable gas;very powerful Elastin – capable of stretching without tearing in ligaments;
oxidant yellow, fluorescent protein
Abestos – material used to insulate steam pipe that will cause Glycolysis/ Embden Meyerhof Pathway- major pathway for
lung disorder when overexposed glucose metabolism
Fluidity – is the reciprocal of viscosity Albinism – due to defective TYROSINASE

A globular domain is an example of tertiary structure.

Phase overlap of s atomic orbitals produces σ molecular An oil drop with a polar coat is a metaphor referring to the 3
orbital dimensional structure of globular proteins
Mohr and Fajans both used for the det. of aldehydes Surface side chains is the portion of proteins having the
2-butyne (ozonolysis)  acetic acid highest mobility.

Cr (Z=24) and Cu (Z=29) – 2 elements with electron Charged amino acids are seldom buried in the interior of a
configurations that are well-known exceptions to the Aufbau protein.
principle Disulfide bonds most often stabilize the native structure of
Compared to a soluble but non-dissociating solute, an equal extracellular proteins.
no. of moles of a soluble salt in soln will always result in a Buried hydrophobic side chains in a globular protein fit into a
GREATER OSMOTIC PRESSURE “hole” formed by the sidechains of 5-7 other amino acids.
0.18 mKCl , 0.15m Na3PO4; .12m Ca(NO2)2 0.20m ethylene The fact that the core of most globular proteins is composed
glycol : 0.20methylene glycol has the lowest freezing pt. of non-polar residues is because of the hydrophobic effect.
Beattie Bridgemann – EOS that is applicable over wide The fact that the core of most globular proteins is tightly
ranges of temp and pressure with excellent accuracy. packed is due to Van der Waals force.
Melting of wax: increase in entropy Myoglobin was the first protein whose complete tertiary
Freezing : decrease in entropy structure was determined.

KI solution : colorless  YELLOW upon oxidation Peptide bond in proteins is planar and usually found in trans
conformation.
The eclipsed and staggered forms of ethane are said to
differ in conformation The peptide bond in proteins is usually trans unless proline is
the next amino acid.
Orbital Quantum No. : orientation
Secondary structure in proteins refers to regular folding of Brain cells depend solely on glucose as energy source.
regions of polypeptide chain.
Liver - main site for gluconeogenesis
Heme is the binding pocket of myoglobin and hemoglobin
and is composed of hydrophobic residues. During vigorous exercise, pyruvate produced by glycolysis is
converted to lactate.
Peptide bond – is a partial double bond
Gluconeogenesis – synthesis of glucose from non-
Myoglobin stores O2 in muscles. carbohydrate precursors

Hemoglobin transports O2 in the blood. Sunlight – the ultimate source of energy that sustains living
systems
The oxygen in hemoglobin and myglobin is bound to the iron
atom in the heme group. Insulin – inhibits gluconeogenesis and stimulates glycolysis

DNA is a highly charged polyanion. Mucus- prevent self-digestion

Nucleoside is a pyrimidine or purine base covalently bonded DNA can be found in nucleus and mitochondroan in a
to a sugar. eukaryotic cell

Cytosine – C4 pyrimidine base Plasma membrane is expected in a bacterium

Adenine: 6-aminopurine Endoplasmic reticulum is directly connected to the outer

membrane of the nucleus in a eukaryotic cell.
Guanine: 2-amino-6oxypurine
Microtubules, motor proteins, and actin filaments are all part
Cytosine: 2-oxy-4aminopyrimidine of the cytoskeleton of eukaryotic cells.
Thymine: 2,4-dioxy-5methylpyrimidine Nuclear envelope – cell organelle w/c is made of a double
Uracil: 2,4-dioxypyrimidine phospholipid bilayer that has many large pores in it.

The glycosidic bonds in DNA and RNA connects sugar to the Vesicles – expected to be associated w/motor proteins.
base Eukaryotic cells are more efficient than prokaryotic because
Nucleic acids can be analyzed experimentally by their their internal compartmentalization allows for specialization
absorption of UV light. through the subdivision of particular tasks.

Nucleotide – sugar, base, phosphate Body wall – an organism’s first line of defense

