The conservation concerns with acrylic paint media tend to fall into four categories and will be

presented as such, beginning with the development of waterborne acrylic artists' paints and
followed by paint properties, aging properties and issues associated with cleaning.

The development of waterborne acrylin loj o c artists' paints

Henry Levison, a chemist-turned-paint-maker, founded the company Permanent Pigments in 1933,

which produced the first line of waterborne acrylic emulsion paints called Liquitex® in 1954 [14].
He often supplied artists in exchange for soliciting their advice, occasionally hiring them as
consultants or staff. The development of Liquitex® came not long after the introduction of the first
artists' acrylic paint, Magna®, by the paint makers Leonard Bocour and Samuel Golden in 1947.
Magna®

acrylic paints were solution paints and quite distinct from waterborne emulsion paints. In practical
terms, Magna® dried quickly ycuc u u l ljby the evaporation of an organic solvent; it remained
resoluble in many hydrocarbon solvents as well as further layers of paint and could be blended with
oil paint [7, 15, 16]. In contrast, the drying process of emulsion paints involves a complicated
coalescence of emulsified polymer spheres after an initial evaporation of water. These paints
become insoluble in water - and further layers of emulsion paint - after they have dried.

Confusingly, many terms are used to refer to waterborne acrylic paints, such as acrylic emulsions,
latex and polymer colors. In fact, technically, they are dispersions rather than emulsions, because
they are composed of tiny beads of solid, amorphous polymer suspended in water. The fact that
these paints could be diluted and thinned with water, instead of mineral spirits, made them - and
continues to make them - very appealing to artists. The raw polymer emulsions used by artists'
colormen and paint makers were frequently those from the Rhoplex® series of products by Rohm
and Haas (known as Primal™ in Europe), such as AC-22, AC-33, AC-234 and AC-634. Rhoplex®
AC-33 first became available in 1bñobo`v`vò953. All of these emulsions were copolymers, utilizing
the harder methyl methacrylate (MMA) and softer ethyl acrylate (EA) to create the required
working properties, such as flexibility as well as durability for house paints, satisfying their primary
market. Since the end of the 1980s many of the resin formulations have changed to a poly (n-butyl
acrylate/methyl methacrylate) copolymer, such as Rhoplex® (or Primal™) AC-235. In the form of
a paint film these tend to be slightly tougher and more hydrophobic than the poly (EA/MMA)
resins, making them more durable to outdoor exposure. Styrene has sometimes replaced, either
partly or entirely, the MMA component to save manufacturing costs [12, 17, 18].

Additives

Acrylic emulsions contain a multitude of additives that determine the performance properties of the
paint, from shelf life, application and longevity, to properties affecting health and safety [18-22].
Additives are introduced at two distinct stages of production: during the manufacture of the
emulsion polymer and during the formulation of the paint itself. With the exception of a few
volatile additives (see below), all additives remain in the dry paint film. Research into their
interaction with the binder is therefore necessary for a complete understanding of the aging
properties and effects of treatment on acrylic emulsion paints. However, almost nothing has been
achieved towards this, either analytically or from manufacturer's information on their precise
identity. While the paint formulator knows the basics of these materials, the additives themselves
contain proprietary materials and are constantly changed to meet the needs of the large coatings
industry [20, 23].

Additives in the emulsion binder:

• Initiators are used as a source of free radicals to initiate the polymerization process, in which
monomers condense to form polymers. These are most often persulfates, e.g. potassium persulfate
[24], which thermally decompose to form free radicals. The polymer manufacturer may also use a
redox system, adding ferrousov o`iñh oho and thiosulfate along with the persulfate salts to allow for
a room-temperature reaction [25].

• Chain transfer agents are incorporated to aid in controlling/limiting molecular weight (MW)
during polymerization, e.g. dodecyl mercaptan [26].

• Buffers, typically ammonia, are added to maintain a pH between 8 and 10 for maximum
dispersion stability of the acrylic polymer.

