Comunicar, n. 48 v.

XXIV, 2016 | Media Education Research Journal | ISSN: 1134-3478; e-ISSN: 1988-3293
www.comunicarjournal.com

Cyberbullying: Social Competence,

Motivation and Peer Relationships
Cyberbullying: competencia social, motivación y relaciones
entre iguales

Dr. Eva M. Romera is Senior Lecturer in the Department of Psychology at University of Cordoba (Spain)
(eva.romera@uco.es) (http://orcid.org/ 0000-0002-9414-8019)
Juan-Jesús Cano is PhD Candidate in the Department of Psychology at University of Cordoba (Spain)
(m82caflj@uco.es) (http://orcid.org/ 0000-0003-4048-4815)
Dr. Cristina-M. García-Fernández is Lecturer in the Department of Developmental and Educational Psychology
at University of Seville (Spain) (cgarcia19@us.es) (http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7088-7028)
Dr. Rosario Ortega-Ruiz is Full Professor of Psychology in the Department of Psychology at the University of
Cordoba (Spain) (ortegaruiz@uco.es) (http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2110-6931)

ABSTRACT
The recognition of some overlap between face to face harassment (bullying) and via digital harassment (cyberbullying) could indi-
cate that variables of social cognition, whose influence has been identified in bullying, also are present in cyberbullying. The aim
of this research was to determine the social adjustment of roles involved in cyberbullying and to analyze the differences in the
perception of social competence, social goals and peer support, between victims, aggressors and bully-victims of cyberbullying. A
number of 505 teenagers (47.3% girls) between 12 and 16 years old (M=13.95, SD=1.42) participated in the study. Validated
instruments for Spanish teenagers were used and psychometric properties for the adaptation of the scale of social competence
were analyzed. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis showed optimal scores of reliability and validity. The cyber-bullying
victims showed greater involvement in cyberbullying. Comparisons between roles with nonparametric tests showed that cyber-
bullies had the highest levels of peer support and popularity social goals. Cybervictims were highlighted by a high perception of
social competence. Cyberbully-victims were described by their high popularity goals and low peer acceptance. These results sup-
port the conclusion that the way in which the peer group manages its emotional and social life may be explaining the situation of
cyberbullying among teenagers.

RESUMEN
El reconocimiento de cierto solapamiento entre el acoso cara a cara (bullying) y el ciberacoso (cyberbullying) puede indicar que
variables de cognición social, cuya influencia ha sido reconocida en el bullying, también estén presentes en el acoso cibernético.
El objetivo de la investigación fue estudiar el ajuste social de los implicados en cyberbullying y analizar las diferencias en la per-
cepción de la competencia social, la motivación y el apoyo de los iguales, entre víctimas, agresores y agresores victimizados del
cyberbullying. Un total de 505 adolescentes (47,3% chicas) con edades comprendidas entre los 12 y 16 años (M=13.95;
DT=1.42) participaron en el estudio. Se utilizaron instrumentos para adolescentes validados en español y se analizaron las pro-
piedades psicométricas para la adaptación de la escala de competencia social. Análisis factoriales exploratorios y confirmatorios
mostraron índices óptimos de fiabilidad y validez. Se observó una mayor implicación de los ciberagresores victimizados. Las com-
paraciones entre roles a través de pruebas no paramétricas mostraron en los ciberagresores un mayor apoyo social que el resto
de perfiles y altos niveles en metas de popularidad. Las cibervíctimas destacaron por su alta percepción de competencia social.
Los ciberagresores victimizados mostraron altos niveles de metas de popularidad y baja aceptación social. Los resultados obteni-
dos permiten concluir que la forma en que el grupo de iguales gestiona su vida emocional y social puede estar explicando la situa-
ción de cyberbullying entre los adolescentes.

KEYWORDS | PALABRAS CLAVE

Adolescence, social competence, risk behaviors, educational context, research, social motivation, popularity, social relationships.
Adolescencia, competencia social, conductas de riesgo, contexto educativo, investigación, motivación social, popularidad, rela-
ciones sociales.

Received: 2015-12-24 | Reviewed: 2016-01-20 | Accepted: 2016-02-22 | Preprint: 2016-05-15 | Published: 2016-07-01
DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C48-2016-07 | Pages: 71-79
72

