Latest Trends in Textile and

Fashion Designing
DOI: 10.32474/LTTFD.2018.03.000154

ISSN: 2637-4595 Research article

Quality Analysis and Testing of Undergarments

Dibyendu Bikash Datta1* and Bikas Agrawal2

1
Associate Professor, Department of Fashion Management Studies, India
2
Assistant Professor, Department of Fashion Technology, India

*Corresponding author: Dibyendu Bikash Datta, National Institute of Fashion Technology (Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India), Plot-
3B, Block-LA, Sector III, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700 098, India

Received: December 04, 2018 Published: December 13, 2018

Abstract
The quality of the undergarments is a combination of design and materials of the desirable products for intended use and the
target market. No one will buy a product of poor quality or with any visual defects. The industry critically depends on the factories,
the complex supply chain, and if the best procedures are maintained in their quality control systems. A good quality control system
maximizes production according to specified requirements in the first attempt. To achieve an acceptable level of satisfaction, quality
control is important for design quality, colours, suitability of products, stylistic approach and brand name impact on the market. The
most common reason for fabric breakage on cheap undergarments is the fact that there are no set quality standards for most of the
cheap products. The consumer checks the quality of undergarments in order to ensure product reliability and quality. While prices
for items having higher quality, standards are higher than that of cheap fabrics, high quality tested garments are always a better
choice. There are internationally recognized standards that follow a specific format of the inspection process to verify the product
quality. This paper describes the most common testing standards required for undergarment production.

Keywords: Quality; Testing; Underwear; Undergarments; Innerwear; Brassiere; Lingerie; Slip; Fabrics

Introduction
French word lingerie means undergarments and applies for either
Undergarments, underwear, innerwear, underclothes,
sex, but in English-speaking countries, the term has come to be
undergarments, undies, smalls and sometimes underthings
associated exclusively with more attractive or sensual lightweight
are a category of apparel that gets us down to the bare bones of
underwear or nightclothes. The French word in its original form
ourselves. It relates to our body, comfort, sense of self, sex appeal
derives from the old French word ‘linge’, meaning linen. They may
and underpinning. Undergarments are worn next to the skin,
also be called ‘intimate clothing’ or simply ‘intimates’ made up of
underneath a person’s outer clothing. It is the foundation for all
several product segments like bras, panties, shapewear, sleepwear,
our clothes helps to keep the outer garments clean by absorbing
lightweight robes, and daywear, which means mostly slips and
sweat and oils from skin. It helps to keep warm in the cold climates.
camisoles. The specific choice of the word often is motivated by an
While we spend years curating the perfect wardrobe, we often
intention to imply the garments are alluring, fashionable or both
overlook its foundation - our underwear drawer. Right underwear,
[1].
can change the way we feel in our clothes, giving us the confidence
and the coverage, we need to wear everything from our everyday Generally, regular underwear is more economical having a
t-shirts to our evening dresses. simple design. It is typically made from inexpensive cotton and can
be purchased in packs. Lingerie, on the other hand, is typically a bit
Women’s undergarments are collectively known as ‘lingerie’.
more expensive. It is often made from an expensive material, having
The words underwear and lingerie are sometimes used
intricacy of designs. One big difference between underwear and
interchangeably but tend to be reserved for women’s wear. The

Copyright © All rights are reserved by Dibyendu Bikash Datta. 286

Trends in Textile & Fash Design. Volume 3 - Issue 1 Copyrights @ Dibyendu Bikash Datta, et al.