Nucleoside: sugar+base Cell membrane is a highly mobile mixture of phospholipids

and proteins according to the fluid mosaic model
Van der Waals – the most stabilizing force for nucleic acid
Lysosomes:animals-digestive enzymes::plants and
Acetyl-CoA – end product of leucine metabolism fungi:vacuole-enzymes and storage
Tryptophan – heaviest of the 20 amino acids Prokaryotic cells are smaller than most eukaryotic
Isoelectric point of an amino acid is pH where the molecule Lipids, proteins and carbohydrates- found in the plasma
carries no electric charge. membrane
Zwitterions- molecules that bear charged groups of opposite Tryptophan – both ketogenic and glucogenic
polarity
A person with phenylketonuric cannot convert phenylalanine
Enantiomers: D-x and L-x to tyrosine
Protein fluorescence arises primarily from Tryptophan Tyrosine, phenylpyruvate, lysine, phenylalamine:
residue Phenylpyruvate is the most toxic
Pyruvate – catabolic breakdown of alanine Triacylglycerols are insoluble in H2O
Dopamine – a nonprotein amino acid Animals can’t convert fatty acids into glucose because acetyl
CoA can’t be converted to pyruvate.
Aspargine when exposed to ninhydrin produces a brown
color. In eukaryotes, fatty acid breakdown occurs in mitochondrial
matrix.
Humans are unable to digest cellulose.
Phospholips contain hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails
There are 5 types of lipoproteins. Genetic engineering – enable cell to manufacture PROTEINS

Fatty acid synthesis takes place in cytosol. Metabolic engineering – enable cell to manufacture ENZYMES

Cholesterol is the precursor of steroid hormones and vitamin Metabolic flux – rate of turnover of molecules through a
A. metabolic pathway

Atherosclerosis can cause blood clotting. J.Craig Venter – created the first cell with a SYNTHETIC
genome, thereby creating synthetic life.
Olestra- the lowest energy value lipid for human nutrition
Chemical Make-Up of Bacterial Cells
There are 5 classes of steroid hormone.
1. Proteins: made up of amino acids joined by peptide linkage
Synthesis of fatty acid takes place when carbohydrate and
energy are plentiful. 2. Lipids or fats- water insoluble components of the cells that
can be extracted by nonpolar solvents
Oxytocin – milk ejection hormone
3. Carbohydrates – polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone
Stratosphere – where the highest concentration of ozone is
observed 4. Nucleotides – monomeric unit of nucleic acid
macromolecules
Asbestos – material used to insulate steam pipe that will
cause lung disorder when overexposed Bacterial Culture System

Carbon monoxide – odorless gas that is lethal to human with Lag phase – physiological adjustment
exposure as short as a few minutes to concentrations
exceeding 5000 ppm. H reacts with hemoglobin in the blood Log/exponential phase – constant rate of growth
rendering the latter of carrying O2 to the body. Stationary phase – growth ceases completely due to the
exhaustion of nutrients, accumulation of waste products and
change in pH
Bacteria: 50-60% protein
Death/Decline phase – irreversible loss of ability to
Viruses: 50% nucleic acid regenerate or reproduce

Bacteria: unicellular and haploid (one set of genes); multiply Classification of Organism
by simple fission
1. Structure
Fungi: multicellular; multiply by apical extension of the hythal
filaments Prokaryotes – w/o nuclear envelopes

Yeast: grow by budding from single ovoid cell Eukaryotes – w/ nuclear envelopes

Watson and Crick-first presented the structure of DNA 2. Carbon source

Hydrogen bonds held the 2 strands of DNA. Autotrophs – uses CO2

Transcription: the double-helix unzips into 2 single DNA Heterotrophs – uses fancier C cpds
strands—RNA is formed 3. Energy Source
Translation: DNA codes for RNA; RNA codes for synthesis of Chemotrophs – from breaking down substrate
proteins as well as the structural and functional molecules of
the cell; Phototrophs – from light

DNA&RNA: nucleotide::protein:amino acids 4. Final electron acceptor

Translation takes place inside the ribosome. Aerobes – use molecular O2

Codon – nucleotide sequence of RNA Anaerobes – don’t need O2; use nitrate, sulfides, and CO2

Amino acids line up along the single-stranded RNA Facultative Anaerobes – able w/o2 or 2/o o2
w/corresponding codon triplets and the amino acids bind to
one another to form a protein. Microaerophiles – only little amt of o2

Human insulin – first genetically engineered human 5. Temperature

therapeutic to gain US FDA approval Psycrophiles
Mesophiles – 30-40 “Chemostat” – Continuously Stirred Tank Reactor (CSTR) –
most productive fermenter system operated at the cell
Thermophiles concentration at w/c value of (1/rx) is minimum because it
Lipids – soluble in nonpolar solvents/aprotic solvents (no H- requires the smallest residence time
bonding) BR – better if final cell concentration to be reached is
-energy storage , signal transmission stationary phase

Open chain / Cyclic --- steroids Plug Flow Reactor (PFR) – a tubular reactor

Fatty acids – 12-20 C Sterility level = N/No;N- surviving;No –initial

Lauric – C12 ; Myristic – C14 ; Palmitic – C16 ; Stearic – C18 Destruction Ratio = No/N

Waxes – complex mixture of COOH – form of lipids Rules of Thumb: Clostridium botulinum

Phospholipids – 2nd most abundant lipids Fermentation Industry:10-4-10-7:: Food & Canning: 10-10-10-12

