CH 3 PDF
CH 3 PDF
CH 3 PDF
∑𝐹 = 0
∑𝑀 = 0
A free body diagram (FBD) is a sketch of an element or group of connected
elements that shows all the forces acting on it (applied loads, gravity forces, and
reactions)
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 1 of 30
Shear and Moment in Beams
Shear and moment diagrams are important in locating the critical sections in a beam
(sections with maximum shear or moment) such that stresses are evaluated at these
sections.
The sign convection for shear force and bending moment is:
𝑑𝑀
𝑉= (Shear is the slope of the moment diagram)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑉 𝑑 2 𝑀
𝑞= =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
𝑥2 𝑀2
∫ 𝑉 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑀 = 𝑀2 − 𝑀1
𝑥1 𝑀1
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 2 of 30
Example: Draw the shear & moment
diagrams for the beam shown.
Solution:
0<𝑥<2
𝑉 = −0.5 𝑘𝑁
𝑀 = −0.5𝑥 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
2<𝑥<3
𝑉 = −0.5 𝑘𝑁
∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0
𝑀 − 3 + 0.5𝑥 = 0
𝑀 = 3 − 0.5𝑥 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚 −3 + 2(3) − 6(5) + 𝑅𝐵 (6) = 0
3<𝑥<4 𝑅𝐵 = 4.5 𝑘𝑁
−0.5 + 2 − 𝑉 = 0
𝑉 = 1.5 𝑘𝑁 ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
𝑀 − 2(𝑥 − 3) − 3 + 0.5𝑥 = 0
𝑅𝐴 + 2 − 6 + 4.5 = 0
𝑀 = 1.5𝑥 − 3 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
𝑅𝐴 = −0.5 𝑘𝑁 = 0.5 𝑘𝑁 ↓
4<𝑥<6
−0.5 + 2 − 3(𝑥 − 4) − 𝑉 = 0
𝑉 = −3𝑥 + 13.5 𝑘𝑁
(𝑥 − 4)
𝑀 + 3(𝑥 − 4) [ ] − 2(𝑥 − 3)
2
−3 + 0.5𝑥 = 0
𝑀 = −1.5𝑥 2 + 13.5𝑥 − 27 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 3 of 30
Singularity Functions
When the loading is not simple, obtaining the shear and moment diagrams using
sections or integrations become difficult.
The method of singularity functions is used when loading is complicated where it
simplifies integration across discontinuities. The advantage of using singularity
functions is that it permits writing analytical expressions for shear and moment over a
range of discontinuities (no need for intervals).
A singularity functions of 𝑥 is written as:
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 4 of 30
The singularity functions for the common types of loading are:
- Concentrated
moment 𝑞(𝑥) = 𝑀 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 >−2
- Concentrated
𝑞(𝑥) = 𝑃 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 >−1
force
- Step (uniform 𝑞(𝑥) = 𝑤0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 >0
distributed load)
- Ramp 𝑤0
𝑞(𝑥) = < 𝑥 − 𝑎 >1
𝑏
- Inverse Ramp 𝑤0
𝑞(𝑥) = 𝑤0 < 𝑥 − 𝑎 >0 − < 𝑥 − 𝑎 >1
𝑏
- Parabolic 𝑞(𝑥) =< 𝑥 − 𝑎 >2
𝑉 = ∫ 𝑞 𝑑𝑥 = −0.5 < 𝑥 >0 + 3 < 𝑥 − 2 >−1 + 2 < 𝑥 − 3 >0 − 3 < 𝑥 − 4 >1 + 4.5 < 𝑥 − 6 >0
𝑀 = ∫ 𝑉 𝑑𝑥 = −0.5 < 𝑥 >1 + 3 < 𝑥 − 2 >0 + 2 < 𝑥 − 3 >1 − 1.5 < 𝑥 − 4 >2 + 4.5 < 𝑥 − 6 >1
𝑀(𝑥 = 4.5) = −0.5(4.5) + 3(1) + 2(4.5 − 3)1 − 1.5(4.5 − 4)2 + 4.5(0) = 3.375 𝑘𝑁. 𝑚
Note: It is not necessary to find the reacitons before using the singularity
functions where they can be evaluted from the shear and moment
equations by evaluating at 𝑥 < 0 or 𝑥 > 𝑙 and knowing that both
𝑉 & 𝑀 = 0 at that value of 𝑥.
