INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

ON
CONSTRUCTION OF RCC RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS
at
MAA TARA HOUSING DEVELOPERS PVT. LTD.

Submitted by
MANOJ KUMAR PANIGRAHI
(1/16/FET/BCI/1/018)
Under the Guidance of
Ms. ANJALI GUPTA
in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING

Faculty of Engineering & Technology

Manav Rachna International Institute of Research and Studies,
Faridabad
NOVEMBER, 2019

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 Manav Rachna International Institute of research and studies, Faridabad
Faculty of Engineering & Technology
Department of Civil Engineering

October, 2019

TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN

It is hereby certifies that “ MANOJ KUMAR PANIGRAHI” Roll No 1/16/FET/BCI/1/018 of , FET,
Manav Rachna International Institute of Research and Studies, Faridabad has undergone industrial
training from 15th June 2019 to 14th August 2019 at Maa Tara Housing Developers Pvt. Ltd. to fulfil the
requirements for the award of degree of B.tech (Civil Engineering). He worked on Residential building project
during the training under my guidance.

Ms. Anjali Gupta Dr. Sadiqa Abbas

Associate Professor Associate Professor & Head
Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
Faculty of Engineering & Technology Faculty of Engineering & Technology

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I am highly grateful to Prof (Dr) Harish C. Rai Dean, FET and Dr. Sadiqa Abbas, Prof. and Head,
Department of Civil Engineering, FET, Manav Rachna International Institute of Research & Studies
for providing this opportunity to carry out the industrial training at Maa Tara Housing Developers Pvt. Ltd.

The constant guidance and encouragement received from Mr. Gurvinder Singh (Industrial Training
Coordinator, Civil Engineering Department) and faculty training- in-charge Ms. Anjali gupta has been of
great help in carrying out the training work and is acknowledged with reverential thanks.

Mr. Manoj Kumar Verma, Director of company. Without his wise counsel and able guidance, it would have
been possible to complete the report in this manner.

The help rendered by Mr. Pulok Purkait during the training is greatly acknowledged.

I also express my gratitude to other faculty members and supporting staff of civil engineering department,
EFT, MRIIRS, and Faridabad for their intellectual support throughout the course of this week.

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 ABSTRACT

As a part of curriculum, and for the partial fulfilment of the requirement for completion of B. tech Degree
from Manav Rachna International Institute of Research & Studies, Faridabad. I Manoj Kumar Panigrahi,
underwent an industrial training at the Maa Tara Housing Developer Pvt. Ltd., Bokaro (Steel city), site for 8
weeks during the months July 2019 – August 2019. The report consists of brief study and description of
materials, equipment and procedures used at the site for construction.

The Report contains my 8 Weeks work experience in the site. All the contents are broadly explained and it is
constructed from the practical basis of the site.

In the opening content I have given details of the company background including its proper details. The content
is written in such a manner which give details of the company so that the reader can easily know and access
the company.

In the second content I have explained my overall internship familiarity in the last successive months. This
content is the main content that I have recorded and it contains overall work I have been executing.

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 Table Of Content

Declaration 2
Acknowledgement 3
Abstract 4
Table of Content 5
List of Figure 7
Chapter 1 Introduction To Organisation 8
Chapter 2 Introduction to Building Construction 12
2.1 Types of Building
Chapter 3 Steps Involved In building Construction 14
3.1 Land Use Pattern 14
3.2 Surveying And Layout 14
3.3 Excavation For Foundation 14
3.4 Base Layer 17
3.5 Water Proofing 18
3.6 Bar Bending 19
3.7 Concreting 19
3.8 Beam And Column 19
Chapter 4 Component Of Building Construction 20
4.1 Foundation 21
4.2 Column 31
4.3 Beam 36
4.4 Slab 39
Chapter 5 Concrete 44
5.1 Concrete Mix Design 44
5.2 Basic Calculations 46

Chapter 6 Equipment Used 49

6.1 JCB 49
6.2 Total station 49
6.3 Dumpy level 50
6.4 Needle Vibrator 50
6.5 Surface Vibrator 50

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Chapter 7 Materials Used
7.1 Cement 51
7.2 Aggregate 52
7.3 Reinforcement

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 List Of Figure
Figure No. Details Page No.
3.1 Excavation 16
3.2 Column and beam 19
4.1 Flat footing 22
4.2 Stepped Footing 22
4.3 Sloped Footing 21
4.4 Wall Footing 21
4.5 Combined Footing 22
4.6 Cantilever Footing 24
4.7 Pile Foundation 24
4.8 Pier Foundation 26
4.9 Well caission Foundation 26
Foundation Layout 30
RCC details of footing 31
6.1 Excavation using JCB 49
6.2 Total station 50
6.3 Dumpy level 50
7.1 Reinforcement bars 52

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIZATION

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Maa Tara Housing Developer Pvt. Ltd. Was incepted in the year 2009. Mr. Manoj Kumar Verma (Director)
and Mr. Mirgank Kumar (Director) two professional who got together to providing quality services to the
valued clients. Mr. Manoj and Mr. Mirgank having 25 years’ experience in the field of Real Estate,
Construction and Management teamed together to bring about a radical change in the way real estate projects
are being conceptualized, marketed and delivered. Maa Tara Housing Developer Pvt. Ltd. is brainchild of
hardworking professional who understand the problems and concerns of potential property buyers. Maa Tara
Housing Developer Pvt. Ltd. always creates a special building and satisfaction with its clients who are like
one extended family.

Vision
Maa Tara Housing Developer Pvt. Ltd. vision is to take the term customers satisfaction to a different stratum
of customers delight. They build homes for families, or public. They vision to be a world-class infrastructure
residential construction and Real Estate Development company committed to total customer satisfaction value,
by building on our strengths - innovative designs, superlative quality of material, cutting-edge technology,
timely completion and demonstrating the highest standards of workmanship.

Strength
A key strength is our efficient use of capital and ability to respond to changing regulatory and economic
environment with imagination and speed. This strength, the experience of our management team and its
understanding of the real estate market helped us achieve I business momentum in the recent difficult
economic environment structure. We have been I able to acquire land at locations close to existing
infrastructure or upcoming infrastructure I development. They acquire an agricultural unused land site for the
construction of residential building. They always planned to use agriculture unused land construction.