Carbohydrates – aldehydes or ketones w/ many –OH grps Enzymes:

-short-term energy storage, precursors for building polymers 1. simple proteins

Hemicellulose- short,branched polymers of perntoses, 2. conjugate and consist of protein part, or APOENZYME, and
hexoses a nonprotein part or COENZYME

Nucleic acids 3. HALOENZYME – contains both the protein and nonprotein

parts
DNA:stores::RNA:reads and implements
Activator – an inorganic component such as metal ion is
Messenger RNA (mRNA) formed in NUCLEUS, carries message required; analogous to coenzyme
from DNA to another part of the cell
Substrate – substance acted on by an enzyme
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) – found in ribosome, reads the
message of mRNA Turnover number – catalytic speed ; the no. of molecules an
enzyme can react
Transfer RNA (tRNA) – found in cell’s CYTOPLASM and
translate the genetic code of the ribosome Proteases – break down proteins

General Classes of Enzymes Lipases – digest lipids

1. Oxido-Reductases- oxidizes or reduce substrate by Cellulases – cellulose

transferring hydrogens or electrons Amylase – amylose
2. Transferases Lactases – lactose
3. Hydrolases Pectinases – Pectin
4. Lyases- removal of groups from substrate by mechanisms Enzyme active site – where catalysis take place
other than hydrolysis
Lock-and-key hypothesis – substrate being locked
5. Isomerases
Induced-fit theory
6. Ligases or Synthetases – by breaking a phosphate
anhydride bond in ATP Strain hypothesis – substrate being forced

MIchaelis-Menten Theory – enzyme activity depends on

substrate concentration
rx = µCx
Alcalase – liquid soaps
rx – microbial growth rate; µ -specific growth rate
Savinase – Powder detergents
Monod Equation – most common equation for describing the
effect of substrate concentration on the specific growth rate Esperase – industrial laundries

µ = µmax (Cs/ (Ks+Cs))

rx = µmax (Cs/ (Ks+Cs)) Cx Nucleic acids : complex

2 classes of heterocyclic base: Bacteriacidal – kills bacteria

1. purine C5H4N4 Bacteristatic – inhibits the bacterial growth by its presence

w/o causing death
2. pyrimidine C4H4N2
Broth – fermentation liquor wherein the fermentation
Nucleoside-formed when either purine or pyrimidine base is process is in progress
linked to a sugar molecule, usually D-ribose or D-2’-
deoxyribose Beer--.. just terminated

Adenosine (A) Adenine-ribose Enzyme – an organic catalyst produced by the cell

Deoxyadenosine (dA) Adenine-deoxyribose Constitutive – always present in the cell; substrate

independent
Guanosine (G) Guanine-ribose
Induced – present only when needed; substrate dependent
Deoxyguanosine (dG) Guanine-deoxyribose
Extracellular – exoenzyme
Cytidine (C ) Cytosine-ribose
Intracellular – endoenzyme
Deoxycytidine (dC) Cytosine-deoxyribose
Facultative – having characteristics that permit alternate
Thymidine (T) Thymine-ribose responses under different conditions
Deoxythymidine (dT) Thymine-deoxyribose Mutation – a chemical change in the genetic code of the cell
Uridine (U) Uracil-ribose Mycelium – a mass of hyphae of a mold or actinomycetes
Deoxyuridine (dU) Uracil-deoxyribose colony

Obligate – stricted or restricted; obligate aerobe can grow

only in the presence of oxygen; obligate thermophile can
Nucleotide- more complex = phosphate group + nucleoside grow only at elevated temperatures in relation to others
AMP – adenosine-5’-monophosphate Phage – a bacterial virus
dAMP – deoxy” “ “ Photoplast – part of cell – includes cell membrane and
content
ADP = adenosine-5’-diphosphate
Putrefaction –decomposition of protein under anaerobic
ATP- “ “-triphosphate condition
ADP and ATP – store and release energy to the cells& tissues Viable – state of the living cell where it is still capable of
Hydrolysis: division

ATP + H2) =ADP +Pi +~35 kJ SCP – single cell protein – protein obtained for the growth or
culture of unicellular microorganism

Psychrophile – 10C
Polynucleotides
Inoculum – serum containing microorganism
RNA : AMP – GMP – CMP – UMP
Broth – liquid – cloudy/turbidity
DNA : dAMP – dGMP – dCMP –dTMP
Agar – solid – colony

Cell membrane – phospholipids bilayer

Gene – a segment of the DNA chain that controls the
formation of a molecule of RNA Mitochondria

Ribosome – protein synthesis

Autolysis – dissolution of cells by self-produced lytic enzyme ER Endoplasmic reticulum

Autotrophs – uses CO2 as its principal carbon source Rough ER – protein synthesis

