LESSON 13: COMMUNICATIVE STRATEGIES

COMMUNICATIVE STRATEGIES

- Tarone (1980) defines communicative strategy as mutual attempts of two interlocutors to agree on a
meaning in situations where requisite meaning strategies do not seem to be shared.
- Brown (1994) defines communicative strategy as a systematic technique employed by a speaker to express
his own ideas when faced with difficulties.

Communicative strategy can be a vehicle to employ verbal and non verbal cues for communicating an idea.
Successful communication requires accountability of responsible speakers and listeners. In instances where
participants do not understand each other, they may resort to utilize communicative strategies to resolve such
misunderstandings.

Conversation Analysis

- Conversation is considered as any spoken encounter or oral interaction and sometimes it is understood in a
more restricted way .

Conversation Analysis according to Paltridge (2008) is an approach to the analysis of spoken discourse that looks at
the way people manage their everyday conversational interactions. It examine how spoken discourse is organized
and developed as the speakers carry out the interactions. The major assumption of conversational analysis is that
ordinary conversation is systematically organized and socially ordered.

Basic Structures of Conversation According to Psathas (1995)

1. Orderliness is produced
2. Order is produced, situated, and occasioned
3. Order is repeated and recurrent

TYPES OF COMMUNICATIVE STRATEGIES

Strategies must be used to start and maintain a conversation. (Cohen,1990)

1. Nomination - collaboratively and productively establish a topic. It has o do with the positioning of topics within
the conversation openings which allow further talk once the person’s attention has been obtained.
Examples of Conversation Openers:
- questions for finding some common ground
- comments on actual circumstances
- comments on the weather
- general complaints

2. Restriction - refers to any limitation you may have as a speaker. On some cases of communication, there's
instructions that must be followed. Those instructions confine you as a speaker and limit what you can say.
3. Turn-Taking - Happens when one person speaks at a time, then gives a turn to the next speaker, or the next
speaker take up a turn being given.
RULES IN TURN TAKING
(Sacks, Schegloff, and Jefferson, 1974

1. If current speaker selects next speaker, he/she is obligated to take the next turn
2. Otherwise, any speaker may self select the next turn
3. Otherwise, the current speaker may continue

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4. Topic Control - covers how procedural formality or informality affects the development of topic in conversations.
This only means that when a topic is initiated, it should be collectively developed by avoiding unnecessary
interruptions and topic shifts.

5. Topic Shifting - Involves moving from one topic to another. It is where one part of a conversation ends and where
another begins

6. Feedback/ Backchannel - Indicates understanding, listening or following the other speaker's utterance. This
signals the speaker that the messaged is received.
Examples:
• eye contact
• head nods
• smiles
• noise
• words
• evaluative feedback

7. Repair - Refers to how speaker address the problems in speaking, listening and comprehending that they may
encounter in a conversation.
Examples:
CHECKERS
Used to find out whether the audience is still attentive
(“Ok, so far?” “Are you with me?” “Got it?”)
FACIAL EXPRESSIONS/GESTURES/EYE MOVEMENT
Used to signal the use for repair
(“Huh?” “What?” “I'm sorry” )
ECHOING
Repeats a word or phrase which is not understood
{“What I mean to say...” “Let me put it this way...” “I mean..”

8. Termination - Refers to the conversation participants' close initiating expressions that end a topic in a
conversation.
Examples:
 “Ok then…”
 “All right…”
 “So…”
 “Well, I suppose…”
 “”I’m afraid…”
 “I’ve got to go no…”
 “It’s been nice talking to you…”

A shift in speech context, speech style, speech act and communicative strategy affects the following

1. Language form It refers to the structure of language; includes rules of how words are built and
combined, and how speech sounds create meaning
2. Duration of interaction This refers to the length of time consumed in the conversation.
3. Relationship of speaker This refers to the relationship of the speaker to the listener.
4. Role and responsibilities The role and responsibilities of the speaker shifts based on the situation or setting,
of the speaker manner and objective in the conversation.
5. Message This refers to the idea or concept to be shared or conveyed.
6. Delivery This refers to the manner of how speech or message is delivered.

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UNIT 4: TYPES OF SPEECHES
Lesson 14: TYPES OF SPEECHES ACCORDING TO PURPOSE
1. Informative/Expository 2. Persuasive 3. Entertainment

Lesson 14.1 INFORMATIVE / EXPOSITORYSPEECH

 An INFORMATIVE speech provides the audience with a clear understanding of a CONCEPT or IDEA.