lingerie is the reason it is worn. Although lingerie is usually worn fits this metaphor because it resides closest to the skin. This ‘skin’
beneath the clothes as well, it is not usually chosen for practicality functions as part of our boundary system even as it retains an
or comfort. Instead, lingerie is chosen because it is fashionable independent reality. These aspects intersect and render possible
or enticing. Women often wear lingerie that they believe will be deeply personal experiences of clothing. It is no exaggeration to
attractive. Informal usage suggests visually appealing or even erotic regard underwear as the most personal kind of clothing having
clothing. Although most lingerie is designed to be worn by women, the most intimate association. There is more than one reason
some manufacturers now design lingerie for men [2]. Technically, for this intimate connection. First, a basic utilitarian function of
all lingerie is underwear, but not all underwear is lingerie. underwear is to protect our natural skin from our other clothes
Underwear is worn for practicality and comfort by both genders, and simultaneously protect those clothes from soiling produced
while lingerie is typically worn by women because it is attractive. by our own bodies. As a ‘second skin’, the first boundary formed
Regular underwear is usually less expensive than lingerie, and it is between us and the other clothes we wear; a reality that creates
has been around much longer. not only physical distancing but some psychological distancing as
well. No such distance intervenes with underwear, as a popular
Lingerie has been marketed for generations that reflect deep
advertisement proclaimed about its apparel, nothing comes between
emotions and attitudes about themselves, their roles, and history as
us and our undergarments. Just as we take care of our natural skin
women. The underwear industry has been selling something that
through washing it, applying lotions, and so forth in order to be
seemed sexy for years, even if it was not necessarily comfortable
healthy and comfortable, so we do with our underwear. Over time
or functional. Many lingerie brands seem to design products form,
the emphasis in making and marketing underwear has changed
in a voyeuristic perspective, it is for someone else’s pleasure, not
from utilitarian and health reasons to comfort and pleasure. In fact,
necessarily the wearers. The definition of what is sexy has changed
as comfort increases through the pure sensuousness of fabric and
steadily. It is now about women feeling comfortable in their own
fit, so does the intrinsic potential to eroticize the garment by the
skins, as opposed to pleasing someone else. It is not about the
symbolic substitution for the body regions the apparel resides by.
shape - it is about the way one feels.
Performance and luxury are the biggest drivers. The underwear
Origins of Underwear and Lingerie
industry operates the same way as the clothing industry. Moreover,
The origins of underwear and lingerie are also quite different. much like the clothing industry, most underwear is made in Asia. In
Underwear is believed to have been around since ancient times. part, because it is cheaper and the technical skills and machinery
Historians believe that ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans needed to make underwear, in particular, lingerie does not exist
all wore undergarments. In fact, a loincloth is also considered at scale elsewhere. Lingerie and underwear brands must ensure a
a primitive type of underwear. The concept of lingerie being high degree of comfort and the right fit for different markets and
visually appealing was a development of the later 19th century. In body shapes. The brand must ensure that the product matches with
the 19th century, undergarments were typically not spoken of in customer expectations of fit, quality, size, comfort, functionality and
polite society, and it was bulky as well as unattractive. Lady Duff- safe for skin. A high level of cleanliness/hygiene is guaranteed in
Gordan, a prominent fashion designer, decided to change this. She their production and they have the right suppliers, with the right
began to design women’s undergarments that were smaller, less expertise and technology, who are able to handle the production
restrictive, and more attractive. These alluring types of underwear process and its quality. Product inspection for undergarments can
eventually became known as lingerie. Up through the first half be a complicated process. Many manufacturers are not sure what
of the 20= century, women selected underwear for three major criteria to apply for inspection and tests to perform to ensure their
purposes: changing into a perfect shape, for preserving modesty items meet the customers’ expectations.
and for hygiene reasons. Women’s underwear before the invention
of crinoline was very large and bulky [3]. As the 20th century, Aesthetic and performance factors are, of course, inextricably
progressed underwear became smaller and more form fitting. In linked with a price. The often-repeated statement that ‘you get
the 1960s, lingerie manufacturers begin to glamorize lingerie and what you pay for’ is generally associated with performance, but a
the idea of lingerie having a sexual appeal slowly developed. The customer’s concept of what the level of performance should be will
lingerie industry has expanded in the 21st century with designs vary considerably. It is often influenced by aesthetic considerations.
that double as outerwear by categorizing lingerie as an accessory Thus, the concept of good quality is not a static issue operating at one
with details such as straps and lace trim that should be layered and level for all customers; it is influenced by aesthetics, performance,
shown as part of one’s outerwear. Wearing underwear as outerwear and price, and is specific to an individual customer. While poor
is a fashion trend. product quality may not be the most common reason for a customer
to return a product, it is a factor. Garment inspection is one of the
Underwear is gender-differentiated. Boxers, briefs, vest, banian best ways to verify the quality of a clothing item before it leaves the
for men; panties and bras for women. Our intimate connection with factory. Today’s educated consumer is focused on finding apparel
underwear clothing acts like a ‘second skin’. Underwear especially with the best balance of style, quality, and price, manufactured

Citation: Dibyendu Bikash D, Bikas A. Quality Analysis and Testing of Undergarments. Trends in Textile & Fash Design 3(1)-2018. LTTFD.
MS.ID.000154. DOI: 10.32474/LTTFD.2018.03.000154. 287
Trends in Textile & Fash Design. Volume 3 - Issue 1 Copyrights @ Dibyendu Bikash Datta, et al.

under the highest possible ethical standards. Increased consumer the body and acts as a foundation for outer garments, improving
awareness is making apparel quality control more important than their appearance without calling attention to what is underneath.
ever. The brand should have off-the-shelf customizable product- Usually we think of undergarments as including brassieres, girdles,
specific inspection checklists for quality control and assurance foundation garments, panties and slips [6]. The utilitarian functions
services at all stages of the supply chain-from source to shelf. It is of intimate apparel are basic fit and support that are considered the
vital for brands to focus on building trust in terms of quality, and an key criteria for lingerie [7]. The products could be easily imitated by
outstanding reputation for great customer service. others in the fashion market. It is necessary to build an innovative
strategy to ensure that businesses compete in an invincible position,
Objective
based on meeting new needs of customers [8]. Material from which
The main objective of this paper is to highlight the quality testing an undergarment is to be made should be soft and smooth, as fine
parameters that are essential for manufacturing of undergarments a quality as one can afford, attractive in appearance, up to date
following the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) and in style, easy to launder, and reasonably durable considering the
American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC) quality of the goods and the price paid [9].
standard norms known worldwide. These methods served as a
basis and are equivalent to other national level standards. The The primary purpose of textile testing and analysis is to assess
study will serve as a knowledge base both for the manufacturers product performance and use the test results for predictions about
and the consumers. its performance. Product performance is considered in conjunction
with end use; hence, tests are performed with the ultimate end
Methodology use in mind [10]. The esthetic factors provide the initial impulse of
Methodology in writing of this paper is secondary and primary attraction and may be the only factors that influence the decision to
research both. As the secondary research, published articles/ buy clothing items. The exception is the requirement that the item
papers, books related to textile and apparel quality, websites of the should fit. But even fit may be a function of fashion and style. Such
quality testing solution providers are studied and as the primary aesthetic factors as handle, drape, colours, and style all interact in
study, interviews of people working in the undergarment sector are a complex manner and are crudely and subtly influenced by social
taken into consideration. The primary study helps in finding out factors-a desire to be in fashion, a desire to present an image [11].
which quality systems that are prevalent in the manufacturing of An item of clothing is a summation of materials, starting with
undergarments and what exactly are being followed. fiber, through yarn, fabric, and trimmings which go to make it up.
The complexities of balancing aesthetics, performance and cost
Literature Review factors, therefore, apply to the selection and use of these materials.
Quality of undergarments has been related to the longevity of Customers have perceptions of the aesthetic and performance
products, functionality, and comfort. The physical characteristics values of all components of clothing items, although of course, their
and functionality of undergarments are very important for the judgment may be faulty and subject to misunderstood technical
consumer. In the study of Hume and Mills [4], brand recognition factors as well as ingrained social habits [12].
is highly significant for companies whose customers repurchase
Standardization in Garment Sector
based on the comfort, functionality, and quality of garments.
According to Suzianti et al. [5] client fashion e-commerce is related Standardization is essential to maximize compatibility,
to product quality and warranty replacement and return of the interoperability, safety, repeatability, or quality. It started mainly
garments. Therefore, the conditions exist to suggest that companies in the beginning of the 19th century, with the need of practical
in the textile underwear, marketed by internet tend to have higher interchangeability of screws and later with other machine parts
sales and long-term relationship with customers when considering [13]. There are different types of standards and are essential for
the quality of both the product and the distribution channel. the society. These can include standards for terms and definitions,
specifications, management systems, test methods. Standards can
The choosing or designing of undergarments that makes a
be internal of an organization, but for trade, it is important that they
suitable foundation for costume is a challenge to any girl’s good
are accepted for a large community. There are standards used in a
taste. She may have attractive underwear if she is wise in the
private or local community or in a certain region. Standardization
selection of materials and careful in making it or in choosing ready-
have many developments at national levels, under the supervision
made garments. It is not the amount of money that one spends so
of national standardization bodies. But the need for the interchange
much as it is good judgment in the choice of styles, materials and
of products and services at global level has led, especially since
trimmings. No matter how beautiful or appropriate a girl’s outer
the second half of the 12th century, to a strong development of
garments may be, she is not well dressed unless she has used good
international standards. Standards are developed and published
judgment in making or selecting her underwear. Every girl likes
by many different groups and organizations using various degrees
to have attractive, well-fitting underwear. The right kind protects
of consensus in their preparation and approval. Formal standards