Auxotrophs – nutritional mutant w/c require one or more Smooth ER – lipid synthesis
nutrients in addition to those required by its wild type Lysosomes – cellular digestion
Golgi bodies – transport molecules Epimers: D-glyceraldehyde and L-glyceraldehyde

Aromers: 2 CYCLIC isomers

Aceto – vinegar Acetal – glycoside

Lactic – pickles CHO ---Br2 + H2OCOOH

Aspergillus –soy sauce CHO ---H2/PtCH2OH

Strepto - antibiotic Starch = amylose + amylopectin

Glycogen – energy storage carbohydrate of the animals

Carbohydrate – sugar – glycosidic bonds Cellulose – most abundant organic substance found in nature

Trioses – simplest carbohydrate monosaccharide

Hexose monosaccharides – most important carbohydrate Amino Acids – Amino grp + carboxyl grp

-sources of cellular energy: RCH(NH2)COOH

Glucose, galactose, fructose C6H12O6 Tests for amino acid:

-same formula; different structure Xanthroproteic, Biuret, Ninhydrin

Family of Aldohexose: Common between malic acid and citric acid?Hydroxyl grp

Allose Isoelectric point – pH @ w/c amino acid has 0 net charge

Altrose Basic : Arg-Lys-His

Glucose Acidic : Aspartic , Gutamic

Mannose Collagen – a fibrous protein; connects tissue in our body;

most abundant protein in the animal kingdom; carboxylic
Gulose acids with long hydrophobic carbon chains
Idose Lipids
Galactose Saturated – high melting point
Talose Unsaturated – low melting point
Disaccharide: Fats and oils – esters of glycerol
Lactose – galactose + glucose Triglyceride
Sucrose – fructose + glucose Soap
Maltose – glucose + glucose (α) Waxes – esters of long chain carboxylic acid and alcohol
Cellobiose – glucose + glucose (β) Steroid – cholesterol (parent) ; atherosclerosis (disease)

Vitamin E – antioxidants; tocotrinols

Fehling’s test sucrose – nonreducing sugar – negative on VIt. K – blood clotting
fehling’s test
Vit. C – water soluble
Protein – polyamides – structural materials and as enzymes
Vit. A – retinol; beta-carotin
-peptide bonds; amino grp
Vit. D – calcium absorption; fish oil; regulates calcium and
20-22 essential. 19 primary phosphorus in the body
Proline- secondary Sex hormones – form of steroid
Glucose (dextrose) Lecithin (phosphatidyl cholines) – glyceryl ethers of fatty
Frucotse (levulose) acids, phosphoric acid, and choline
Lecithin:choline::cephaline:ethanolamine 36 total ATP molecules are produced by 1 molecule of
glucose completing cellular respiration
Nucleic acid : nucleotide
Paracetamol – acetyl salicylic acid
-base; sugar; phosphoric acid
In Tollen’s test, aldehydes neither reduced or oxidized
Michaelis-Menten Theory – Leonor Michaelis & Moud
Leonora Menten Cetane number – n-hexadecane

Lineweaver: V = Vmax (S) / Km + (S) @HB: eqn 7-92 p7-18 Strength of Van der Waals force:

Competitive V = Vmax(S) / S+Km(I + (I)/KI) ; slope increases; Increase in the molecular weight
y-intercept doesn’t change
“ “ “ no. of atoms
Uncompetitve V = Vmax(S) / S(I +(I)/KI) + Km (I+ (I)/K); slope
doesn’t change; y-intercept increases “ “ “ no. of e-

Noncompetitve V = Vmax (S) / S(I+(I)/KI) + Km(I + (I)/K) Michaelis-Menten – common mathemical equation for
describing the effect of substrate on microbial growth
µ = V(L/day)/Vol(L)
Cofactor ~ coenzyme
Linear Reg
Inhibitor – reduces the rate of enzyme reaction
LWB=x:1/S y:1/V Vm = 1/A Km = B/A
Uncompetitve inhibition decreases Vmax and decreases Km
EH= x:V y:V/S Km = -B-1
Kinetics of cell death is 1st order
HW= x:S y:S/V Km =-A/B
Louis Pasteur – father of biotechnology
t = V/Vo = Caox / rA
Photoheterotrophs – can utilize glucose as a carbon source
rx = (µmax Cs/ Ks+Cs)Cx but cannot grow in the dark

V/Vo = Ks + Cs / µmax Cs since Cx = CAox mRNa – obtains the code and serves as the template for
peptide formation
Vo = V µmax Cs / Ks +Cs
isoelctric point – a parameter also tapped for protein
Linoleic acid is an essential fatty acid purification technique
Ald.and Ket. –reduced by NaBH4 or LiAlH4 to yield 1°,2° alc “happy” chemical cps: oxytocin, dopamine, serotonin
Hell-Volhard Zelinskii (HVZ) rxn – α-bromination of RCOOH Binding site: holds the substrate in place
Induced fit model – flexible structures.. Catalytic site: where reaction occurs
Michaelis-Menten – Km is low stable Coenzyme activates the apoenzyme
Turnover no = no. of substrate molecules ATP – universal currency of energy in living system
Competitive inhibiton – inhibitor has some degree of O2 – final acceptor in the e- transport chain
similarity with substrate; inhibitor doesn’t affect the value of
Vmax but affects Km CO2 – oxidized product in the tricarboxylic cycle

