6 Lithology and

Porosity Determination

The measurements of the neutron, density, and sonic logs The combination of measurements depends upon the
depend not only on porosity (</>) but also on the forma situation. For example, if a formation consists of only
tion lithology, on the fluid in the pores, and, in some in two known minerals in unknown proportions, the com
stances, on the geometry of the pore structure. When the bination of density and neutron logs or the combination
lithology and, therefore, the matrix parameters (ima, of bulk density (Qb) and photoelectric cross section will
Qma, <t>ma) are known, correct porosity values can be define the proportions of the two minerals and a better
derived from these logs, appropriately corrected for en value of porosity. If it is known that the lithology is more
vironmental effects, in clean water-filled formations. complex but consists of only quartz, limestone, dolomite,
Under these conditions, a single log, either the neutron and anhydrite, then a relatively accurate value of porosity
or the density or, if there is no secondary porosity, the can again be determined from the density-neutron com
sonic, can be used to determine porosity. bination; however, the mineral fractions of the matrix
Accurate porosity determination is more difficult when cannot be precisely determined.
the matrix lithology is unknown or consists of two or Crossplots are a convenient way to demonstrate how
more minerals in unknown proportions. Determination various combinations of logs respond to lithology and
is further complicated when the response of the pore porosity. They also provide visual insight into the type
fluids in the portion of the formation investigated by the of mixtures that the combination is most useful in
tool differs appreciably from that of water. In particular, unraveling. Charts CP-1 through -21 present many of
light hydrocarbons (gas) can significantly influence the these combinations.
response of all three porosity logs. Fig. 6-1 (Chart CP-le) is an example in which neutron
Even the nature or type of pore structure affects the and density porosities are crossplotted on linear scales.
tool response. The neutron and density logs respond to Points corresponding to particular water-saturated pure
total porosity—that is, the sum of the primary (in lithologies define curves (sandstone, limestone, dolomite,
tergranular or intercrystalline) porosity and the secondary etc.) that can be graduated in porosity units, or a single
(vugs, fissures, fractures) porosity. The sonic logs, mineral point (e.g., salt point) may be defined. This chart
however, tend to respond only to evenly distributed is entered with porosities computed as if the matrix had
primary porosity. the same properties as water-saturated limestone; as a
To determine porosity when any of these complicating result, the limestone line is the straight line of equal den
situations exists requires more data than provided by a sity and neutron porosities.
single porosity log. Fortunately, neutron, density, and When the matrix lithology is a binary mixture (e.g.,
sonic logs respond differently to matrix minerals, to the sandstone-lime or lime-dolomite or sandstone-dolomite)
presence of gas or light oils, and to the geometry of pore the point plotted from the log readings will fall between
structure. Combinations of these logs and the photoelec the corresponding lithology lines.
tric cross section index, Pe, measurement from the Litho-
Density* log and the thorium, uranium, and potassium NEUTRON-DENSITY CROSSPLOTS
measurement from the NGS* natural gamma ray spec Charts CP-1 a and -lb are for SNP neutron versus densi
trometry log can be used to unravel complex matrix or ty data. These charts were constructed for clean, liquid-
fluid mixtures and thereby provide a more accurate saturated formations and boreholes filled with water or
porosity determination. water-base mud. The charts should not be used for air-

*Mark of Schlumberger

6-1
 LITHOLOGY AND POROSITY DETERMINATION

or gas-filled boreholes; in these, the SNP matrix effect is dolomite. In all cases, the porosity would be in the 18%
changed. Charts CP-le and -If are similar plots for range. Thus, although the rock volumetric fractions
CNL* neutron versus density data. estimated from the neutron-density data could be con
The separations between the quartz, limestone, and siderably in error, the porosity value will always be essen
dolomite lines indicate good resolution for these litholo tially correct if only sandstone, limestone, and/or
gies. Also, the most common evaporites (rock salt, anhy dolomite are present. This feature of the neutron-density
drite) are easily identified. combination, coupled with its use as a gas-finder, has
In the example shown on Fig. 6-1, 4>Dls = 15 and <j>Nls made it a very popular log combination.
= 21. This defines Point P, lying between the limestone
and dolomite curves. Assuming a matrix of limestone and SONIC-DENSITY CROSSPLOT
dolomite and proportioning the distance between the two Crossplots of sonic t versus density Qb or <pD have poor
curves, the point corresponds to a volumetric proportion porosity and reservoir rock (sandstone, limestone,
of about 30% dolomite and 70% limestone; porosity is dolomite) resolution, but they are quite useful for deter
18%. mining some evaporite minerals. As can be seen from Fig.
6-2 (Chart CP-7), an error in the choice of the lithology
pair from the sandstone-limestone-dolomite group can
* result in an appreciable error in porosity. Likewise, a
small error in the measurement of either transit time or
40 * % bulk density can result in an appreciable error in porosi
y ty and lithology analysis. The good resolution given by
30 7 * 45 y the chart for salt, gypsum, and anhydrite is shown by the
wide separation of the corresponding mineral points on
IE"
c

I 20
E
<
.•
V
*4
•&yp
ty the figure. Several log-data points are shown that cor
respond to various mixtures of anhydrite and salt and,
perhaps, dolomite.
_i
Q
* 10 MP
S?sy
P

0
CO

2.1
I
1 1,2
/ 7/
lis ^ 4 0
1 *3
0 2.2 'I *4-6
.7
30. //%'
o_ /
-10 io / *8
2.3

0 10 20 30 40
"to
_Q
Q/
«
>
y
/
1
zo/y
2/3 )
2.4
4>cnl (Limestone) CD i
Q
j__ i
)_ i
CD
2.5
/ 20
' 1
o i

f
*l/* / c f /
"CO
Fig. 6-1—Porosity and lithology determination from Litho- 2.6
F
Density and CNL neutron logs in water-filled holes. L
)_