• Surfactants are a critical group of components, necessary to create the micelles for particle
formation and long-term particle stabilization. Common surfactants are non-ionic (e.g. alkyl
phenol etho-xylates) and anionic hivovy`y9v`´o(e.g. sodium lauryl sulfate or dodecylbenzene
sulfonate) that are typically added at 2 or 6% by weight (%wt) [25]. These provide stability through
electrostatic and steric hindrance mechanisms.

• Protective colloids also contribute to steric stabilization and are water-soluble natural
or synthetic polymeric emulsifiers such as hydroxyethylcellulose and polyvinyl alcohol, added in 1
to 10%wt.

• Preservatives are generally added in low doses (less than l%wt) to protect against the
growth of microorganisms, commonly methyl benziso-thiazolinones,
chloromethylisothiazolinones, barium metaborate and formaldehyde donors, such as l-(3-
chloroallyl)-3,5,7-triaza-l-azoniaadamantane chloride.
• Residual acrylic monomers are also present at 50 to 1000 parts per million or so,
resulting from incomplete polymerization.

Additives utilized by paint formulators to achieve the intended performance properties:

• Wetting and dispersing agents are added to wet pigment surfaces, allowing pigment
agglomerates to break apart - a critical process in developing color strength - and providing steric
and/or electrostatic stabilization of the pigments. Typical wetting agents include alkyl phenol
ethoxylates, acetylenic diols, alkylaryl sulfonates and sulfosuccinates [27]. These are similar to
the surfactants used during polymerization. Dispersing agents are typically
polyphosphates (generally calcium or potassium salts of oligophosphates with two to six
phosphate units) or polycarboxylates (sodium and ammonium salts of polyacrylic acids, 2000 to
20000 MW) [24].

• Coalescing solvents are added to ensure film formation under varying atmospheric
conditions. They are slow evaporating solvents with some solubility in the polymer phase.
They act as a temporary plasticizer, allowing film formation at temperatures below the glass
transition temperature (Tg) for the system [25], after which they slowly diffuse to the surface and
evaporate, increasing the hardness and block resistance of the film. Typical coalescents are ester
alcohols such as Texanol® (Eastman Chemical Co.), benzoate esters such as

Velate® (Velsicol Chemical Co.), glycol ethers, glycol ether esters and n-methyl-2-pyrrolidone.

• Defoamers are necessary to reduce the inherent tendency of emulsions to foam, a

consequence of incorporating surfactants. Typically these are mineral oils or silicone oils, the latter
(polydimethylsiloxanes) are much more efficient and active, but more likely to produce film defects
(craters, fisheyes, etc.). The mechanism by which defoamers function is not fully understood, but
these very hydrophobic materials are thought to move to the air/liquid interface, allowing the
release of air [24, 25].

• Preservatives, although typically included in acrylic emulsions, are supplied in additional

quantities and are introduced to avoid dilution as water and other components are added.

• Thickeners and rheology modifiers are required to achieve the desired viscosity and flow
properties. Thickeners function through multiple hydrogen bonds to the acrylic polymer,
thereby causing chain entanglement, looping and/or swelling, which results in volume restriction.
The most common group is that of cellulose derivatives, including hydro-xyethylcellulose,
methylcellulose and carboxy-methylcellulose. Also important are alkali-swellable polyacrylate
emulsions, which add considerable viscosity upon neutralization with an appropriate base (such
as ammonia). Polysaccharides such as xanthan and guar gums are also used. A relatively new group
of organic rheology modifiers - altering rheological properties more than building viscosity -is that
of hydrophobically-modified ethoxylate urethanes (HEUR). Inorganic thickening agents can also
be used, such as forms of bentone clays, including the bentonites, smectites and attapulgites,
and fumed silicas.

• Freeze/thaw stabilizers are added to prevent the freezing of a waterborne paint, avoiding
the formation of ice crystals that would disrupt the dispersion stability and cause permanent damage
through polymer coagulation. The incorporation of 2 to 10% ethylene or propylene glycol ensures
that water, surfactants and protective colloids will return to the acrylic emulsion surface in an
orderly way [26].