Business area of the organisation

 Infrastructure and building construction.
 Real estate
 Urban development
Current projects of MAA TARA DEVELOPERS
Building construction sites
 Awadhpuram phase 2 Sector 12 Bokaro steel city (Jharkhand)
 Awadhpuram phase 3 Sector 09 Bokaro steel city (Jharkhand)
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  Ujjwala appartments Giridih (Jharkhand)

Quality policy
It is the policy of MAA TARA HOUSING DEVELOPERS PVT. LTD. that all the activities are carried out
in accordance with their business managemt. At MTHD Environment, Health & Safety is considered a core
value. System and procedure have been established for implementing the requisites at all stages of construction
and are accredited to the Indian Standard 456 , IS 876 code of practice for design loads parts 1,2,3,4 & 5.
IS:1893 Criteria for earthquake resistant design of structure.
The aim of their quality management system is to ensure that:
 To deliver a quality service to maintain excellent customer relations.
 Customer satisfaction remains inherent to their business.
 All work is carried out consistently to a defined standard.
 To deliver a good quality infrastructure and raise people’s living standard.

This quality policy statement has been implemented into the MAA TARA HOUSING DEVELOPERS PVT

LTD will be reviewed at regular intervals .

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 CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION TO BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
Civil engineering is a broad field: structural engineering, geotechnical engineering, water resources
engineering, and transportation engineering are some of its subspecialties. Geotechnical engineering requires
a working knowledge of soil Mechanics and Foundation engineering, which are integral to designing and
constructing a solid foundation and supporting a heavy structure. Effective stress is a key concept in this field
that when properly applied helps with the construction of these structures. Water resources engineering applies
to the placement of dams, which requires estimation of required capacity and yield. Finally, transportation
engineering is applied to road design to estimate the capacity of a road based on kinematics and empirical
rules describing the separation of vehicles speeding on the highway.

2.1 TYPES OF BUILDING

1. Residential buildings
2. Commercial buildings
3. Agricultural buildings
4. Educational buildings
5. Governmental buildings
6. Assembly buildings
7. Business buildings
8. Mercantile buildings
9. Industrial buildings
10. Storage buildings

1. Residential buildings:-A Residential building is that, in which housing predominates, as opposed to

industrial and commercial areas. Building may vary significantly between, single-family building,
multi-family building, or mobile homes.
E.g. Apartment, Villa, Bungalow, Nursing home
2. Commercial Building:-They are the buildings, which are used exclusively for commercial use.
` E.g. Ware house, Bank, Convention centers, Gas stations, Automobile companies
3. Agricultural buildings:-They are the structures designed for farmers and for agricultural practices,
for growing and harvesting crops, and to raise livestock.
E.g. barn, chicken, coop and Farm house
4. Educational Building:-This occupancy type shall include any building or portion thereof in which
education, training and care are provided to children or adults. This occupancy shall be subdivided as
follows

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 E.g. Museum School Archive library
5. Governmental Buildings:-It is a building that houses a branch of government.
E.g. Capitol, Embassy, Prison, Fire station, Post office
6. Industrial Buildings: - buildings are designed to house industrial operations and provide the necessary
conditions for workers, and for the operation of industrial equipment.
E.g. Factory, Water mill, Foundry, Power plant, Wind mill, Tide mill
7. Military Buildings:-This building is a structure designed to house the functions, performed by a
military unit.
E.g. Barracks Bunker, Citadel, Castle, Fortification Block house
8. Religious buildings:-These are the buildings for religious purposes, with a large open interior or other
monumental qualities. They often have spires, towers, domes rising above the main structure.
E.g. Church, Temple, Mosque, Pyramids, Shrine
9. Transport buildings:- This is a structural building which consists of the means of equipment
necessary for the movement of passengers or goods on land, water, and air ways
E.g. Airport, Railway station, parking garage, Light house, Bus station
10. Power stations/power plants: These buildings serve as the industrial facility to generate electric
power.
E.g. Geo thermal power plant, Fossil fuel power plant, Nuclear power plant, Renewable energy power
station

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 CHAPTER 3
STEPS INVOLVED IN BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

3.1 Land use Pattern

Company use those which is not suitable for agriculture field and they always planned and examine the various
land which is waste or not used and also survey the nearest facility available or not like school, market, water
facility, transportation, sewerage, etc.

3.2 Surveying and Layout

Survey is the first step done in any construction site so as to get required level of surface. It is also used in
level transferrin during construction of retaining walls.
At the site survey is carried out by following two instruments.
 Total station
 Dumpy level
A. Total station: A total station is an electronic/ optical instrument used in modern. I surveying and
building construction. The total station is an electronic theodolite integrated with an electronic
distance meter (EDM) to read slope distance from the instrument to a particular point. By this
instrument we can measure angle, distance, coordinate and also data processing.
B. Dumpy level: Dumpy level is commonly used levelling instrument to locate the points in same
horizontal plane. It is also called as automatic level or builder's i level. Elevations of different
points and distance between the points of same elevation can be determined by dumpy level.

3.3 EXCAVATION FOR FOUNDATION

Excavation work on the site was being done by the JCB machines and excavated soil was transferred using
dumpers.
 There should be proper timbering while excavation for basement area.
 Dewatering should be done before construction work.
 During rainy season excavation work should be avoided.

3.3.1 Factors effecting the selection of foundation

On the basis of ground/soil condition
 Shallow foundations are preferred where soil close to the surface is capable of supporting structure
loads.
 Where the ground close to the surface is not capable of supporting structural loads, hard strata is
searched for and deep foundation is required.
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  Uniform stable ground requires relatively shallow foundation whereas filled up ground has low
bearing capacity thus requires deep foundation.
On the basis of Loads from Building:
 In the case of low-rise building in a larger area, the extent of loading is relatively low, so shallow
foundation can resist the load from the structures.
 In the case of the high-rise building built within less area have high loads. Therefore, the deep
foundation is required as shallow foundation may not be able to resist such loads of greater intensity.

3.3.2 Site Clearance

This is the other important part of the project. Before the excavation for the proposed foundation is
commenced, the site shall be cleared of the vegetation, brushwood, stamps of trees, etc, Roots of the trees
shall be removed to at least 30cm below the foundation level. The pits formed due to the removal of roots of
the trees, old foundations, etc. shall be filled up with soil and compacted. Depending upon the where the work
is to be done. This process includes post construction at site clean-up, demolition site clean-up, removal of the
coarse soil contaminants, repair of the eroded ground and removal of other unwanted things from the site. This
will add some benefits to the workers like leaving the site clean and safe. It reduces the need to import the top
soil for the site. It will considerably reduce the chances of the soil erosion.