When there is a distibuted loading that ends before the end of the beam, it
needs to be turned-off
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 5 of 30
Examples:
𝑞(𝑥) = ⋯ − 10 < 𝑥 − 3 >0 + 10 < 𝑥 − 7 >0 …
5 5
𝑞(𝑥) = ⋯ − < 𝑥 − 4 >1 + < 𝑥 − 6 >1
2 2
+5 < 𝑥 − 6 >0 …
Stress
Stress is the term used to define the intensity and direction of the internal forces
acting at a given point on a particular plane.
The average stress is defined as force acting over an area
𝑃
𝜎=
𝐴
The stress at a point on a cross-section is thus
∆𝑃 𝑑𝑃
𝜎 = lim =
∆𝐴→0 ∆𝐴 𝑑𝐴
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 6 of 30
Sign convection
- Positive stress : (+) face & (+) direction
or (-) face & (-) direction.
- Negative stress : (-) face & (+) direction
or (+) face & (-) direction.
- Thus, for normal stress tensile stress is positive & compressive stress is
negative.
There are nine stress components, but moment equilibrium requires that:
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑥 , 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦 , 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥
- Thus, there are only six independent stress components, three normal and
three shear.
𝜎𝐴 = 𝜎𝑦 (𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø)(𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø) + 𝜎𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø)(𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø)
+ 𝜏𝑥𝑦 (𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø)(𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø)
+ 𝜏𝑥𝑦 (𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø)(𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø)
This reduces to:
𝜎 = 𝜎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 Ø + 𝜎𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 Ø + 2𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø
Using trigonometric identities it reduces to:
𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
𝜎= + 𝑐𝑜𝑠2Ø + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛2Ø (1)
2 2
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 7 of 30
Similarly, by summing forces in the 𝜏 direction we can get:
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
𝜏=− 𝑠𝑖𝑛2Ø + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠2Ø (2)
2
These two equations are called the plane-stress transformation equations, where
they can be used to find the 𝜎 & 𝜏 in any desired direction defined by an angle Ø
(measured from the positive 𝑥 axis).
To find the maximum and minimum values of stress, we differentiate the 𝜎 equitation
and set the result equal to zero.
𝑑𝜎
= −(𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 )𝑠𝑖𝑛2Ø + 2 𝜏𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠2Ø = 0
𝑑Ø
Solving for angle Ø𝑝 we get:
2𝜏𝑥𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛2Ø𝑝 =
𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦
- The angle Ø𝑝 is called the principal angle where its two values define the
directions of the max and min normal stresses.
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
𝜎1 , 𝜎2 = √
± ( 2
) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 2
𝜏=0
-
- At this angle,Ø𝑝 , the normal stresses are maximum (𝜎1 ) and minimum (𝜎2 )
and the shear stress 𝜏 = 0.
This direction is called the principal direction and the stresses are called the
principal normal stress.
Similarly, finding the angle that defines the direction associated with max and min
values of shear stress, we get:
𝜎𝑥− 𝜎𝑦 The difference between the max
𝑡𝑎𝑛2∅𝑠 = − shear stress angle ∅𝑠 and the
2𝜏𝑥𝑦
principal angle ∅𝑝 is 45 degrees
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 8 of 30
- The principal shear stress and the corresponding value of normal stress are
found by substituting ∅𝑠 in equations 1 and 2
𝜎𝑥−𝜎𝑦 2
𝜏1,2 = ±√( 2 .
) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
𝜎=
2
Equations 1 and 2 define a circle in the 𝜎 - 𝜏 plane. This circle is known as Mohr’s circle,
where it provides a convenient method of graphically visualizing the state of stress and
it can be used to find the principal stresses as well as performing stress transformation.
σ𝑥 − σ𝑦 2
𝑟 = √( ) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2
- The principal normal stresses are located
on the intersection points of the circle
with 𝜎 axis, and they have the values:
𝜎1,2 = 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 ± 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠
- The max shear stress is equal to the
radius.
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 9 of 30
- The direction of the principal axis, measured from the 𝑥 direction, is found by
determining the angle 2Øp from the circle and rotating in the same direction.
Solution:
𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 9+19
Center: 𝜎𝑐 = = = 14 𝑀𝑃𝑎
2 2
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 10 of 30
General Three-Dimensional Stress
For the case of 3D stress, there are six components of stress and thus there are three
principal normal stress components and three principal shear stresses.
