Flat Plate

The flat plate is a two-way reinforced concrete framing system utilizing a slab of uniform thickness, the simplest
of structural shapes.

A flat plate is a one- or two-way system usually supported directly on columns or load bearing walls. It is one of the most
common forms of construction of floors in buildings. The principal feature of the flat plate floor is a uniform or near-
uniform thickness with a flat soffit which requires only simple formwork and is easy to construct.

The floor allows great flexibility for locating horizontal services above a suspended ceiling or in a bulkhead. The
economical span of a flat plate for low to medium loads is usually limited by the need to control long-
term deflection and may need to be sensibly pre-cambered (not overdone) or prestressed.
An economical span for a reinforced flat plate is of the order of 6 to 8 m and for prestressed flat plates is in the range of 8 to
12 m. The span ‘L’ of a reinforced concrete flat-plate is approximately D x 28 for simply supported, D x 30 for an end span of a
continuous system, to D x 32 for internal continuous spans.
The economical span of a flat plate can be extended by prestressing to approximately D x 30, D x 37 and D x 40 respectively,
where D is the depth of slab.

Advantages of System:

1. Simple formwork and suitable for direct fix or sprayed ceiling

2. No beams—simplifying under-floor services
3. Minimum structural depth and reduced floor-to floor height.

Disadvantages of System:

1. Medium spans
2. Limited lateral load capacity as part of a moment frame
3. May need shear heads or shear reinforcement at the columns or larger columns for shear
4. Long-term deflection may be controlling factor
5. May not be suitable for supporting brittle (masonry) partitions
6. May not be suitable for heavy loads.

The residential and hotel floor framing system of the

Tower consists of 200mm to 300mm twoway reinforced
concrete flat plate slabs spanning approximately 9 meters
between the exterior columns and the interior core wall.
The floor framing system at the tips of the tower floor
consists of a 225mm to 250mm two-way reinforced
concrete flat plate system. The floor framing system
within the interior core consists of a two way reinforced
concrete flat plate system with beams. See Figure 4 for
typical floor framing system at typical residential and
mechanical levels. See Figure 3 also for other floor
framing system configuration.
Flat Slab
A flat slab is a one-way or two-way system with thickenings in the slab at the columns and load bearing walls called
‘drop panels’ Figure 9. Drop panels act as T-beams over the supports. They increase the shear capacity and the
stiffness of the floor system under vertical loads, thus increasing the economical span range.

The plan dimensions of the drop panels are a minimum of 1/3 of the span in the direction under consideration,
usually rounded to the nearest 100 mm. The overall depth of the drop panel is typically taken as 1.75 to 2 times the
depth of the slab, again rounded to suit timber sizes or the nearest 25 mm.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Flat Slabs

Advantages:

 Simple formwork
 No beams—simplifying under-floor services outside the drops
 Minimum structural depth
 Usually does not require shear reinforcement at the columns.

Disadvantages:

 Medium spans
 Generally not suitable for supporting brittle (masonry) partitions
 Drop panels may interfere with larger mechanical ducting
 Vertical penetrations need to avoid area around columns
 For reinforced flat slabs, deflection at the middle strip may be critical.
BUILDING

Flat Slab Post-Tensioning of High-Rise Building in Las Vegas using the DYWIDAG Monostrand
System
Trump International Condo/Hotel Tower, Las Vegas, NV, USA
For many years, Las Vegas has been an important market for the use of the DYWIDAG Monostrand
Post-Tensioning System. The high-quality DYWIDAG Monostrand System is easily and quickly
installed in flat slab construction of many hotels, residential complexes and parking structures.
Particularly in Las Vegas, investors attach great importance to the fastest possible completion of
structures.
WAFFLE SLAB

Waffle slab is a structural component which is plain on its top and contains grid like system
on its bottom surface. The top slab is normally thin and the bottom grid lines are generally
ribs which are laid perpendicular to each other with equal depth. Waffle slab has two
directional reinforcement.