3.3.3 Setting out

A bench mark shall be established at the site by a masonry pillar and connected to the nearest standard
bench mark. Levels of the site should be taken at the intervals. The centre lines of the walls are marked by
stretching strings across wooden pegs driven at the ends. The central line of the perpendicular is marked by
setting out the right angle with the steel tapes or preferably with a theodolite. The level is marked as 0.00.

3.3.4 Excavation
For small buildings, excavation is carried out manually by means of the pick axes, crow bars, spades etc. In
case of large buildings and deep excavation, mechanical earth cutting equipment can be used. The excavation
at our site is done with the help of the JCB. Construction of the foundation below the subsoil water level poses
problems of water logging. It is therefore very often necessary to dewater the area of excavation. Several
methods have to be carried out within the excavation, like laying bed concrete, lying RCC raft slab and
construction of the masonry, etc. Work can be carried out very effectively if the excavation area is kept dry.
To keep the area of excavation dry, water table should be maintained at least 0.5 m below the bottom of the
excavation. Where excavations are to be left open, it is important to take steps to guard against accidents. At
our project site, the soil is sufficiently hard and do not need support.

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 Figure 3.1: During Excavation at Tower No.3

3.3.5 Compaction
Compaction is reducing the amount of the air packets or voids in soil by packing the soil particles closer to
each other. Forcing as many as particles in a given space increases the soil density and the strength. Increased
strength permits the soil to carry greater loads on a footing of fixed size. Compaction is also known as the
process of densification of the soil by the application of mechanical energy. It is the process by which the soil
grains get rearranged more closely, the volume of the air voids get reduced, and the density of the soil
increased.

3.3.6 Layouts
Surveyors always locate or marked the property line and also draw a plot plan. Laying a building means
locating the outside corner of its foundation. Layout of the foundation is completed as per grid lines are given
in the drawing.

3.3.7 Concreting
Concreting of the slopped footing is done with the help of the concrete pump. It helps in executing the work
easily and in an effective manner than the manual casting.

3.3.8 Curing
It is the process of maintaining satisfactory moisture content and temperature in freshly cast concrete for a
definite period of time immediately. The most crucial time for strength gain of concrete is allowed to dry in
air will gain only 50% of the strength of
continuously moist cured concrete.

3.3.9 Shuttering
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The formwork should be made up of boards of measuring about 5 cm x 15cm or 5 cm x 30 cm. the boards
should be supported by 5cm by 30cm braces called studs. Allow about twice the width of the footing between
the studs, the formwork must be strong enough because concrete weighs 2.5 metric tons per cubic meter. The
joint and the corner of the formwork should be tight, neither concrete nor water should be able to leak out.
The formwork should be built such that it may be easy to remove.

3.3.10 Backfilling
After completion of the foundation works, the spaces left in the pits and trenches shall be filling material shall
be spread in layers of thickness approx. 200 mm and compacted by 4 passes of 10 T vibratory roller. Water
shall be sprinkled intermittently. Each layer shall be compacted before laying the succeeding layer. Surface
voids in each layer shall be filled by crusher dust. Sand shall be filling material between foundations where
space for proper compaction by mechanical machines used. Top layer of sand shall be compacted by
mechanical means.

3.4 Base Layer

First of all, they excavation this site after that the survey was done on the site after 100 mm thick PCC was
done on the soil subgrade.It is used for providing a non-porous, firm & level space for laying RCC & also
used I under flooring. It also used as filler like lump concrete which is mixer of PCC & boulder. Damp proof
concrete. It is a type of PCC in which 10 mm below aggregate is used with water proofing compound. Plain
cement concrete (PCC) is used to provide rigid impervious bed to RCC in foundation where the earth is soft
and yielding. PCC can be used over brick flat soling or without brick flat soling.
Plain cement concrete can also call only "cement concrete (CC)" or "binding concrete'.
Materials used for producing PCC
 Cement: we generally use Portland cement as bonding material in PCC.
 Fine Aggregate: Sand is used as fine aggregate. The FM of sand should be 1.2 to 1.5
 Coarse Aggregate: We normally use brick chips for producing PCC. Stone chips can also be used for
this purpose. The size of the coarse aggregate is 20mm downgrade.
 Water: Pure drinkable water should be used in PCC.

3.5 Water Proofing

DAMP PROOF COURSE
It is a barrier through the structure designed to prevent moisture rising by capillary action such as through a
phenomenon known as rising damp. A common example is Polyethylene sheeting laid under a concrete slab
to prevent the concrete from gaining moisture through capillary action.

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Materials
Flexible materials like butyl rubber, hot bitumen, plastic sheets, and bituminous felts, sheets of lead,
copper, etc. Semi-rigid materials like mastic asphalt. Rigid materials like impervious bricks, stones, slates,
cement mortar or cement concrete painted with bitumen, etc. Stones. Generally damp proofing keeps moisture
out of a building where vapor barriers keep interior moisture from getting into walls. Damp proofing course
are provided at various levels of entry of damp into a building.

DAMP-PROOF MEMBRANE (DPM)

It is a membrane material applied to prevent moisture transmission. A common example is
polyethylene sheeting laid under a concrete slab to prevent the concrete from I gaining moisture through
capillary action.

Materials widely used for damp proofing include:

Flexible materials like butyl rubber, hot bitumen, plastic sheets, bituminous felts, and sheets of lead,
copper, etc. Semi-rigid materials like mastic asphalt rigid materials like impervious bricks, stones, slates,
cement mortar or cement concrete painted with bitumen, etc. Stones Mortar with waterproofing compounds
coarse sand layers under floors Continuous plastic sheets under floors.

3.6 Bar Bending

Bar bending schedule play a vital role in the construction of high-rise building. It is very important to learn
bar bending schedule for finding out the quantities of steel reinforcement required for every component of the
building.

3.7 Concreting
After shuttering and scaffolding concreting should be done.During concreting following equipment’s are used:
 Concrete mixer
 Mounted concrete pump
 Concrete vibrators
During concreting work following instructions should be followed:
 There should be proper compaction of poured concrete.
 There should be spacers to provide cover to reinforcement
 There should be proper curing of concrete constructions

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3.8 Beam & Column
In framed structure fixed type beams are constricted. In such type of beams proper reinforcement should be
done for positive as well as negative bending moments. In such type of structure short columns are constructed
with minimum eccentricity. In square or rectangular shaped columns min. 4 no’s of 3 mm diameter bars must
be used and spacing should not be more than as per code IS 456:2000.