Identification and analysis

There is a need for conservation-driven research, publications and interviews with artists about their
chosen materials, reasons for using them and thoughts on the conservation of their work. Several
papers have presented the history of the manufacture of artists' acrylic paints and their commercial
introduction to artists [2, 7, 14, 28]. Marontate [14] presented in-depth interviews with paint
manufacturers and examined their early concerns for the durability of the materials and their
participation in groups such as the American Society for Testing and Materials. Lodge [7] and
Barclay [28] presented concise reviews of the history of synthetic paints in the hands of artists. In
addition to charting the manufacturing history of synthetic paint media, Crook and Learner [2]
conducted detailed studies of several artists, their materials and the construction of their paintings.
Several museums have established programs of artists' interviews either on audiotape or video, or
through written questionnaires about specific artworks, typically upon their acquisition. Many
issues can complicate the gathering of such information, for instance, the artist may not recall the
exact materials or may provide contradictory information [29-34]. All of these issues were
extensively considered and a methodology of interviewing artists was proposed in the symposium
and publication, Modern Art: Who Cares? [31, 34, 35]. The importance of using scientific analysis
to confirm the recollections of the artist has been stressed [2].

Several papers have now appeared on methods of scientific analysis and chemical characterization
of acrylic emulsion paints [12, 17, 22, 36-48]. Essentially, it is now possible to identify the major
components in an acrylic paint, e.g. binder, pigment and extenders. The three main techniques have
been Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy [12, 17, 22, 36-42], pyrolysis-gas
chromatography (Py-GC) [22, 43, 44] and pyrolysis-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (Py-
GC-MS) [12, 17, 38, 45]. In addition, direct thermally-resolved mass spectroscopy (DTMS) has
been shown to be effective at identification of acrylic binders and the majority of pigments [12, 46].
However, the use of ultraviolet (UV) fluorescence microscopy staining gave inconsistent results for
layers of acrylic in cross-sections [22], perhaps an inevitable consequence for such complex
formulations. The analysis of additives, however, is very scarce, with the exception of recent FTIR
studies, which have identified polyethylene glycol (PEG)-type surfactants [47, 48]. This may
support the presence of alkyl phenol ethoxylate surfactants, which are common in the coatings
industry.

Other characteristics of acrylic emulsions have also been studied. The relative proportion of each
monomer in copolymer emulsions was measured by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) [49] and
thermomechanical analysis (TMA) [12]. Molecular-weight distributions of the soluble component
and an estimate of the degree of cross-linking in dried films were made by size exclusion
chromatography (SEC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TMA) [47, 49]. Scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) has also been used to document film coalescence and topography [19, 50, 51].

Paint properties

Film formation

The basic process of film coalescence has been described frequently in the conservation and paint
industry literature, though authors acknowledge the oversimplification of this model and the need
for further research [51-58]. Acrylic emulsions are composed of particles of amorphous polymer
suspended in water. The two-phase system is held in suspension by surfactants and/or other surface
stabilizers. During drying, water evaporates to draw the spherical polymer particles closer, which
then meld together to form a 'honeycomb' network. A coalescing-solvent additive ensures that the

polymer particles remain malleable during - and after -this process, to produce more complete
compaction, even after the water has evaporated. Eventually, the boundaries between particles
become barely detectable and the film is considered continuous. However, it has been shown that
pores or micro-voids are often left within the film, readily seen with light microscopy and SEM [22,
51, 59-63].

The degree of coalescence is dependent upon a variety of conditions, including the ambient
conditions during drying, the Tg, which is approximately 10°C for poly (EA/MMA) emulsions [12,
18], minimum film formation temperature (MFT), modulus of elasticity and viscosity of the resin,
as well as the function of additives such as coalescing agents [6, 54, 57, 64, 65]. Paints left to dry
slightly below their Tg and MFT will result in films of higher porosity. A paint drying significantly
below its Tg will form a loose, powdery layer [66].

Film porosity and pin-holes

The porosity of acrylic emulsions was exploited early on in the coatings industry. Acrylics were
ideal as coatings for wood because they allowed water vapor to pass through them, reducing the risk
of delamination [54, 67]. However, porosity in an artwork coating has obvious conservation
implications: dirt and air pollution may become trapped, making removal difficult and providing a
haven for biological growth [68-70].