There are 4 types of informative speech which vary depending on the topic.
◉Speech about objects or people - this focuses on tangible items like gadgets, products, structures, or people.
◉Speech about processes - this focuses on a or sequence of events.
◉Speech about events - this focuses on an event that happened, is happening, or might happen in the future.
◉Speech about concept - this focuses on beliefs, knowledge, theories, principles or ideas.

Organizational Patterns Outline

1. Chronological - 1. Introduction
1.1 Attention getter
this can be used if you want to 1.2 Thesis Statement/ Main Point
present the history, evolution, 2. Body
or development of your topic in 2.1 Step A/ Year A/ First
a sequential order, from past to 2. 2 Step B/ Year B/ Second
present or beginning to end. 2.3 Step C/ Year C/ Third
2.4 Step D/ Year D/ Fourth or Finally
3. Conclusion
3.1 Summary of the Points
3. 2 Memorable Statement
2. Spatial/ Topical/ Categorical 1. Introduction
Pattern - 1.1 Attention getter
1.2 Thesis Statement/ Main Point
this can be used if you want 2. Body
to inform your audience 2.1 Feature A/ Description A/ First Category
about the main features, 2. 2 Feature B/ Description B/ Second Category
descriptions, or categories of 2.3 Feature C/ Description C/ Third Category
your topic. 2.4 Feature D/ Description D/ Fourth or Final Category
3. Conclusion
3.1 Summary of the Points
3.2 Memorable Statement
3. Cause and Effect Pattern. 1. Introduction
1.1 Attention getter
This can be used if you want 1.2 Thesis Statement/ Main Point highlighting the cause/effect of an
show the causal relationship of event or phenomenon
events or phenomena. 2. Body
2.1 Cause A/ Effect A
2.2 Cause B/ Effect B
2.3 Cause C/ Effect C
2.4 Cause D/ Effect D
3. Conclusion
3.1 Summary of the Points
3.2 Memorable Statement
3. Comparison – Contrast 1. Introduction
1.1 Attention getter
This can be used if you want to 1.2 Thesis Statement/ Main Point highlighting the concepts compared
compare objects, events or 2. Body
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 concepts underscoring their 2.1 Object/Event/Concept A
similarities and differences. 2.1.1 Comparison Point A
2.1.2 Comparison Point B
2.1.3 Comparison Point C
2.2 Object/Event/Concept B
2.2.1 Comparison Point A
2.2.2 Comparison Point B
2.2.3 Comparison Point C
3. Conclusion
3.1 Summary of the Points
3.2 Memorable Statement
4. Point-by-Point 1. Introduction
1.1 Attention getter
1.2 Thesis Statement/ Main Point highlighting the concepts compared
2. Body
2.1 Comparison Point A
2.1.1 Object/Event/Concept A
2.1.2 Object/Event/Concept B
2.2 Comparison Point B
2.2.1 Object/Event/Concept A
2.2.2 Object/Event/Concept B
3. Conclusion
3.1 Summary of the Points
3.2 Memorable Statement

Lesson 14.2 PERSUASIVE SPEECH

It is the process of producing oral messages that increase personal commitment, modify
beliefs,attitudes or values. (Gronbeck, 1994)

 When you deliver a persuasive speech, your primary goal is to influence the thoughts, feelings, actions, and
behaviors or attitudes of your listeners.

 Likewise, you also aim to change their perception and convince them that your argument is more important,
practical, attainable, or feasible.

 Eight Purposes of Persuasive Speeches:

1. To urge a choice among options.
2. Persuaders act as advocates for a cause or point of view.
3. To use supporting materials as evidence that justified advice.
4. Persuaded listeners become agents of change.
5. Asks for audience commitment to a cause
6. Establishes character and commitment of speaker through leadership
7. Makes appeals to feelings
8. Makes us confront our obligation to believe and act in socially and morally responsive ways.

 Types of Evidence to use in Persuasive Speeches:

 Facts, figures, statistics
 Use examples from “real life”
 Narratives—make your audience witness to a living drama
 Use Expert Testimony/Witnesses
- When you quote others, you are associating yourself with them, so be careful whom you choose!
- Reluctant witnesses are those who testify against their apparent self-interest and so are often more
powerful (such as Democratic critics of a Democratic president).