1. Introduction and background engage in aggressive behaviors (Ojanen, Grönroos, &

Comunicar, 48, XXIV, 2016

As teenagers spend more and more time together, Salmivalli, 2005; Rodkin, Ryan, Jamison, & Wilson,
the peer context becomes increasingly important in 2013). Finally, it has been shown that trying to avoid
their social lives. The technological revolution, espe- negative judgments from others often leads to a lack of
cially communication via digital devices and social net- acceptance by peers (Ryan & Shim, 2006), with vic-
works, has given rise to a fluid and almost permanent tims of bullying exhibiting greater fear of negative eva-
exchange that is often far removed from the adult luations (Storch, Brassard, & Masia-Warner, 2003).
world. It has been widely recognized that feelings of Social acceptance, a third indicator of social
group belonging, reciprocity, social competence or adjustment, refers to the degree to which students are
peer acceptance are linked to psychological, social and accepted or rejected by their peers. It involves enga-
emotional well-being during adolescence (Buhrmester, ging in positive interactions, spending time with others
1990; Parker & Asher, 1993). and having someone that provides support and well-
The work of Vaughn and colleagues has shown being. There is general agreement in the research lite-
that competent social behavior, social motivation and rature that the lack of acceptance by peers can lead to
peer acceptance constitute a multifaceted and hierar- victimization (Kendrick, Jutengren, & Stattin, 2012).
chically organized construct that explains social adjust- Although victims and bully-victims who suffer bullying
ment in peer groups (Bost, Vaughn, Washington, Cie- report less social support from peers (Cerezo, Sánchez,
linski, & Bradbard, 1998; Vaughn & al., 2009). Social Ruiz, & Arense, 2015; Holt & Espelage, 2007), it has
adjustment is defined as the degree to which an indi- also been shown that many boys and girls who are not
vidual engages in socially competent behaviors that accepted by their peers use aggression as a behavioral
provide a good fit between their behavior and their strategy in social interaction (Crick, Grotpeter, & Big-
immediate social context (Crick & Dodge, 1994). bee, 2002). However, social support has been re-
Perceived social competence is the cognitive esti- cognized in bullies, because certain peer groups or
mation of one’s skills, abilities and behaviors that ena- contexts constituted on the basis of immoral norms
ble positive development outcomes (Zhang & al., accept aggression as a way to gain acceptance within
2014). As regards bullying, it has been shown that vic- the group (Berger & Caravita, 2016).
tims have a deficit in social skills (Fox & Boulton,
2005). In contrast, bullies have been characterized as 1.1. Social adjustment in cyberbullying
having a low level of emotional skill in managing their The technological advances in recent decades
relationships effectively, but have also been recogni- have changed social interactions from face-to-face to
zed to be popular and skilled in manipulating social virtual exchanges. While this increased connectivity
situations to their own advantage (Gini, Pozzoli, & provides some social benefits for the virtual relations-
Hauser, 2011). Bully-victims, on the other hand, are hips of adolescents, such relationships are not without
those that exhibit the worst social and emotional skills risks, including cyberbullying (Fernández-Montalvo,
(Habashy-Hussein, 2013). Peñalva, & Irazabal, 2015).
Social motivation refers to the cognitive represen- Research on cyberbullying has described this phe-
tation of what people want to attain, and marks the nomenon as an indirect form of traditional bullying
direction, effort and persistence required to achieve which shares the defining characteristics of intimida-
the desired behavior (Austin & Vancouver, 1996). tion: an intentional, aggressive act carried out against a
Ryan and Shim (2006, 2008) have identified three victim by one or more perpetrators repeatedly and
types of goals: development goals, social demonstra- over time, causing an imbalance of power (Olweus,
tion or popularity goals and avoidance goals. The pur- 1999). However, when this phenomenon occurs via
suit of development goals in adolescents has been the Internet or other digital communication devices, it
associated with learning new ways of relating, perso- exhibits specific characteristics, such as anonymity,
nal growth and enhanced social outcomes, which publicity, which extends or may extend the damage
contribute to social efficacy and greater acceptance caused to a wider audience, and the difficulty of dis-
from peers (Mouratidis & Sideridis, 2009; Ryan & connecting from the cyber environment, which can
Shim, 2006, 2008). However, adolescents may also increase the vulnerability of the victims (Juvonen &
be driven by the pursuit of goals whose aim is to achie- Gross, 2008; Olweus, 2012; Smith, 2015).
ve popularity, social success and higher status within The fact that cyberbullying shares the defining
the group. Several studies have highlighted that boys characteristics of bullying has led many researchers to
and girls who seek social recognition are more likely to study the similarities and differences between the phe-

© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 71-79

 73

nomena. Early research gave greater attention to the involvement by bullies, victims, bully-victims and those