Allosteric enzymes has >1binding site Non-competitive inhibitors-cpds w/c do not bind in the active
site of an enzyme but binds to a non-active site and reduces
Immobilization – confinement in a phase over substrate the binding affinity of the substrate to the enzyme
Vapor pressure decreases with an increase in intermolecular Sterilization: 121C, 10-15 mins, 30 psia.
forces
Isotonic solutions – same osmotic pressure
KHP: Potassium hydrogen phthalate:C8H5KO4
Peptide bond – partial double bond
Insulin regulates the metabolism of glucose
Liquids and solids exhibit practically no change
Bacilli – rod-shaped bacteria of solubilitywith changes in pressure. Gases as might be
Glycolysis ->Krebs cycle ->e- transport ->cellular respiration expected,increase in solubility with an increase in pressure.

Arachidonate has 20 C atoms and 4 cis-double bonds

For GASES, solubility decreases as temperature Kwashiorkor – nutritional imbalance in early childhood, low
increases. protein but has calories (carbs)

Vapor pressure increases with temperature. The pressure intensity is the same in all direction at a point in
a fluid when there is no motion of one fluid layer relative to
Increased temperature causes an increase in kinetic an adjacent layer.
energy. The higher kinetic energy causes more motion
Plasticizers are added to paints to give elasticity and prevent
in the gas molecules which break intermolecular bonds cracking of the film.
and escape from solution.
Drying oil : paint manufacture
Urea : CH4N2O
Thinner – suspend pigments and dissolve film-forming
Sodium azide : NaN3 materials
Frash process is for mining sulfur The purpose of adding Na2CO3 to water of low alkalinity is to
permit the use of alum as a coagulant.
Iodine no. – the determination of the amount of unsaturation
contained in fatty acids. Brundtland Commission – the convention that formally
defined and introduced the concept of “Sustainable
Through molecular vibrations – the greenhouse gases absorb
Development”.
infrared radiation
Krypton : meter (definition)
14 carat gold = 14/24 gold mass
Naturally occurring monosaccharides are almost always “right
Annealing – heating a material to redness and then allowing it
handed”.
to cool slowly
Glyceraldehydes – simplest example of a chiral
NO2 – oxide of nitrogen that is brown
monosaccharide
Aluminum – most abundant metal in the world which makes
VIIA – usually seen with ashes
8% of the slid portion of earth’s crust
N2H4 – conjugate base of N2H5
Beer Lambert’s Law : nephelometric method of analysis
Beta decay : nuclides that have neutron-to-proton ratios that
Phases – the homogenous physically distinct and
are too HIGH (compared with stable nuclides)
mechanically swparable parts of the heterogeneous system in
equilibrium CH4 H2O NH3 HF : NH3 strongest Bronsted base
Phenol formaldehyde employs condensation polymerization NHR HBr CH4 Ar: CH4 will have the greatest rate of effusion
at a given temperature.
Unsaturated oils have lower melting point and higher
reactivity to oxygen Competitive inhibitor : increases Km w/o affecting Vmax
Electrochemical series : electrode potentials of metals are Wood burns explosively in pure O2 but slowly in air.
arranged in an order Temperature affects the rate of reaction.
Rancidity of oil can be reduced by hydrogenation

Hexane – solvent used for extraction of oil

Molasses – starting material for alcohol

Phenol  phenol formaldehyde

DDT – dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane

BHC (Benzene hexa-chloride) <--(chlorination of benzene) –

an addition reaction

Equilibrium constant decreases as the temperature increases

for an exothermic reaction

Molarity will change if the temperature changes.

Presence of a common ion DECREASES solubility.

1. A solution of toluene in benzene has a molal concentration of 1.5. Find the molarity and the mole fraction of toluene if the volumes
are additive. Density of toluene is 0.867 g/cm3 and density of benzene is 0.876 g/cc

2. What is the volume % concentration of ethanol in a solution that is 24% by mass ethanol (ρ=0.798 g/mL) in an aqueous solution with
density 0.963 g/mL?

3. From the following data, compute the amount of raw materials required to produce 100 tons of caustic soda by caustication process
Limestone CaCO3 96%
Lime conversion efficiency 90%
Soda ash Na2CO3 98%

4. Calculate the theoretical quantities of all raw materials needed to produce 100 MT of soda ash daily by the Solvay process.