An error in choosing the matrix pair does not result in 2.7 0 ^

large error in the porosity value found, as long as the / ,■■

e - 1

choice is restricted to quartz (sandstone or chert), lime 2.8

stone, dolomite, and anhydrite; shaliness and gypsum are 1 3/
0
excluded. For instance, in the above example, if the 1 21i
2.9
lithology were sandstone and dolomite instead of lime 18.

stone and dolomite, the porosity found would be 18.3%;

2 0 . •10 .&
19*
22'
HfS ■
the mineral proportions would, however, be about 40% 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 11 0
sandstone and 60% dolomite.
In fact, the plotted Point P of Fig. 6-1 could cor
Fig. 6-2—Porosity and lithology determination from FDC den
respond to various mixtures of sandstone, limestone, and sity and sonic logs.

6-2
LOG INTERPRETATION PRINCIPLES/APPL1CA TIONS

SONIC-NEUTRON CROSSPLOTS simple lithologies (one-mineral matrix). Pe is little af

Chart CP-2a is a plot of sonic ^ versus porosity from an fected by the fluid in the pores.
SNP log. As with the density-neutron plots, resolution The bulk density versus photoelectric cross section in
between sandstone, limestone, and dolomite lithologies dex crossplot (Charts CP-16 and -17, Fig. 6-4) can be us
is good, and errors in choosing the lithology pair will have ed to determine porosity and to identify the mineral in
only a small effect on the porosity value found. However, a single-mineral matrix; the charts can also be used to
resolution is lost if evaporites are present. Chart CP-2b determine porosity and the mineral fractions in a two-
is a similar plot of sonic i versus porosity from the CNL mineral matrix where the minerals are known. To use
log. these charts the two minerals known or assumed to be
The sonic crossplots (Charts CP-2 and -7) are con in the matrix must be selected. A rib is then drawn
structed for both the weighted-average (Wyllie) and the through the log point to equal porosity points on the
observed (Raymer, Hunt, and Gardner) sonic transit time- spines of the assumed minerals. These spines correspond
to-porosity transforms. Chart CP-2c is shown in Fig. 6-3. to pure mineral matrices. The ribs are constant porosity
For mineral identification and porosity determination, use approximates for any matrix mixture of the two minerals
the transform previous experience has shown most ap assumed. The distances from the log point to the pure
propriate for the area. mineral spines approximate the relative proportions of
the minerals in the matrix.
If the porosity value from Chart CP-16 or -17 is equal
110
Time Average to that of Chart CP-1, the choice of minerals is correct
"Field Observation and the porosity is liquid filled. If the two values are dif
ferent, choosing another pair of minerals may reconcile
100 the difference.

1.9

CO
1
2 ,
C
D
E \% \-°
F 2.1 o
a) *

I
c o
CO
or CD
c \ ?
E o
O)
S 2.3 ■g C
O
o
CO
CO
CO-
c '0
o CN

£■■sc
CO

0 2.4 J
£
3 E
%
>
i
c
0)
2.5
c-
°
% o
o
□
£ 2.6
ffi J. >
z
o
01 2.7 1—

J-o

0CNLcor> Neutron Porosity Index (pu)

(Apparent Limestone Porosity) 2.8

o 2
2.9 -a CO

Fig. 6-3—Porosity and lithology determination from sonic log c

c
CO
C\J

and CNL* compensated neutron log; if =» 189 /xs/ft. < o -F

3
0 12 3 4 5 6
DENSITY-PHOTOELECTRIC 13e, Photoelectric Cross Section (Barns/Electror )
CROSS SECTION CROSSPLOTS
The photoelectric cross section index, Pe, curve is, by
itself, a good matrix indicator. It is slightly influenced
by formation porosity; however, the effect is not enough Fig. 6-4—Porosity and lithology determination from Litho-
to hinder a correct matrix identification when dealing with Density* log; fresh water, liquid-filled holes, et = 1.0.

6-3
 LITHOLOGY AND POROSITY DETERMINATION

If one knows which pair of minerals is present in the

matrix and the Qb-(f>N porosity is less than the Qb-Pe 10

porosity, the presence of gas may be suspected. The loca

tion of the log point on the porosity rib of the Qb-Pe plot Glauconite
co
permits the computation of the matrix density (mixture CO ^ B iotit 3 Chlorite
J
of two minerals in known proportions). If Qmaa (from !g 6
the Qb-4>N plot) is less than Qmaa (from the Qb - Pe plot),
M i <ed _ayer
the presence of gas is confirmed. I I

Muscovite

NGS CROSSPLOTS Montmorillonite

Kaolinite
Because some minerals have characteristic concentrations
of thorium, uranium, and potassium, the NGS log can 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.6 1 2 3 6 10 20 30 60 100
be used to identify minerals or mineral type. Chart CP-19 Th/K, Thorium-Potassium Ratio
compares potassium content with thorium content for
several minerals; it can be used for mineral identification
by taking values directly from the recorded NGS curves. Fig. 6-6—Mineral identification from Litho-Density log and
Usually, the result is ambiguous and other data are need natural gamma ray spectrometry log.
ed. In particular, Pe is used with the ratios of the radioac
tive families: Th/K, U/K, and Th/U. Use care when usually indicates organic matter, phosphates, and
working with these ratios because they are not the ratios stylolites. The thorium and potassium levels are represen
of the elements within the formation but rather the ratios tative of clay content. In sandstones, the thorium level
of the values recorded on the NGS log, ignoring the units is determined by heavy minerals and clay content, and
of measurement. Charts have been constructed that allow the potassium is usually contained in micas and feldspars.
Pe to be compared with either the potassium content, In shales, the potassium content indicates clay type and
Fig. 6-5 (Chart CP-18 top), or the ratio of potassium to mica, and the thorium level depends on the amount of
thorium, Fig. 6-6 (Chart CP-18 bottom). detrital material or the degree of shaliness.
High uranium concentrations in a shale suggest that
10 the shale is a source rock. In igneous rocks the relative
O proportions of the three radioactive families are a guide
o
CD 8
Glauconite
to the type of rock, and the ratios Th/K and Th/U are
CO

to £ Chlorite Bic Jtite particularly significant.