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Develop a Proof (an argument):
Aristotle believed there were three forms of proof:
 Pathos: appeals to personal feelings such as fear, pity, and anger
 Ethos: audiences respond to the speaker’s competence, character, goodwill, and dynamism and the credibility
of the evidence
 Logos: appeals to reason (logical arguments)
Scholars today believe that there is one final element to the proof:
 Mythos: appeals to the traditions and values of your culture, legends, and folktales

GUIDELINES IN PERSUASIVE WRITING

1) ETHOS - Stand with credibility.
3 Essential Qualities of persuasive ethos
a) Virtue - must make the audience feel he has the same values with them
b) Practical Wisdom - must show he is competent and knowledgeable of the subject matter
c) Selflessness - unbiased and free from special interest
2) LOGOS - Speak with logic.
THREE STEPS TO ACHIEVE LOGOS
1. Make a claim (the statement that the speaker wants his/her audience to accept).
2. Offer evidence (the supporting material used to prove a point).
3. Show how the evidence proves the claim.

Logos: The heart of an argument

 Reason from a principle that you believe everyone in your audience accepts (such as “Freedom of Speech”)
 Reason from reality using statistics, comparisons, and even scientific data (Science is a god-term---a key word
to give your data credibility)
 Reason with parallel cases which are used to frame an unfamiliar concept in something more familiar

3) PATHOS - Strike with emotions.

 Emotional appeals make the listeners as active participants in the message.
 Once their emotions are stirred up, they become psychologically involved.
 Listener's feelings can be evoked if provocative accounts and powerful language like vivid, emotionally toned
metaphors are used.

Qualities of an Effective Persuasive Speech

Qualities Guide Questions
1. Well defined goal What is your specific goal in mind?
Do you expect your audience to think and act differently after they listen?
2. Clear main point Is the main point of your speech clear to you?
Is it specific and focused?
3. Sufficient supporting Do you have factual statements, reliable sources, or solid evidence to
ideas support your main point?
Do you have enough supporting statements?
4. Logical reasoning How will you state your arguments?
 Deductive (general evidence to specific)
 Inductive (specific to general)
 Causal
 Analogy
5. Effective and powerful ways to gain th Do you use any of the following techniques?
e attention of your audience  Powerful and relevant questions
 Striking statistics
 Shocking incident
 Memorable anecdotes
 Humorous observations or experiences
6. Compelling ideas to Do you appeal to your listeners’ minds?
make your target audience feel and think Do you appeal to your listeners’ hearts?
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STEPS ON CONSTRUCTING A PERSUASIVE SPEECH
1. Create an Awareness of the problem/issue
 First, make sure that the audience knows that the issue exists
 Make a case for the problem/issue is an important one that needs to be fixed/addressed

2. Create an understanding of the issue/problem

 Use data and statistics to illustrate the problem/issue
 Use testimony, stories, examples to connect with your audience (Logos, Pathos, Ethos, Mythos)
 You can also respectfully address the “other side” of the issue/problem

3. Offer a solution/plan/action that would address the issue or solve the problem:
 If you have offered a valid argument, the audience may accept your position and be ready to act.
 Have a valid plan that is logical

TYPES OF PERSUASIVE SPEECH ACCORDING TO TOPIC

1. Types that Questions Fact
 It determines whether or not a particular issue is true and is backed by concrete evidence.
 Based on the question: “Is it true?”
Example:
Argument: The declaration of Cybercrime Law is unconstitutional.
Purpose: Persuade my listeners that Cybercrime Law is unconstitutional.
Main Point: The provision of the Bill of Rights in the Constitution values freedom of speech.
Supporting Idea: Article III, Section 4 of the Constitution states that no law shall be passed abridging the freedom of
speech, the freedom of press, and the cognate rights of individuals and groups within our society. Hence, any law
against freedom of speech has no meaning to the stated provision.

2. Speech that Questions Value

 One argues whether or not something is right, moral or ethical.
 In this case, the persuasive speaker
a. makes a statement of claim,
b attempts to convince the audience why,
c. and justifies.
Example:
Argument: Death Penalty is Immoral
Purpose: Persuade my listeners that death penalty is immoral.
Main Point: There is no reason for the government to revive the death penalty.
Supporting Idea: “An-eye-for-an-eye-for-an-eye-for-an-eye makes everybody blind” by Mahatma Gandhi.
Only God has the right to take lives.