Citation: Dibyendu Bikash D, Bikas A. Quality Analysis and Testing of Undergarments. Trends in Textile & Fash Design 3(1)-2018. LTTFD.
MS.ID.000154. DOI: 10.32474/LTTFD.2018.03.000154. 288
Trends in Textile & Fash Design. Volume 3 - Issue 1 Copyrights @ Dibyendu Bikash Datta, et al.

are approved or adopted by one of the National, Regional or mechanical finishes). Additionally, fashion or aesthetics dictate
International Standards bodies [14]. Few examples are mentioned that the ultimate consumer may find acceptable articles made
below. from fabrics that do not conform to all the requirements in Table
1. Hence, no single performance specification can possibly apply to
a) The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) is the National
all the various fabrics that could be utilized for the end-use. The
Standard Body of India working under the aegis of Ministry of
uses and significance of properties and test methods are further
Consumer Affairs, Food & Public Distribution, Government of
discussed. There is more than one method that can be used to
India. It is established by the Bureau of Indian Standards Act,
measure breaking strength, tearing strength, bursting strength and
1986 on 23 December 1986.
lightfastness. These methods cannot be used interchangeably since
b) The South Asian Regional Standards Organization there may be no overall correlation between them.
(SARSO), established in 2010 to achieve and enhance Table 1: Specification Requirements.
coordination and cooperation among South Asian Association
for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) members in the areas of Minimum Requirements
Characteristic
standardization and conformity assessment with the objective Sheer Non-Sheer
to develop harmonized standards for the region, to facilitate Breaking strength (CRE)A 67 N (15lbf) 111 N (25lbf)
intra-regional trade, and to enhance access in the global market Tearing strength 4.4 N (1lbf) 6.7 N (1.5lbf)
for the SAARC Region suppliers. Resistance to Yarn slippage 67 N (15lbf) Brassieres
45 N (10lbf)
6mm (1/4 in.) separation, - 133 N (30lbf)
c) The International Organization for Standardization Yarn distortion at 4.4 N 2.5mm (0.1 in.),
(ISO) is an International Standard setting body composed of (1lbf) load Satins max
representatives from various national standards organizations. 1mm (0.05 in.),
All other
It is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and works in 162 max

countries. It was one of the first organizations granted general Bursting strength 133 N (30lbf) 222 N (50lbf)
consultative status with the United Nations Economic and Dimensional Change
Social Council. Founded on 23 February 1947, the organization Laundering (Woven) 3 %, max
promotes worldwide proprietary, industrial and commercial Drycleaning (Woven) 2 %, max
standards. While, Informal Standards are published by another Laundering (Knit) 5 % max
Standards Development Organizations (SDOs), many of which Drycleaning (Knit) 5 % max
are very well known and highly respected, e.g. Colourfastness:

d) ASTM publishes textile standard specifications and test Laundering

methods for physical, mechanical, chemical properties of fibers, - Shade change Grade 4

yarns, fabrics, and garments, used worldwide. - Staining Grade 3

Drycleaning
e) AATCC is known worldwide for developing and publishing
- Shade change Grade 4
test methods for textiles, especially related to dyeing and
- Staining Grade 3
finishing. Many of these methods served as a basis and are
Bleaching (Shade change)
equivalent to ISO standards.
- Sodium Hypochlorite Grade 4
f) The International Wool Textile Organization (IWTO) - Non-Chlorine Bleach Grade 4
publishes specifications on test methods developed within the Burnt gas fumes - 2 cycles:
committees of IWTO for the measurement of wool fiber, yarn, - Shade change, original
Grade 4
and fabric properties. fabric
- Shade change, after one
Standard Performance Specification cleaning
Grade 4

The standard is issued under ASTM D7019 [15]. The performance Crocking:
specification covers fabrics used in underwear, brassieres, slips, - Dry Grade 4
and lingerie. Fabrics intended for the end-use should meet all - Wet Grade 3
the requirements listed in Table 1. The requirements apply to the Perspiration:
length and width directions for those properties where each fabric - Shade change Grade 4
direction is pertinent. It should be recognized that fabric can be - Staining Grade 3
produced utilizing an almost infinite number of combinations of Light (10 AFU) (xenon-arc) Grade 4
construction variables (e.g., type of fibers, percentage of fibers, Fabric appearance SA 3.5
yarn twist, yarn number, warp and pick count, chemical, and
Flammability Class I

Citation: Dibyendu Bikash D, Bikas A. Quality Analysis and Testing of Undergarments. Trends in Textile & Fash Design 3(1)-2018. LTTFD.
MS.ID.000154. DOI: 10.32474/LTTFD.2018.03.000154. 289
Trends in Textile & Fash Design. Volume 3 - Issue 1 Copyrights @ Dibyendu Bikash Datta, et al.