Comunicar, 48, XXIV, 2016

individual characteristics of the personality of the ado- not involved in the phenomenon. Determining the
lescents involved (Tani, Greenman, Schneider, & social adjustment of those involved in cyberbullying
Fregoso, 2003). Subsequent studies, however, have could provide important insight for carrying out inter-
taken into account both personal and contextual fac- ventions in the school setting.
tors, finding that empathy and the social climate in This paper has two objectives: a) to determine the
which students operate are closely interrelated in both social adjustment of those involved in cyberbullying
types of aggression (Casas, Del-Rey, & Ortega-Ruiz, and b) to analyze the differences in perceived social
2013). In fact, it has been recognized that there is an competence, social motivation and peer support bet-
overlap between those involved in traditional bullying ween the roles involved.
and cyberbullying in terms of both victimization and We hypothesize that bullies will be motivated by
aggression (Del-Rey, Elipe, & Ortega-Ruiz, 2012; popularity goals and show greater peer support, while
Kowalski, Morgan, & Limber,
2012), in addition to similar
negative consequences associa-
ted with both phenomena (Ga- Given the complex social structure of peer group
raigordobil, 2011; Zych, Orte-
ga-Ruiz, & Del-Rey, 2015). involvement, teachers and school counselors should have
This has led to the recognition more precise models to help them to organize groupings,
that cyberbullying occurs in a
social environment where so- social activities and analyze peer networks, among others,
cial relations are the same in
online and offline networks in order to prevent such phenomena from occurring and
(Ellison, Steinfield, & Lampe,
2007). It has also been shown
improve social motivation and interpersonal relationships
that students most often begin among their students. In doing so, virtual social networks
bullying over the Internet, thus
suggesting that the cyberspace will also benefit, given the close relationship between
may be a possible extension of
the school setting (Juvonen &
bullying and cyberbullying.
Gross, 2008).
Since bullying and cyber-
bullying tend to share the same
social space, the variables of interaction that define bully-victims will show lower levels of social adjust-
bullying involvement should also extend to cyberbull- ment in all its dimensions.
ying. Recent research on the social characteristics of
those involved in cyberbullying has focused on the 2. Material and method
study of peer acceptance within the group (García- 2.1. Participants
Fernández, Romera, & Ortega-Ruiz, 2015). In this A total of 505 adolescents aged 12 to 16 participa-
regard, a low level of peer support has been shown to ted in the study (M=14.49; SD=7.66), of which
be related to cybervictimization (Ortega-Barón, 47.3% were girls. Incidental non-probability sampling
Buelga, & Cava, 2016; Navarro, Yubero, & Larraña- was performed. The sample of schools was selected
ga, 2015) and cyberaggression (Calvete, Orue, according to their accessibility. The participants atten-
Estévez, Villardón, & Padilla, 2010). Similarly, it has ded two public schools with an average socioecono-
been observed that a lack of peer support and cyber- mic level, one of which was located in a rural area.
victimization are associated with subsequent online
aggression, which could explain the role of peer sup- 2.2. Instruments
port in the involvement of bully-victims (Wright & Li, The Social Support Scale for Children developed
2013). by Harter in 1985 was used (Spanish version adapted
However, little research has been done on the for adolescents by Pastor, Quiles, & Pamies, 2012)
role that social motivation, perceived social competen- (α=.69). Each of the six items of the scale captures
ce and perceived peer support play in cyberbullying two social profiles (e.g., «Some kids have classmates

© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 71-79

74

who like them the way they are BUT other kids have 2.3. Procedure
Comunicar, 48, XXIV, 2016

