Introduction

Erik B. Nelson and Dominique Guillot, Schlumberger

The first edition of Well Cementing was published in Chapter 2 is concerned with the central unifying
1990. Since then, cementing technology has advanced theme of this textbook—Portland cement. The physical
rapidly on many fronts, and Schlumberger decided to and chemical properties and the performance of this
produce an updated edition. remarkable material are crucial to every facet of well
Well cementing technology is an amalgam of many cementing technology. This chapter presents (in a well
interdependent scientific and engineering disciplines, cementing context) a review of the manufacture, chem-
including chemistry, geology, and physics and petro- ical composition, hydration chemistry, and classification
leum, mechanical, and electrical engineering. Each is of Portland cements. The updated discussion reflects an
essential to achieve the primary goal of well cement- improved understanding of aluminate-phase hydration,
ing—durable zonal isolation. By preparing this second and also includes a section concerning advanced tech-
edition, the authors have aspired to produce a compre- niques for monitoring and modeling cement hydration.
hensive and updated reference concerning the applica- Well cementing exposes Portland cement to condi-
tion of these disciplines toward cementing a well. tions far different from those anticipated by its inventor.
Like the first edition, this textbook comprises five Cement systems must be designed for placement under
principal sections. The first section (Chapter 1) illus- conditions ranging from below freezing in permafrost
trates how the quality of the hydraulic seal provided by zones to greater than 1,000°F [538°C] in some thermal
the cement sheath can affect well performance. The recovery wells. After placement, the cement systems
second section (Chapters 2 through 11) presents infor- must preserve their integrity and provide zonal isolation
mation that must be considered during the design phase during the life of the well. It has only been possible to
of a cementing treatment. Various aspects of cement job accommodate such a wide range of conditions through
execution are covered in the third section (Chapters 12 the development of additives that modify the behavior of
through 14). The fourth section (Chapter 15) addresses Portland cements for individual well requirements. The
cement job evaluation. The fifth section contains appen- impressive array of cement additives used in the well
dices that present information about rheology, cement cementing industry is discussed in Chapter 3. The chem-
testing, and cementing calculations. ical nature of the various classes of additives is
In the preface, D.G. Calvert states that “primary described, and typical performance data are provided.
cementing (is) the most important operation performed In addition, building upon the material presented in
on a well.” Indeed, from operational experience, few Chapter 2, the mechanisms by which the additives oper-
would dispute that no other event has a greater effect on ate are also explained.
the production potential of a well. Yet it is interesting to The rheology of well cement systems is examined in
note that very little work has been published regarding Chapter 4. A review of the relevant rheological models
the quantification of zonal isolation from a reservoir and concepts is presented, followed by discussions of
engineering point of view. In Chapter 1, common reser- flow in pipes and annuli, the effects of particle-laden
voir engineering concepts are used to derive a theoreti- fluids, foamed cement rheology, and equipment for rhe-
cal index of zonal isolation, which can be used to calcu- ological characterization.
late the maximum tolerable cement sheath permeability The rheological behavior of a cement slurry must be
(matrix and interfacial). The index of zonal isolation optimized to effectively remove drilling mud from the
concept is subsequently applied to typical wellbore sce- annulus. The appropriate cement slurry design is a func-
narios, and the results further underscore the critical tion of many parameters, including the wellbore geome-
importance of cement sheath integrity. Chapter 1 also try, casing hardware, formation integrity, drilling fluid
provides several examples of consequences suffered by characteristics, and presence of spacers and washes. A
operators when adequate zonal isolation is not attained. large amount of theoretical and experimental work con-