Discussions on Test methods One side of the cut end is clamped into the upper jaw and the other
is clamped into the lower jaw. The jaws move apart at a constant
Breaking Strength (woven fabrics only)
rate until the fabric begins to tear. Depending on the nature of the
ASTM Standards D 5034 Test Method for Breaking Strength specimen, the tearing force will be shown as a peak or a series
and Elongation of Textile Fabrics covers the Grab Test procedures of peaks. The highest peaks appear to reflect the strength of the
for determining the dry-breaking strength and elongation of most yarns, fiber bonds, or fiber interlocks needed to continue a tear. The
textile fabrics using a constant-rate-of-extension (CRE) tensile CRE-type tensile testing machine has become the preferred test
testing machine. It is not recommended for knitted fabrics and apparatus for determining tongue-tearing strength. It is recognized
other textile fabrics which have a high amount of stretch (more that some CRT type tensile testing machines continue to be used.
than 11%). The method specifies a procedure to determine the Consequently, these test instruments may be used when agreed
maximum force and the elongation at maximum force of textile upon between the purchaser and the supplier. This test method
fabrics using a grab method. A grab test is a tensile test in which applies to most fabrics including woven fabrics, napped fabrics,
only the center part of the specimen (not the full width) is gripped knit fabrics, layered fabrics, pile fabrics, and nonwovens. The
in the jaw faces. Two sets of specimens are prepared, one in the fabrics may be untreated, heavily sized, coated, resin-treated, or
warp (machine) direction and one in the filling (cross) direction. otherwise treated. Instructions are provided for testing specimens
This test method provides the values in both inch-pound units and with or without wetting.
SI units. The test analyzes
Resistance to Yarn Slippage (woven fabrics only)
a) Breaking force: The average force required to break
The test method ASTM Standards D 434 covers the determination
(rupture) the sample and
of the resistance to slippage of weft yarns over warp yarns, or warp
b) Elongation: The average increase in the length of the yarns over weft yarns, using a standard seam. The test involves a
sample at its break (rupture) point. tensile testing machine, a pair of dividers, metal rule, metal clamp,
and sewing machine. When doing the test, the load-elongation
If preferred a Constant-Rate-of-Traverse (CRT) tensile testing curve of the fabric is superimposed upon a load-elongation curve
machine may be used. There may be no overall correlation between of the same fabric with a standard seam sewn parallel to the yarns
the results obtained with the CRT and CRE machine. Consequently, being tested. Resistance to yarn slippage is reported as the load at
these two testers cannot be used interchangeably. In case of which a pre-determined slippage is observed.
controversy, the CRE method, shall prevail.
a) Seam Slippage Test: To evaluate the fabric condition
Tearing Resistance (woven fabrics only) when pulled apart at a sewn seam. A seam is sewn in a fabric,
ASTM Standards D 1424 Test Method for Tearing Strength of which is clamped at one end and pulled by weights at the other
woven fabrics by Falling-Pendulum (Elmendorf) apparatus covers end. (Performed in both warp and weft directions.) The weight is
the measurement of the tearing strength of textile fabrics by the increased until seam separates a specified distance. The number
tongue (single rip) procedure using a CRE-type tensile testing of pounds required to cause this separation determines the rating.
machine. This test measures peak force, tearing force, and tearing 25lbs. minimum = upholstery 25lbs. minimum=panel and vertical
strength. Rectangular specimens are placed into the CRE tester. surface fabrics.

Yarn Distortion (woven fabrics only)

Figure 1: Measurable and nonmeasurable shift openings.

Citation: Dibyendu Bikash D, Bikas A. Quality Analysis and Testing of Undergarments. Trends in Textile & Fash Design 3(1)-2018. LTTFD.
MS.ID.000154. DOI: 10.32474/LTTFD.2018.03.000154. 290
Trends in Textile & Fash Design. Volume 3 - Issue 1 Copyrights @ Dibyendu Bikash Datta, et al.