- The three principal stress σ1 , σ2 , σ3 , are found as the three roots of the cubic
equation:
σ3 - (σx + σy + σz) σ2 + (σx σy + σx σz + σy σz - τ2xy - τ2yz - τ2zx) σ
-( σx σy σz + 2τxy τyz τzx - σx τ2yz - σy τ2zx - σz τ2xy) = 0
- The principal stresses are labeled such that σ1 > σ2 > σ3 σ1 > σ2 > σ3
- After finding principal stresses the 3D Mohr’s Circle can be
drawn to help visualizing the state of stress.
- If the principal directions are also needed, tensor notation
needs to be used and we find the Eigen-vectors.
- The shear stresses are found as:
𝜎1 − 𝜎2 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 𝜎1 − 𝜎3
𝜏1⁄ = , 𝜏2⁄ = , 𝜏1⁄ =
2 2 3 2 3 2
Where the maximum shear stress is 𝜏1⁄
3
3D states of stress are not common in machine elements
except for the case of contact stress.
The 3D Mohr’s Circle can be drawn for any state of plane stress knowing that
one of the three principal stresses is equal to zero.
Strain
Strain is a non-dimensional measure of the deformation resulting from the stresses
acting upon a solid material.
There are two types of strain:
Normal strain Є where it measures the change
in length resulting from normal stress.
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑦
𝜖𝑥 = & 𝜖𝑦 =
𝑙𝑥 𝑙𝑦
Shear strain 𝜸 where it measures the angular distortion (the change in angle)
resulting from shear stress.
For small strains
𝛿𝑥
𝛾𝑥𝑦 = = tan 𝜃𝑦𝑥 ≅ 𝜃𝑥𝑦
𝑦
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 11 of 30
In the Elastic region under uniaxial stress condition or pure shear stress
condition, the stress and strain are related as:
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖
− 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑣=
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐸
𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾 where 𝐺=
2(1+𝑣)
For biaxial or triaxial state of stress, these relations are not valid and the
generalized hook’s law is used to relate stresses and strain.
- See the generalized Hook’s law equations in text (Eqn. 3-19, page 102).
For shear
𝐹
𝜏=
𝐴
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 12 of 30
Normal Stress in Beams
Beam bending stress equation (flexure formula) is developed under the following
assumptions:
- The beam is straight, long and having a constant cross-section with an axis
of symmetry in the plane of bending.
- The material is isotropic, homogeneous, and linearly elastic.
- The beam is subjected to pure bending moment (no axial force, shear or
torsion).
The bending stress in beams subjected to bending moment is found as (see derivation
in text):
𝑀𝑦
𝜎= −
𝐼
Where, 𝑦: is the height from the neutral axis (centroidal axis)
𝐼: is the moment of inertia about the 𝑧 axis
The maximum tensile and compressive stresses are at the top and bottom surfaces.
- The maximum bending stress in the beam is usually found using:
𝑀𝑐 where 𝑐 = 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜎=
𝐼 𝑦𝑐𝑐𝐼𝐼Type equation here.
or sometimes it is written as:
𝐼
𝑀 where 𝑍 = is called
𝜎= 𝑐
𝑍 the Section Modulus
Tables A-6, A-7 and A-8 in the text give the 𝐼 and 𝑧 values for some standard
cross-section beams.
Q: When to use 𝐼 and when to use 𝑍?
A: in general, it can be said that the 𝑍 is more convenient to use when you are
designing based on stress while the 𝐼 is used when you are designing based on
deflections.
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 13 of 30
Locating the neutral axis and finding the moment
of inertia for composite areas (cross-sections):
- Centroid
𝐴1 𝑦̅1 + 𝐴2 𝑦̅2 + ⋯
𝑦̅ =
𝐴1 +𝐴2 + ⋯
- Moment of inertia
When the axis is not passing through the
centroid of an area, we use the parallel
𝐴1 𝑦̅1 − 𝐴2 𝑦̅2
axis theorem. 𝑦̅ =
𝐴1 −𝐴2
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥̅ + 𝐴𝑦̅ 2
Table A-18 in the text gives the geometric properties of some shapes.
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 → 𝑅 = −100 𝑁 = 100 𝑁 ↓
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 14 of 30
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑍
𝑚𝑚
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 1300 (𝑁.𝑚) × 1000 ( )
𝑍= = 𝑁
𝑚
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 250 ( )
𝑚𝑚2
It is rare to encounter beams subjected to pure bending momet only (no shear). Most
beams are subjected to both shear forces and bending moments.
Though the flexure formula (beam bending stress equation) was developed based on
the assumption of pure bending moment only, yet it holds reasonably accurate with
the presence of shear forces.