S2
" 8 6 The radioactive minerals found in a formation are, to
.9 LU some extent, dependent on the mode of sedimentation.
§1
CD E 4 The mode of transportation and degree of reworking and
9 ,5
o ffl I __.
o alteration are also factors. As an example, because
JZ i
Muscovite
■
Q_ 2
'Kaolinite thorium has a very low solubility, it has limited mobility
Q.
and tends to accumulate with the heavy minerals. On the
() 2 4 6 8 10 other hand, uranium has a greater solubility and mobili
K, Potassium Concentration (%) ty, and so high uranium concentrations are found in fault
planes, fractures, and formations where water flow has
occurred. Similarly, high concentrations can build up in
the permeable beds and on the tubing and casing of pro
Fig. 6-5—Mineral identification from Litho-Density log and ducing oil wells. Chemical marine deposits are
natural gamma ray spectrometry log.
characterized by their extremely low radioactive content,
The major occurrences of the three radioactive families with none of the three families making any significant
are as follows: contribution. Weathered zones are often indicated by pro
nounced changes in the thorium and potassium content
• Potassium - micas, feldspars, micaceous clays (illite),
of the formation but a more or less constant Th/K ratio.
radioactive evaporites
• Thorium - shales, heavy minerals EFFECT OF SHALINESS ON CROSSPLOTS
• Uranium - phosphates, organic matter Shaliness produces a shift of the crossplot point in the
The significance of the type of radiation depends on the direction of a so-called shale point on the chart. The shale
formation in which it is found. In carbonates, uranium point is found by crossplotting the measured values (Qsh,

6-4
LOG INTERPRETATION PRINCIPLES/APPLICATIONS

^Nsh' *sh) observed in the neighboring shale beds. General where Aq>Nex is excavation effect (discussed in Chapter 5).
ly, the shale point is in the southeast quadrant of neutron- For oil-bearing formations
density and sonic-density crossplots, to the northeast on
the neutron-sonic crossplot, and in the lower center of the A = (1.19 - 0.16 Pmf) Qmf
density-photoelectric cross section crossplot. These shale 1.19 Qh - 0.032 (Eq. 6-4)
values, however, may only approximate the parameters of
the shaly material within the permeable beds. and
Qh + 0.30
EFFECT OF SECONDARY B = 1 (Eq. 6-5)
POROSITY ON CROSSPLOTS <V (i - Pmf)
Sonic logs respond differently to secondary porosity than For gas-bearing formations
the neutron and density logs. They largely ignore vuggy A = (1.19 - 0.16 Pmf) Qmf - 1.33 Qn (Eq. 6-6)
porosity and fractures and respond primarily to in
and
tergranular porosity; neutron and density tools respond
to the total porosity. 2.2 e,
B = l ~Q n p v (Eq-6-7)
Thus, on crossplots involving the sonic log, secondary ' W d - p m fl
porosity displaces the points from the correct lithology line
and indicates something less than the total porosity; the where
neutron-density crossplots yield the total porosity. Snr = residual hydrocarbon saturation,
THE SECONDARY POROSITY INDEX LOG Qn = hydrocarbon density in grams per cubic
centimeter,
In clean, liquid-filled carbonate formations with known
matrix parameters, a secondary porosity index (I,2) can Qmr = mud filtrate density in grams per cubic
be computed as the difference between total porosity, as centimeter,
determined from neutron and/or density logs, and porosi
and
ty from the sonic log
Pmj = filtrate salinity in parts per million NaCI.
I4>2 = <l> - <t>SV ■
A relative secondary porosity index is sometimes com
2.1
puted as the ratio of the absolute index, defined above,
to total porosity.

EFFECT OF HYDROCARBONS ON CROSSPLOTS 2.3

Gas or light hydrocarbons cause the apparent porosity
from the density log to increase (bulk density to decrease) 0b
and porosity from the neutron log to decrease. On a
neutron-density crossplot this results in a shift (from the 2.5
liquid-filled point of the same porosity) upward and to the
left, almost parallel to the isoporosity lines. If a gas cor
rection is not made, the porosity read directly from the
crossplot chart may be slightly too low. However, the 2.7
lithology indication from the chart can be quite erroneous. 0.8
Arrow B-A on Fig. 6-7 illustrates the correction for this
hydrocarbon shift. Log Point B is for a clean limestone
2.9
containing gas of density 0.1 g/cm3. Corrected Point A
falls near the limestone line, and porosity can be read
directly.
The hydrocarbon shift (AQb) h and (A<j>N) h are given by
(Eq. 6-2) Fig. 6-7—Effect of hydrocarbon. Arrow B-A represents cor
(AQb)h = - A4>Shr rection of log Point B for hydrocarbon effect for a gas case.
and The arrows at lower right represent approximate hydrocar
bon shifts for various values of eh for <j> Shr = 0.15, Pmf =
(Acj>N)h = - B<j>Shr - A<t>Nex, (Eq. 6-3) 0, and emf = 1.