The test method ASTM Standards D 1336 covers the used interchangeably. In case of controversy, the ASTM Test Method
measurement of yarn distortion of one set of yarns over the other D 3786 shall prevail.
in woven cloth following the application of surface friction in a
Dimensional Change
Fabric Shift Tester. The test method is applicable mainly to open-
weave fabrics, like gauzes, nettings, marquisettes, chiffons, and Dimensional change problems experienced in textile products
heavier fabrics made from slippery surface yarns. A specimen are always been an important subject and a focus of attention.
is subjected to a specified shearing force acting in the plane of Dimensional stability is the ability of textile materials to maintain
the fabric. The degree to which the force causes yarns to shift or return to its original geometric configuration. Consumer
distorting the original symmetry of the weave is taken as a measure acceptance of garments depends mainly on the dimensional
of ease of yarn distortion in the fabric. The degree of distortion is stability. They consider the dimensional change in a garment to be
reported in terms of the widest opening, measured in hundredths a critical performance characteristic. Dimensional property of a
of an inch. The specimen is allowed to relax for 15 minutes after fabric is greatly influenced by laundering and dry cleaning.
being removed from the carriage. The widest opening of each shift a) Laundering: The dimensional changes of garments when
mark, or distorted yarn group, is measured as shown in Figures subjected to home laundering procedures used by consumers
1a, 1b. Non-measurable openings, illustrated in Figure 1c, 1d, are are directed in the applicable procedure in AATCC Method 135.
described and reported. The average of the five measurements is Four washing temperatures, three agitation cycles, two rinse
calculated and reported. temperatures, and four drying procedures cover the common home
Bursting Strength (knit fabrics only) care options available to consumers using current laundering
machines. The dimensional changes of garments subjected to
ASTM Standards D 3786 Test Method for Bursting Strength of home laundering care procedures are measured using benchmarks
Textiles-Diaphragm Bursting Strength Tester Method is used as a placed on designated areas of the garments. Measured dimensional
multidirectional tensile test to identify a failure in the direction changes may be affected by garment construction, tensions, sewing
of least resistance for evaluating the physical strength and fiber threads or trims in addition to fabric dimensional change. As an
bond. Models are available to test a variety of materials. These optional procedure, fabric dimensional changes may be determined
models can also be fitted with a device to measure the deflection by using benchmarks placed on the fabric in areas of the garment
of the sample prior to burst. The textile burst tester is designed to that contains no seams or sewing. This method may not be
meet international standards for tests on textiles. In textiles, the applicable for garments made of certain stretch fabrics (Table 2).
burst tester measures the fabric’s strength along with immediate
Table 2.
or eventual effects of dyes, chemicals, and processes. It also
demonstrates the results of wear, age, and environment and Washing Conditions Drying Conditions
evaluates the comparative strength of alternative fibers. The Textile Normal/Cotton Sturdy cycle Tumble dry, Cotton Sturdy
Burst Tester is designed for measuring the bursting strength of High setting, 66±5°C (actual
Hot water setting (actual=43.3°C)
fabric materials subjected to an increasing hydrostatic pressure. exhaust=60°C)
This pressure is applied to a circular region of the specimen via Water level=18±1 gal Dry time=20min
an elastic diaphragm. The specimen is firmly held around the Agitator speed=179±2 spm Cool down time=10min
edge of this circular region by a pneumatic clamping device. When Washing time=12min
the pressure is applied, the specimen deforms together with the Spin speed=645±15rpm
diaphragm. The bursting strength corresponds to the maximum Final spin time=6min
pressure supported by the specimen before failure.
b) Dry-cleaning: Determine the dimensional change after
Identical, in the principle to the multi-directional tensile test, dry cleaning as directed in AATCC Method 158. This test method
Ball Burst Method for Fabrics, this measurement is independent specifies a dry-cleaning procedure, using a commercial dry-
of the cutting direction of the sample (machine or cross) since cleaning machine, for the determination of the dimensional change
the failure naturally occurs in the least resistance direction. The of fabrics and garments after dry cleaning in perchloroethylene. It
rubber diaphragms with a specific thickness and shore hardness comprises processes for normal materials and sensitive materials.
must have a bulge versus pressure pattern within the tolerance of Very sensitive materials, which can be cleaned only when special
the standards related to the type of material tested. If preferred, precautions are taken, are excluded from the scope of this method.
a Constant-Rate-of-Extension (CRE) tensile testing machine may The test method is intended only for the assessment of dimensional
be used. Since there is no overall correlation between the results changes undergone by a specimen subjected to a single dry cleaning
obtained with CRE machine equipped with a bursting attachment and finishing operation. When it is desired to determine the amount
(ASTM Test Method D 3787) and the Diaphragm Bursting Tester of progressive dimensional change, the method may be repeated a
(ASTM Test Method D 3786), these two bursting testers cannot be specified number of times, normally not exceeding five cycles.

Citation: Dibyendu Bikash D, Bikas A. Quality Analysis and Testing of Undergarments. Trends in Textile & Fash Design 3(1)-2018. LTTFD.
MS.ID.000154. DOI: 10.32474/LTTFD.2018.03.000154. 291
Trends in Textile & Fash Design. Volume 3 - Issue 1 Copyrights @ Dibyendu Bikash Datta, et al.

c) Dry-cleaning conditions hand or home launderings cannot always be predicted by the