Figure 3.2: Column & Beam

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 CHAPTER 4
COMPONENT OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION

4.0 Component of building can broadly summarize as under:

1. Foundation
2. Plinth
3. Walls
4. Columns
5. Floors
6. Doors, windows and ventilator
7. Stairs
8. Roof
9. Building finishes
10. Building services

1. Foundation. Foundation is the lowest part of the structure below the ground level
which is in direct contact with the ground and transmits all the dead load, live and other
loads to the soil on which the structure rest.
2. Plinth. The portion of the building between the ground surrounding the building and
the top of the floor immediately above the ground is known as plinth.

3. Walls. Walls are provided to enclose or divide the floor space in desired pattern. Wall
can divide into two types
i. Load Bearing walls. A load bearing wall supports its own weight as well as the
super-imposed loads transferred to it through floors/roofs.
ii. Non Load bearing walls. A non-load bearing wall on the other hand carries its
own weight and is not designed to carry any super-imposed load from the
structure. They are normally provided as partition wall.
4. Column. A column may be defined as an isolated vertical load bearing member the
width of which is neither less than its thickness nor more than four time its thickness.
5. Floors. Floors are flat supported element of building. The divided into different levels.
A floor provided for accommodation below the natural ground level is term as basement
floor. A floor immediately above the ground is termed as ground floor and all other
floors such as 1st floor, 2nd floor etc. are term as upper floors.
6. Door, Windows and Ventilators. A door may be defined as a barrier secured in an
opening left in a wall to provide usual means of constantly used moving component in

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 a building.A window may be defined as an opening left in a wall for the purpose of
providing day light, vision and ventilation.
7. Stair. A satire may be defined as a structure comprising of a number of steps connecting
one floor to another.
8. Roof. It is upper most component of building and its main function is to cover the space
below and protect it from rain, snow, sun, wind etc.
9. Building finishes. A building is considered incomplete till such time surface of its
component is given appropriate treatment. Building finishes include items like
plastering, pointing, white/colour washing, painting, varnishing, distempering etc.
10. Building Services. Building services include services like water supply, drainage,
sanitation, lightening, electricity, acoustics, heating, ventilation, air conditioning, fire
detection and fire control etc.

4.1 FOUNDATION
Foundation is one of the most important parts of the structure. It is the part of the structure that transfers the
load from the structure as well as its own weight over a large area of soil in such a way that the load does not
exceed the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil and the settlement of the total structure remains within a limit.
Foundation is the part of a structure on which the building stands. The solid ground on which the foundation
rests is called the foundation bed.

 Distribute the weight of the structure over a large area of soil.

 Avoid unequal settlement.
 Prevent the lateral movement of the structure.
 Increase structural stability.

4.1.1 TYPES OF FOUNDATION

Foundations are divided into two categories.
 Shallow foundation
 Deep foundation

4.1.2 Shallow foundation

Several types of shallow foundations are

 Isolated spread footing: This is the most common and simplest types of foundation as this is the most
economical type of foundation. They are generally used for ordinary buildings. The footing directly
transfers the loads form the column to the soil. The footings may be rectangular, square or circular in

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shape. It is also divided into three categories.

i. Flat footing: These kinds of footings are generally square or rectangular or circular in
shape which are provided under each column independently and It is circular, square or
rectangular slab of uniform thickness.

Figure 4.3: Flat Footing

ii. Stepped footing: It is types of footings are stacked upon one another as steps. Three
concrete cross sections are stacked upon each other and forms as a step. This type of
footings is also called as a Step foundation. Stepped footing is used generally in
residential buildings.

Figure 4.4: Stepped Footing

iii. Slopped footing: Sloped footings are trapezoidal footings. They are designed and
constructed with great care to see that the top slope of 45 degree is maintained from all
sides. When compared the trapezoidal footing with the flat footing, the usage of
concrete is less. It reduces the cost of footing in concrete as well as reinforcement.

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 Figure 4.5: Slopped Footing

 Wall footing or strip footing: This type of footing is used to distribute loads of structural load-bearing
walls to the ground. Wall foundation runs along the direction of the wall. The width of the wall
foundation is generally 2-3 times of the width of the wall.

Figure 4.6: Wall Footing

 Combined footing: The combined footing is very similar to the isolated footing. When the columns
of the structure are closely placed, or the bearing capacity of the soil is low the foundations which are
made common to more than one column is called combined footings. They may be rectangular, tee-
shaped or trapezoidal in shape. There are two types of combined footing shape are rectangular and
trapezoidal footing.

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 Figure 4.7: Combined Footing

 Cantilever or Strap Footing: Strap footings are similar to combined footings and reasons for
considering or choosing strap footing is similar to the combined footing. the footings under the
columns are built individually and connected by strap beam. when the edge of the footing cannot be
extended beyond the property line the exterior footing is connected by strap beam with interior footing.

Figure 4.8: Cantilever Footing

 Raft or Mat Foundation: It is used where other shallow foundation or pile foundation is not suitable.
Mat foundation is applicable when:
 Allowable bearing pressure is low.
 The structure is heavy.
 The site is with highly compressible layer.

The mat foundation can be further classified into following types

 Flat slab type.

 Flat Slab thickened under column.
 Two-way beam and slab type.
 Flat slab with pedestals.
 Rigid frame raft.
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  Piled raft

4.1.3 Deep Foundations.

Deep Foundation are those foundations in which the depth of the foundation is greater than its width (D>B). The D/B
ratio is usually 4-5 for deep foundation. Unlike shallow foundation, the deep foundation transmits the load of the
superstructure vertically to the rock strata lying deep. Deep foundations are used when the shallow foundation cannot
support the load of the structure.

It is divided into three categories.

1. Pile Foundation: It is used to reduce cost and when as per soil condition considerations, it is desirable
to transmit loads to soil strata which are beyond the reach of shallow foundations. Pile transmits load
either by skin friction or bearing. Piles are also used for resist structures against uplift and provide
structures stability against lateral and overturning forces. Pile foundation are used when:
i. The load is to be transferred to stronger or less compressible stratum, preferably rock.
ii. The granular soils need to be compacted.
iii. The horizontal and the inclined forces need to be carried from the bridge abutments and the
retaining walls.
iv. Classification of Pile Foundation: The pile foundation can be further classified into following
types on various basis such as function, material, and method of installation which are listed below:
v. Based on Function:
vi. Bearing piles
vii. Friction piles
viii. Combined piles (Both bearing and friction)
ix. Based on Material:
x. Timber piles
a) Concrete piles
b) Steel piles Based on Method of Installation: Large displacement piles, Small displacement
piles, Non-displacement piles

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 Figure 4.9: Pile Foundation

2. Pier Foundation: Pier is an underground structure that transmits heavier load which cannot be
transmitted by shallow foundations. It is usually shallower than pile foundations. Pier foundation is a
cylindrical structural member which transfer heavy load from superstructure to the soil by end bearing.