For a beam subjected to shear force, the shear stress is found as (see
derivation in text):
𝑉𝑄
𝜏=
𝐼𝑏
where,
- 𝑉: is the shear force at the section of interst.
- 𝑄: is the product of inertia at the height where 𝜏 is determined.
- 𝐼: is the section moment of inertia.
- 𝑏: is the width at the point where 𝜏 is determined.
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 15 of 30
The product of inertia, 𝑄 , is found as:
𝑄 = 𝑦̅ ′ 𝐴′
- where
𝐴′ is the area of the portion of the section above or below the
point where 𝜏 is determined.
𝑦̅ ′ is the distance to the centroid of the area 𝐴′ measured from
the neural axis of the beam.
The shear stress 𝜏 is maximum at the neutral
axis (since 𝑄 will be max), and it is zero on the
top and bottom surfaces (since 𝑄 is zero).
Neutral Axis:
𝐴1 𝑦̅1 + 𝐴2 𝑦̅2
𝑦̅ =
𝐴1 +𝐴2
90(20 × 100) + 40(80 × 20)
𝑦̅ =
(20 × 100) + (80 × 20)
𝑦̅ = 67.8 𝑚𝑚
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 16 of 30
Moment of inertia about the neutral axis:
𝑀𝑐 (4 × 106 )(67.8)
𝜎= = = 86.31 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐼 3.142 × 106
c) Stress at “D”
VD = 4 kN
MD = -2.8 kN.m
𝑄𝐷 = 𝑦̅𝐷′ 𝐴′𝐷 = 52.8(20 × 30) = 31680 𝑚𝑚3
𝑉𝑄 (4 × 103 )(31680)
𝜏𝐷 = = = 2.02 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐼𝑏 (3.142 × 106 )(20)
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 17 of 30
Shear Stress in Standard Section Beams
When desiging a machine element we always look at the maximum stress to ensure
the safety of the element.
In beams, the maximum shear stress is located at the neutral axis (since 𝑄 is max at the
N.A.).
The maximum shear stress for some standard sections is found to be:
3𝑉
- Rectangular 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2𝐴
4𝑉
- Circular 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
3𝐴
2𝑉
- Hollow-round (thin welled) 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐴
Flange
𝑉
- I-beam (thin welled) 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Web
𝐴𝑤𝑒𝑏
Torsion
When the moment vector is colinear with the axis of an element, it is called a torque
vector since it causes the element to be twisted, and the elemet is said to be in torsion.
When a circular shaft is subjected to torque, the shaft will be twisted and the
angle of twist is found to be:
𝑇𝐿
𝜃=
𝐺𝐽
Where
𝑇: Torque, 𝐿: Length, 𝐺: Modulus of
𝐸
rigidity 𝐺 = & 𝐽: Polar moment of
2(1+𝑣)
inertia.
where
𝜋
- 𝐽= 𝑑4
32
𝜋
- 𝐽= (𝑑𝑜4 − 𝑑𝑖4 ) for hollow round sections
32
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 18 of 30
From geometry, the shear strain at any distance from the center (𝜌) can be
related to the angle of twist as:
𝜌𝜃
𝛾= (assuming small angles)
𝐿
Since shear stress and strain are linearly related in the elastic region (𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾),
the shear stress at any radius “𝜌” is found to be:
𝑇𝑟
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝐽
𝑇 1.8
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (3 + )
𝑏𝐶 2 𝑏⁄
𝑐
In machin design applications, usually the torue is not given, but rather the transmitted
power and rotational speed.
To find the torque: 𝐻: Power (𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡)
𝐻 = 𝑇𝜔 𝑇: Torque (𝑁. 𝑚)
𝜔: Angular velocity (𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠)
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 19 of 30
Torsion of closed thin-walled tubes (t << r)
For closed thin-walled tubes (of any shape) the shear stress
is asuumed to be constant through-out thickness.
𝜃
And, for constant wall thickness, the angle of twist per unit length ( 𝜃𝑙 = ) is
𝐿
found to be:
where 𝐿𝑚 is the
𝑇𝐿𝑚 perimeter of the
𝜃𝑙 =
4𝐺𝐴2𝑚 𝑡 section mean line
Stress Concentration
The presence of discontinuities (such as a hole in a plate) alters the stress distribution
causing higher stress near the discontinuity. Any type of discontinuity (hole, shoulder,
notch, inclusion) serve as a stress raiser where it increases the stress in the vicinity of
the discontinuity.
- Stress concentration occures at thre region in which
stress raisers are present, and a stress concentration
factor (𝐾𝑡 ) is used to relate the actual maximum stress
at the discontinuity to the nominal stress without the
discontinuity.