5. What volume of oxygen gas collected over water at 20C and 750 mmHg can be obtained by the decomposition of 170 g of
potassium chlorate?

6. What volume of air measured at 25 C and 740 mmHg is required to burn 3L of gasoline? Gasoline is a mixture with average
composition C7H14 (ρ = 0.7 g/mL)

7. In the lime soda process for caustic soda manufacture, lime is made to react with water and then with soda ash. The composition of
raw materials..
Lime: 54% Cao, 1.5% MgO + I
Soda ash: 50% Na2O + I
a. How many metric tons of lime and soda ash will be needed to produce 100 MT of 25% liquid sodium hydroxide?

8. 3000 MT OF A 6-10-16 fertilizer was prepared by mixing ammonium sulfate (95% purity), phosphoric acid (95% purity), muriate of
potash (95% purity) and gypsum (90% purity). Calculate how much of each was used.

9. A 0.5 g sample of limestone with inert materials was treated with HCl and 211 mL of CO2 was liberated. The gas was measured dry
at 25C and 763 mmHg. Calculate the % calcium oxide in the sample.

10. If 10 kg of sodium were made to react with water, calculate the following:
a. weight of water involved in the reaction
b. moles of sodium hydroxide produced
c. standard ft3 of hydrogen liberated during the reaction
d. amount of water to be added to produce 0.1 N solution
11. If 40 g of phosphoric acid react with 60 g magnesium carbonate, calculate
a. mass of magnesium sulfate produced
b. mass of carbon dioxide produced
c. volume of gas at STP

12. Copper smelter is using copper sulfide concentrate containing 30% copper and 40% sulfur. The plant employs Autokumpu process
with pure oxygen to produce at its rate capacity of 130,000 MT per year of 99.9% copper. The ff. equation may be assumed during
smeltin
CuS + O2 = Cu + SO2
Compute
a. Feed rate per hour of the concentrate for 330 days / year operation
b. Oxygen requirements in tons per hour.

13. Ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide are obtained from hydrolysis of sucrose. At T=80F and 1 atm, how many kilos of alcohol and liters
of gas can be obtained from a 1 metric ton of sucrose?

14. It is desired to produce phenol by reacting chlorobenzene and sodium hydroxide. 1000 kg of phenol are produced from reacting
1,320 kg of chlorobenzene and 1,200 kg of sodium hydroxide, what is the
a. % excess
b. % yield

15. For a 25 g sucrose dissolved in 1kg of water at 70 C, calculate :

a. Vapor pressure of the solution
b. Boiling point
c. Freezing point
d. Osmotic pressure

16. For a 1% sugar solution with a density of 1.03 g/mL, calculate

a. Vapor pressure of the solution
b. Boiling point
c. Freezing point
d. Osmotic pressure

17. A solution containing 4.5 g of an unknown compound in 100 g of benzene gave a freezing point at 4.02 C (kf = 5.12, Tf = 5.5C)
Give the molecular weight of the unknown substance.
18. At 60 C, the vapor pressure of ethyl alcohol is 352.7 mmHg and that of methyl alcohol is 625 mmHg. If the two alcohols are mixed
50/50 by weight at that temperature, assuming ideal solution, what will be the composition of the vapor above the solution?

19. By dissolving 22.5 g Na2CO3 10H2O in water and adding water until the total volume is 200 cc, a solution is made having a density
of 1.04 g/mL. Calculate:
a. molarity
b. normality
c. mole fraction of the solute

20. 0.5 g of N with MW of 160 g/mol is dissolved in 10 g of solvent S. The boiling point of the solution is 124.8 C. If the 0.4 g of M is
dissolved in 12 g of the same content S, the boiling point of the solvent is 122C. Calculate the MW of M.

21. A vessel containing 39.5 cm3 of the gas at 25C and 106 kPa was inverted and placed in cold ethanol. As the gas contacted,
ethanol was forced into the vessel to maintain the same pressure of helium. If this required 18.8 cm3 of ethanol, what was the final
temperature of the helium?

22. Helium is collected over water at 25C and 1.00 atm total pressure. What volume of gas must be collected to obtain 0.375 g of
helium? At 25C, vapor pressure of water is 23.8 torr?

23. 10.5 L of nitrogen at 25C and 760 mmHg are bubbled through an aqueous solution of a non-volatile solute, whereby the solution
loses 0.2455 g in weight. If the total pressure of the solution above is 760 mmHg, what is the vapor pressure of the solution and the
mole fraction of solute in solution?

24. A mixture of hydrocarbon vapor contains 80 kg benzene, 80 kg toluene, and 60 kg of xylene. Calculate:
a. Volume in m3 of vapor mixture at 300 F and 444 mmHg
b. Density of mixture in g/mL

25. When evacuated or empty, a gas density bulb weighs 29.3215 g. First, carbon dioxide was used to fill the gas density bulb at 40 C
and 1 atm and weighted 30.0079 g. Then the bulb was evacuated and filled with a mixture of CO and CO2 under the same temperature
and pressure. With this mixture, the bulb weighs 29.9332 g. What was the %CO in the gas mixture?