Figure 4.10: Pier Foundation

3. Well (Caissons) Foundation: A caisson foundation also called as pier foundation is a watertight
retaining structure used as a bridge pier, in the construction of a concrete dam, or for the repair of
ships. It is a prefabricated hollow box or cylinder sunk into the ground to some desired depth and then
filled with concrete thus forming a foundation. It is used when soil of adequate bearing strength is
found below surface layers of weak materials such as fill or peat. It is a form of deep foundation which

are constructed above ground level, then sunk to the required level by excavating or dredging material
from within the caisson.
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  Types of well foundation
 Open Caissons
 Pneumatic Caissons
 Box Caisson

Figure 4.11: Well Caisson Foundation

4.1.4 DESIGN STEPS FOR ISOLATED FOUNDATION (SLOPPED FOOTING)

IS 456:2000 (Plain and Reinforced Concrete - Code of Practice) and IS 1904:1986 (Code of practice
for design and construction of foundations in soils) standard codes used for design of isolated foundation.
Steps by Steps involved for designing of Slopped Footing.

Step -1: General Data

Load on Column = 1500 kN

Column size = 450 x 450
Soil Bearing Capacity (SBC) of soil = 250kN/m2
Concrete Mix = M25
Steel Grade = Fe415
Clear cover of bottom slab = 50mm

Step – 2: Design

Load on column P = 1500kN

Self-weight of footing 10% = 150kN
Total load on soil P1 = 1650kN
SBC of soil = 250kN/m2
Area of footing required = 1650/250 = 6.6m2

25
 Provide 2.6 x 2.6 m square footing
Area provided = 6.76 m2 > 6.6 m2

Step -3: Size of Pedestal

A pedestal of 700mm x 700mm is used,

qo = 1500 x 1000/ 700 x 700 = 3.06N/mm2
tan α < 0.9 √ ((100 x qo )/fck + 1)
tan α < 0.9 √ ((100 x 3.06)/25 +1)
tan α < 3.27
Projection of Pedestal = 125mm
Depth of pedestal = 0.125 x 3.27 = 0.41m
Use 500mm Deep pedestal

Step – 4: Net Upward Soil Pressure

Load from Column = 1500kN

Area of Footing = 6.76 m2
Net upward soil pressure ‘p’ = 1500/6.76 = 221.89kN/m2
< 250kN/m2, Hence OK
Step -5: Bending Moment

Cantilever projection = (2600 – 700)/ 2 = 950mm

Mxx = Myy = (221.89 x 2.6 x 0.952) / 260.33kN.m
Ultimate B.M. Mux = 1.5 x 260.33 = 390.49kN.m
Check for effective depth:
For M25 concrete Steel Fe415
Moment of Resistance = 0.138fckbd2 = 2.76bd2
Mux = M.R.
2.76bd2 = 390.49 x 106
Width of resisting section = 700 + 125 = 825mm
Effective depth ‘d’ required = √(390.49 x 106)/(2.76 x 825)
= 420.56mm
To select depth:
For ‘p’ = 250kN/m2 , D/A value = 1/4.50
Overall depth of footing, D = A/4.50

26
 = 2600/4.5
= 577.778 mm
For sloped footing increased depth by 20% = 1.2 x 577.78
= 693.33 mm
OR
Depth of footing = 700 x projection of footing
= 700 x 0.95
= 665 mm
Take D = 700 mm
Effective depth available dx = 700 – 50 – 12/2
= 644mm
dy = 444 – 12 mm
= 632 mm
Reinforcement
Mu = 150.18kN.m
Mu = Kbd2
K = Mu / bd2
= (390.49 x 106) / 825 x 6322
= 1.185
Point from table no. 3 of Design from IS 456:1978 (SP 16)
Ast required = (0.348 x 825 x 632) / 100
= 1815. 97 mm2
Assume depth of footing at edge = 200 mm
Average depth = (200 + 700) / 2
= 450 mm
Minimum Ast = (0.12 x 2600 x 450) / 100
= 1404 mm2
Provide 12 no. 14mm dia reinforcement bars in both the direction
Ast provided = 1847.25 mm2 > 1815.97mm

27
4.1.5 PROJECT LAYOUT

28
4.2 COLUMN
 Column is a vertical structural member
 It transmits the load from ceiling/roof slab and beam, including its self-weight to the foundation.
 RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete) column is a Structural member of RCC frame structured Building.
It's a vertical member which transfers Loads from slab and beam directly to subsequent Soil.

29
4.2.1 TYPES OF COLUMN
1. Square or Rectangular Column
2. Circular Column
3. V-Shape Column

1. Square or Rectangular Column

Square columns are provided only if the shape of the room is a square or rectangular shape.
It is way much easier to construct and cast rectangular or square columns than circular ones. The square
and rectangular ones are better and less costly to cast.
2. Circular Column
They are specially designed columns; they are mostly used in piling and elevation of the buildings.
Why we use it in elevation? In order to avoid edges, they are also provided in sit out areas, auditoriums
or fire assembly zones, where you have enough space for them not to hinder any movement of people
or look bad with flat surfaces
3. V-Shape Column
As a name itself, it showcasing the column is in V shape and generally used if the shape of the room
is in trapezoidal. As it requires more amount of concrete when compared to the other columns

4.2.2 MATERIAL USED IN COLUMNS

 Cement
 Coarse aggregate
 Fine aggregate (dust stone)
 Steel bar
 Water
 Shuttering
4.2.3 COLUMN CONSTRUCTION PROCESS
Constructing RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete) Column involves following Four Stages of works.
1. Column reinforcement work.

30
 2. Column formwork.
3. Pouring concrete into column

1. Column reinforcement work.

After marking the column locations, we then start to place reinforcement as instructed in the structural
drawing. This is normally described in the drawing like - (C1-12#16 mm⌀ and stirrup-10 mm⌀ @ 4" c/c)
2. Column formwork
Column formwork is a term used for structures that are used to support forms or molds for poured concrete
columns. It can be as simple as a reinforced cardboard tube for small cylindrical columns or very complex
forms constructed from many pieces of wood and metal.