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐾𝑡 = =
𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎𝑜
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 20 of 30
One of the theoretical stress concentration factors is that of an
elliptical hole in an infinite plate loaded in tension which is given as:
2𝑏
𝐾𝑡 = 1 +
𝑎
- Thus, if the hole is circular (𝑎 = 𝑏 ) in an infinite plate then 𝐾𝑡 = 3
However stress concentration factors are very difficult to find using theoretical
analysis, and usually they are found experimentally (using photoelasticity) or using
finite element analysis and they are usually presented in charts for different geometric
and loading configurations in specialized books (such as the Peterson's Stress
Concentration Factors).
Tables A-15 & A-16 in the text give the stress concentration factors for some
geometric and loading configurations.
When dealing with brittle materials it is very important to consider the stress
concentrations because rupture will initiate there and the entire part will fail, while
for ductile materials stress concentrations are usually not considered because the
material will yield at the high stress location and this relieves the stress
concentration.
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 21 of 30
When there is a pressure difference between the inside and outside of the cylinder,
stresses develop in both the radial and tangential directions.
𝑃𝑖 𝑟𝑖2 𝑟2
𝜎𝑡 =
𝑟 2 −𝑟 2
(1 + 𝑟𝑜2) Where the maximum is at 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑖
𝑜 𝑖
(𝜎𝑟 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = −𝑃𝑖
𝑃𝑖 𝑟𝑖2 𝑟2
𝜎𝑟 =
𝑟 2 −𝑟 2
(1 − 𝑟𝑜2)
𝑜 𝑖
𝑃𝑖 𝑟𝑖2
𝜎𝑙 = (uniform stress)
𝑟𝑜2 −𝑟𝑖2
Thin-walled cylinders
𝑟
When the wall thickness is small compared to the radius (𝑡 ≤ 𝑖 ), the radial stress is
20
very small and it is assumed to be zero (𝜎𝑟 = 0) and the tangential stress is
approximately uniform and it is found as:
𝑃𝑑𝑖
𝜎𝑡 =
2𝑡
and for close ended vessels the longitudinal stress is:
𝑃𝑑𝑖
𝜎𝑙 =
4𝑡
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 22 of 30
Press and Shrink Fits
When two parts are assembled by shrink or press fitting, contact pressure is created at
the interface between the two parts.
2 2 2 2
𝐸𝛿 (𝑟° − 𝑅 )(𝑅 − 𝑟𝑖 )
𝑃= [ ]
𝑅 2𝑅2 (𝑟°2 − 𝑟𝑖2 )
When elements such as flywheels, gears, blowers rotate at high angular velocities,
significant stresses develop in the element due to the centrifugal force.
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 23 of 30
Temperature Effects
𝜖𝑥 = 𝜖𝑦 = 𝜖𝑧 = 𝛼(∆𝑇)
where, 𝛼: is the coefficient of thermal expansion (Table 3-3 in text) and ∆𝑇: is
the temperature change.
If the body is restrained in any direction, stress will develop in that direction.
For a bar with restrained ends, the axial stress is found as:
𝜎 = −𝜖𝐸 = −𝛼(∆𝑇)𝐸
Compressive stress
Similarly , for a plate restrained at all edges, it will have compressive stress in
both directions:
𝛼(∆𝑇)𝐸
𝜎=−
1−𝜐
Thermal stresses usually occur during welding or any restrained member subjected to
temperature change during operation.
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 24 of 30
The location of the neutral axis with respect to the center of the curvature is
found as:
𝐴
𝑟𝑛 = 𝑑𝐴
∫ 𝑟
where 𝐴: is the cross-sectional area
The stress at any distance “𝑦” from the neutral axis is found as:
𝑀𝑦 Stress distribution
𝜎= is hyperbolic
𝐴𝑒(𝑟𝑛 − 𝑦)
where 𝑒: is the distance from the centroidal axis to the neutral axis
(eccentricity) 𝑒 = 𝑟𝑐 − 𝑟𝑛
The maximum tension and compression stresses occur at the inner and outer
surfaces, 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑖 & 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜
𝑀𝑐𝑖 𝑀𝑐𝑜
𝜎𝑖 = & 𝜎𝑜 = −
𝐴𝑒𝑟𝑖 𝐴𝑒𝑟𝑜
Note that in the example, the tensile stress at the inner surface is three times
greater than the compressive stress at the outer surface, which is not an
effective use of the material. Thus, it is better to use more material at the inner
radius than at the outer radius (to reduce the max. stress at the inner surface).
