Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S.

Kadhim)

share se bineLithology
bye
In formation evaluation, there are two lithology tools are commonly used to detect
the formation lithology, the Spontaneous Potential (SP) log and the Gamma Ray (GR) log.
Both tools are recordings of naturally occurring phenomena in the formation. Given the
knowledge of the rock type, porosity can be determined by using different logging devices.
For example, if a density logging tool is to be used, the rock matrix density must be known
in order to determine the porosity. Likewise, using sonic log for porosity determination,
the known parameter must be the matrix travel time and for neutron log, the parameter
that must correspond to the rock type is the matrix setting for the neutron logging tool. If
the encountered lithologies are simple or if the detailed information about the geology of
the formation is given, many problems should not arise in the determination of these
parameters. Otherwise, the best way is to adopt the graphical methods if we are not sure
about the lithology.
 Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

A Crossplot of porosity logging data has been in use since early 1960. Today an extremely
large variety of two and three-dimensional cross-plots are available. There are many cross-plots
models can be used for each formation to determine the lithological type, such as mono, binary and
triple-mineral. Assuming a reservoir rock of known lithology, which is clean and /or shale corrected
then porosity can be explained for cross-plots type.

A cross-plot of two porosity logs is convenient to display both porosity and lithology
information is called binary porosity model. For a thermal neutron porosity device, the travel times
as a function of the apparent porosity are plotted. A considerable separation between limestone,
dolomite and sandstone appears due to the matrix effect of the neutron device. The Following
Figure shows the relationship between neutron porosity and sonic transit time in limestone
formation. The sonic-neutron cross-plot provides a resolution between sandstone, limestone,
anhydrite and dolomite lithologies. In this cross-plot, the sandstone line locates in the upper zone of
plot while the dolomite line locates in the lower, whereas limestone region is in between of sandstone
and dolomite.

W Wy Al 461 dolomite 119carbonated19 Il A sb 419Cross Plot11 49

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 Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Sonic-Neutron lithology determinations (Schlumberger, 1989)

 Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

The density-neutron crossplot is provided for clean fully liquid-saturated formations and holes
filled with water or water based mud. As water-filled porosity increases, three different loci could be
traced out for differing travel times and matrix densities for the three principal matrices. A
considerable confusion in the ascribed lithology caused by a little uncertainty in the measured pair
(sonic-bulk density cross-plot) means the contrast between the matrix endpoints is not a great deal. In
addition, depending on the type of sonic transform used, there is a large difference as well. The
following Figure illustrates the neutron-density cross plot, the separation between sandstone,
limestone and dolomite lines indicate good resolution for these lithologies.
Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Density-Neutron Lithology determination (Schlumberger, 1989)

 Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Lithology interpretation with neutron, sonic and density is facilitated by use of M-N plots,
which is called ternary porosity model. This cross-plot was presented by Schlumberger; it is a
two-dimensional display of all three porosity logs responses in complex reservoirs rocks. M and
N as expressed by the following equations, are lithology-dependent parameters but essentially
independent of primary porosity. Therefore, a cross-plot of these two parameters makes
porosity more apparent. The following Figure shows the N-M plot points for several single
mineral formations. This figure indicates the secondary porosity and gas region in addition to
the lithology.

t f  t log
M 
b   f
PHI Nf  PHI N log
N
b   f

For fresh mud, ∆tf=189, ρf =1, PHINf=1

 Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
Eun Ho
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M-N plot for several minerals (Schlumberger, 1989)

 Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Tutorial

By virtue of the different responses of matrix minerals to the individual porosity logs,
immediate indications of the lithology of logged unit are given by an overlay of any combination of
the three porosities. The hypothetical response to a mixed sequence of lithologies can be compared to
the density, sonic, and neutron logs to illustrate this point.
Sonic and Neutron Logs Cross-plot
A cross-plot of two porosity logs is convenient to display both porosity and lithology
information. Figures 4.10 and 4.11 illustrate sonic-neutron cross-plot for Mishrif and Yamamma
formation. These figures show the separation between the sandstone, limestone and dolomite lines
that indicate good resolution for these lithologies. Also, gamma ray scale in the right side gives
indication of the scale reading and color of each type of rock in the formation. For example, the blue
sky color refers to limestone while blue color refers to dolomite.