3. Pouring concrete into column.

For small quantity of concrete volume we normally depend on machine-mix concrete and for large concrete
quantity we order ready-mix concrete. Because, if you use moving pump with ready-mix concrete and if you
want not to exceed 5 feet height range for dropping concrete that would be difficult.
Curing
Concrete which is moist cured for 7 days is about 50% stronger than uncured concrete

4.2.4 CLASSIFICATION OF COLUMN

1. Long column/ Slender
2. Short Column

31
 3. Intermediate Column

1. Long column/ Slender

 Columns are said to be slender if its cross-sectional dimensions are small compared with its length.
 The degree of slenderness is generally expressed in terms of slenderness ratio, L/r where L is the
unsupported length and “r” is the radius of gyration.
 When the ratio of effective length to the least radius of Gyration is greater than 45, then it is called a
long column.
 A long column is subjected to bending moment in addition to direct compressive stress.
 The load carrying capacity of a long column is less than a short column.

2. Short Column
 The column whose lateral dimension is very large, when compared to its length (or Height), is called
as short column.
Short Column
Le/rmin<50 Or Le/d < 15
 A column is considered to be short when the ratio of its effective length to its least lateral dimension
does not exceed12 less than 10 for an UNBRACED column.
 When the ratio of effective length to the least lateral dimensions of the column is less than 12, then it
is called a short column.
Or
 When the ratio of effective length to the least radius of gyration is less than 45, then it is called a short
column.
 Crushing Load: The load at which short column fails by crushing is called
Crushing load.

32
 3. Intermediate Column:
Column is intermediate when
4d < L < 30d
And
30 < Le /rmin< 100 or Critical slenderness ratio
 What is the definition of the slenderness ratio of a column?
 Slenderness ratio is the ratio of the length of a column and the least radius of gyration of its cross
section
 Often denoted by lambda
 λ = Le /rmin

4.2.5 BAR BENDING SCHEDULES

 Bar Bending Schedule, commonly referred to as “BBS” is a comprehensive list that describes the
location, mark, type, size, length and number, and bending details of each bar or fabric in
a Reinforcement Drawing of a Structure.
 This process of listing the location, type and size, number of and all other details is called
“Scheduling”. In context of Reinforcement bars, it is called bar scheduling. In short, Bar Bending
Schedule is a way of organizing rebar for each structural unit, giving detailed reinforcement
requirements.

4.2.6 PREPARING FOR BBS

 Bar number/Bar Mark Reference
 Bar shape
 Diameter
 Spacing
 Length of bar
 Cutting Length
 Number of bars
33
  Number of bars:
Suppose the spacing of stirrups is 150 c/c and the length along which they are placed is 6800 mm, we can find
the number of bars by the formula below
[Length / Spacing] + 1 = number of bars [6800 / 150] + 1 = 46.33 In this case, we always round up. Hence,
we require 47 stirrups.
 Cutting Length:
We must remember than steel is ductile in nature and is subject to elongation. Hence, the length of a bar is
increased when bends or hooks are introduced.
Hence, certain deductions are needed to offset this increase in length.
Cutting Length = True Length of a bar – Deductions
For 45 degree
Cutting length = Total length – 1 x Dia of bar x No. of bends
For 90 degree
Cutting length = Total length – 2 x Dia of bar x No. of bends
For 135 degree
Cutting length = Total length – 3 x Dia of bar x No. of bends
For stirrups:
90 degree hook:
Length of stirrup = (2A + 2B) + 20 x Dia
135 degree hook:
Length of stirrup = (2A + 2B) + 24 x Dia
Hook length – 10d, where d is dia. of bar.

4.2 BEAM
 Horizontal member of a structure
 Carries transverse loads

A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting against bending. The
bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the external loads, own weight, span and
external reactions to these loads is called a bending moment.

4.3.1 CLASSIFICATION OF BEAM

1. Simply Supported Beam

2. Cantilever Beam

34
3. Fixed Beam
4. Continuous Beam
5. Overhanging Beam

1. Simply Supported Beam: A simply supported beam is a type of beam that has pinned support at one
end and roller support at the other end. Depending on the load applied, it undergoes shearing and
bending. It is the one of the simplest structural elements in existence.

2. Cantilever beam: A cantilever beam is fixed at one end and free at other end. It can be seen in the
image below

3. Fixed beam: As the name suggests, fixed beam is a type of beam whose both ends are fixed

4. Continuous beam: A continuous beam has more than two supports distributed throughout its length.
It can be understood well from the image below.

5. Overhanging beam: An overhanging beam is a beam that has one or both end portions extending
beyond its supports. It may have any number of supports. If viewed in a different perspective, it appears
as if it is has the features of simply supported beam and cantilever beam.

35
4.3.2 LAPPING ZONE IN BEAM
 Top reinforcement in beam is lapped at mid span since the beam does not undergo any negative
moment at mid-span and so lapping is ideal in that area.
 Don’t provide lapping in bottom bar at mid-span.
 Bottom reinforcement in beam is lapped adjacent to the ends and the similar concept is used further
because there does not exist any positive moment at the ends of the beam.
 The perfect zone for lapping is where the moments remain zero for continuous beams or in the bending
moment diagram, where the values surpass the x-axis or remain at L/4 for simply supported beams.
 You can provide lapping to L/4 in bottom bar.

4.3.3 BEAM CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

According to work arrangement laying of RCC Beam Can be done in four stages
1. Formwork
2. Bending and Binding Steel bars.
3. Lying of Cement Concrete.
4. Curing.

1. Formwork - The formwork should be to retain concrete, formwork or centering and shuttering is
required.

2. Bending and Binding Steel bars. - At the time of designing the slab, it is consider that concrete is
strong in compressive strength but weak in tensile strength, so make the structure safe against the
tensile stress, steel bars are provided.

36
 3. Laying of Cement Concrete. - For small quantity of concrete volume we normally depend on
machine-mix concrete and filling the beam

4. Curing - After laying the RCC slab it should be cure for 28 days for getting full strength.

4.4 SLABS
It is a flat horizontal surface
It is supported by beam and column
It transfers load to the beam
In building construction the roof or slab for roof is very important constituents
 Material used in slab.
 Cement.
 Coarse aggregate.
 Fine aggregate.
 Steel bar.
 Binding wire.
 Water.
 Shuttering materials (wooden Planks, and Iron Plates).

4.4.1 SLAB LAYING PROCESS

According to work arrangement laying of RCC slab can be done in 4 stages such as formwork or
centering and shuttering, bending and binding MS steel bars and laying of concrete
1. Formwork of slab
2. Bending and Binding Steel bars
3. Spacing of steel bars
4. Laying of Cement Concrete

1. Form work - The formwork should be as per (I S: 14687-1999). To retain concrete, formwork or
centering and shuttering is required, which provides the support to the wet concrete until it has gained
sufficient strength to be self-supporting.