All the ribs are directed from column heads or beams. The depth of ribs maintained is as
same as depth of column head or beam. Because of the ribs and double reinforcement, it is
more stable and recommended for larger span slabs or foundations.

Characteristics of Waffle Slabs

 Waffle slabs are generally suitable for flat areas.
 Volume of concrete used is very less compared to others.
 The reinforcement in the waffle slab is provided in the form of mesh or individual
bars.
 Separate excavation for beams is not required in case of waffle slab.
 The bottom surface of slab is looks like waffle which is obtained by using cardboard
panels or pods etc.
  The thickness of waffle slab recommended is 85 to 100 mm while the overall depth
of slab is limited to 300 to 600 mm.
 The width of beams or ribs provided in waffle slab are generally 110 to 200 mm.
 Spacing of ribs recommended is 600 to 1500 mm.
 Reinforced waffle slabs can be constructed for the span up to 16 meters while
beyond that length pre-fabricated waffle slab is preferable.
 Waffle slab is good against shrinkage and it is lower than stiffened rafts and footing
slabs.
 Waffle slab requires only 70% of concrete and 80 % of steel from the concrete and
steel used for stiffened raft.

Benefits of Waffle Slab Construction

 Waffle slabs are used for larger span slabs or floors and used when there is limited
requirement for number of columns.
 The load carrying capacity of waffle slab is greater than the other types of slabs.
 They provide good structural stability along with aesthetic appearance. Hence, it is
constructed for airports, hospitals, temples, churches etc.
 The waffle slab can be made of concrete or wood or steel among those concrete
waffle slab is preferred for commercial buildings and other two are preferred for
garages, decorative halls etc.
 It has good vibration control capacity because of two directional reinforcement. So,
it is useful for public buildings to control vibrations created by movements of crowd.
 Waffle slabs are lightweight and requires less amount of concrete, hence it is
economical.
 Construction of waffle slab is easy and quick with good supervision.
 Concrete and steel volume required is small, hence, light framework is enough for
waffle slab.
 Several services like lighting, plumbing pipes, electrical wiring, air conditioning,
insulation materials etc. can be provided within the depth of waffle slab by
providing holes in the waffle bottom surface. This system is called as Holedeck.
enzo Tange designed the Kagawa Prefectural Gymnasium with a Brutalist approach. The Gymnasium
doesn’t believe in architectural context or establishing relationships with the surrounding buildings, but
rather the surrounding buildings renovate to match the Brutalist gymnasium.

The hall stands on a square site with a lateral length of around 80 meters. The oval structure is carried by
four enormous pillars and projects dramatically on both sides, so that the building gives the effect of a
ship. The design of the approximately 20 meter high oval interior is determined by the suspended roof,
which follows that basic type of the hyperbolic paraboloid.
Ribbed slabs

a rib slab (or ribbed slab) is similar to flat slabs. Their function is the same as any slab, to support loads coming
from the roof and ultimately to the ground and to also act as a floor. This is what makes the floors and roofs of
buildings.
The rib-slab is special in that it provides a lighter and stiffer slab than an equivalent flat slab, reducing the
extent of foundations since the ultimate load is reduced. They provide a very good form where slab vibration
is an issue.

They are also known as waffle slabs, because they look like waffles with rows of beams running underneath
them. They have advantages of saving on material, and providing long spans.

Advantages:

 Savings on weight and materials

 Long spans
 Attractive soffit appearance if exposed
 Economical when reusable formwork pans used
 Vertical penetrations between ribs are easy.

Disadvantages:

 Depth of slab between the ribs may control the fire rating
 Requires special or proprietary formwork
 Greater floor-to-floor height
 Large vertical penetrations are more difficult to handle.