45min test. Staining is a function of the ratio of coloured to undyed
i. Commercial rotating cage type machine-(cleaning g-factor
fabrics, the fiber content of fabrics in the wash load and other end-
0.5-0.8; extraction g-factor 35-120)
use conditions, which are not always predictable.
ii. Perchloroethylene solvent (30±3°C)
b) Dry-cleaning: Dirt or contamination in textiles is often
iii. Inlet dry temp = <80°C removed by either aqueous cleaning using detergents or chemical
or dry cleaning using organic solvents. Dry cleaning is normally
iv. Outlet dry temp = <60°C
used in the case of textiles that cannot be washed for any reason
v. Finish treatment performed (pressing) until no wrinkles or that cannot be washed by aqueous means, e.g. wool and silk
showed (g-factor is a unit to measure water extraction capacity of a garments. Due to dry cleaning, dyed or printed textiles may change
washer. The more g-factor the better it is). their colour to some extent (fade) and another problem is that that
may discolour the solvent used in dry cleaning. Different solvents
Colourfastness
can be used, but perchloroethylene is the most widely used
Colourfastness is defined as ‘the resistance of a material to solvent in the industry at this time. A colour that is not affected
change in any of its colour characteristics, to transfer its colorants(s) by perchloroethylene will not be affected by petroleum solvents,
to adjacent materials, or both, as a result of the exposure of the whereas the converse is not true. Pigment colours are more readily
material to any environment that might be encountered during the affected in perchloroethylene than in petroleum or fluorocarbon
processing, testing, storage, or use of the material.’ In other words, solvent dry cleaning. Similarly, Garment accessories like sequins;
it is a fabric’s ability to retain its colour throughout its intended life plastic beads etc. get affected by solvents. The colourfastness to
cycle influenced by water, light, rubbing, washing, perspiration etc. dry- cleaning is determined as directed in AATCC Method 132.
to which they are normally exposed in textile manufacturing and
The test method is intended for determining the colourfastness
in daily use. Colourfastness is one of the important factors in the
of textiles to all kinds to dry cleaning. The test method is neither
case of buyers’ demand. There are many types of colourfastness
suitable for the evaluation of the durability of textile finishes, nor
properties that must be considered to provide the consumer with
is it intended for use in evaluating the resistance of colours to spot
an acceptable product. The outstandingly important property of a
and stain removal procedures used by the dry cleaner. This test
dyed material is the fastness of the shade of colour.
method only covers colourfastness to dry cleaning; it does not cover
a) Laundering: The accelerated laundering tests evaluate the effects of water spotting, solvent spotting and steam pressing
the colourfastness to laundering of textiles, which are expected to which are normally involved in commercial dry-cleaning practice.
withstand frequent laundering. Laundering refers to the washing The test method gives an indication of results to be obtained
of clothing and other textiles colourfastness to laundering are the from three commercial dry cleaning. A specimen of the textile in
common quality parameter, which is considered very important contact with cotton fabric, multifiber swatch, and noncorrodible
from the point of view of consumers. The test determines the steel discs is agitated in perchloroethylene and then dried in air.
degree of colour loss after repeated home launderings and staining Perchloroethylene is used because
of other items in a wash load. The test predicts the performance
a. it is the most used solvent in commercial dry cleaning and
of any dyed or printed textile product to the common washing
process using a detergent and additives. The test conditions are b. it is slightly more severe in solvent action than petroleum.
designed to simulate the behavior of the textile after five domestic
A colour which is not affected by perchloroethylene will not be
or commercial launderings on 45 minutes test or according to
affected by petroleum solvents, whereas the converse is not always
the consumer’s requirement. The colourfastness to laundering
true. Any change in colour of specimen is assessed with the standard
is performed as directed in the applicable procedure of AATCC
Gray Scale for colour Change and of staining by using Gray Scale
Method 61.
for Staining or Chromatic Transference Scale. Launderable fabrics
The test evaluates the colourfastness to washing of textiles are expected normally to be dry-cleaned, except where all or part
that expected to withstand repeated low-temperature machine of fabric will not withstand dry cleaning. For example, the fabric
laundering or hand laundering in the home or in the commercial could contain a functional finish soluble in the solvent, or the fiber
laundry. The sample is paired with a multi-fiber strip and placed could be degraded by the solvent, which would be the case with
in a launder-o-meter and accelerated hand/machine laundering poly (vinyl chloride) fiber. If a fabric gets harmed by all methods of
is performed with a detergent solution. Specimens subjected to care except for dry cleaning, it should be considered dry clean only.
the test show colour change like that produced by five machine
c) Bleaching: The test method is designed for home
launderings at 38±3°C (100±5°F) or by hand launderings at 40±3°C
laundering devices. When testing with bleach is stated, test as
(105±5°F). However, the staining effect produced by five typical

Citation: Dibyendu Bikash D, Bikas A. Quality Analysis and Testing of Undergarments. Trends in Textile & Fash Design 3(1)-2018. LTTFD.
MS.ID.000154. DOI: 10.32474/LTTFD.2018.03.000154. 292
Trends in Textile & Fash Design. Volume 3 - Issue 1 Copyrights @ Dibyendu Bikash Datta, et al.

directed in AATCC Method 172 for Colourfastness to powdered to produce a specified amount of colour change in the specimen.
Non-Chlorine Bleach or AATCC Method 188 for Colourfastness to
e) Crocking: Colourfastness to dry and wet crocking is
Sodium Hypochlorite Bleach in home laundering. The appropriate
determined as per AATCC Method 8 for solid shades and AATCC
procedure for testing Colourfastness to chlorine bleach is AATCC
Method 116 for prints or as agreed upon by the contractual parties.
Method 188. The procedure approximates Colourfastness results
The process determines the amount of colour transferred from the
after five wash/dry cycles in presence of detergent and chlorine
surface of a coloured textile material to other surfaces by rubbing.
bleach. The procedure is very reliable, but is a time, labor and
The sample is placed on crock-meter. A standard white cotton fabric
resource intensive. Colourfastness is not usually an issue with white
is rubbed across the sample 10 times in the wet and dry state. To test
fabric, but all white fabric known to have a chemical finish should be
for wet crocking, the standard fabric is wet before rubbing against
tested for potential yellowing by interaction with chlorine bleach.
the test fabric. The AATCC Method 116 is a test specifically used for
The bleach test can be used as a screening for white fabric. Fabrics
printed fabrics that do not lend themselves to the AATCC Method 8.
that prove unacceptable for laundering in chlorine bleach must
The test fabric is held at the base of a Rotary Vertical Crockmeter
be tested for Colourfastness to non-chlorine bleach following the
and rubbed with a standard cotton white fabric either dry or wet.
applicable protocol is AATCC Method 172. The care labeling rule
In both the test methods, after rubbing under controlled pressure
is very specific. If a garment is safe in non-chlorine (colour-safe)
for a specific number of times, the amount of colour transferred to
bleach, but not in chlorine bleach the label must say ‘Non-chlorine
the white test squares is compared to an AATCC Colour Chart and
Bleach When Needed’, or words to that effect. The only way to
a rating is established. The cotton cloth is evaluated for staining.
determine if non-chlorine bleach is safe is to test for Colourfastness.
Grade 5 denotes ‘no colour transfer’ and Grade 1 denotes a ‘high
Grey Scales (Gray Scales) are used for assessing colour change and
degree of colour transfer’.
staining during Colourfastness testing. Both scales are used for
visual assessment to enable you to specify a rating from 1 to 5, with f) Perspiration: Colourfastness to perspiration is
5 being ‘good’ and 1 being ‘poor’ (Table 3). determined as directed in AATCC Method 15. The test determines
Table 3: Test method is designed for home laundering devices. the fastness of coloured textiles to the effects of acid perspiration
(sweat). A coloured textile specimen is wet out using a simulated
Test Type Test Method Comments on Requirements acid perspiration solution. It is placed in contact with a multi-fiber
Used to determine whether strip, and then both subjected to a fixed mechanical pressure. The
Colourfastness to nonchlorine bleach will affect
AATCC specimen is then evaluated for colour change using the AATCC Gray
powdered Non- colours during washing.
Method 172
Chlorine Bleach Labeling must be adjusted if Scale for Staining, and the multi-fiber test strip is evaluated for
colour affected. colour transfer using the AATCC Chromatic Transference Scale.
If the fabric is affected by
chlorine bleach only, warning g) Light: Colourfastness to light is the resistance of a material
Colourfastness to
on the label to read: ‘Only to a change in its colour characteristics as a result of exposure of the
AATCC Sodium Hypochlorite
nonchlorine bleach if needed.’
Method 188 Bleach in home material to sunlight or an artificial light source. Colourfastness to
If sensitive to both bleach
laundering
types, label to read: ‘Do not light is determined following the AATCC Method 16. The test method
bleach.’
provides general principles and procedures which are currently in
d) Burnt Gas Fumes: The colourfastness to burnt gas fumes use for determining the colourfastness to light of textile materials.
on the original fabric and after one laundering or one dry cleaning The test options described are applicable to textile materials of all
is determined as directed in AATCC Method 23. Washing or dry- kinds and for colourants, finishes and treatments applied to textile
cleaning conditions shall be as for dimensional change testing. materials. Test options are:
This method is intended for determining the resistance of colour of
i. AATCC Test Method 16.1, Colourfastness to Light: Outdoor.
textiles of all kinds and in all forms except loose fibres when exposed
to atmospheric oxides of nitrogen as derived from the combustion ii. AATCC Test Method 16.2, Colourfastness to Light: Carbon-
of butane gas. This method may be used for rating colourfastness of Arc.
dyes by applying the dye to textiles by a specified procedure and at
iii. AATCC Test Method 16.3, Colourfastness to Light: Xenon-
a specified depth of colour and testing the dyed textiles. A specimen
Arc.
of the textile and the test-control fabric are exposed simultaneously
to oxides of nitrogen from burnt gas fumes until the test control The use of these test options does not imply, expressly or
shows a change in colour corresponding to that of the standard of otherwise, an accelerated test for a specific application. The
fading. The change in colour of the specimen is assessed with the relationship between any lightfastness test and the actual exposure
grey scale. If no colour change is observed in the specimen after one in use must be determined and agreed upon by the contractual
exposure period or cycle, exposure may be continued for either a parties. Samples of the textile material to be tested and the agreed
specified number of periods or for the number of periods required upon comparison standard(s) are exposed simultaneously to a