37
2. Bending and Binding Steel bars - At the time of designing the slab, it is consider that concrete is
strong in compressive strength but weak in tensile strength, so make the structure safe against the
tensile stress, steel bars are provided.

3. Spacing of steel bars - Steel bars diameter and its spacing in the RCC slab is calculated by designing
the slab according to load and span of the slab. In general 12mm, 10mm and 8mm diameter steel bars
are used in RCC slab according to the length of span of the slab and similarly spacing is from 4.5’’ to
6’’ in the main bars and 6’’ to 8’’ in distribution bars.

4. Laying of Cement Concrete - Make walking way on steel bars by placing wooden plates to avoid
disturbance in steel bars. Now start to lay the cement concrete mix as per design but not below the 1;
2; 4 ratio. The mix mechanically mixed and vibrated after laying on the slab should be mechanically
mixed and vibrated after laying on the slab.

38
 Curing -After laying the RCC slab it should be cure for 28 days for getting full strength.

4.4.2 SLAB R/F SCHEDULE

SLAB THK BOTTOM BOTTOM TOP REINF. AT TOP REINF. AT

MARK REINF. ALONG REINF. SUPPORTS SUPPORTS
SHORT SPAN ALONG ALONG SHORT ALONG LONG
(A) LONG SPAN SPAN (C) SPAN (D)
(B)
S1 140 T10@100 c/c T8@225 c/c T10@125 c/c T8@225 c/c

S2 155 T10@125 c/c T8@225 c/c T10@125 c/c T8@225 c/c

S3 140 T8@100 c/c T8@150 c/c T8@100 c/c T8@150 c/c

S4 140 T8@150 c/c T8@225 c/c T8@150 c/c T8@225 c/c

S5 140 T8@200 c/c T8@200 c/c T8@150 c/c T8@175 c/c

S6 150 AS/SECTION NO-1

S7 140 T10@125 c/c T8@125 c/c T10@175 c/c T8@100 c/c

TABLE 4.4.2 SLAB R/F SCHEDULE

4.4.3 TYPES OF SLAB

1. One-Way Slab - One way slab is supported on two opposite side only thus structural action is only
at one direction. Total load is carried in the direction perpendicular to the supporting beam. If a
slab is supported on all the four sides but the ratio of longer span (L) to shorten span (B) is greater
than 2, then the slab will be considered as one way slab.

2. Two-Way Slab - Two way slabs are the slabs that are supported on four sides and the ratio of
longer span (l) to shorter span (b) is less than 2. In two way slabs, load will be carried in both the
directions. So, main reinforcement is provided in both direction for two way slabs.

39
4.4.4 OVER LAPPING OF RODS
 It is done when length of reinforcement bar is small but we need longer reinforcement
 Provided in mid span
 Tied with hook

Ties
 Columns have closed lateral ties spaced approximately uniformly across the column
 Resist shear force and bursting out effect
 10mm Ø, 12mm Ø bars are used

Placement of Ties
 Normal spacing = S in mid span
 Spacing near support joint = S/2

Hooks

 Used to resist expansion

 The hooks shall be bent to 135º

Formwork
 Must be leak proof, smooth inside and properly aligned
 Should be maintained 1.5 in clear cover

40
 Casting in Column
 Concrete is casted in two lifts
 It should not be casted from more than 5 feet high to avoid concrete segregation

Compaction of Formwork
 Compaction is done by Vibrator
 Construction joints are provided for better bonding between new and old concrete
 Formwork is removed after 3 days

Curing
 Provides water for hydration reaction
 Increases the strength up to 2.5 times
 Done for 21 days
 Gunny bags are used for curing

Reinforcement in Beam

 A min. of 0.2% bar is to be provided for the compression in order to take care of the deflection
 Extra tops are used in the support joints

41
 CHAPTER 5
CONCRETE

5.1 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

 In order to calculate amount of cement, sand and aggregate required in 1m of concrete.

3

 We have to know about different grades of concrete. As per IS456:2000 based on concrete strength.
 Different grades of concrete is classified into M5, M7.5, M10, M15 etc., whereas M stands
for Mix and the number behind M stands for Characteristic Compressive strength (fck) of the
concrete in N/mm @28 days when checked with 15cm×15cm×15cm cube in direct compression
2

test.
 The ratio for M25 grade of concrete is 1:1:2 that mean 1 part of cement, 1 part of sand (fine aggregate)
and 2 parts of aggregate (crushed stone) in volume and then batched for mixing.
 To know the Concrete Mix Design follow below:-

Mix Design (M) = Cement: Sand: Aggregate

DIFFERENT GRADES OF CONCRETE HAS DIFFERENT PROPORTIONS AS FOLLOWS

(CONCRETE MIX DESIGN)
As Per IS456:2000 the concrete of different grades has following proportions of Cement, sand and aggregate.

Characteristic
Type of Compressive strength of
Concrete Grade Mix Ratio
Concrete Concrete
@28Days in N/mm2

Ordinary M5 1:5:10 5 N/mm2

concrete
M7.5 1:4:8 7.5 N/mm2

M10 1:3:6 10 N/mm2

M15 1:2:4 15 N/mm2

M20 1:1.5:3 20 N/mm2

42
 Standard M25 1:1:2 25 N/mm2
Concrete
M30 Design Mix 30 N/mm2

M35 Design Mix 35 N/mm2

M40 Design Mix 40 N/mm2

M45 Design Mix 45 N/mm2

M50 Design Mix 50 N/mm2

High Strength M55 Design Mix 55 N/mm2

Concrete
M60 Design
Mix 60
M65
N/mm2

Design
Mix 65
N/mm2

Table 5.1 : Mix design ration

5.2 CALCULATION OF QUANTITIES OF CEMENT, SAND AND

AGGREGATE IN 1M3 OF CONCRETE

Concrete Mix Design for M25 Grade Concrete:-

Now let us consider M25 grade concrete

As per IS456:2000 M25 Grade concrete proportion is = 1: 1: 2
We have to add all the volume to know the total volume = 1 + 1 + 2 = 4
As we know that during concreting when we place wet concrete, it gets harden after certain standard time.
Considering the same it had be decided upon by Civil design Engineers to take a facto of safety ranging from
1.54 to 1.57 to counter that shrinkage.

i.e. volume of dry Concrete = 1.54 to 1.57 times Volume of wet concrete
43
I am Assuming 1.54 as factor of safety
So total volume of concrete required is 1.54 m3

Calculation of Volume of Cement in 1m of Concrete: 3

Cement
Volume of cement = ---------------------------- x 1.54
Cement + sand +aggregate

1
= --------- x 1.54
1+1+2

= 0.385 m 3

1 m of cement
3
= 1440 Kg
0.385 m of cement = 0.385 x 1440 = 554.4 Kg
3

For 1 m3 of M25 grade concrete requires 554.4 Kgs of cement

Each bag of cement = 50 Kgs

No. of cement bags = 554.4 / 50 = 11.088 ~ 11 bags.

