Intercultural Problems

In today’s world, intercultural encounters have become common. While in the past
only a few select individuals met and interacted with interlocutors from other countries,
today intercultural encounters happen almost everywhere — at work, in school, or even
in the supermarket. Since most people assume that others think, behave, and perceive
the world around them like they do (i.e., the Implicit Personality Theory) (Pedersen 1965;

Schneider 1973), this can lead to misunderstandings and even result in unintentional con-
flicts (i.e. so-called pseudo-conflicts) (Bruner & Tagiuri 1954; Krippendorff & Bermejo
2009). People may intend a particular meaning with a specific message, but their coun-
terpart may attach a different meaning to that message which then results in misunder-

standings which could then actually lead to a conflict. Culture can be one of the causes
for such misunderstandings and conflicts because culture influences to a large extent
how individuals perceive the world around them, what meaning they attach to what they
perceive, and it teaches people how to respond to those perceptions (Jandt 2013; Klopf

1998; Lustig & Koester 2013; Oetzel 2009; Samovar, Porter, McDaniel, & Roy 2013).
While culture has some influence on people’s communication, culture does not explain
all aspects of human communication because how individuals communicate with one
another and manage conflicts is also influenced by individual characteristics. dividual
characteristics are based on who we are, where we come from, how we per-
ceive the world around us, what peer and media messages we have internalized, how
we perceive others, how we think others perceive us, and how we then interact and
communicate with others (Adler, Rodman, & du Pré 2013; DeVito 2015; Doise 1996;
Gamble & Gamble 2012; Hamacheck 1992).

By their very nature, intercultural misunderstandings (Chen & Starosta 1998;

Gudykunst 2005; Jandt 2013; Oetzel 2009) and conflicts (Canary & Lakey 2006;
Caughlin & Vangelisit 2006; Roloff & Wright 2013) are complex phenomena. As such,
they involve culture, perception, identity, ethnocentrism, relationships, trust, conflict
management, intercultural communication competence, cognition, metacognition, and
social metacognition. Empirical studies have focused on isolated elements and analyzed

them. A number of theories have been developed in different scientific disciplines that
seek to explain these elements. Unfortunately, only a few studies have examined the
complex interrelationship of all of these elements. Creating a theoretical framework,
though, can be helpful in understanding such complex interrelationships (Frodeman

2010) as is the case in intercultural misunderstandings and conflicts.

According to Systems Theory (von Bertalanffy 1968), isolated elements cannot ex-
plain a phenomenon because the phenomenon is larger than any isolated part. Commu-
nication is an integrated process that occurs within a specific environment; it is not an

isolated event. So in order to understand this process, it is necessary to identify the

elements that make up this process. Transdisciplinarity (Mittelstrass 2003; Mokiy 2013)
and the social ecological model (Bronfenbrenner 1979, 2005; Bronfenbrenner & Ceci
1994) advocate similar holistic approaches. Such holistic approaches are of interest
because they permit the creation of a theoretical framework that transcends disciplinary

boundaries and isolated elements by combining studies and theories from different scien-
tific disciplines. It is this theoretical framework which then helps understand the inter-
relationship of individual elements, and it can even propose potential solutions to com-
plex issues (Frodeman 2010).
This article develops a theoretical framework to explore the interrelationship of
meaning and conflict and how, culture, perception, identity as well as ethnocentrism can
lead to misunderstandings and conflicts. It also looks at how conflicts can be managed
successfully or even prevented through good relationships and trust coupled with inter-

cultural communication competence. In fact, intercultural communication competence

and trust are key elements in preventing or overcoming misunderstandings and conflicts.
Such competence and trust are created through cognition, metacognition, and social meta-
cognition. In exploring these different elements of intercultural misunderstandings and
successful conflict management in line with Systems Theory and the social ecological
model, this article applies the principles of transdisciplinarity (Mittelstrass 2003; Mokiy

2013) by borrowing the theoretical constructs, i.e. theories, from various related scien-
tific disciplines; primarily from communication science and psychology. According to
Frodeman (2010), this is a very productive and insightful approach because it is not
limited to just one perspective which might be biased. A broader theoretical framework

based on the triangulation of different theories reduces potential biases (Frodeman

2010).These in within the same culture, communication isn't always easy. Spouses get
divorced, friends fall out and workers change jobs -- often because of misunderstandings. Add
cultural differences to the mix, and the sources of potential problems multiply. Whether
you're a student, businessperson or traveler, knowing the barriers to intercultural
communication is the first step to overcoming problems.