26. The organic compound showed the ff. analysis using the Victor Meyer apparatus
By weight
Carbon 37.5%
Hydrogen 12.5%
Oxygen 50%
The organic compound of 0.25 g vaporized displacing 100 mL of air measured over water at 25C and 748 mmHg. What is the MW in
the compound?
27. A 10-L vessel containing 8 g of oxygen is connected by means of a valve to a 5-L vessel containing 7.00 g of nitrogen. When the
valve was opened and the gases are allowed to mix, what will be the total pressure of the gas in the mixture at 25C assuming the
temperature was kept constant?

28.
3HNO3(aq) + Al(s) -> Al3+ + 3NO2 + 3OH-
Al is the reducing agent
If 124.0 g of Li and 98.2 g of N2 are mixed, and 195 g of Li3N are actually obtained from the reaction, what is the percent yield?

29. Molecular formula of cacodyl?

Molar mass = 209.96 g/mol
22.88%C, 5.76% H, 71.36% As

30. The average atomic mass of Ga is 69.72. Naturally occurring Ga is composed of 69Ga, which has an atomic mass of 68.91, and
71Ga which has an atomic mass of 70.93. What percentage of naturally occurring Ga is 71Ga?

31. Beaker A contains 0.1 L of a 0.2 M KOH solution; beaker B contains 0.1 L of 0.20 M HCl solution. The contents of the two beakers
are thoroughly mixed together in a sufficiently large third beaker. Calculate the molarity of the resulting salt solution.

32. How many grams of potassium dichromate are required to prepare 250 mL solution whose concentration is 2.16M?

33. Calcium oxide is used in steel making and pollution control which is prepared by the decomposition of calcium carbonate. Calculate
the yearly release of carbon dioxide in kg to the atmosphere if the annual production of calcium oxide is 1.7x1010 kg.

34. A spherical glass container of unknown volume contains He(g) at 25C and 1.96 atm. When a portion of the He is withdrawn and
adjusted to 1 atm at 25C, it is found to have a volume of 1.75 cm3. The gas remaining in the first container shows a pressure of 1.71
atm. Calculate the volume of the spherical container.

35. How many cycles of Beta oxidation does one mole of palmitic acid must undergo to reduce the chain length to C-4

36. To what volume must 1600 mL of a 0.2050 N solution be diluted in order that the resulting solution will be 0.2 N?

37. Archaeologists can determine the age of an artifact made of wood or bone by measuring the amount of the radioactive isotope 14C
present in the object. The amount of isotope decreases in a first order process. If 15.5% of the original amount of 14C is present in a
wooden toll at the time of analysis, what is the age of the toll? The half-life of 14C is 5730 years.

38. A sample of polystyrene prepared by heating syrene with tribromobenzoyl peroxide in the absence of air has the formula B3C6H3
(C8H8)n where n varies with preparation. If a certain sample of polystyrene is found to contain 20.01 %Br, what is the value of n?
39. A 7.5 m3 chemostat operating at 75% capacity is producing biomass from a glucose feed at a volumetric flow rate of 46.9 L/min.
The specific growth rate of the organism is

40. Calculate the volume of the nitrogen gas generated during impact at 85C and 812 mmHg from 50 g sample of sodium azide.

41. How many grams of KCl)3 are needed to prepare 1.8L of O2 gas that is collected over H2O and 22 C and 760 torr? VP water
@22C =19.8 torr

42. A sample of pure zinc metal reacts completely with an excess of HCl. The hydrogen gas produced is collected over water at 25C
and 1 atm. If the metal weighs 253.02 mg, how much gas is collected?

43. Ammonia decomposes completely to hydrogen and nitrogen gas. If the total pressure of the reaction vessel at the end of the
reaction is 250 mmHg, what is the partial pressure of the nitrogen gas?

44. A quantity of 280.7 g of hydrate, Na2CO3xH2O was heated in an oven to drive off water. If the steam produced in a 5L vessel at
110C, exerted a pressure of 39.6 atm, what is the formula of the hydrate?

45. A common lab preparation of O2 gas is the thermal decomposition of potassium chlorate over MnO2 catalyst. Assuming complete
decomposition, calculate the number of grams of O2 gas that can be obtained from the 45.7 g of potassium chlorate.