3. Speech that Questions Policy

 This is given to the audience to either support or reject a dogma, rule, regulation or even a program. it may
also promote for or against a status quo.
Example:
Argument: The government should protect the LGBT community in the workplace.
Purpose: Persuade the listeners that the LGBT community should be protected from discrimination.
Main Point: LGBT members deserve to be protected by the law against discrimination in the workplace.
Supporting Idea: There have been reports of discrimination at work in terms of promotion and benefits. Hence, there
is need to create and implement policy related to this.

4. Speech that Refute

 This type either responds to or disproves the claims of others while defending and promoting own claims.
 Example: Debate
Example:
Argument: You disagree with foreign media reports dubbing the Philippines as the worse country to visit.
Purpose: To persuade the listeners that there is no truth to the claims of foreign media that the Philippines is not a
good place for vacation.
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Main Point: The Philippines is an attractive and sought-after country.
Supporting Idea: Statistics from the Department of Tourism showing massive increase in international tourists every
year and travel blogs reporting the Philippines as the top destination in Asia are the two reasons why this country
remains one of the most attractive places in the world.

TYPES OF PERSUASIVE SPEECH ACCORDING TO PURPOSE

1. Speech To Convince
 The speaker talks about things with the goal of affecting the listeners' beliefs, or attitudes.
 Its main goal is to establish conviction.

2. Speech to Actuate
 It may include establishing beliefs but it always calls for the audience to act.
 The speech is designed to influence listener's behavior.

3. Speech to Inspire
 This tries to change how the listeners feel.

ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERNS FOR PERSUASIVE SPEECHES

1. A.F.O.R.E.S.T. (anecdotes, facts and figures, opinion, rhetorical questions, emotive language, superlatives,
tripling)
(1) Anecdotes: Begin your story with a personal story, observation, or experience.
(2) Facts and Figures: Provide striking statistics that can support your ideas.
(3) Opinion: Add in your opinion. You can begin your statement with “I believe that…”
(4) Rhetorical Question: Think of and add engaging rhetorical question (i.e. questions which do not intend
to elicit answers, but to make a point)
(5) Emotive Language: Appeal to your audience’s emotion.
(6) Superlatives: Use superlatives to exaggerate an idea.
(7) Tripling: The rule of three in the English writing principle simply entails using three words together to
reinforce your point. This may add the effectiveness of your persuasion. A classic example is Julius
Caesar’s statement: “Veni, vidi, vici” (I came, I saw, I conquered.)

2. PROBLEM-SOLUTION
(1) Identify the problem;
(2) Provide a solution which will show the practicality of your proposal.

3. PROBLEM-CAUSE-SOLUTION
(1) Identify the problem;
(2) Analyze the root causes of the problem;
(3) Provide a solution to the problem.

4. COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGES
(1) Identify the problem;
(2) Present at least two solutions to the problem;
(3) Compare the two in terms of practicality and feasibility

5. MONROE’S MOTIVATED SEQUENCE

Alan Monroe created an outline for making speeches based on the psychology of persuasion.
(1) Grab the attention of the audience by identifying the challenge you plan to confront or the problem you
plan to address.
(2) Establish the need or urgency to address the identified challenge or problem.
(3) Present possible solutions to your audience to satisfy the need.
(4) Help your audience visualize. Use vivid words to convince your audience about the benefits they can
gain from the solutions you presented.
(5) Engage the audience to participate in change through a call for action.

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HOW AUDIENCE CAN BE PERSUADED BY A SPEAKER (Lucas, 2011)
1. They perceive that the speaker has credibility.
2. They are convinced by the evidence presented by the speaker.
3. They are convinced by the speaker’s reasoning.
4. Their emotions are touched by the speaker’s ideas or use of language.

HOW TO ENHANCE YOUR CREDIBILITY

1. Explain how you became an expert on the topic.
2. Connect your experiences, beliefs, values or attitudes with your audience’s.
3. Practice more often so you can deliver your speech with conviction.