Language Differences

Language differences are an obvious barrier to intercultural communication. If you speak only
English and a shopkeeper speaks only Japanese, you won't be able to communicate
verbally. Even if you've studied the language or an interpreter is available, dialects,
different accents and slang can cause problems. In addition, words don't necessarily
translate from one language to another in a clean one-to-one correspondence. The same
English word may have different meanings to people from different cultures.

Body Language

People sometimes take offense because of differences in body language across cultures. For
example, a businessperson from Latin America might stand closer to a client than someone
from North America would. This may make the North American feel crowded and want to back
away. People from southern Europe typically use more eye contact than Britons and Americans,
which may make the English-speakers uncomfortable. Because the French typically smile less
than Americans, sometimes Americans think they aren't friendly.

Level of Context

Most English-speaking cultures are low-context, meaning they put a message into explicit
words. In these cultures, saying "no" when you mean "no" is just considered straightforward or
honest. High-context cultures, such as Japan, expect the listener to pick up more meaning from
the general situation. For example, Asians sometimes say "yes" or "maybe" when they actually
mean "no," according to the Diversity Council. Asians often consider an outright refusal blunt
rather than honest.

Value of Time

Not all cultures think about time in the North American linear fashion. In the U.S., punctuality is
important, but Latin and Middle Eastern cultures put a higher value on relationships. For
example, you'd finish your conversation with someone even if it makes you late to a
meeting. A culture's view of time also influences how it sees deadlines. For example,
North Americans consider making a deadline crucial -- whether on the job or in college. People
from Asia or South America are more likely to view deadlines as less important than results
over the long haul.

Negative Stereotypes and Prejudices

Stereotypes and prejudices about people from other cultures can cause communication
problems and give offense. Ethnocentrism, or a belief that your own culture is better than that
of others, can lead to acting superior toward other groups and not treating them well. For
example, a teacher in an American college may think that students from a certain culture lack
strong English skills or are incapable of good work. This prejudice can lead the teacher to treat
the students unfairly.

Feelings and Emotions

Individuals from the United Kingdom and Japan typically keep a tight control of their emotions,
while Italians and French are more comfortable showing their feelings. Loud talking might
embarrass an Englishman, for example, but an Italian may just be expressing excitement.
Differences in culture and communication styles can even cause fear. As a result of this anxiety,
people from different cultures may pull back and avoid trying to communicate at all, reports
Kathy McKeiver, Coordinator of International Student Academic Advising at Northern Arizona
University and chair of the Global Engagement Commission of the National Academic Advising
Association.

Inaccurate Assumptions in Meaning

Among different cultures, combinations of verbal communication and body language can have
different meanings, and this can lead to misunderstandings. For example, if you ask a co-worker
if he understood the report you gave him and he smiles, you may interpret his reaction as an
affirmative. However, in some cultures, this is a nonverbal signal that the listener does not
understand, and that he needs it explained to him.

Formality Differences in Communications

The Western cultures of America, New Zealand and Australia are informal when addressing a
business associate and will usually use her first name. More formal cultures such as those found
in parts of Europe use titles such as "Mr.," "Mrs." or "Dr.," along with with a family name. It is
considered disrespectful to use a first name without permission. In speaking with an associate
of a different culture, to avoid offending her, it is best to assume a high level of formality unless
you are asked to use her first name.

Misinterpretations of Body Language

In North America, eye contact in the workplace is an approved method of engaging interaction
and shows confidence and authority. A person who does not make or return eye contact may
be considered suspicious or insecure when, in fact, in his culture, as in Japan, Africa, Latin
America and the Caribbean, he is showing respect. Similarly, in North America, a handshake,
regardless of gender, is a common workplace gesture, if the person is known on a more
intimate basis. In the Islamic culture, by contrast, touching -- including handshakes between
men and women -- disapproved of.

Unfamiliar Phrases in Communications

Culture-specific phrases in an intercultural workplace can be easily misunderstood. For

example, in North America, baseball phrases such as "ballpark estimates," "touch base," and
"out in left field," are commonly used business expressions that would be unfamiliar to
members of a culture where baseball is not common. Similarly, acronyms or abbreviated terms
in the workplace are difficult to understand for an associate who is not familiar with the work
environment.