classmates who wish they were different»), with two After selecting the schools, pupils were informed
response options each («Really true for me» or «Sort of of the research aims and asked to participate in the
true for me»). Respondents are asked to choose which study. Authorization was obtained from the schools
profile best describes them and once they have chosen and the families. Emphasis was placed on the volun-
the profile they are asked to select one of the two tary nature of their participation and the confidentiality
options. The internal consistency of the scale with the of their responses.
study sample was Ω=.75. The instruments were administered to the classes
Social motivation was measured using the Spanish as a whole in their respective classrooms without the
adaptation of the Social Achievement Goals Scale (He- presence of teachers in a single, 30-minute session.
rrera-López, Romera, Gómez-Ortiz, & Ortega-Ruiz,
2016) designed and validated by Ryan and Shim (2006). 2.4. Data analysis
This scale measures three types of social goals: deve- To determine the psychometric properties of the
lopment goals (ΩMD=.78) (e.g., «In general, I strive Perceived Social Competence Scale in adolescents,
to develop my interpersonal skills»); popularity goals confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was performed
(ΩMA=.89) (e.g., «I want to be friends with ‘popular’ using the robust maximum likelihood method. The
people»); and avoidance goals (ΩME=.77) (e.g., «I following fit indices were used: the Satorra-Bentler
would be successful if I could avoid being socially chi-square (2S-B), the comparative fit index (CFI)
awkward»). The scale comprises a total of 12 items (>.95), the non-normed fit index (NNFI) (>.95), the
that are measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1= goodness-of-fit index (GFI) (>.95), the root mean
Not at all true and 5=Very true). The internal con- square error of approximation (RMSEA) (<.08) and
sistency with the study sample was adequate the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR)
(ΩMD=.82, ΩMA=.85, ΩME=.75). (< .08) (Byrne, 2006; Hu & Bentler, 1999). EQS 6.2
Self-perceived social competence was measured software was used to perform the analyses. To calcu-
using the Perceived Social Competence Scale II (An- late involvement in the cyberbullying roles, the crite-
derson-Butcher, Amorose, Riley, Gibson, & Ruch, rion of Del-Rey & al. (2015) was taken into account.
2014). This scale assesses the perception of social self- To study the mean differences in involvement in
competence by means of five items (e.g., «I show con- the cyberbullying roles, nonparametric tests were used
cern for others» or «I give support to others»). Res- (Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney U tests for pairwi-
ponses are measured on a 5-point Likert scale (1=Not se comparisons) after verifying the lack of normality by
at all true and 5=Really true). To date, no studies the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. The data were coded
have used this scale with Spanish teenagers. The and analysed using SPSS statistical software version 20.
results of the validation of the Spanish adaptation of Given the ordinal characteristics of the variables, inter-
the scale are presented in the results section. The nal consistency was analyzed based on the results of
internal consistency with the study sample was ade- McDonald’s omega (Elosua Oliden & Zumbo, 2008),
quate (Ω=.91). which was calculated using the Factor 9.3 program.
The European Intervention Project Cyberbullying
Questionnaire (Del-Rey & al., 2015) was used to mea- 3. Analysis and results
sure two dimensions of cyberbullying: cybervictimiza- The descriptive analyses of the sample indicate a
tion (α=.97) (e.g., «Someone said nasty things to me 29.7% incidence of cyberbullying. Of the total respon-
or called me names using texts or online messages» or dents, 9.9% were victims, 5.5% were bullies and
«Someone posted embarrassing videos or pictures of around 14.3% were bully-victims. No statistically signi-
me online») and cyberaggression (α=.93) (e.g., «I cre- ficant differences regarding involvement in each of the
ated a fake account, pretending to be some else» or «I roles were observed for the gender variable.
excluded or ignored someone in a social networking The results of the CFA for the Perceived Social
site or Internet chat room»). The questionnaire con- Competence Scale in adolescents were optimal (figure
sists of 22 Likert items with five response options: 1): χ2S-B=13.96; p=.01; NNFI=.971; CFI=.985;
0=No; 1=Yes, once or twice; 2=Yes, once or twice RMSEA=.059; SRMR=.27. The values of the cova-
a month; 3=Yes, about once a week; and 4=Yes, riances between items ranged from .46 to .71. The
more than once a week. The internal consistency for value of Mardia’s multivariate coefficient was 30.63.
the study sample was adequate for cybervictimization The univariate statistics for each item are presented in
(Ω=.95) and cyberaggression (Ω=.97). table 1.

© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 71-79

 75

(Del-Rey & al., 2015),

Comunicar, 48, XXIV, 2016

thus permitting the results
to be compared with
other studies that have
used the same instru-
ment. Our results show
that one out of every four
students is involved in
The Kruskal-Wallis H test showed statistically sig- cyberbullying, with more young people involved in the
nificant differences between the different cyberbull- role of cyberbully-victim (Del-Rey & al., 2015; Selkie,
ying roles in all the social adjustment variables (table Fales, & Moreno, in press). In line with previous stu-
2). Post hoc analyses with pairwise comparisons using dies, we did not observe gender differences (Hinduja
the Mann-Whitney U test showed that cybervictims & Patchin, 2009). However, the results on gender dif-
were less accepted by their peers compared to those ferences in cyberbullying are unclear and it seems that
not involved in cyberbullying (p˂.001), cyberbullies they may be moderated by age (see the meta-analysis
(p˂.01) and cyberbully-victims (p=.027), while cyber- of Barlett & Coyne, 2014). As regards social adjust-
bully-victims showed less peer acceptance than those ment, our study found that cyberbullies report the hig-
not involved in cyberbullying (p=.021). As regards hest mean perceived social support, even compared to
social development goals, those not involved showed those who are not involved in cyberbullying. In this
a higher level of social competence compared to the sense, our study differs from some studies (Calvete &
cyberbullies (p=.047) and the cyberbully-victims al., 2010; Katzer, Fetchenhauer, & Belschak, 2009)
(p=.017). In terms of social demonstration goals, which have reported that bullies are characterized by
cybervictims displayed fewer popularity goals than their low peer support, but is consistent with others
cyberbullies (p=.045) and cyberbully-victims (p˂.001). which have shown that bullies are more popular and
However, the group not involved in cyberbullying socially accepted than victims and as popular and
exhibited fewer popularity goals than the cyberbully- socially accepted as those who are not involved
victims (p˂.01). As for self-perceived social competen- (Berger & Caravita, 2016). As expected, cybervictims
ce, the group of cyberbullies showed lower levels than reported the lowest mean perceived peer support,
those not involved (p˂.01) and cybervictims (p˂.01). which is consistent with studies that indicate that
Moreover, cyberbully-victims showed lower self-per- cybervictims have fewer friends and the support of
ceived social competence compared with the cyber- friends protects against cyberbullying (Kendrick & al.,
victims (p=.017) and those not involved (p=.040). 2012; Kowalski, Giumetti, Schroeder, & Lattanner,
2014; Navarro & al., 2015). The relationship be-
4. Discussion and conclusions tween low peer support and cybervictimization can be
The purpose of this research was to determine the explained, on the one hand, by the face-to-face con-
social adjustment of adolescents involved in cyberbull- text in which bullying occurs, and on the other, by the
ying through the analysis of perceived peer support, strong relationship between bullying and cyberbull-
social competence and social goals, and to examine ying. If cyberbullies choose their cybervictims from
differences according to the cyberbullying role.
We hypothesized that cyberbullies would exhibit
greater popularity goals and peer support than
cybervictims and that cyberbully-victims would
show lower social adjustment in all the dimen-
sions.
Research on the prevalence of cyberbullying
has yielded different results in terms of the percen-
tages of involvement, often due to the heteroge-
neity of the measurement processes (Modecki,
Minchin, Harbaugh, Guerra, & Runions, 2014).
In this study, we used an instrument that has been
validated in a broad European sample and captu- Figure 1. CFA for the Perceived Social Competence Scale
res the defining characteristics of cyberbullying (Anderson-Butcher & al., 2014)

© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 71-79

76
Comunicar, 48, XXIV, 2016

among socially vulnerable boys and girls who are more relationships and take the initiative to meet others,
socially isolated and already immersed in a process of make friends and learn to get along with others, all of
face-to-face victimization and hence less able to which are related to lower peer rejection (Mouratidis
defend themselves, such social defenselessness could & Sideridis, 2009; Ryan & Shim, 2006, 2008). In this
be a prior risk factor for cyberaggression. The low paper, those who were not involved in bullying repor-
peer support perceived by cyberbully-victims may ted higher levels in the social development goal varia-
have the same explanation since, to a large degree, bles, while cyberbullies showed lower scores, thus
cyberbully-victims have similar functional characteris- confirming that cyberbullies are characterized by low
tics to those of cybervictims. The lack of peer support levels of positive social motivation or development.
and cybervictimization may intensify negative feelings, As regards the pursuit of popularity, cyberbully-
which in turn increases the risk of cyberbullying. This victims and cyberbullies were most driven by the need
is in line with previous studies, which have shown that to be socially recognized. These results are consistent
peer rejection may be a source of tension that contri- with those found for bullying, thus suggesting that the
butes to cyberbullying (Hinduja & Patchin, 2009; desire to attain social recognition leads many boys and
Wright & Li, 2013). girls to intimidate others. It should be noted, however,
Although there is little research on social develop- that cyberbullies do not harass others at random, but
ment goals in relation to cyberbullying roles, we know do so in order to strengthen their social position or
that when adolescents pursue social development marginalize opponents in a group (Navarro & al.,
goals, they find new ways of relating, enhance their 2015), which has important moral implications regar-

© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 71-79

 77

ding the impact of bullying and cyberbullying on the reach conclusions that more closely reflect the social