Usually, “T” or unsymmetric “I” cross-sections are used for curved beams in
bending.
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 25 of 30
Table 3-4 gives 𝑟𝑐 and 𝑟𝑛 values for some of the cross-sections usually used
for curved beams.
Approximate Calculations
𝐼 𝑀𝑠 𝑟𝑐
𝑒≈ 𝜎=
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝐼 𝑟
- This approximate is accurate only when the radius “𝑟𝑐 ” is large compared to the
beam depth “h”(r >>h).
Example: For the hook in example 3-15, take the outer radius “𝑟𝑜 ” to
be 400 𝑚𝑚.
Find the maximum bending tensile stress at the inner surface using:
a) Exact calculations.
b) Approximate calculations and compute the error.
Solution:
ℎ 100
a) 𝑟𝑛 = 𝑟 = 400 = 347.6 𝑚𝑚
𝑙𝑛 𝑟° 𝑙𝑛
𝑖 300
100
𝑟𝑐 = 300 + = 350 𝑚𝑚
2
𝑒 = 𝑟𝑐 − 𝑟𝑛 = 2.4 𝑚𝑚
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 26 of 30
𝑀 = 22000 ∗ 350 = 7.7 × 106 𝑁. 𝑚𝑚
𝑀𝑦
𝜎= Inner surface: 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑖 = 𝑟𝑛 − 𝑟𝑖
𝐴𝑒(𝑟𝑛 −𝑦)
7.7×106 (47.6)
𝜎𝑖 = = 282.8 𝑀𝑃𝑎
1800(2.4)(300)
𝑀𝑠 𝑟𝑐
b) 𝜎= , 𝑠 = 50 𝑚𝑚 , Inner surface: 𝑟 = 𝑟𝑖 = 300 𝑚𝑚
𝐼 𝑟
1 1
𝐼 = 12𝑏ℎ3 = 1218(100)3 = 1.5 × 106 𝑚𝑚4
7.7×106 (50) 350
𝜎𝑖 = = 299.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎
1.5×106 300
299.4−282.8
%𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = ∗ 100% = 5.9 %
282.8
Numerical Calculations
- Note that this method is accurate provided that the section is divided into a
sufficient number of rectangles.
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 27 of 30
Contact Stress
When two bodies having curved surfaces are pressed against each other, the point or
line contact changes to area contact. The area of contact depends on the force, the
geometry of the two bodies, and the material the bodies are made of. As a result of
the contact, three-dimensional state of stress develops at the area of the contact and it
might lead to cracking or flaking or similar type of surface failure.
- Examples of contact-stress problems are: wheel on rail, cam and follower, gear
teeth contact, etc.
The contact-stress equations were developed by Hertz and they are usually called
Hertzian stresses.
Spherical Contact
𝑧 1 1
𝜎1 = 𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑦 = −𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 [(1 − | | 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 |𝑧/𝑎|) (1 + 𝜐) − 𝑧2
]
Compressive 𝑎 2(1+ 2 )
𝑎
stresses −𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜎3 = 𝜎𝑧 = 𝑧2
1+ 2 For the sphere that
where 𝑧 is the distance
𝑎
The maximum is being considered
from the surface (depth)
value of the stress
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 28 of 30
And the maximum shear stress is:
𝜎1 −𝜎3 𝜎2 −𝜎3
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
2 2
Cylindrical Contact
2 𝑧2 𝑧
𝜎𝑥 = −2𝜐𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 ( √1 + − | |)
𝑏2 𝑏
𝑧2
Compressive 1+2 2 𝑧
𝜎𝑦 = −𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 ( 2 𝑏
− 2 | |)
stresses 2 𝑏
√1+ 𝑧2
𝑏
−𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜎3 = 𝜎𝑧 = 2
√1+𝑧 2 /𝑏2
The maximum
value of the stress
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 29 of 30
And the maximum shear is found as:
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑧 0.436 𝑏
𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 < 𝑧 < 0.436 𝑏
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = { 𝜎𝑦2−𝜎𝑧
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑧 ≥ 0.436 𝑏
2
Hertz equations are valid if the contact surface is free of shear stress (𝐹 only).
Situations such as gear teeth contact, wheel on rail, etc., involve significant shear
force on the contact area and the state of stress can be found more accurately
using the “Smith-Liu equations”.
Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design, 10th Ed. Class Notes by: Dr. Ala Hijazi
CH 3 (R1) Page 30 of 30
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