HOW TO USE EVIDENCE

1. Specify evidence.
2. Avoid outdated evidence.
3. Choose reputable or credible sources for your evidence.

HOW TO USE REASONING

Logical Fallacies Definition Example How to Avoid
Ad Hominem This happens when you Professor X does not deserve When you give your rebuttal
attack the character of a to be the head of this focus on the arguments of the
person instead of his organization because he is person, not on his/her
argument. separated from his wife. character or values.
Circular Argument This happens when the idea My mother is a good teacher Do not repeat the argument,
of the stated argument is because she teaches me instead prove it.
repeated. well.
False Analogy This happen when two President Aquino is the Look at the characteristics,
things which might be alike Socrates of the 21st century. feature or components of two
in some respects, are people or objects closely to
compared and assumed to see whether they can be really
be similar in other ways. compared or not.
False Authority This happens when a I avoid drinking coffee at night Check properly the
statement of someone who because of the advice of my qualifications of the person
is not an expert in the field in English teacher. being cited.
question is being used in an
argument.
False Cause and This happens when the Because I attended a party, I Clarify the connections
Effect connection between two got a high grade in my between events by explaining
consecutive events are not persuasive speech. both backgrounds clearly.
clear.
Hasty This happens when a The senator stuttered while Provide enough pieces of
Generalization conclusion is drawn from giving his speech, therefore evidence before making any
insufficient evidence. government officials are not conclusion.
good in public speaking.
Red Herring This happens when the Question: Should the Do not avoid opposing
answer does not address the president sign Cyberbullying arguments. Instead, address
question. bill into law? them properly.
Answer: The president has
other priorities.

HOW TO USE EMOTIONAL APPEAL

1. Internalize what you are saying.
2. Use emotion appropriately.

Lesson 14.3 ENTERTAINMENT SPEECH

 An entertainment speech aims to share goodwill, joy, and pleasure to the audience.
Oral Communication in Context 8
  The primary goal is to make the audience relax, enjoy, and even laugh.
 The speakers are expected to be friendly and relaxed, but still courteous during the delivery.
 It is a speech that makes a view point through the creative and organized use of the speaker's wit.
 This is also referred as after-dinner speech.

GUIDELINES TO entertainment speech:

1. Don't forget the thesis. 3. Get organized.
2. Paint an art through words. 4. Manage the humor.

PARAMETERS TO CONSIDER IN AN ENTERTAINMENT SPEECH

1. What pleases some may not delight the others.
2. Avoid humor that is obscene or maligns members of any group in society like race, religion, politics or gender.
3. Original jokes are better than adopted ones.
4. Self-degrading humor may be considered.

PARTS OF AN ENTERTAINMENT SPEECH

1. Introduction - must get t he attention of the audience and state the thesis
2. Body - wittingly state the materials that support the main point; develops the theme in satisfying detail
3. Conclusion - provides a stylish culmination leaving a lasting impression

SEQUENCE OF ENTERTAINMENT SPEECHES

1. Relate a story or anecdote, present an illustration or quote or appropriate passage.
2. State the essential idea or point of view implied by your opening remarks.
3. Follow with series of additional stories, anecdotes, or illustrations that amplify or illuminate your central idea,
arrange those supporting materials so they are thematically or tonally coherent.
4. Close with a statement of the central point you have developed, as in step 1, you can use another quotation or one
final story that clinches and epitomizes your speech as a whole.

LESSON 15: TYPES OF SPEECHES ACCORDING TO DELIVERY

Type Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages
Manuscript  Speaking with advanced  Exact repetition of  Boring and uninteresting
preparation the written words presentation
 Guided by notes  Guided speech  Lacks audience rapport and
 Reading aloud a written connection
message
Memorized  Speaking with advanced  Exact repetition of  Speakers might end up
preparation the written words speaking in a monotone
 Planned and rehearsed from a memory pattern. Alternatively, he/she
speech  Maintained eye- might take a fast pace.
 Reciting a written contact  When the speaker cannot
message word-for-word  Free to move control his or her stage fright,
from a memory around the stage he/she might have difficulty
 Gestures are used remembering his/her
memorized speech.
Impromptu  Speaking without  Spontaneous or  Tendency to be disorganized
advanced preparation natural speaking  Lacks connection with the
 Unrehearsed speech  More focused and audience
 Spoken conversationally brief  Nerve-racking for
inexperienced speakers and
beginners
Extemporaneous  Speaking with limited  Helps you look  Inadequate time preparation
preparation confident to plan, organize and
 Guided by notes  Engages the rehearse
 Delivered audience
conversationally
 Most popular type
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Lesson 15.1 MANUSCRIPT SPEECH
Description Speaking Situations

 Speaking with advanced preparation  News casting with a Teleprompter or an autocue device
 Guided by notes  Presenting the legal proceedings and verdict in court
 Reading aloud a written message  Reading the rules and criteria in a contest