Well Cementing ■ Introduction 9

cerning mud removal has been performed since 1940, Annular fluid migration has been a topic of intense
yet this subject remains controversial today. Chapter 5 is interest and controversy for many years, and a thorough
a review of the work performed to date, contrasting the review is presented in Chapter 9. This complex phenom-
opposing viewpoints and distilling some mud removal enon may occur at any time during well construction,
guidelines with which the majority of workers in this production, and abandonment, and it has long been rec-
field would agree. ognized as one of the most troublesome problems of
The interactions between cement systems and the the petroleum industry. The causes and consequences
formations with which they come into contact are impor- of fluid migration are discussed, and theoretical and
tant topics. Such interactions encompass four principal experimental models are described. In addition, meth-
effects—fluid loss, formation damage, bonding, and lost ods to predict and solve fluid migration problems are
circulation. It is generally acknowledged that an inap- presented.
propriate level of fluid-loss control is often responsible The physical and chemical behavior of well cements
for primary and remedial cementing failures. In addi- changes significantly at high temperatures and pres-
tion, invasion of cement filtrate into the formation may sures; consequently, special guidelines must be followed
be damaging to production. Chapter 6 discusses static to design cement systems that will provide adequate
and dynamic fluid loss, the deposition of cement filter- casing protection and zonal isolation throughout the life
cakes on formation surfaces, and the influence of a pre- of so-called “thermal wells.” In addition, the presence of
viously deposited mudcake on the fluid-loss process. corrosive zones and weak formations must frequently be
Recent work concerning cement-to-formation bonding is considered. Thermal cementing encompasses three
also highlighted. Another section of Chapter 6 reviews principal types of wells—deep oil and gas wells, geo-
methods for preventing or correcting lost circulation. thermal wells, and thermal recovery (steamflood and
Because lost circulation is best attacked before the fireflood) wells. In Chapter 10, each scenario is dis-
cementing process is initiated, the treatment of this cussed separately, because the cement system design
problem during drilling is also presented. parameters can differ significantly. The chemistry of
During the past 16 years, the cementing industry has thermal cements, including newer systems that are not
rapidly expanded the number of special cement systems based on Portland cement, is also presented, and data
that address problems such as slurry fallback, lost circu- are provided to illustrate the long-term performance of
lation, and microannuli and salt-formation, permafrost, typical systems.
deepwater, and corrosive-well environments. These Proper mixing and placement of well cements rely
technologies are described in Chapter 7. The more upon the application of electrical and mechanical tech-
notable systems discussed in the chapter include nology. Chapter 11 focuses on cementing equipment and
foamed cements, engineered particle-size distribution casing hardware. In line with the trend toward deeper
cements, flexible cements, cements containing blast-fur- wells and more severe working environments, this tech-
nace slag, and cementitious drilling fluids. The composi- nology has become increasingly sophisticated, and the
tions of the cement systems (several of which do not equipment has become more flexible in application and
involve Portland cement) are explained, and typical per- more reliable in operation. First, an extensive discussion
formance data are provided. is presented concerning the various types of equipment
Until recently, the well cementing industry was for bulk handling, storage, cement mixing, and pumping.
largely concerned with only one mechanical property of In addition, the special considerations for onshore and
set cement—compressive strength. Today, we recognize offshore cementing, as well as cementing in remote loca-
that compressive strength alone is an insufficient indi- tions, are examined. The second section of this chapter
cator of a cement system’s ability to provide zonal isola- is a discussion of the wide variety of casing hardware
tion throughout the lifetime of a well and after aban- (float equipment, cementing plugs, stage tools, central-
donment. Consequently, a significant effort is under way izers, scratchers, liners, etc.) and explains how these
to better understand the mechanical response of cement devices work. This presentation is supported by an
systems to downhole conditions. Chapter 8 discusses the extensive series of illustrations.
industry’s current level of understanding. In this chap- Chapters 2 through 11 contain information the engi-
ter, basic rock-mechanics concepts are presented in neer must consider when designing a cement system or
the context of well cements, followed by an examination choosing the proper equipment for the cementing treat-
of how these concepts may be applied to design appro- ment. Sophisticated computer programs are available to
priate cement systems for the anticipated downhole perform most job-design tasks; nevertheless, this has not
environment. diminished the need for simple engineering common

10 Well Cementing
sense. The methodology by which an engineer may sys- describes many devices and techniques that were not
tematically develop an optimal cement job design is dis- available when the first edition was published. Appendix
cussed in Chapter 12. Examples of job design procedures C is a presentation of common calculations for slurry
are also presented. design, primary and remedial cementing, and foamed
Chapter 13 is a presentation of primary cementing cementing. Most of these calculations are performed
techniques. This chapter explains primary cementing today by software applications; nevertheless, this mater-
terminology, the classification of casing strings, and the ial has been included for the reader’s reference.
special problems associated with the cementation of each It is important to mention that this edition of Well
type of string. The cementing of large-diameter casings, Cementing differs from its predecessor in terms of
multilaterals, expandable tubulars, horizontal wells, and nomenclature. The text generally conforms to symbol
liners, as well as stage cementing, is also covered. guidelines published by the Society of Petroleum
Chapter 14 is devoted to remedial cementing tech- Engineers (SPE), and the editors have endeavored to
niques—plug cementing and squeeze cementing. The give symbols a consistent meaning throughout the entire
chapter begins by describing the types of well problems textbook. Consequently, the reader will notice that the
that can be cured by remedial cementing. The next sec- symbols in many equations differ from those that
tion discusses plug cementing techniques and includes appeared in the original referenced publications. Also,
information about special tools and cement design since this book encompasses many disciplines, symbol
guidelines. The third section presents squeeze cement- conflicts frequently occurred. To avoid confusion, this
ing from both a theoretical and practical point of view. textbook presents a comprehensive nomenclature list
Placement techniques such as low- and high-pressure and, where symbol conflicts exist, the meaning of the
squeezes, Bradenhead squeezes, and hesitation symbols in particular chapters is noted. For example, in
squeezes are described. Finally, common misconcep- rock mechanics, the symbol E refers to Young’s modulus
tions about remedial cementing, reasons for failure, and while, for cement job evaluation, E refers to acoustic
evaluation of remedial cementing jobs are discussed. waves. Therefore, E denotes Young’s modulus in Chapter
After a well has been cemented, the results are often 8 and the peak amplitude of the acoustic wave arrival in
evaluated to check whether the objectives have been Chapter 15.
reached. Chapter 15 is a comprehensive presentation of As stated earlier, this textbook was written to provide
the available techniques to perform such evaluations. the reader with updated technical information concern-
These include hydraulic testing; nondestructive meth- ing well cementing. Since work to produce this book
ods such as temperature, nuclear, or noise logging; and began in late 2002, virtually all aspects of cementing
acoustic and ultrasonic cement logging. The theoretical technology have continued to advance at a rapid pace;
basis of each technique is discussed, the measuring consequently, we were obliged to continually revise and
devices are described, and the interpretation of the update many chapters until press time. While this has
results is explained. The interpretation discussion is been somewhat exasperating for the authors, it is a
supported by many illustrations. strong indication of the industry’s continuing commit-
Three appendices are included in this textbook to ment to the improvement of well cementing technology.
supplement the material covered in the chapters. We have attempted to present the material in a logical
Appendix A is a digest of rheological equations com- and easily understandable form and to reduce the aura
monly used in well cementing, presented in a tabular of mystery that seems to be associated with many
format. Appendix B is an updated examination of labo- aspects of this technology. It is our fervent hope that this
ratory cement testing procedures and the equipment new edition of Well Cementing will be a useful addition
commonly used to perform such tests. This discussion to the reader’s reference library.

Introduction 11