46. How many milliliters of ethane (C2H6) at STP are required to produce 22 g of CO2

47. Calculate the freezing point of 1.5 molal solution of NaCl in water

48. A 0.20 mol aqueous solution freezes at -0.680C. The osmotic pressure at 0C is

49. A solvent-water mixture is to be distilled at 95C. The vapor pressure of the solvent at this temperature is 130 mmHg and that of
water is 640 mmHg. The solvent is immiscible in water and has a molecular weight of 150. The weight of the solvent that will be carried
over in the distillate with 200 kg of water is

50. The vapor pressure of water at 25C is 23.756 torr. A solution consisting of 18.913 g of a non-volatile substance in 36 grams of H2O
has a vapor pressure of 20.234 torr. What is the molecular weight of the solute?

51. A 240 g sample of pyrolusite was treated with excess potassium iodide. The iodine liberated required 46.24 mL of 0.1105 M
Na2S2O3 solution. Calculat the %MnO2 in the sample

52. A 2 g sample of an unknown metal, M, was completely burned in excess O2 to yield 0.224 mol of the metal oxide, M2O3, what is
the metal?
53. When 4.5 g of Fe2O3 is reduced with excess H2 in a furnace, 2.6 g of metallic iron is recovered. What is the % yield?
 𝑐 𝑖−1
𝐸 = ℎ𝑣 = ℎ 𝛼= ; 𝑣 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛
‫ג‬ 𝑣−1
ΔEbind = Δmc2 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑌𝐴 𝑃𝑇
Δm = mass defect = mproducts-mreactants 𝑛𝐴 𝑃𝐴
=
𝐴 𝑛 𝑇 𝑃𝑇
𝑍𝑋
𝑅𝑇
𝑍𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑍 − 𝜎 𝑃𝑇 = 𝑛 𝑇
𝑉
𝜎 = .35 ∗ (𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 − 1) 1
Boyle: 𝑃𝛼 𝑉
+ 0.85 * e- of the next group + 1 *e- of the last group
Charles: 𝑉 𝛼 𝑇
Amonton: 𝑃 𝛼 𝑇
n(1,2,3,4..)
Avogadro: 𝑉 𝛼 𝑛
l(o to (n-1))
𝑎𝑛2
ml(-l to 0 +l) (𝑃 + ) (𝑉 − 𝑛𝑏) = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
𝑣2
ms(+1/2,-1/2)
𝑀1 𝑉1 = 𝑀2 𝑉2
Caustication process:
𝐾𝑝 = 𝐾𝑐 (𝑅𝑇) 𝛥𝑛𝑔
CaCO3 + H2O  Ca(OH)2 + CO2
𝐶𝐴𝑜
Ca(OH)2 + Na2CO3  2NaOH + CaCO3 𝐶𝐴𝑜 − 𝐶𝐴 = 𝑘𝑡; 𝑡1 =
2 2𝑘
Solvay process:
2NaCl + CaCO3  Na2CO3 + CaCl2 𝑙𝑛2
𝑙𝑛𝐶𝐴𝑜 − 𝑙𝑛𝐶𝐴 = 𝑘𝑡; 𝑡1
Nair = mol O2 / 0.21 2 𝑘

3𝑛 + 1 1 1 1
𝐶𝑛 𝐻2𝑛+2 + 𝑂2 −→ 𝑛𝐶𝑂2 + (𝑛 + 1)𝐻2 𝑂 − = 𝑘𝑡; 𝑡1
2 𝐶𝐴 𝐶𝐴𝑜 2 𝑘𝐶𝐴𝑜
Lime soda process for caustic soda manufacture: 1 1 1
= 𝑅∞ 2− 2
CaO + H2O  Ca(OH)2 Na2CO3  Na2O + CO2 ‫ג‬ 𝑛1 𝑛2

Ca(OH)2 + Na2CO3  2NaOH + CaCO3 1Lymann2Balmer3Paschen4Brackett

PV = nRT
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐿
𝑉( )
%𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑥100 𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 µ=
𝑉𝑜𝑙(𝐿)
BPE: 𝛥𝑇𝑏 = 𝑇𝑏, 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 − 𝑇𝑏, 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐾𝑏𝑚
𝑟 = µ𝐶𝑥
FPD: 𝛥𝑇𝑓 = 𝑇𝑓, 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 𝑇𝑏, 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 = 𝐾𝑓𝑚
𝐶𝑠
µ = µ max
VPL: 𝛥𝑃 = 𝑃° − 𝑃𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑛 = 𝑋𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑃° 𝐾𝑠 + 𝐶𝑠
Raoult’s Law: 𝑃𝐴 = 𝑋𝐴 𝑃𝐴 ° 𝐶𝑠
𝑟 = µ max 𝐶𝑥
𝐾𝑠 + 𝐶𝑠
Osmotic Pressure: ∏ = 𝑀𝑅𝑇
𝑉 𝐶𝐴𝑜 𝑥
𝑡= =
𝑖 = 1 (𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑒) 𝑉𝑜 𝑟𝐴
𝑖 > 1 (𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑒) 𝑉 𝐾𝑠 + 𝐶𝑠
=
𝑉𝑜 µ max 𝐶𝑠