Citation: Dibyendu Bikash D, Bikas A. Quality Analysis and Testing of Undergarments. Trends in Textile & Fash Design 3(1)-2018. LTTFD.
MS.ID.000154. DOI: 10.32474/LTTFD.2018.03.000154. 293
Trends in Textile & Fash Design. Volume 3 - Issue 1 Copyrights @ Dibyendu Bikash Datta, et al.

light source under specified conditions. The colourfastness to light Flammability

of the specimen is evaluated by comparison of the colour change
The flammability test and requirements shall meet or exceed
of the exposed portion to the masked control portion of the test
the Flammable Fabrics Act mandatory standards as specified in 16
specimen or unexposed original material using the AATCC Gray
CFR 1610. Flammability is the primary safety hazard associated
Scale for Colour Change, or by instrumental colour measurement.
with wearing apparel; therefore, all garments sold must meet
Lightfastness classification is accomplished by evaluation versus a
government regulations in the United States. Exemptions are hats,
simultaneously exposed series of AATCC Blue Wool Lightfastness
gloves, footwear (excluding hosiery) and interlinings. All fabrics
Standards (a pack of 8 graded dyed wool fabrics) used in determining
will burn; however, it is the ease, speed, and intensity of burning
the amount of light exposure of specimens during lightfastness
that determines whether a fabric is hazardous or not. Factors that
testing. Duration of the test is defined by buyers, typically 10 AFU
directly affect burning characteristics are fibre content, weight,
(accelerated fading units) is preferred for intimate apparels.
and fabric construction. Lightweight fabrics (those weighing 2.6 oz
There are distinct differences in spectral distribution between per sq. yd or less) made of natural fibers, cotton, rayon, silk, and
various types of machines listed in AATCC Method 16, with no brushed fabrics such as fleece or flannel, are particularly suspect for
overall correlations between them. Consequently, the machines burning and must be tested to ensure compliance. This regulation
cannot be used interchangeably. In case of controversy, results is only a minimal standard and is relatively easy to pass. The test
obtained with water-cooled xenon-arc machine listed in AATCC is designed to eliminate those fabrics that are highly flammable
Method 16E (Colourfastness to Light: Water-Cooled Xenon-Arc from the marketplace. Specimens are conditioned in a drying oven
Lamp, Continuous Light) shall prevail. In 2003, AATCC Method to remove all moisture prior to testing. The test is conducted in an
16 was revised to open certain parameters and adopted AATCC enclosed chamber with the sample held at a 45-degree angle, while
Method 16E for use at all levels. Retailers specified this option in a one-inch ignition source impinges on the fabric for one second. A
their testing specifications for suppliers to follows. The change class determination is made on tested samples in original state and
allowed the use of alternative lightfastness testers with different after one washing and dry-cleaning cycle.
capabilities than the previously accepted instruments. The options
i. Class 1-Normal flammability is considered commercially
within the revised method are numbered instead of lettered to
acceptable;
distinguish it from the traditional version. The revised, broader
xenon arc option is now Option 3. However, 16E has not been ii. Class 2-Intermediate flammability refers only to textiles
abandoned. Many retailers still call this method out in their own with a napped or
testing requirements because they do not want variation from all
iii. Class 3-Rapid and intense burning is considered
of the historical testing they have produced since 16E was adopted
dangerously flammable. Textile and apparel are banned from
in 1964. The use of a different lightfastness tester may produce
sale (Table 4).
different results.
Table 4: Summary of test criteria for specimen classification.
Fabric Appearance
Plain surface textile
Laundering and subsequent drying can affect the surface Class Raised surface textile fabric
fabric
appearance of an item. The test method is intended to determine the Burn time is greater than 7.0
Burn time is
Smoothness Appearance (SA) of flat fabric specimens as directed 3.5seconds or more
seconds; or Burn time is 0-7
1 seconds with no base burns (SFBB).
in AATCC Method 124 of fabrics after the applicable laundering ACCEPTABLE (3.5sec
Exhibits rapid surface flash only.
or dry-cleaning procedure. SA in fabrics is the visual impression is a pass).
ACCEPTABLE.
of planarity of a specimen quantified by comparison with a set of Burn time is 4-7seconds (inclusive)
Class 2 is not
reference standards. Any washable fabric of any construction, such with Surface Flash Base Burn
2 applicable to plain
(SFBB).
as woven, knit and nonwoven, may be evaluated for smoothness surface textile fabrics
ACCEPTABLE.
appearance using this method. Evaluation is performed using a Burn time is less than 4.0seconds
Burn time is less than
standard lighting and viewing area by rating the appearance of with Surface Flash Base Burn
3 3.5seconds.
specimens in comparison with appropriate reference standards. For (SFBB).
NOT ACCEPTABLE.
NOT ACCEPTABLE.
fabrics not intended for use in durable press garments, determine
the smoothness appearance after pressing as specified in AATCC General characteristics of flammable goods:
Method 135 intended for the determination of dimensional changes
i. Low twist yarns ignite more readily than high twist;
of fabrics when subjected to home laundering procedures used by
consumers. The dimensional changes in fabric specimens subjected ii. Loosely woven and lightweight fabrics burn more readily;
to home laundering care are measured using pairs of benchmarks.
iii. Napped fabrics have an increased surface flammability;