Comunicar, 48, XXIV, 2016

ethics of students involved in these phenomena. and virtual reality of adolescents. Measuring the varia-
Finally, cyberbullies display lower levels of percei- bles by means of self-reports is also limiting because
ved social competence, whereas cybervictims show they may lead to some degree of social desirability bias.
the highest. This social profile underscores the close It would therefore be necessary to include the percep-
relationship between cyberbullying and traditional or tions of other groups (peers or teachers) to assess
face-to-face bullying. As in traditional bullying, cyber- social adjustment, as well as to obtain qualitative data
bullying is targeted at victims who, despite engaging in on the perspective of victims and bullies. As a future
prosocial behaviors, being perceived as socially com- line of research, longitudinal explanatory models of
petent and striving to improve their relationships with social adjustment in cyberbullying which measure the
others (development goals), are vulnerable and rejec- attitudes and behaviors of the reference peer group
ted within the group. It is therefore not their social towards cyberbullying should be considered.
skills that characterize them, but the position or social
status they acquire according to the conventions and Acknowledgments
sometimes arbitrary norms established within the peer This study has been carried out within the framework of the follo-
group context, which may explain their victimization. wing projects: Project PRY040/14 funded by the Fundación Pública
Andaluza Centro de Estudios Andaluces, Project EDU2013-44627-
This suggests that prosociality and the ability to interact P funded by the Spanish National R&D&I Plan, Proyecto BIL/
with others does not protect victims from being the tar- 14/S2/163 financed by the Fundación Mapfre, and Project 564710
get of bullies. Rather, cyberbullies recognize their lack financed by the Europe for Citizens Programme.
of social efficacy and low level of development goals
and yet are popular and recognized by others (which References
does not necessarily mean that they are loved or liked). Anderson-Butcher, D., Amorose, A.J., & al. (2014). The Case for
Hence, there is a cyberbully profile that seeks popula- the Perceived Social Competence Scale II. Research on Social
rity within the peer group and has a high level of peer Work Practice, 9, 1-10. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/104973151-
4557362
acceptance; two features that characterize this false Austin, J.T., & Vancouver, J.B. (1996). Goal Constructs in Psy-
leadership within the group. Such morally vacuous chology: Structure, Process, and Content. Psychological Bulletin,
leadership should be considered morally negative. 120, 338-375. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.120.3.338
These findings should aid in guiding psychoeduca- Barlett, C., & Coyne, S.M. (2014). A Meta-analysis of Sex Diffe-
tional interventions, teaching practices, curriculum rences in Cyber-bullying Behavior: The Moderating Role of Age.
Aggressive Behavior, 40, 474-488. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1002-
design and actions to promote peaceful coexistence in /ab.21555
secondary schools. Given the complex social structure Berger, C., & Caravita, C.S. (2016). Why do Early Adolescents
of peer group involvement, teachers and school coun- Bully? Exploring the Influence of Prestige Norms on Social and
selors should have more precise models to help them Psychological Motives to Bully. Journal of Adolescence, 46, 45-56.
to organize groupings, social activities and analyze doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.10.020
Bost, K.K., Vaughn, B.E., Washington, W.N., Cielinski, K.L., &
peer networks, among others, in order to prevent such Bradbard, M.R. (1998). Social Competence, Social Support, and
phenomena from occurring and improve social moti- Attachment: Demarcation of Construct Domains, Measurement,
vation and interpersonal relationships among their stu- and Paths of Influence for Preschool Children Attending Head Start.
dents. In doing so, virtual social networks will also Child Development, 69, 192-218. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.-
benefit, given the close relationship between bullying 1467-8624.1998.tb06143.x
Buhrmester, D. (1990). Intimacy of Friendship, Interpersonal Com-
and cyberbullying. petence, and Adjustment during Preadolescence and Adoles-
The conclusions of this study indicate that greater cence. Child Development, 61, 1101-1111. doi: http://dx.doi.org/-
attention must be paid to the configuration, social moti- 10.1111/j.1467-8624.1990.tb02844.x
ves and socio-emotional connotations of the peer group Byrne, B.M. (2006). Structural equation modeling with EQS: Basic
and its influence on the management of social life and concepts, applications, and Programming. Mahwah, New Jersey:
Erlbaum.
school life. Indeed, many of the keys for explaining the Calvete, E., Orue, I., Estévez, A., Villardón, L., & Padilla, P. (2010).
situations of dominance and submission that occur in Cyberbullying in Adolescents: Modalities and aggressors’ pro-
cyberspace between boys and girls may be found in the file. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 1128-1135. doi: http://-
conventions and social motives that arise in the context dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.chb.2010.03.017
of both direct and virtual peer networks. Casas, J.A., Del-Rey, R., & Ortega-Ruiz, R. (2013). Bullying and Cy-
berbullying: Convergent and Divergent Predictor Variables.  Com-
This study has some limitations, among them the puters in Human Behavior, 29, 580-587. doi: http://dx.doi.org/
sample size. Increasing the number of participating 10.1016/j.chb.2012.11.015
schools as well as the study area would allow us to Cerezo, F., Sánchez, C., Ruiz, C., & Arense, J.J. (2015). Ado-

© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 71-79

78

lescents and Preadolescents’ Roles on Bullying, and its Relation with Sage Publications.
Comunicar, 48, XXIV, 2016