6-5
 LITHOLOGY AND POROSITY DETERMINATION

The arrows at the lower right of Fig. 6-7 show, for in most cases as representing a mixture of limestone,
various hydrocarbon densities, the approximate dolomite, and quartz. However, it could also be a
magnitudes and directions of the hydrocarbon shifts as limestone-quartz-anhydrite mixture or, less likely, a
computed from the above relations for <f> Shr = 15%. dolomite-quartz-gypsum mixture, since the point is also
(Fresh mud filtrate was assumed and excavation effect contained in those triangles. The combination selected
was neglected.) This value of </> Shr could occur in a gas would depend on the geological probability of its occur
sand (e.g., 0 = 20%, Shr = 75%). rence in the formation.
Gas will also shift the points on a sonic-neutron plot
as a result of the decrease in <j>N. Similarly, gas will shift Table 6-1
points on a sonic-density plot as a result of the increase Matrix and fluid coefficients of several minerals and types
in <j>D because of the presence of gas. In uncompacted of porosity (liquid-filled boreholes).
formations, the sonic i reading may also be increased
by the effect of the gas. Mineral
Hydrocarbon shifts in oil-bearing formations are usual Atma ^ma 0maSNP ^maCNL

ly negligible; for clean formations, porosities can be read Sandstone 1 55.5 2.65 -0.035* -0.05*
directly from the porosity graduations on the chart. (vma= 18,000),
0>1O%
M-N PLOT
Sandstone 2 51.2 2.65 -0.035* -0.05*
In more complex mineral mixtures, lithology interpreta
(vma= 19,500),
tion is facilitated by use of the M-N plot. These plots 0>1O%
combine the data of all three porosity logs to provide
the lithology-dependent quantities M and N. M and N Limestone 47.5 2.71 0.00 0.00
are simply the slopes of the individual lithology lines on
the sonic-density and density-neutron crossplot charts, Dolomite 1 43.5 2.85 0.035* 0.085*
(0 = 5.5% to
respectively. Thus, M and N are essentially independent 30%)
of porosity, and a crossplot provides lithology
identification. Dolomite 2 43.5 2.85 0.02* 0.065*
M and N are defined as: (0 = 1.5% to
5.5% & >
M = kr x 0.01 (Eq. 6-8)
30%)
*b -
Dolomite 3 43.5 2.85 0.005* 0.04*
(0 = 0.0% to
N = <t>Nf ~ <t>N (Eq. 6-9) 1.5%)
Qb ~ <?/
For fresh muds, ij = 189, Qf = 1, and <t>Nf = 1. Anhydrite 50.0 2.98 -0.005 -0.002
Neutron porosity is in limestone porosity units. The
Gypsum 52.0 2.35 0.49**
multiplier 0.01 is used to make the M values compatible
for easy scaling. Salt 67.0 2.03 0.04 -0.01
If the matrix parameters (tma, Qma, (t>Nma) for a given
mineral are used in Eqs. 6-8 and 6-9 in place of the log
values, the M and N values for that mineral are defined. Fluids Atf Qf 0fN
For water-bearing formations, these will plot at definitive
Primary Porosity
points on the M-N plot. Based on the matrix and fluid (Liquid-Filled): Fresh Mud 189.0 1.00
parameters listed in Table 6-1, M and N values are shown Salt Mud 185.0 1.10 1
in Table 6-2 for several minerals in both fresh mud- and
salt mud-filled holes. (N is computed for the CNL log.) Secondary Porosity
Fig. 6-8 is an M-N plot showing the points for several (In Dolomite): Fresh Mud 1.00
Salt Mud 43.5 1.10 1
single-mineral formations. This plot is a simplified ver
sion of Chart CP-8.
(In Limestone): Fresh Mud 1.00
Points for a mixture of three minerals will plot within Salt Mud 47.5 1.10 1
the triangle formed by connecting the three respective
single-mineral points. For example, suppose a rock mix (In Sandstone): Fresh Mud
55.5
1.00
1
ture exhibits N = 0.59 and M = 0.81; in Fig. 6-8 this Salt Mud 1.10
point falls within a triangle defined by the limestone-
*Average values.
dolomite-quartz points. It would therefore be interpreted k*Based on hydrogen-index computation.

6-6
LOG INTERPRETATION PRINCIPLES/APPLICATIONS

Table 6-2
Values of M and N for common minerals.

Fresh Mud Salt Mud 1 \G,VP

(ef = i) ( fi f - 1 . 1 )
Mineral \
M N* M N*

Sandstone 1 0.810 0.636 0.835 0.667

0.9
vma= 18,000 Secondary
Porosity Gas
Sandstone 2 0.835 0.636 0.862 0.667
vma= 19,500
Lm /
l~)nl /' Qtz
Limestone 0.827 0.585 0.854 0.621 0.8
M
Dolomite 1 0.778 0.489 0.800 0.517 / / y
</> = 5.5-30% i\ / / y y
\ / y
Dolomite 2 0.778 0.500 0.800 0.528 0.7
<t> = 1.5-5.5% Anr /

Dolomite 3 0.778 0.513 0.800 0.542 1 '■

c6 = 0-1.5%
App ox.
0.6 Sh£lie
Anhydrite 0.702 0.504 0.718 0.533
ema = 2.98 Reg ion
CD
m
Gypsum 1.015 0.296 1.064 0.320 r>
CD_

Salt 1.269 1.086 0.5

0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
N
'Values of N are computed for CNL neutron log.