Similar concerns have been raised [20, 22, 54, 59, 61, 67-71] about pin-holes, or craters. These
defects are often produced in emulsion paints as a result of the foam created during both
manufacturing and application [20, 22], although this phenomenon can occur in other types of paint,
even oil-based media. It has also been suggested that voids may trap conservation cleaning agents
through capillary action, possibly causing long-term damage [71]. In the case of outdoor murals,
efflorescence of the substrate or the formation of ice crystals can occur, causing a build-up of
material on the surface or between the coating and substrate [54, 59, 61,68].

Haziness

A phenomenon sometimes observed in clear acrylic emulsion films is haziness. Under natural and
accelerated-aging conditions, haziness was observed in young films of Liquitex® Acrylic Gloss
Medium [48]. The haziness was composed of microscopic spherulitic crystals on the surface of the
acrylic film, as characterized by light microscopy. These water-soluble crystals formed as the
temperature and relative humidity (RH) to which the films were exposed increased. FTIR revealed
that the crystals contained compounds similar to those found in PEG of about 1500 MW. It was
predicted that crystals might develop if the temperature was between the melting point of the
crystalline material and the Tg of the polymer. At that point, the PEG-type material would be free to
migrate through the film and crystallize. Proposed temporary solutions were either to raise the
temperature of the film, melting the crystals once formed, or to keep the film temperature below its
Tg, e.g. to prevent crystal formation. The risks associated with both techniques were mentioned.

A different type of haziness or cloudiness has also been reported, which can occur during the drying
process before all the water has evaporated or when coalescence is incomplete, leaving pores or
micro-voids within the film [51, 59-63].

Thermoplasticity

The temperature sensitivity of acrylics can be problematic, especially while paintings are in storage
or transit. Their low Tg makes them rubbery at room temperature, attracting dirt and airborne
pollution. High temperature and RH can cause packing materials to stick to the surface. In one
reported instance [72], an acrylic painting on paper became adhered to its Perspex™ glazing,
although separation was possible through localized applications of a heated spatula to the front of
the Perspex™.

Low temperatures and RH are particularly damaging, as they can cause a significant decrease in
elasticity of the paint film and consequent cracking of the paint upon flexing, as demonstrated by
Erlebacher et al. [73, 74]. Emulsion films were exposed to various temperature and RH
combinations and their strength, modulus and elongation at break were measured. In general, the
strength and stiffness of the films increased as the temperature and RH decreased, particularly under
conditions of 40 to 50% RH at 15°C and below. However, at very cool temperatures, such as -3°C,
the strength actually began to decrease, as well. At 40% RH, brittleness occurred in some colors at
5°C, but at 5% RH this figure could rise to as high as 11°C. The warning was clear: cold
temperatures and low RH, conditions that are feasible in winter, make acrylic emulsion paintings
brittle and susceptible to cracking.
Conversely, a warm, humid environment, even if only experienced during shipment, can encourage
mold growth as reported by Gatenby [70]. In this case, loose mold and dirt were removed by dry
brushing and vacuuming and then with distilled water and non-ionic surfactant. However, this
treatment was complicated further by the matt and powdery nature of the paint; the mold left black
stains in some areas of the paint.

Properties of additives

Although most additives remain to be studied in-depth, recent attention has been focused on the
effect of the surfactants. These have been located in dried films, especially within the subtle
boundaries among the coalesced polymer beads [53, 56, 57, 59, 75, 76]. It has also been suggested
that surfactants (and other additives) migrate to both the surface of the film and the film/substrate
interface [48, 55, 57, 63, 76-83]. The migration occurs at several stages: first, during application of
the paint to the substrate, as a way of breaking the surface tension and allowing the paint to wet the
substrate [80, 81] because porous substrates can absorb surfactant [66, 84]; second, during drying of
the paint film when capillary action forces water and water-miscible additives to the film surface
[61, 85]; and third, after drying upon elongation of the film [81]. Surfactants on the film surface
may change its gloss, both in degree and uniformity, may cause adhesion failure of varnish [21] and
may harbor dirt

and biological growth [86]. Surfactants are also likely to foam and be susceptible to removal during
surface cleaning [21, 77, 78]. The effect of a surfactant on the mechanical properties of the dried
film has only recently been investigated [87].