Calculation of Volume of Sand (Fine Aggregate) in 1m of Concrete:

3

-
sand
Volume of sand = -------------------------------- x 1.54
Cement + sand +aggregate

1
= ------------ x 1.54
1+1+2
44
 = 0.385 m 3

1 m of sand
3
= 1600 Kg
0.385 m of cement = 0.385 x 1600 = 616 Kg
3

For 1 m of M25 grade concrete requires 616 Kgs of sand

3

Sand usually consists of moisture content. It increases the volume of sand (bulking of sand).
For accurate calculation use dry sand or include the effect of bulking in calculation.
Hence we require 616kg of sand for 1 cu.m of concrete.

Calculation of Volume of Coarse Aggregate in 1m of Concrete:-

3

Aggregate
Volume of Aggregate = -------------------------------- x 1.54
Cement + sand +aggregate

2
= ------- x 1.54
1+1+2

= 0.77 m 3

Bulk density for 1 m = 1560 Kg

3

of Aggregate ( 20 mm)
0.385 m of cement = 0.77 x 1560 = 1201.2 Kg
3

For 1 m3 of M25 grade concrete requires 1201.2 Kgs of Aggregate

Density of aggregate may go higher if void spaces decreases. 5mm aggregate has more density when compared
with 20mm size of aggregate
Hence we require 1201.2Kg of 20mm aggregate for 1m of Concrete. 3

45
 Amount of Water Required for 1m of Concrete:
3

For making concrete, required amount of water is added. Water quantity is depends upon the climatic factors
and workability required. We generally maintain 0.35-0.50 of water cement ratio. Remember, above values
may change according to the moisture content present in sand and aggregate.
Cement required for 1 m of concrete = 554.4 Kgs of cement
3

Assume w / c ratio = 0.50 (50 % of cement)

Water required for 1 m of concrete = 554.4 x 0.5
3

=277.2 Kgs or 277.2 liters

Hence 277.2 Liters of Water is required for 1m of M25 Concrete.
3

Summary: –
11 bags of cement required for 1 cu.m of M25 grade concrete.
616 kg of Sand required for 1 cu.m of M25 grade concrete.
1201.2 kg of 20mm Aggregate is required for 1 cu.m of M25 grade concrete.
277.2 liters of water is required for 1 cu.m of M20 grade concrete.

46
 CHAPTER 6
EQUIPMENTS USED
6.1 JCB
It is an excavation machine which is used to remove soil, lift heavy objects, etc. JCB 3CX is one of
the most important machines for any site of construction. This machine is used for different purposes
on site i.e. EXCAVATION, ROLLING, LIFTING, LOADING, TRANSPORTATION and all other
works can be easily executed by JCB 3CX

Figure 11: Excavation Using JCB

47
6.2 Total station

Figure 12: Total Station

6.3 Dumpy level

Figure 13: Dumpy Level

6.4 Needle Vibrators:

It is a long flexible tube at the end of which a vibrating head is attached. Power is provided by electric
motor. The frequency of the vibrator is around 500 cycles per minute. The vibrating head is inserted in the
concrete. They are most effective as the vibrating head comes into intimate contact with concrete.

6.5 Surface Vibrators:

They are also called screed or pan vibrators. They are clamped to the concrete. They vibrate the concrete
from the surface at the time when striking off on the concrete is carried out. They are effective only if
depth of concrete is up to 20 cm. They are used for long horizontal surfaces such as pavements and slabs.

48
 CHAPTER 7
MATERIALS

 Materials used for construction at site

 At the construction site following materials were being used
7.1 Cement
The function of cement is to combine with water and to form paste. This paste first sets i.e. it becomes
firms and then hardens due to chemical reaction, called hydration, between the cement and water. On setting
& hardening the cement binds the aggregate tighter into a stone like hard mass & thus provides strength,
Durability & water-tighten to the concrete. Quality of cement is based on grade of cement. The grades of
cement are as-
 33 Grade
 43 Grade
 53 Grade
 The initial time of cement 30 minutes.
 The final setting time of cement 10hrs.
7.2 Aggregate
Aggregate are small pieces of broken stone in irregular size and shape. Neat cement is very rarely used
l construction works since it is liable to shrink too much an becomes cracks on setting. Moreover, it will be
costly to use neat cement construction work. Therefore, cement is mixed with some inert strong & durable
hard materials .They also reduce the cost of concrete because they are comparative economical.
Types of aggregates:
A. Fine aggregate
The aggregate, which pass through 4.75mm, I.S. sieve and entirely retain on 75-micron (07Smm)
I.S. sieve is known as fine aggregate.
Function of Fine Aggregate: -
The function of using fine aggregate in a concrete mix is to fill up the voids existing in the coarse
aggregate and to obtain a dense and strong concrete with less quantity of cement and increase the
workability of the concrete mix.

B. Coarse aggregate
The aggregate, which pass through 20 mm & 10mm I.S. sieve and entirely retain on 4.75 IS. sieve
is known as coarse aggregates.
14
At Construction Site Aggregate used are as follows: -

49
 Coarse aggregate of 20mm size
Coarse aggregate of 10 mm size (as per concrete mix)
Fine aggregate in form of coarse sand

7.3 Reinforcement
The material that develops a good bond with concrete in order to increase its strength is called
reinforcement. Steel bars are highly strong in tension, shear, bending moment, torsion and
compression.
Function of Reinforcement: -
Reinforcement working as a tension member because concrete is strong in compressions and
week in tensions so reinforcement resists the tensile stresses in the concrete members. At the site
contractor using the high strength bars and T.M.T. (Thermo Mechanically Treated) bars of
diameter 8mm, I0mm,16mm, & 32mm as per requirement of design.
At Construction Site: - 8mm, 10mm, 16mm, 20mm, 25mm, 30mm reinforcement bars were
being used. The bars were of grade Fe450 or dimeter bars. The bars were of brand TMT. The
main reason of using steel bars in RCC is that, the coefficient of thermal expansion of steel bars
and concrete is of approximately equal value.

Figure 14: Arrangement of Reinforcement Bars

50