Secondary porosity, shaliness, and gas-filled porosity will Fig. 6-8—M-N plot showing points for several minerals (N is
shift the position of the points with respect to their true calculated using SNP neutron log). Arrows show direction of
shifts caused by shale, gas, and secondary porosity.
lithology, and they can even cause the M-N points to plot
outside the triangular area defined by the primary mineral
Next, an apparent matrix transit time, imaa and an ap
constituents. The arrows on Fig. 6-8 indicate the direc
parent grain density, Qmaa, are calculated:
tion a point is shifted by the presence of each. In the case
of shale, the arrow is illustrative only since the position gfc - K g/
of the shale point will vary with area and formation. e, i (Eq. 6-10)
<t>t,
In combination with the crossplots using other pairs
of porosity logs and lithology-sensitive measurements, the t- 4>ta
:—-iftime-average relationship (Eq. 6-1 la)
M-N plot aids in the choice of the probable lithology. 0 la
This information is needed in the final solution for porosi
ty and lithology fractions. *ui
imaa = i field-observed relationship (Eq. 6-1 lb)
MID PLOT where
Indications of lithology, gas, and secondary porosity can
also be obtained using the matrix identification (MID) Qb is bulk density from density log,
plot. t is interval transit time from sonic log,
To use the MID plot, three data are required. First,
Qj is pore fluid density,
apparent total porosity, <pta, must be determined using
the appropriate neutron-density and empirical (red it is pore fluid transit time,
curves) neutron-sonic crossplots (Charts CP-1 and -2). 4>ta is apparent total porosity,
For data plotting above the sandstone curve on these and
charts, the apparent total porosity is defined by a ver
tical projection to the sandstone curve. c is a constant (c « 0.68).

6-7
 LITHOLOGY AND POROSITY DETERMINATION

The apparent total porosity is not necessarily the same

in the equations. For use in the tmaa equations (Eq. 2 Salt
6-11), it is the value obtained from the neutron-sonic Salt CNL
2.1
SNP
crossplot (Chart CP-2). For use in the Qmaa equation (Eq.
6-10), it is the value obtained from the neutron-density 2.2
crossplot (Chart CP-1). 2.3
Chart CP-14 (Fig. 6-9) can be used to solve graphical
ly for Qmaa (Eq. 6-10) and for tmaa using the empirical 2.4
field-observed transit time-to-porosity relationship (Eq. y y^
6-1 lb). The northeast half (upper right) of the chart solves 1 2.5
for the apparent matrix interval transit time, imaa- The "0,
or 2.6
<0T
southwest half (lower left of the same chart) solves for E Quartz .
0 2.7
the apparent matrix grain density, Qmaa- Calcite
2.8
Dolomite
, Apparent Matrix Transit Time (jis/ft) 2.9
1 3 0 1 2 0 11 0 1 0 0 9 0 70 60 50 40 30
Anhydrite
3 I I \ I 130 3
s \ ' V
x I \ Apparent
CO

\ Total 'i 120

cp
Lf.
2.9 \\ ' Porosity \ CJ

\ \ 3.1
2.8
\ 110
\ 40 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
\
V
- S
\ 100
% 2.7 \\ 30
~ 2.6 90
\\
"en 10
g 2.5 V 80
Q \ \ \s
s \ \ Fig. 6-10—Matrix identification (MID) plot.
3 2.4 70
m \ \
_i 2.3 - X. 20 Sulfur plots off the chart to the northeast at imaa ~
\v
a, 60
122 and Qmaa ~ 2.02. Thus, the direction to the sulfur
2.2 50
point from the quartz, calcite, dolomite, anhydrite group
2.1 - 40^ 40 is approximately the same as the direction of the gas-
i \
\\l \ N 30 effect shift. Gypsum plots to the southwest.
2 l \

2.9 2.8 2.7 2.6 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1

The concept of the MID plot is similar to that of the
emaa. Apparent Matrix Density (g/cm3) M-N plot. However, instead of having to compute values
of M and N, values of Qmaa and imaa are obtained from
charts (Chart CP-14). For most accurate results, log
Fig. 6-9—Determination of apparent matrix parameters from readings should, of course, be depth matched and cor
bulk density or interval transit time and apparent total porosity;
rected for hole effect, etc. The need for such corrections
fluid density = 1.
can often be seen from the trend of the plotted points
The crossplot of the apparent matrix interval transit on the MID plot (Fig. 6-10).
time and apparent grain density on the MID plot will
identify the rock mineralogy by its proximity to the label ®maa vs' Umaa MID PLOT
ed points on the plot. On Chart CP-15 the most com Another crossplot technique for identifying lithology uses
mon matrix minerals (quartz, calcite, dolomite, data from the Litho-Density log. It crossplots the ap
anhydrite) plot at the positions shown (Fig. 6-10). Mineral parent matrix grain density, Qmaa, and the apparent
mixtures would plot at locations between the correspon matrix volumetric cross section, Umaa (in barns per cubic
ding pure mineral points. Lithology trends may be seen centimeter).
by plotting many levels over a zone and observing how The apparent matrix grain density is obtained as
they are grouped on the chart with respect to the mineral previously described in the MID plot discussion. Charts
points. CP-1 and -14 are used for its determination.
The presence of gas shifts the plotted points to the The apparent matrix volumetric cross section is com
northeast on the MID plot. Secondary porosity shifts puted from the photoelectric cross section index and bulk
points in the direction of decreased imaa; i.e., to the left. density measurements
For the SNP log, shales tend to plot in the region to the
right of anhydrite on the MID plot. For the CNL log, PeQe- 4>la Uf
maa 1 - 6 la (Eq. 6-12)
shales tend to plot in the region above the anhydrite point.