Aging properties

Yellowing/discoloration

Clear acrylic paint media were observed to yellow or discolor slightly in three studies. In the first,
an artist had observed yellowing of GOLDEN® clear acrylic medium in one of his paintings,
prompting a joint research project between Golden Artist Colors, Inc. and the Buffalo State College
Art Conservation Program [88]. A variety of non-pigmented artists' acrylic media were subjected to
both natural and accelerated aging. Discoloration was noticed in the samples applied to cotton and
linen supports, more so than in those applied to glass. The discoloration appeared shortly after the
samples had dried naturally; accelerated aging did not significantly increase yellowing. The
discoloration was attributed to the migration of components from the support into the medium
during drying. The water in the media dampened the support and components within, such as size,
dirt and degradation products, and, upon evaporation through the film surface, pulled the
decolorants into the media. This support-induced discoloration (SID) can be avoided by thoroughly
washing the canvas or linen with water before use.

Yellowing of clear acrylic emulsion media was also noticed during another study [89]. The samples
of clear acrylic media, supported on glass plates, exhibited slight yellowing (and an increase in UV
fluorescence) after natural aging in the dark, after light aging and after oven aging. The yellowing
was more intense in the thickest areas of the film and not confined to the surface. During the aging
process, the films were submitted to periodic solvent extraction to monitor changes in MW through
viscosity. The increase in yellowing coincided with a decrease in solubility. Naturally aged films
became increasingly insoluble in benzene two weeks after application, exhibiting partial swelling
instead, and after 60 days the samples became so insoluble that elevated temperatures were
necessary for dissolution. The yellowing was attributed to slight cross-linking of the film. It was
proposed that even though chromophores are not present in the initial formulation of the acrylic,
their development might be catalyzed by other reactions within the film.

Finally, in an additional study by Whitmore et al. [90] the yellowing of clear acrylic films in the
dark was explored, providing evidence that they can be bleached in the light to varying degrees, as
can oil paint; films with SID are less susceptible to light-bleaching.

Cross-linking and oxidation

Cross-linking in waterborne acrylic emulsions can occur at three stages: during the
polymerization/production of the raw polymer resin; during drying/coalescence of the paint film;
and during aging (both natural and accelerated) of the dried film. Acrylic emulsions can be
formulated to undergo varying degrees of cross-linking
during drying, depending on the end use of the product, using additives called 'cross-linkers'.
However, these are not thought to be present in artists' emulsion paints [19, 56, 91]. Instead, the
high MW of the polymer is enough to provide high film strength from chain entanglement [54, 56,
92]. It has been reported that during aging, a film can cross-link and oxidize as a result of photo-
degradation [93] and from the effect of residual surfactant [66]. However, while Chiantore [77]
detected cross-linking in sample films both before and after aging, oxidation products were not
found. The principal consequences of cross-linking are an increase in brittleness [66, 94] and
hardness, which may actually improve the resistance of the film to dirt pick-up and abrasion [95].

Effect of pigments

The inclusion of pigments tends to stabilize the binder, as they are often effective UV absorbers.
Inorganic pigments tend to offer improved durability in comparison to the organics. Titanium
dioxide is probably the most studied pigment. Of the two different crystalline forms, rutile rather
than anatase is appropriate for exterior paints because it is far less reactive to ultraviolet radiation.
Anatase, which is highly reactive in ultraviolet radiation, can form radicals and degrade the polymer
[24].