The IP software is used to draw the sonic-neutron cross-plot for Mishrif and Yammama
formations as shown in the following Figures.The results show that the main lithology is limestone
and some points of sandstone as well as some dolomite spots. In Mishrif Formation, the clay effect is
clearly noticed by shifting some points towards the east, and the bad hole effects make some points
to be scattered
 Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

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Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

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 Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Density and Neutron Cross-plot

The density-neutron cross plots for Mishrif and Yammama formations are created by IP software
as shown in Figures 4.12 and 4.13. These Figures show a good resolution of lithology by clear
separation between the sandstone, limestone, and dolomite lines. In the left side of figures the gamma
ray indicates the lithology of studied formation. The gamma ray reading between 15 and 30 represents
to the limestone (blue sky color).

The density-neutron cross-plot provides a satisfactory resolution of porosity and lithological column.
The following Figures show the lithology of Mishrif and Yamamma consist mainly of limestone. In
Mishrif formation, the clay effect is clearly noticed by shifting some points towards the east, and the
bad hole effects make some points to be scattered.

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Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

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 Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

majority is limestone
here spot of Sheba
 Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Ternary Porosity Mode

The M-N cross-plot is detected by lithology interpretation with neutron, sonic and density. M
and N are lithology-dependent parameters but essentially independent of primary porosity.
Therefore, a cross-plot of these two parameters makes porosity more apparent. IP software is used to
provide the following Figures that represent to the N-M plot points for several single mineral of
Mishrif and Yamamma Formations. These figures show the distribution of carbonate formation. The
secondary porosity, sulfur, gypsum and gas also can be indicated from this plot.

The M-N cross-plot illustrates that Mishrif and Yamamma formation consist mainly of limestone
when the blue points accumulate in the carbonate zone. Also, there is no reasonable secondary
porosity effect to studying formation as shown in the following Figures.
Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

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Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

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 Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Permeability and Relative Permeability

Introduction

Permeability is a measure of the ability of a porous medium, such as reservoir rock, to transmit fluids
through its system of interconnected pore spaces. If the porous medium is completely saturated (100%
saturated) with a single fluid, the permeability measured is the absolute permeability. Absolute
permeability is an intrinsic property of the porous medium, and the magnitude of absolute
permeability is independent of the type of fluid in the pore spaces.

When the pore spaces in the porous medium are occupied by more than one fluid, the permeability
measured is the effective permeability of the porous medium to that particular fluid. For instance, the
effective permeability of a porous medium to oil is the permeability to oil when other fluids, including
oil, occupy the pore spaces. Relative permeability is defined as the ratio of effective permeability to
absolute permeability of a porous medium. The relationship for relative permeability is represented
as: 1.611dis it as 19s
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Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

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 Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
The core sample must be totally saturated (100%) with the fluid. By definition, any fluid can be used
to measure absolute permeability. In practice, absolute permeability is measured by flowing air
through a core sample that has been completely dried. Core permeability measured with air or any
other gas must be reviewed and corrected for Klinkenberg1 effect, if necessary. At low pressures, gas
permeability can be higher than absolute permeability due to Klinkenberg effect, as shown in Eq. (5):

A1 of

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Sources of Permeability Data
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The main sources of permeability data are: A
1. Core samples
2. Pressure transient tests
3. Well logs
Welltest 411
 Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