6-8
LOG INTERPRETATION PRINCIPLES/APPLICATIONS

where Table 6-3

Pe is photoelectric absorption cross section index,
Pe Sp.gr ebLOG u
Qb + 0.1883 Quartz 1.810 2.65 2.64 4.780
Qe is electron density I Q( 1.0704 Calcite 5.080 2.71 2.71 13.800
Dolomite 3.140 2.85 2.85 9.000
and Anhydrite 5.050 2.96 2.98 14.900
Halite 4.650 2.17 2.04 9.680
Siderite 14.700 3.94 3.89 55.900
<f>ta is apparent total porosity. 17.000 5.00 4.99
Pyrite 82.100
The apparent total porosity can be estimated from the Barite 267.000 4.48 4.09 1065.000
Water (fresh) 0.358 1.00 1.00 0.398
density-neutron crossplot if the formation is liquid filled. Water (100K
Chart CP-20 solves Eq. 6-12 graphically. A simplified ppm NaCI) 0.734 1.06 1.05 0.850
Water (200K
version is shown in Fig. 6-11. 1.120 1.12 1.11 1.360
ppm NaCI)
Oil (n(CH2)) 0.119 en 1.22 60-.118 0.136 e0
Gas (CH41 0.095 e g 1.33 6g-. 188 0.119 eg

3.0

rresl- Wate r ( 0 >pk) % _5

E ?f = 1Uf = 0.3 98 2.2
o> 2.5 \ o r; .
o \ / 10 | CO

1
z
"e 2,° 20 £ I 2.3 g Salt
o _
> 0
3 0 o1 CB

/ ^ 40 ct j5 2.4 D

61
CO

c
\ \\ / / 03 E en
Q)
D orQ_ 0 cS
__: Q_
<
S 2.5 CD
\ \\ / >.
CD
\ / ^ CO

i&
_5
K-Feldspar
^ _. 2.6 0/° Calcite
C Qua 20
3 5 4 3
Pe, Photoelectric
2 4 6 8 10
Umaa. Apparent Matrix
12 14 'cc
0 2.7
E'S fy~ J0
uaicite
Cross Section Volumetric Cross Section X I
<Q\ V
(Barns/Electron) (Barns/cm3) \ / Barite
1 2.8
c b _|o
Heavy
CD
ro 2.9 Dolomi
a.
CL
Fig. 6-11—Matrix identification plot; emaa vs. Un < Anhydrite
orrEo 3 K aolinite t o
CO

Of Illite 0 CM

Table 6-3 lists the photoelectric absorption cross sec 3.1

! 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
tion index, the bulk density, and the volumetric cross sec
Umaa. Apparent Matrix Volumetric
tion for common minerals and fluids. For the minerals, Cross Section (Barns/cm3)
the listed value is the matrix value (Qma, Uma)', for the
fluids, it is the fluid value (Qp Uf). Chart CP-21 (Fig.
6-12) shows the location of these minerals on a Qmaa ver Fig. 6-12—Matrix identification plot.
sus Umaa crossplot. The triangle encompassing the three
common matrix minerals of quartz, calcite, and dolomite COMPLEX LITHOLOGY MIXTURES
has been scaled in the percentages of each mineral. For Mathematically, the transformation of the basic measure
example, a point exhibiting an apparent matrix grain den ment of a porosity or other appropriate log into porosi
sity of 2.76 g/cm3 and volumetric cross section of 10.2 ty and/or lithology and/or pore fluid identification is
barns/cm3 would be defined by the crossplot as 40% simply the solution of one or more simultaneous equa
calcite, 40% dolomite, and 20% quartz provided no other tions. When the rock matrix contains only a single known
minerals exist and the pores are liquid saturated. mineral and the saturating fluid is also known, any one
On this crossplot, gas saturation displaces points up of the porosity logs can be used for porosity identifica
wards on the chart and heavy minerals displace points tion. In other words, a single equation (single log
to the right. Clays and shales plot below the dolomite measurement) is sufficient to solve for a single unknown
point. (in this case, the porosity).

6-9
 LITHOLOGY AND POROSITY DETERMINATION

If, however, in addition to porosity, the rock matrix (i.e., its Qma and <l>ma characteristics). It is presumed that
is an unknown mixture of two known minerals, then two Qma and <\>ma are known for most minerals expected to
independent equations (two log measurements) are need be encountered in sedimentary rocks.
ed to solve for the two unknowns (in this case, the porosi When more unknowns exist, such as in a rock matrix
ty and the mineral fractions). For example, in a limestone- made up of three minerals, another independent equa
dolomite mixture, the combination of neutron and den tion (or log measurement) is required. The sonic log might
sity logs could be used. Their responses to porosity and be added to the neutron-density combination. The equa
lithology are tions become for a limestone-dolomite-quartz mixture:

Qb = 4>Qf * t = 4>Qf
+ (1 - 0) (LQmaL + DQmaD) (Eq. 6-13) + 0 - 0) (LQmaL + DQmaD + SQmaS) (Eq. 6-15)