Disadvantages (Franklin & Clark, 2001)

 There is a tendency to sound robotic or rigid;
 The speech cannot be revised at the last minute.
 The speaker needs to have a long time to prepare.
 Lacks audience rapport or connection

TIPS:
 Marking the manuscript for emphasis and pauses is a key requirement for successful delivery.
 Rehearse the speech over and over again until you sound natural
 Observe accomplished news anchors and note how conversational they sound when they deliver the news.
 Questions in the speech should be short and concise. When delivering them, the speaker should look at the
audience.
 The speech is pt. 16, no more than 7-8 words per line, and no more than 2-3 pragraphs per page. The pages
should be numbered and not stapled.
 The speaker should never end a sentence or begin a new one by looking down.

For whom the Manuscript method most advantageous?

1. Public Figures
2. Media Personalities
3. Spokespersons for government and private organizations

Lesson 15.2 MEMORIZED SPEECH

Description Situations
 Speaking with advanced preparation  When you perform in a stage play
 Planned and rehearsed speech  When you deliver a declamation, oratorical, or
 Reciting a written message word-for-word from literary piece
memory  When an actor or actress in a scene performs a
script from memory

TIPS:
 Rehearse the speech over and over again until you sound natural and feel confident
 Observe how actors/actresses perform their script in a theater, television, or movie scenes.

Lesson 15.3 IMPROMPTU SPEECH

Description: Situations:
 Speaking without advance preparation  In an event where you are asked to say a few
 Unrehearsed speech words.
 Delivered conversationally  First day at work or in class, or during an interview.

TIPS:
 Once you are requested to say something, pause for a moment to plan in your head what to say.
 State your main point briefly and deliver it at a pace your audience can follow.
 End by saying thank you.

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Other Useful Tips (Franklin & Clark, 2001)
 Keep the audience in mind while structuring the speech.Consider their knowledge, level and mood.
 Do not panic and do not apologize for lack of preparation. It decreases credibility.
 Talk to the audience in a conversational tone.
 When temporarily lost for words, do not use filler words. Simply pause until you remember your train of thought.

Additional strategies for organizing an impromptu speech (Dlugan, 2011)

 5W - Discuss the topic by talking about Who, What, Where, When and Why aspects of the topic
 Issue, Pros vs Cons, Conclusions - describe the issue, discuss its advantages, and then its drawbacks. End the
speech with a recommendation

Lesson 15.4 EXTEMPORANEOUS SPEECH

Description Speaking Situation
 Speaking with limited preparation  When you are a candidate for a post in a student
 Guided by notes or outline government and you deliver a speech before a voting
 Delivered conversationally public.
 Most popular type  When you are assigned to report a topic in a class
TIPS:
1. Create an outline
 Organize your points logically (most important to the least important or vice versa)
 Use facts and real-life experiences as your examples
 Manage your time well
 Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse
2. Determine if your topic is informative or persuasive.
3. Stick to your topic and look at all of the sides and angles of the problem.

STEPS IN PREPARING FOR A SUCCESSFUL EXTEMPORAENEOUS SPEECH

1. REINFORCE! You may explore other main points, but always refer back to your thesis.
2. CAPTURE! State the central idea of your speech in one declarative sentence.
3. DEVELOP! Map out the supporting points in an outline.
I. Introduction B. Main Point 2
A. Opening attention-getter 1. Subpoint 1
B. The need to listen a. Evidence
C. Thesis Statement b. Statistics
II. Body 2. Subpoint 2
A. Main Point 1 a. Evidence
1. Subpoint 1 b. Statistics
a. Evidence III. Conclusion
b. Statistics A. Closing attention-getter
2. Subpoint 2 B. Restatement thesis or review of main points
a. Evidence
b. Statistics
4. INTRODUCE!
 grab the attention of the audience with striking one liner
 give a short background why they have to listen
 state your thesis
5. CHECK! Develop at least 3 main points
 Does each point have one single idea?
 Does each point reiterate the thesis statement?
 Does each point prepare the discussion of the next main point?
6. SUPPLY! Make sure that each main point has enough examples, testimonies, statistics, or cases.
7. CONCLUDE!
 Reinforce your introduction by coming up with a closing attention-getter that is related to your opening.
 Connect the needs and interest of your audience with the theme of your speech.
Oral Communication in Context 11
  Restate your thesis or review your main points.
LESSON 16: PRINCIPLES OF SPEECH WRITING