Permeability from Well Logs Based on Empirical Correlations

The concept of permeability as a proportionality constant that governs the rate of fluid flow is
demonstrated by Darcy’s equation for single phase, linear, horizontal flow in a porous medium as:

darcy how
m
s
21 KII II
A Ilk

Eq. (7) shows that permeability has dimensions of area ( ) which are physically related to the surface
area of grains exposed to flow. The size and distribution of rock grains in a porous medium are
related to surface area, which affects the permeability of the porous medium. This physical aspect of
permeability has been used to create empirical equations for prediction of permeabiliy.
t
correlations
 Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
An equation that predicts permeability from the porosity and surface area of grains exposed to fluid
flow was proposed by Kozeny and Carman as:
 Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
In Eq. (10), are regression parameters to be determined by fitting the equation to core data. A form of
Eq. (10) was developed for sandstones by Timur as:
Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
 Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

The improved reliability of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) logs led to the reformulation of Eq. (15)
by Coates et al.5 in terms of free-fluid index (FFI) and bulk volume irreducible (BVI) saturations. FFI
is the fractional part of the pore volume occupied by fluids that are free to flow and is the fractional
part of the pore volume occupied by immobile bound water. The Coates equation for calculation of
permeability from NMR logs is expressed as:

A
 Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
The irreducible water saturations of core samples shown in the following Figure were measured by the
centrifugal method and matched against irreducible water saturations from NMR core laboratory data
based on T2 cutoffs. The T2 cutoffs were then used to determine FFI and BVI for the core samples.
NMR permeability for each core sample was then calculated from these data using Eq. (16).
etching
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 Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
The comparison of calculated NMR permeability versus core permeability measured by routine core
analysis method is shown in Figure. The approach discussed here is a method regularly used to
calibrate NMR calculated permeability with core permeability obtained through routine core analysis
methods. The parameters for the Coates equation obtained from regression of the calibrated
permeability data are then used to calculate permeability data from NMR data measured in other
wells. The Coates equation is widely used for the calculation of permeability data as discussed, if NMR
logs are available. This is the method recommended for the calculation of permeability data from NMR
and porosity logs.
 Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
An important correlation for predicting permeability was developed by Amaefule et al. from the
Kozeny-Carman equation (Eq. (8)). By dividing both sides of Eq. (8) with effective porosity (Фe), and
taking the square root of both sides of the equation, the resulting equation is expressed as:
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 Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

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In Eq. (22), are regression constants that depend on the data set. Eq. (22) has no theoretical basis
but has been adopted because the distribution of permeability data appears to be log-normal. An
example of a permeability-porosity crossplot for core samples from a reservoir is shown in the
following Figure.
Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
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 Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
Problem:

From the permeability and porosity data in the following Table:

a. Plot the data and develop an equation that represents the relationship between permeability
and porosity. Show the limits of the applicability of this equation.
b. Determine RQI, Фz, and FZI
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 Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
Relative Permeability

The relative permeability of a fluid flowing in a porous medium is the ratio of its effective
permeability to the absolute permeability of the porous medium as represented in Eq. (1). Relative
permeability data can be presented graphically in plots called relative permeability curves. A typical
relative permeability curve for an oil-water system is shown in the following Figure. In this Figure, the
range of water saturation is from the initial water saturation (Swi), to water saturation at residual
oil saturation, (1-Sorw) . Oil relative permeability, (Kro) , is highest at (Swi) and declines to zero at
(1-Sorw) . Water relative permeability, (Krw) , increases from zero at (Swi) to its highest value at
(1-Sorw) . The Figure also shows the location of critical water saturation,(Swc) . Critical water
saturation is the level of water saturation at which water starts to flow in the reservoir.

te

es Sw
next
 Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)
Example
h
From the following data, determine initial water saturation, Swi and residual oil saturation to water,
Sorw
 Formation Evaluation Lectures (Prepared by Dr. Fadhil S. Kadhim)

501401 lil waterwet 50 4.31

oilWeb

i4tyan residual oil

saturation
6Wbeat
V1.06 t Inability M
Hosea
web
1324.1Kaol.be sm
load Mob 6141 L
Is it pitfall is a Tib 9201 midlife oil I WIL
1124511.611 51.1201 Il Adon 11911.6
2