and 7
<t>N = <t> <t>j
+ (1 - 0) (L0maL + D<t>maD + S<t>mas) (Eq. 6- 16)
<t>jsi - 0 0/
+ (1 - 0) {L<j>maL + D<t>maD) , (Eq. 6-14) i = 0 if
+ (1 - 0) (WmaL + ^maD + S4maS) (Eq. 6-17)
where
1 = L + D + S . (Eq. 6-18)
Qb and 0N are the measured bulk density and apparent
limestone porosity from the density and neutron logs, Simultaneous solution of these four equations yields
respectively; values for the four unknowns (L, D, S, and 0). The M-
N plot (Chart CP-8), the Qmaa versus tmaa MID plot
Gy-and 0y are the density and hydrogen index of the fluid (Chart CP-15), and the Qmaa versus Umaa Matrix Iden
saturating the pores investigated by the density and tification plot (Chart CP-21) are graphical solutions to
neutron logs; four unknowns, four equation systems.
0 is the porosity; Even more complex mixtures can be unraveled by ad
ding more equations (log measurements). Of course, the
QmaL and QmaD are the Srain densities of limestone and additional log measurements must respond to the same,
dolomite, respectively; but not necessarily all, unknown petrophysical
^maL anc* ^maD are t'ie hydrogen indices of limestone parameters; they should not introduce additional
and dolomite; unknowns into the problem.
It is not easy to develop graphical techniques that can
and
solve systems of five, six, and more simultaneous equa
L and D are the fractions of limestone and dolomite in tions for a large number of unknown petrophysical
the rock matrix mixture. parameters. These problems are best handled by com
Three unknowns exist in the above two equations; they puter programs. One such program is Litho-Analysis*.
are 0, L, and D. However, since the mineral fractions
of the rock matrix must total unity, the dolomite frac LITHO-ANALYSIS PROGRAM
tion could be expressed in terms of the limestone frac This program uses the uranium, thorium, and potassium
tion as D = 1 - L, thereby reducing the number of concentration measurements from the NGS log; the
unknowns in the above equations to two; or a third bulk density and photoelectric cross section index meas
material balance equation of L + D = 1 could be in urements from the Litho-Density log; and the apparent
cluded. In either event, solution for 0, L, and D is possi porosity measurement from the CNL log. Lithology
ble since the number of equations (and independent log mixtures containing quartz (sandstone), calcite (lime
measurements) equals the number of unknowns. stone), dolomite, anhydrite, halite (salt), two shales
The several crossplot charts that plot one log measure (low- and high-potassium clays), feldspar, and mica can
ment against another are simply approximate graphical be unraveled into the fractions of each mineral present.
solutions of the responses of two log measurements for Response equations and parameter selections are
porosity and lithology determination. Charts CP-1, -2, obtained from the comparison of thorium and potassi
-7, -16, and -17 are examples. These charts can also be um measurements and from the apparent matrix densi
used when the rock matrix is composed of a single, but ty and apparent volumetric photoelectric cross sec
unknown, mineral. The problem is the same; it is one tion index (Chart CP-21). The thorium and po
of two equations and two unknowns. The unknowns, tassium response equations are used to estimate the
in this situation, are porosity and mineral identification volumes of clays, mica, and feldspar. The apparent

6-10
LOG INTERPRETATION PRINCIPLES/APPLICATIONS

matrix density (Qmaa) and volumetric cross section (Umaa) 1 = Wai + WCi2 + WMa, + WFel , (Eq. 6-22)
data can then be corrected for clay, mica, and feldspar.
A three-mineral analysis is then done using the corrected with WC1 as a known function of Th and K. The model
is shown by Fig. 6-14. The resulting mineral weight frac
Qmaa and Umaa data. A test ensures that the clay correc
tion is within the limits for the assumed lithology model. tions can readily be converted to volume fractions.
If it is not within limits, either the estimate of clay volume The Litho-Density measurements of bulk density and
or the lithology model, or both, are changed. effective photoelectric cross section are sensitive to the
The general case of two clays and feldspar can be presence of any of the six sedimentary categories: car
modeled by observing the rather close proximity of the bonates, evaporites, silicates, clays, micas, feldspar.
100% kaolinite, montmorillonite, and chlorite clay points Chart CP-21 presents a crossplot of Umaa versus Qmaa-
on Chart CP-19. This suggests defining (1) a low- The locations of the various mineral points represent
theoretical locations based upon the chemical composi
potassium clay point, Clj; (2) a high-potassium clay
tions of the various minerals.
point, Cl2, which is generally illite; and (3) a low-
The fundamental Litho-Density interpretation problem
thorium, high-potassium point; i.e., feldspar, Fel; and
is the correction of the apparent matrix volumetric cross
(4) a clean matrix point, Mat. This model is depicted by
section and apparent matrix density for the presence of
Fig. 6-13. The line connecting the two clay points is call
ed the clay line, and the line from the origin through the feldspar, mica, or clay. The presence of evaporites must
also be considered. Assuming the type of clay is known
feldspar point is called the feldspar line. WC1 is obtain
ed by linear interpolation between the clay and feldspar and assuming, for discussion, that initially no evaporites
lines. exist, the Litho-Density variables are corrected for the
The following four-mineral natural gamma ray spec presence of feldspar and clay. This problem can be ex
tral interpretation model is assumed: pressed mathematically as
- P4QA ~ P$e5
Wei = Wa, + WCi2 (Eq. 6-19) maa
- ^Iei + P2«2 + ^3 (Eq. 6-23)
Th = Tha, Wqj + ThCi2 WCi2
- P4U4 - P5U5
+ ThMat WMat + ThFel WFel (Eq. 6-20) ^maa
= P1U1 + P2U2 + P3U3, (Eq. 6-24)
K = Kci, WCi, + KC,2 WCi2
+ KMat WMat + KFei WFel (Eq. 6-21) Pc = P, + P, + P,, (Eq. 6-25)

Fig. 6-13—Estimation of total clay percentage.

6-11
 LITHOLOGY AND POROSITY DETERMINATION

Constant Percentage
By Weight Lines

Feldspar
Ch
20 Cl2 Cl2

Ch
15 —°~y\ ^5//CM"~
/025

Th (ppm)
o___—-—/
10
Fel ▶

/ /
5 0.1

/MaT_____ i i i
0 2 4 6 8
1,376-86 K (%)

Fig. 6-14—Four-mineral spectral model.