Cleaning

Recently, Klein [96, p. 2] conducted a census to 'determine the most commonly used methods and
materials used by painting conservators in their treatment of acrylic paintings'. Out of 190 surveys
sent to paintings conservators in North America, only 31 were completed. In addition, 41 letters of
refusal were returned, citing reasons such as insufficient experience in treating acrylics and lack of
time or staff to fill out the survey. It was confirmed that many conservators treat acrylic artwork
with products and techniques developed for traditional paintings and more conservators considered
themselves 'self-taught' in the treatment of acrylic paintings as opposed to being trained through
their university program. By far the most common treatment problem encountered on both
unvarnished and varnished paintings was some form of cleaning, typically requiring the removal of
dirt or marks from vandalism. A wide range of cleaning materials and methods were identified,
principally dry methods, such as brushes and erasers, and aqueous methods, e.g. saliva or water,
often with small additions of ammonia, surfactants, triammonium citrate or even baby wipes.
However, a range of organic solvents and solvent gels were also cited. Some of the major concerns
of the participants were the difficulty of grime removal, the sensitivity of the paint, leaching during
aqueous cleaning, identifying the specific components of the media, the application and future
removal of varnishes and the protection of unvarnished paintings from deterioration [96].

Affinity for dirt pick-up

Frequently mentioned in the literature, yet rarely analyzed, is the tendency of an acrylic emulsion
paint film to imbibe surface dirt. Dirt can come into contact with the painting through airborne
pollutants [97], handling (e.g.

fingerprints) and accidents or vandalism. It has been suggested that indoor air pollution,
accumulating gradually on a painting surface, may take approximately 50 years to become
perceptible to the human eye [78, 98]. The principal factors thought to affect the attraction of dirt to
acrylic paintings mentioned in the literature include:

• Tg, MW, MFT and softening point of the acrylic resin. If all are low, then the resulting film
exhibits a low hardness at room temperature, forming a tacky 'trap' for incidental dirt [6, 7, 99, 100].

• static charge. Acrylic paint films are non-conductors and therefore can accumulate a
static charge, attracting dust from the air [38].

• pigment concentration. It has been suggested that high pigment load can block dirt pick-up
[101]. However, it is likely that the uneven surface resulting from a paint of high pigment load
would trap dirt mechanically and therefore significantly increase the difficulty of dirt removal.
• hydrophilic additives, such as surfactants. Such additives located at the film surface can
attract and imbed dirt particles [102].

Sensitivity to solvents

The sensitivity of acrylic emulsion paint films to organic solvents clearly limits a conservator's
choice of cleaning techniques, consolidants, inpainting materials and options for varnishing and
varnish removal. There is difficulty in removing imbedded grime without disturbing the surface
texture, color and gloss. Mechanical cleaning, such as with eraser crumbs or a molecular trap like
Groomstick!™ are sometimes used before testing wet-cleaning techniques [70, 87] and have been
investigated by Saulnier [103].

Solubility tests have been proposed as a simple form of analysis/identification preliminary to more
complex instrumental techniques [38,104]. Nielson [104] discussed such solubility tests during
forensic investigations. Small quantities of unknown samples to be identified were exposed to
solvents in order to view the following phenomena: bleeding of organic pigments, swelling,
dissolution of the film and effervescence from carbonate extenders and other additives. The
reactions were compared with the reactions of control samples for initial characterization before
further tests were conducted. The necessity of building a library of identified standards is often
stressed [22, 38, 104].

Sensitivity to water

Even water or water-based cleaning methods can impact upon the paint surface. Acrylic emulsion
films can remain soluble in water more than a week after application. Upon drying, they become
less soluble in water [51, 54, 57, 75, 85]. However, it is widely known among conservators of
modern paintings that acrylic emulsion films remain sensitive to swelling by water. A recent study
by Murray et al. [87] tested the effect of several water-based cleaning agents on the dimensions and
mechanical properties of acrylic emulsion paint films. Sample films of cobalt blue paint were
submersed in water-based cleaning agents for either one minute or one hour and then left to dry.
One percent solutions of Orvus® WA Paste and Aerosol® OT (both anionic surfactants), Triton™
X-100 (a non-ionic surfactant) and triammonium citrate (a chelating agent with a pH of 7.2) were
tested; all are commonly used and visually effective cleaning agents. Immersion, though not a
conservation cleaning technique, is a repeatable test that may indicate the effect of multiple
cleanings on a painting and/or any residual cleaning agent left in the film. This technique might also
replicate exposure to disaster conditions.
An interesting conclusion was that samples immersed for one minute showed weakened mechanical
properties compared to those immersed for an hour. It was concluded that in one minute, only
limited penetration of the cleaning solution into the paint sample was possible, causing expansion of
the outer surface but not the core, stressing the sample prior to mechanical testing. However,
immersion for an hour allowed the solution to reach and react with all parts of the sample, leaving
the sample uniform in condition and in reaction to mechanical testing. After the minute-long
immersions and subsequent drying, the sample volumes had increased, mostly due to an increase in
thickness. However, after the hour-long immersions the samples returned to their original volumes.