Social Climate and Parenting Styles. Psicodidáctica, 20, 139-155. Holt, M.K., & Espelage, D.L. (2007). Perceived Social Support
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1387/RevPsicodidact.11097 among Bullies, Victims, and Bully-victims. Journal of Youth and
Crick, N.R., & Dodge, K.A. (1994). A Review and Reformulation of Adolescence, 36, 984-994.
Social Information-processing Mechanisms in Children’s Social Hu, L., & Bentler, P. (1999). Cut off Criteria for fit Indexes in
Adjustment. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 74-101. doi: http://dx.- Covariance Structure Analysis: Conventional Criteria versus New
doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.74 Alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1-55. http://dx.doi.-
Crick, N.R., Grotpeter, J.K., & Bigbee, M.A. (2002). Relationally org/10.7334/10.1080/10705519909540118
and Physically Aggressive Children’s Intent Attributions and Feelings Juvonen, J., & Gross, E.F. (2008). Extending the School Grounds?
of Distress for Relational and Instrumental Peer Provocations. Child Bullying Experiences in Cyberspace. Journal of School Health, 78,
Development, 73, 1134-1142. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467- 496-505. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2008.00335.x
8624.00462 Katzer, C., Fetchenhauer, D., & Belschak, F. (2009). Cyberbullying:
Del-Rey, R., Casas, J.A., Ortega-Ruizb, R., Schultze-Krumbholzd, Who are the Victims?: A Comparison of Victimization in Internet
A., Scheithauerd, H, Smithe, P... Plichtai, P. (2015). Structural Va- Chatrooms and Victimization in School. Journal of Media Psycho-
lidation and Cross-cultural Robustness of the European Cyber- logy: Theories, Methods, and Applications, 21, 25-36. doi: http://-
bullying Intervention Project Questionnaire. Computers in Human dx.doi.org/10.1027/1864-1105.21.1.25
Behavior, 50, 141-147. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.- Kendrick, K., Jutengren, G., & Stattin, H. (2012). The Protective
03.065 Role of Supportive Friends against Bullying Perpetration and Vic-
Del-Rey, R., Elipe, P., & Ortega-Ruiz, R. (2012). Bullying and timization. Journal of Adolescence, 35, 1.069-1.080. doi: http://dx.-
Cyberbullying: Overlapping and Predictive Value of the Co-occu- doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.02.014
rrence. Psicothema, 24, 608-613. Kowalski, R.M., Giumetti, G.W., Schroeder, A.N., & Lattanner,
Ellison, N.B., Steinfield, C., & Lampe, C. (2007). The Benefits of M.R. (2014). Bullying in the Digital Age: A Critical Review and Meta-
Facebook ‘Friends’: Social Capital and College Students’ Use of analysis of Cyberbullying Research among Youth. Psychological
Online Social Network Sites. Journal of Computer-Mediated Bulletin, 140, 1.073-1.137. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0035618
Communication, 12, 1143-1168. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/- Kowalski, R.M., Morgan, C.A., & Limber, S.P. (2012). Traditional
j.1083-6101.2007.00367.x Bullying as a Potential Warning Sign of Cyberbullying. School Psy-
Elosua Oliden, P., & Zumbo, B.D. (2008). Coeficientes de fiabili- chology International, 33, 505-519. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.11-
dad para escalas de respuesta categórica ordenada. Psicothema, 20, 77/0143034312445244
896-901. Modecki, K.L., Minchin, J., Harbaugh, A.G., Guerra, N.G., &
Fernández-Montalvo, J., Peñalva, A., & Irazabal, I. (2015). Hábitos Runions, K.C. (2014). Bullying Prevalence across Contexts: A Meta-
de uso y conductas de riesgo en Internet en la preadolescencia. analysis Measuring Cyber and Traditional Bullying. Journal of
[Internet Use Habits and Risk Behaviours in Preadolescence]. Adolescent Health, 55, 602-611. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.-
Comunicar, 44, 113-120. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C44- jadohealth.2014.06.007
2015-12 Mouratidis, A., & Sideridis, G. (2009). On Social Achievement
Garaigordobil, M. (2011). Prevalencia y consecuencias del cyber- Goals: Their Relations with Peer Acceptance, Classroom Belon-
bullying: una revisión. International Journal of Psychology and gingness, and Perceptions of Loneliness. The Journal of Experi-
Psychological Therapy, 11, 233-254. mental Education, 77, 285-307. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3200/-
García-Fernández, C.M., Romera, E.M., & Ortega, R. (2015). JEXE.77.3.285-308
Explicative Factors of Face-to-face Harassment and Cyberbullying Navarro, R., Yubero, S., & Larrañaga, E. (2015). Psychosocial Risk
in a Sample of Primary Students. Psicothema, 27, 347-353. doi: Factors for Involvement in Bullying Behaviors: Empirical Compa-
http://dx.doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2015.35 rison between Cyberbullying and Social Bullying Victims and
Fox, C. L., & Boulton, M. J. (2005). The Social Skills Problems of Bullies. School Mental Health, 7, 235-248. doi: http://dx.doi.org/-
Victims of Bullying: Self, Peer and Teacher Perceptions. British 10.1007/s12310-015-9157-9
Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 313-328. doi: http://dx.- Ojanen, T., Grönroos, M., & Salmivalli, C. (2005). Applying the
doi.org/10.1348/000709905X25517 Interpersonal Circumplex Model into Children’s Social Goals:
Gini, G., Pozzoli, T., & Hauser, M. (2011). Bullies have Enhanced Connections with Peer Reported behavior and Sociometric Status.
Moral Competence to Judge relative to Victims, but Lack Moral Developmental Psychology, 41, 699-710. doi: http://dx.doi.org/-
Compassion. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 603-608. 10.1037/0012-1649.41.5.699
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.12.002 Olweus, D. (1999). Norway. In P.K. Smith, Y. Morita, J. Junger-
Habashy-Hussein, M. (2013). The Social and Emotional Skills of Tas, D. Olweus, R. Catalano, & P. Slee (Eds.), The Nature of
Bullies, Victims, and Bully-victims of Egyptian Primary School School Bullying: A Cross-national Perspective (pp. 28-48). Lon-
Children. International Journal of Psychology, 48, 910-921.http:- don: Routledge.
//dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207594.2012.702908 Olweus, D. (2012). Cyberbullying: An Overrated Phenomenon?
Harter, S. (1985). The Self-perception Profile for Children: Re- European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 9, 520-538. doi:
vision of the Perceived Competence Scale for Children. Denver, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2012.682358
CO: University of Denver. Ortega-Barón, J., Buelga, S., & Cava, M.J. (2016). Influencia del
Herrera-López, M., Romera, E.M., Ortega-Ruiz, R., & Gómez-Ortiz, clima escolar y familiar en adolescentes, víctimas de ciberacoso.
O. (2016). Influence of Social Motivation, Self-perception of Social [The Influence of School Climate and Family Climate among Ado-
Efficacy and Normative Adjustment in the Peer Setting. Psicothema, lescents Victims of Cyberbullying]. Comunicar, 46, 57-65. http://-
28, 32-39. http://dx.doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2015.135 dx.doi.org/10.3916/C46-2016-06
Hinduja, S., & Patchin, J. (2009). Bullying Beyond the Schoolyard: Parker, J.G., & Asher, S.R. (1993). Friendship and Friendship
Preventing and Responding to Cyberbullying. Thousand Oaks: Quality in Middle Childhood: Links with Peer Group Acceptance

© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 71-79

 79

and Feelings of Loneliness and Social Dissatisfaction.  Develop- 15, 176-184. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1471-3802.12114

Comunicar, 48, XXIV, 2016

mental Psychology, 29, 6-11. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0012- Storch, E.A., Brassard, M.R., & Masia-Warner, C.L. (2003). The
1649.29.4.611 Relationship of Peer Victimization to Social Anxiety and Loneliness
Pastor, Y., Quiles, Y., & Pamies, L. (2012). Apoyo social en la ado- in Adolescence. Child Study Journal, 33, 1-18.
lescencia: adaptación y propiedades psicométricas del «Social Tani, F., Greenman, P.S., Schneider, B.H., & Fregoso, M. (2003).
Support Scale for Children» de Harter (1985). Revista de Psico- Bullying and the Big Five. A Study of Childhood Personality and
logía Social, 27, 39-53. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1174/02134741- Participant Roles in Bullying Incidents. School Psychology Inter-
2798844060. national, 24, 131-146. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/01430-
Rodkin, P., Ryan, A., Jamison R., & Wilson T., (2013). Social 34303024002001
Goals, Social Behavior, and Social Status in Middle Childhood. Vaughn, B.E., Shin, N., Kim, M., Coppola, G., Krzysik, L., Santos,
Developmental Psychology, 49, 1.139-1.150. doi: http://dx.doi.- A.J... Korth, B. (2009). Hierarchical Models of Social Competence
org/10.1037/a0029389 in Preschool Children: A Multisite, Multinational Study. Child
Ryan, A., & Shim, S.S. (2006). Social Achievement Goals: The Development, 80, 1.775-1.796. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/-
Nature and Consequences of Different Orientations toward Social j.1467-8624.2009.01367.x
Competence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, Wright, M.F., & Li, Y. (2013). The Association between Cyber
1.246-1.263. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167206289345 Victimization and Subsequent Cyber Aggression: The Moderating
Ryan, A., & Shim, S.S. (2008). An Exploration of Young Adolescents’ Effect of Peer Rejection. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42,
Social Achievement Goals: Implications for Social Adjustment in 662-674. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9903-3
Middle School. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 672-687. Zhang, F., You, Z., Fan, C., Gao, C., Cohen, R., Hsueh, Y... Zhou,
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.100.3.672 Z. (2014). Friendship Quality, Social Preference, Proximity Prestige,
Selkie, E.M., Fales, J.L., & Moreno, M.A. (2016). Cyberbullying and Self-perceived Social Competence: Interactive Influences on
Prevalence among US Middle and High School-Aged Adolescents: Children’s Loneliness. Journal of School Psychology, 52, 511-526.
A Systematic Review and Quality Assessment. Journal of Adoles- doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/jsp.2014.06.001
cent Health, 58(2), 125-133. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jado- Zych, I., Ortega-Ruiz, R., & Del-Rey, R. (2015). Scientific Research
health.2015.09.026 on Bullying and Cyberbullying: Where Have We Been and Where
Smith, P.K. (2015). The Nature of Cyberbullying and What We Are We Going. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 24,188-198. doi:
Can do about it. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2015.05.015

© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 71-79