COMPONENTS OF THE SPEECH WRITING PROCESS

1. Audience Analysis 6. Writing Patterns
2. Purpose for Writing 7. An Outline
3. Topic 8. Body of the Speech
4. Narrowing down a topic 9. Revising
5. Data Gathering 10. Rehearsing

AUDIENCE ANALYSIS  Demography (age range, male-female ratio, educational background and affiliations
- looking into the profile or degree, program taken, nationality, economic status, academic or corporate
of your target designations)
audience.  Situation (time, venue, occasion and size)
 Psychology (values, beliefs, attitudes, preferences, cultural and racial ideologies and
needs
PURPOSE  to inform
for delivering a speech  to persuade
 to entertain
TOPIC  using your personal experiences
- your main point  discussing with your family members or friends
 free writing
 listing
 asking questions
 semantic webbing
NARROWING DOWN
Purpose To inform
A TOPIC
- making your idea
more specific and General To inform Grade 11 students on the importance of effective money
focused Purpose management

Narrowing down Effective money management

a topic through Effective money management of Grade 11 students
listing Developing an effective money management of Grade 11 students
Defining and developing effective money management skills of
Grade 11 students
DATA GATHERING  visiting the library
- the stage where you  browsing the web
collect ideas,  observing a certain phenomenon or event related to your topic
information, sources,  conducting an interview or survey
and references
relevant or related to
your specific topic.
WRITING PATTERNS  Biographical
- structures that will  Categorical / Topical
help you organize the  Causal
Ideas related to your  Chronological
topic.  Comparison / Contrast
 Problem - solution
OUTLINE ELEMENTS OF AN OUTLINE
a hierarchical list that Introduction
shows the relationship Body
of your ideas Conclusion

Oral Communication in Context 12

INTRODUCTION  Use a real-life experience and connect that experience to your subject
the foundation of your  Start with a familiar or strong quote and then explain what it means
speech  Use facts or statistics and highlight their importance to your subject
 Tell a personal story to illustrate your point
BODY OF THE  Present real-life or practical examples
SPEECH  Show statistics
provides an  Present comparisons
explanation, examples,  Share ideas from the experts or practitioners
or any details that can
help deliver your
purpose and explain
the main idea of your
speech
CONCLUSION  Begin your conclusion with a restatement of your message
restates the idea of  Use positive examples, encouraging words, or memorable lines from songs or stories
your speech familiar to your audience
it provides a summary,  Ask a question or series of questions that can make your audience reflect or ponder.
emphasizes the
message, calls for
action.

LESSON 17: PRINCIPLES OF SPEECH DELIVERY

Articulation  the way you produce individual speech sounds

 is related with pronunciation, which is the proper saying of words, this involves proper
stressing and accenting of syllables
Modulation  Audience typically associate vocal characteristics with personality traits
 Loud and soft speakers are people who are self-
sufficient, resourceful and dynamic
 Loud and slow speakers are those who are aggressive,
competitive and confident
 Soft and fast speakers are competitive, enthusiastic, benevolent

Guidelines in adjusting the volume and projection of voice (Flores & Lopez)
1. Carry your tone or throw out your voice as far as the speech and the situation will
require.
2. Practice proper breath control.
3. Identify your listeners and acknowledge your audience.
4. Develop a very positive attitude toward speaking to an audience.
5. Cultivate a sense of participation with your listeners.
6. Always direct your thoughts towards the last row of listeners ensuring that your
message will reach them.
Stage Presence  your capability and ability as a speaker to command and connect powerfully and
realistically with impressive manner and style to your audience.

Tips for Effective Delivery (Ang, 2009)

1. Direct eye contact with your audience to show interest in them.
2. Facial expressions should be on the “happy” side
3. Hands should be relaxed
4. Check your visual posture
5. Have a positive attitude
6. Speak with an audible voice, good action, pronunciation and enunciation
7. Deliver your speech with aplomb.