Conclusion

Discussion of the conservation of these paintings has taken place almost since the introduction of
artists' acrylic paint; however, there is clearly a lack of information on these materials and works of
art that is relevant to conservation practice. It is important to continue research and to share the
information among conservators, conservation scientists, artists' materials manufacturers and artists.
In terms of future research, a fuller understanding in two broad areas is needed: 1) the structure and
components of acrylic paints, in and of themselves, including the individual properties of additives
and their interactions, and 2) the effect of outside influences on the film, such as aging, abrasions,
dirt pick-up and dirt location within the film strata, wet-and dry-conservation cleaning techniques,
and the interaction of the paint film with other materials such as priming and varnish.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to extend their great appreciation to Dr Alison Murray, Associate Professor,
Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, for her expert guidance and encouragement at the earliest
stages in this research, as well as to Tracey Klein, paintings conservator, Edmonton, Alberta, for
sharing her informative survey results. Thanks also to Dr Rene de la Rie, Jay Krueger, Dr Suzanne
Quillen Lomax and Ross Merrill at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC; Benjamin Gavett,
Braxton J. Tomsk and Bill Berthel at Golden Artist Colors, Inc.; Dr Frank Jones, Professor,
Coatings Research Institute, Eastern Michigan University; Elizabeth Lunning, Chief Conservator,
and Bradford Epley, Associate Paintings Conservator, at the Menil Collection, Houston, Texas; and
Ian Loughead, Conservator, Parks Canada.

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Authors

Elizabeth Jablonski* earned her BA in Art History at Hood College in Frederick, Maryland. She
then received her MA Conservation degree at the Queen's University Program, Kingston, Ontario.
Some of her past internship sites include the Denver Art Museum, Denver, Colorado; The Frans
Halsmuseum, Haarlem (NL); Golden Artist Colors, Inc., New Berlin, New York; and the National
Gallery of Art, Washington, DC. She is currently an Andrew Mellon Fellow in Paintings
Conservation at The Menil Collection in Houston, Texas.
Tom Learner is a Senior Conservation Scientist at Tate in London. He received a MA in chemistry
from Oxford University in 1988 and a Diploma in the conservation of easel paintings from the
Courtauld Institute of Art, University of London, in 1991. He spent a year as a Getty Intern in the
painting conservation and scientific research departments at the National Gallery of Art,
Washington, DC. Since joining the then Tate Gallery in 1992 he has been principally researching
analytical techniques for the characterization of twentieth-century painting materials. He received
his PhD in chemistry from Birkbeck College, University of London, in 1997.

James Hayes is the Technical Director for Golden Artist Colors, Inc. He received a BA in chemistry
at Ithaca College and an MS in inorganic chemistry from The Pennsylvania State University. He
oversees all laboratory functions, including Quality Control/Quality Assurance, Research and
Development and Technical Support. He also manages the custom product development and testing
services provided to individual artists, original equipment manufacturer and private label accounts.

Mark Golden is CEO and co-founded Golden Artist Colors, Inc. in 1980. His company began by
making custom products for artists, many of whom were customers of his father, Sam Golden, a co-
owner of Bocour Artist Colors. Golden continues to produce custom products for artists,
conservators and museums, as well as several lines of acrylic artists' paints and mediums sold
around the world. He has been a guest lecturer at Smithsonian Institute, Tate, College Arts
Association and numerous colleges and universities. Golden is co-author of several research and
review articles on acrylic artists' paint.

* Correspondence can be sent to:

Elizabeth Jablonski
c/o Golden Artist Colors, Inc.
188 Bell Road
New Berlin, NY 13411
USA