where This probability logic is rather complex. It is sufficient

to say, for example, that the probability of anhydrite or
e, is the density of mineral 1, salt increases as the Qmaa versus Umaa point moves away
Pj is the proportion of mineral 1 in formation matrix, from the calcite, quartz, dolomite triangle towards the
anhydrite or salt point, and the neutron porosity
and decreases. However, the probability of anhydrite or salt
(7]is the volumetric cross section of mineral 1. decreases with increasing clay fraction.
A Litho-Analysis computation is shown in Table 6-4
Indices 1, 2, and 3 correspond to the three selected matrix
with corresponding X-ray diffraction data.
minerals (say, quartz, calcite, and dolomite) and form
the vertices of the chosen triangle of Chart CP-21. In
Table 6-4
dices 4 and 5 correspond to the feldspar and clay correc
tions obtained from the spectral measurement of Th and Comparison of Litho-Analysis data with X-ray diffraction on
cores.
K.
There are now three unknowns (P], P2, and P3) and
three equations. Minimum and maximum amounts of Depth (ft)
11,403 11,405 11,415 11,416 Data
clay can be set by not allowing a negative Pl.
Sand 85% 75% 82% 79% Litho-Analysis
PRESENCE OF EVAPORITES 91 73 86 78 X-ray diffraction
Eqs. 6-19 through 6-25, with some constraints on the pro Limestone 0% 19% 12% 8% Litho-Analysis
portion of clay, define the basic Litho-Analysis model. 0 19 3 3 X-ray diffraction
However, a test must be applied to detect evaporites— Dolomite 0% 0% 0% 00/0 Litho-Analysis
anhydrite and salt. The Litho-Analysis model accepts the 0 0 0 0 X-ray diffraction
existence of two models: (1) a calcite, quartz, dolomite
Feldspar 0% 0% 0% 0 % Litho-Analysis
(plus the allowance of a clay/feldspar correction) model; Trace 1 0 Trace X-ray diffraction
and (2) an anhydrite, salt, dolomite model. Then, the pro
Siderite Litho-Analysis
bability of each model is computed. The final estimates Trace 0% 1% 1% X-ray diffraction
of calcite, quartz, dolomite, anhydrite, and salt are just
Illite 0% 0% 0% 0% Litho-Analysis
those obtained from the Litho-Density measurements 2 1 2 4 X-ray diffraction
(with Model 1 corrected for clay, feldspar) for each of
the two models. However, they are weighted in accor Clay 2 15% 6% 6% 13% Litho-Analysis
7 6 8 14 X-ray diffraction
dance with the probability of the respective models.
1567-86

6-12
LOG INTERPRETA TION PRINCIPLES/APPLICA TIONS

FLUID IDENTIFICATION Serra, O., Baldwin, J., and Quirein, J.: "Theory, Interpretation,
Most of the discussion to this point has involved the use and Practical Applications of Natural Gamma Ray Spectroscopy,"
Trans., 1980 SPWLA Annual Logging Symposium, paper Q.
of porosity logs in determining porosity when the rock
Gaymard, R. and Poupon, A.: "Response of Neutron and For
lithology is not known or when the rock matrix consists mation Density Logs in Hydrocarbon-Bearing Formations," The
of two or more known minerals in unknown proportions. Log Analyst (Sept.-Oct. 1968).
These techniques generally require that the fluid Burke, J.A., Campbell, R.L., Jr., and Schmidt, A.W.: "The
Litho-Porosity Crossplot,,, The Log Analyst (Nov.-Dec. 1969).
saturating the rock pores is known and is a liquid. 7. Hassan, M. and Hossin, A.: Contribution a L 'etude des Com-
Similar combinations of porosity logs can be used to portements du Thorium et du Potassium Dans les Roches Sedimen-
determine porosity when the fluid or fluids saturating the taries, C. R. Acad. Sci., Paris (1975).
pores are unknown but the rock lithology is known. In 8. Edmundson, H. and Raymer, L.L.: "Radioactive Logging
Parameters for Common Minerals," The Log Analyst (Sept.-Oct.
this case, the tool response equation for the density log is 1979).
Suau, J. and Spurlin, J.: "Interpretation of Micaceous Sandstones
Qb = + Vh qh + 0 - Sh) Qw] in the North Sea," Trans., 1982 SPWLA Annual Logging
(Eq. 6-26) Symposium.
10. Quirein, J.A., Gardner, J.S., and Watson, J.T.: "Combined
where Natural Gamma Ray Spectral/Litho-Density Measurements Ap
plied to Complex Lithologies," paper SPE 11143 presented at the
Sh is hydrocarbon saturation in the zone investigated by 1982 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition.
the density log 11. Delfiner, P.C, Peyret, O., and Serra, O.: "Automatic Determina
tion of Lithology From Well Logs," paper SPE 13290 presented
and at the 1984 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition.
12. Log Interpretation Charts, Schlumberger Well Services, Houston
Qh is hydrocarbon density. (1989).
Similar tool response equations can be written for the
neutron and sonic logs.
To determine porosity from Eq. 6-26, the density, and
hence the nature, of the saturating hydrocarbon and/or
the fractions of hydrocarbon and water saturation must
be known. If only one of these parameters is known, the
other can be found by combining the density log with
another porosity log—usually the neutron log. Chart
CP-5 graphically solves the density log response equation
(Eq. 6-26) and a similar neutron log response equation
when the nature of the saturating hydrocarbon is known
approximately. Porosity and gas saturation or water
saturation can be determined.
If the nature of the saturating hydrocarbon is not
known but its fraction of saturation is known, the chart
(CP-9) *'Porosity Estimation in Hydrocarbon-Bearing
Formations" permits the estimation of porosity from a
comparison of the density and neutron logs. Hydrocar
bon saturation can be estimated from a microresistivity
or shallow dielectric measurement. The density of the
hydrocarbon saturation can be estimated from Chart
CP-10.

REFERENCES
l. Raymer, L.L. and Biggs, W.P.: "Matrix Characteristics Defined
by Porosity Computations," Trans., 1963 SPWLA Annual Log
ging Symposium.
2. Poupon, A., Hoyle, W.R., and Schmidt, A.W.: "Log Analysis
in Formations with Complex Lithologies," J. Pet. Tech. (Aug.
1971).
Gardner, J.S. and Dumanoir, J.L.: "Litho-Density Log Interpreta
tion," Trans., 1980 SPWLA Annual Logging Symposium, paper
N.

6-13