Citation: Dibyendu Bikash D, Bikas A. Quality Analysis and Testing of Undergarments. Trends in Textile & Fash Design 3(1)-2018. LTTFD.
MS.ID.000154. DOI: 10.32474/LTTFD.2018.03.000154. 294
Trends in Textile & Fash Design. Volume 3 - Issue 1 Copyrights @ Dibyendu Bikash Datta, et al.

iv. Some coated fabrics and plastic films burn rapidly; 3. Fields J (2007) An intimate affair: Women, lingerie, & sexuality. Uni of
California Press.
v. Fiber content is the most influential factor in determining 4. Hume M, Mills M (2013) Uncovering victoria’s secret: Exploring women’s
fabric flammability. luxury perceptions of intimate apparel and purchasing behaviour.
Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management: An International Journal
In most cases, only the exposed parts of finished garments 17(4): 460-485.
are subject to this standard. The exceptions are items that can be 5. Suzianti A, Prisca-Faradilla ND, Anjani S (2015) Customer preference
reversible or worn inside out, such as sweatshirts. Lining materials analysis on fashion online shops using the Kano model and conjoint
analysis. International Journal of Technology 6(5): 881-885.
that can be exposed when worn, such as the inside of a jacket, are
6. Wicke J (1994) Lingerie and (literary) history: Joyce’s Ulysses and
also subject to this standard.
fashionability. Critical Quarterly 36(2): 25-41.
Conclusion 7. Intelligence MM (1997) Bras and Pants. November, Mintel International
Group Limited, London.
There are two things defining good quality underwear: comfort
8. Zhenxiang W, Lijie Z (2011) Case study of online retailing fast
and style that represents our personality. Style is very individual, fashion industry. International Journal of e-Education, e-Business,
but comfort depends on the materials. The primary determinant of e-Management and e-Learning 1(3): 195.
an undergarment quality depends on its fabric, construction and fit. 9. Hyde BE (1929) Undergarments. Extension bulletin (Colorado
The last thing that defines quality is the way the undergarment is Agricultural College. Extension Service); 200A.
sewn. The stitches should be even and straight with no irregularities 10. Barker RL (2002) From fabric hand to thermal comfort: the evolving
in the thread. There should be no loose threads or puckered role of objective measurements in explaining human comfort response
to textiles. International journal of clothing science and technology
material under the stitching lines. All seams should be finished with 14(3/4): 181-200.
no raw edges of fabric in sight. Like most things, it all comes down 11. Wilkens A (1951) Undergarments: Extension Circular 4-12-2.
to use and preference. Every manufacturer should maintain a high-
12. Kwon H (2002) An investigation of the psychosocial and financial factors
quality system of inspection policy, follow the test methods and influencing the impulse buying of sport team licensed merchandise
specifications. A good quality system makes the companies more (Doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University).
reliable and the customer is getting what they are paying for. 13. Muthu SS (2015) Handbook of sustainable apparel production. CRC
Press.
References
14. Wang P (2011) A brief history of Standards and Standardization
1. Crisnaro S (2014) Lingerie Markets, Between Fashion and Functionality. organizations: A Chinese perspective.
A Comparative Study of Italy and Japan(Bachelor’s thesis, Università
Ca’Foscari Venezia). 15. (2005) Standard Performance Specification for Brassiere, Slip, Lingerie
and Underwear Fabrics Sydney.
2. Wolf N (2013) The beauty myth: How images of beauty are used against
women. Random House.

This work is licensed under Creative

Commons Attribution 4.0 License Latest Trends in Textile and
To Submit Your Article Click Here: Submit Article Fashion Designing

DOI: 10.32474/LTTFD.2018.03.000154 Assets of Publishing with us

• Global archiving of articles
• Immediate, unrestricted online access
• Rigorous Peer Review Process
• Authors Retain Copyrights
• Unique DOI for all articles

Citation: Dibyendu Bikash D, Bikas A. Quality Analysis and Testing of Undergarments. Trends in Textile & Fash Design 3(1)-2018. LTTFD.
MS.ID.000154. DOI: 10.32474/LTTFD.2018.03.000154. 295