Slab depths typically vary from 75 to 125 mm and rib widths from 125 to 200 mm. Rib spacing of 600 to 1500 mm
can be used. The overall depth of the floor typically varies from 300 to 600 mm with overall spans of up to 15 m if
reinforced, longer if post-tensioned. The use of ribs to the soffit of the slab reduces the quantity of concrete and
reinforcement and also the weight of the floor. The saving of materials will be offset by the complication in formwork
and placing of reinforcement. However, formwork complication is minimised by use of standard, modular, reusable
formwork, usually made from polypropylene or fibreglass and with tapered sides to allow stripping.
For ribs at 1200-mm centres (to suit standard forms) the economical reinforced concrete floor span ‘L’ is
approximately D x 15 for a single span and D x 22 for a multi-span, where D is the overall floor depth. The one-way
ribs are typically designed as T-beams, often spanning in the long direction. A solid drop panel is required at the
columns and loadbearing walls for shear and moment resistance.
SLIPFORM METHOD
slipform technique of construction allows for the continuous pouring of concrete into walls of a structure and only stops when the full
required height of the structure has been reached.

ADVANTAGES

Your project can benefit in numerous ways from using this method of construction for taller concrete structures.
Consider the following items:
Height
This technology becomes very competitive starting at about 60 ft of height and continues to improve with
increasing height thereafter.
Early Assembly
The slipform setup is very compact and can be pre-assembled ahead of time. Once the foundation is ready,
the slipform can quickly be placed on the foundation and construction can start almost immediately.
Monolithic Construction
No cold-joints are necessary. Construction can be continuous and monolithic, resulting in maximum durability
and a long service life for your structure.
Speed of Construction
Speeds of between 7 ft and 30 ft per 24 hours are possible. Many times, this speed allows reuse of formwork
on repetitive elements without impacting the overall schedule, thus reducing your total formwork cost.
No Form Ties
No ties are required because the limited concrete pressure is taken by the slipform yoke directly. Without ties,
there are also no form holes to fill, which reduces labor costs, improves appearance and makes for a water-
tight structure. This is particularly important for offshore structures such as gravity oil and gas platforms.
No Rebar Bolsters
Unlike in standard wall construction with panel forms, slipforming does not require lost rebar bolsters in every
pour to control the rebar cover. In slipform construction, sliding guides are mounted on top of the slipform.
These guides push the rebar into position and accurately control the rebar cover as the slipform moves
upwards.
Continuous Process
Slipforming is a continuous extrusion process. There is no need to set and strip forms every few feet. You do
not need to tie up a crane as for handling conventional formwork.
Quality Finish
Slipforming provides a superior concrete finish with no form fins to clean up and without horizontal joints. A
sponge finish and other surface treatments are easy to apply from the second work platform suspended from
the slipform assembly..
In vertical slip forming the concrete form may be surrounded by a platform on which workers stand,
placing steel reinforcing rods into the concrete and ensuring a smooth pour.
horizontal slip forming for pavement and traffic separation walls concrete is laid down, vibrated, worked,
and settled in place while the form itself slowly moves ahead.
BUILDING

Slipforming Grain silo in Zürich for Swissmillin 2015 with "Bitschnau Slipform" Height: 118m
LIFT SLAB

(also called the Youtz-Slick Method) is a method of constructing concrete buildings by casting the floor or roof slab
on top of the previous slab and then raising (jacking) the slab up with hydraulic jacks. This method of construction
allows for a large portion of the work to be completed at ground level, negating the need to form floor work in place.
The ability to create monolithic concrete slabs makes the lift slab construction technique useful in quickly creating
structures with repetitive form work, like parking ramps

Benefits of using this synchro lift

There are no limits in floor numbers!

You can build big concrete slabs with more lifting points!

Extremely fast automatic lifting process - ten floors per day!

A few workers will do the whole operation with lifting concrete slabs!

All concrete slabs are produced on the ground level – even that slab for 35.floor!

You can use GORILLA equipment many times!

No more work on high, crane is free for other jobs, no more casings, stands

Save more than 20% in concrete construction!