Oral Communication in Context 13

Facial Expressions / Functions of Gestures
Gestures / Movements 1. Emblems - gestures that stand for words or ideas
2. Illustrators - they accent words and phrases, show spatial relationships, point to objects
3. Adoptors - used to alert your audience of your nervousness because they are evidence
of stress and fear

TABOOS IN SPEECH DELIVERY (Ang, 2009)

1. Making faces, staring at the ceiling, floor or wall
2. Giggling
3. Wetting lips frequently
4. Putting tongue out
5. cracking knuckles
6. Putting hands in pockets
7. Fiddling with buttons, ballpens, keys, coins, etc.
8. Constantly shifting from one foot to another
9. Swaying from side to side, rocking backward and forward.
10. Putting thumbs under the belt

Rapport with the How to Build Rapport & Engage Audience (Stuart, 2014)
Audience 1. Put your audience first
2. Find opportunities for humor
3. Allow for flexibility in your content
4. First impressions count
5. Have a strong opening
6. Manage the middle
7. Use stories for emotional connection
8. Use your voice with variety
9. Give the audience time
10. Have strong ending

TIPS TO BATTLE STAGE FRIGHT (Franklin & Clark, 2001)

1. Research the topic thoroughly to feel more prepared and confident.
2. Think of the audience as friends.
3. Take deep breaths to calm yourself.
4. Release the tension in your body by moving and making appropriate gestures.

DELIVERY FOR DIFFERENT SITUATIONS

1. Speaking to a  Audience size depends on the venue size.

specific audience size  You can determine your approach with your audience; more intimate and personal for
a smaller size; more formal for a larger size.
 This can be challenging and intimidating.
 Ask the organizers about the estimated number of audience so you can adjust your
delivery.
 Practice! Practice! Practice!

2. Speaking in an  Examples: open courts, grounds, football field, farms

open-air venue or  You will encounter a lot of communication barriers.
outside a building  You have to make adjustments -- voice projection.
 Check the venue prior to your speaking engagement.
 Use outdoor setting or venue to your advantage as a way of jumpstarting your speech
or as an example to support your main point.
 Ask about the availability of equipment.

Oral Communication in Context 14

3. Speaking in  Venues vary: classroom, conference room, social hall, auditorium, covered court, open
different venues court, etc.
 Adjust in terms of non-verbal cues, volume of voice, body language and facial
expression.
 Check the venue days before your scheduled speech and arrive earlier in the venue.
 For large venue: speak slowly, use pauses frequently to highlight the most important
ides of your speech, exaggerate facial expressions and gestures, make visual aids
visible.
 For small venue: manage your notes well when you use them and adjust your non-
verbal cues
 Practice! Practice! Practice!
4. Speaking with a  Its main function is to increase the volume of your voice, not to clarify the
microphone pronunciation and enunciation of words.
 Using a microphone can get the attention of the audience. There is a tendency to
under or overuse it.
 Check the microphone if it functions well.
5. Speaking with a  A podium or a lectern is a reading desk with a stand and a slanted top.
podium or lectern  Notes can be placed on the slanted top - for extemporaneous and manuscript
speeches.
 It can be a means to cover or hide nervousness. But the speaker must step to the side
occasionally once composed.
 Stand straight and avoid gripping the podium.

TOOLS FOR EFFECTIVE SPEECH DELIVERY

Observe how the best speakers…

1. approach their audience (formal, informal, personal, conversational, intimate, etc.)
2. connect with their audience (using eye contact, body movements and facial expressions)
3. present themselves (stage presence: how they look, stand, walk, use non-verbal cues, act on and off the stage)
4. use their voice in terms of volume (loudness or softness), pitch (highness or lowness), rate or speed, pauses to
show emphasis and strengthen the clarity of the message,vocal variety (effective changes in volume, pitch,
rate, and pauses) and pronunciation

MORE TIPS FOR EFFECTIVE SPEECH DELIVERY

1. Use conversational style more often.
2. Look at your audience in the eye.
3. Adjust your volume to the size of the audience and venue.
4. Vary your rate and speed to keep your audience interested.
5. Master your voice and find your speech level.
6. Use pauses when you emphasize the most the most important words, phrases or sentences.
7. Pronounce and enunciate words correctly.
8. Avoid fillers or expressions that substitute actual words in your speech because these words are distracting.
9. Start your speech by standing straight and balancing your weight.
10. Use precise movements. Avoid distracting mannerisms.
11. Avoid having a poker face or highly animated face.
12. Dress properly and appropriately.
13. Observe ethics by coming prepared, being honest with y our words, being polite, avoiding offensive words and
back-biting or talking negative things about other people, or copying someone's work without proper documentation.
14. Breathe in and out to relax before your speech.

Oral Communication in Context 15