You can lift floors with walls, installations .

is one example of lift slab construction utilized in the Bay Area in the mid-twentieth century. Built in 1969, the First
Savings Building utilizes lift slab construction to support the fourteen story height of the building.[5] The building's
structural system consists of a system of trusses from which the various concrete slab floors are hung. In turn, these
trusses extend out from two reinforced concrete cores which provide the main structural support for the entirety of
the building

Once the slabs have been raised to their desired height the lifting collars are welded to the columns, along with
shear blocks to support the slab from beneath. To assure the security of a structure during the raising of the slabs,
the hydraulic jacks, attached to the top of the columns, use synchronized consoles to lift the slabs at an even rate.
Conventional methods of mounting the jacks to the columns require that the jacks are removed before continuing to
raise the slabs. More recent approaches utilize welded plates, separated from the columns, to support the jack

SPAN STRESS FLOOR SLAB

Daylighting requirements
'Deep' floor plans may mean that, for example, office workers are a long way from natural lighting. Long span solutions may not
then be the most appropriate solution for certain situations, rather a short span design (for example using shallow floors ) with an
internal atrium may provide a more appropriate internal environment. The designer must seek the best compromise.
[top]Aesthetics

If false ceilings are used then the aesthetics of the soffit of a given structural floor system are clearly irrelevant. However, a
number of clients have recently been looking for exposed soffits, exposed primarily so that the thermal mass of the floor is
exposed. The soffit must also then be visually appealing. In some cases the presence of downstand beams interrupting the soffit
may not be welcome, although it is also true that an expressed structure may be desired. A number of steel framed options may
therefore be appropriate depending on specific requirements.
Acoustics

Deansgate, Manchester – office technology applied to an apartment building

The speed with which they can be constructed, combined with excellent performance in service, was one of the reasons why
steel frames with composite floors played such a central role in the boom in the multi-storey office market in the UK in the late
1980s and 1990s. When designers wished to transfer this technology to residential buildings some years later, it was recognised
that possibly the biggest difference in requirements was issues associated with acoustics . Good detailing is needed to avoid
flanking issues, where sound travels around a barrier (such as a floor) by passing through an adjoining wall. An example, in
accordance with the guidance provided in SCI P372, is shown below.

Simplicity and familiarity

As a rule of thumb designers should adopt the simplest solution that will meet the project requirements. Generally speaking the
simplest solution will also be the most common, and familiarity will facilitate the design, fabrication and erection processes as no
new learning is involved.
Within the context of steel floor systems, simple also means less labour and cost . For example, the simplest solution of a
downstand solid web I-section beam as opposed to a truss means; fewer structural elements, less fabrication , fewer surfaces to
be fire protected and less time to design.
It is worth adding that this 'simple is best' philosophy also extends to frames as a whole - a simple braced frame will normally be
a more economical solution than, say, a moment resisting frame.
For some projects the need to reduce to a minimum the construction time (on site) may play a determining role. Indeed, time is
often one of the key drivers for choosing a steel solution. The need for speed may be driven by, for example, fitting in with
vacation breaks for educational buildings , or bringing in income (e.g. retail buildings). It can lead to consideration of options that
minimise wet trades on site (use of precast floor units), minimise the number of crane lifts and provide working platforms during
construction (profiled steel decking), and that do not require propping between floors.

Service integration

Services integrated within the structural floor depth

The volume of services needed in a building is clearly a function of the end use - hospitals being an obvious example of a highly
serviced building - and design philosophy adopted by the services engineer, e.g. air-conditioned, naturally ventilated, etc.

When a lot of service ducts are to be accommodated it may be beneficial to adopt a floor solution that provides a flat soffit in
order to maximise the flexibility in routing these ducts beneath the structural floor. It will also be easy to remove and/or replace
these ducts to meet future needs.
Solutions that provide a flat soffit don't also allow long spans. So an alternative in a building that is both highly serviced and
requires long-span floors is to integrate the services within the beam depth (as shown to the right), so that the total depth of
structural floor plus service zone is minimised.