THE SUN

The sun is a sphere of intensely hot gaseous matter with a diameter of

1.39×109 m and is, on the average, 1.5×1011 m from the earth.

The sun has an effective blackbody temperature of 5777

K

It is estimated that 90% of the energy is generated in the

region of 0 to 0.23R (where R is the radius of the sun), which
contains 40% of the mass of the sun

At a distance 0.7R from the center, the temperature

has dropped to about 130,000 K and the density has dropped to 70
kg/m3

The outer layer of the convective zone is called the photosphere. It is essentially opaque, as the gases of which it
is composed are strongly ionized and able to absorb and emit a continuous spectrum of radiation. The
photosphere is the source of most solar radiation
 THE SOLAR CONSTANT
The solar constant Gsc is the energy from the sun per unit time received on a unit area of
surface perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the radiation at mean earth-sun
distance outside the atmosphere
SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION OF EXTRATERRESTRIAL
RADIATION
In addition to the total energy in the solar spectrum (i.e., the solar constant), it is useful
to know the spectral distribution of the extraterrestrial radiation, that is, the radiation that
would be received in the absence of the atmosphere.
SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION OF EXTRATERRESTRIAL
RADIATION
Example 1. Calculate the fraction of the extraterrestrial solar radiation and the amount of that
radiation in the ultraviolet (λ < 0.38 µm), the visible (0.38 µm < λ < 0.78 µm), and the infrared
(λ > 0.78 µm) portions of the spectrum.
 SUN–EARTH GEOMETRIC RELATIONSHIP
The amount and intensity of solar radiation reaching the Earth’s surface depends on the geometric
relationship of the Earth with respect to the Sun.
 EARTH–SUN DISTANCE
The Earth has a diameter of 12.7 × 103 km, which is approximately 110 times less than the Sun’s.
The Earth orbits approximately once around the Sun every 365 days.

The average Earth–Sun distance of 14.9 × 107 km is defined as the astronomical unit (AU), which
is used for calculating distances within the solar system.

Earth–Sun distance (E0) in astronomical units

n is the day of the year

 APPARENT PATH OF THE SUN
The Earth rotates at an approximately constant rate on its axis once in about 24 hours. Such
rotation in the eastward direction gives the sense that the Sun moves in the opposite direction.

The rotation axis of the Earth is tilted 23.45° from being perpendicular to the ecliptic plane
and remains constant as the Earth orbits the Sun. As a result, the angle
between the Sun and a point on the surface of the Earth varies throughout the year and, with
this, the length of day also changes.

Seasons are also caused by the constant tilt of Earth with respect to the ecliptic plane; when
the northern axis is pointing to the direction of the Sun, it is summer in the Northern
Hemisphere and winter in the Southern Hemisphere. Both hemispheres receive the same
amount of light, but the Southern receives it at a more glancing angle; hence, it is less
concentrated and does not warm up as much as the Northern Hemisphere.
 APPARENT PATH OF THE SUN
Day length is determined by the length of time when the Sun is above the horizon and varies
throughout the year as the Earth–Sun geometric relationships change. Such geometrical changes are
clearly perceived by the apparent movement of the Sun in the sky during the year. Again, the Earth’s
tilt has a great effect on what an observer sees, depending on whether he or she is in the Northern
or Southern Hemisphere

Apparent daily path of the Sun in the sky throughout the year for an observer in the Northern (left) and Southern
Hemispheres (right).
 APPARENT PATH OF THE SUN: Northern Hemisphere
In wintertime, for the Northern Hemisphere, days are short and the Sun is at a low angle in
the sky, rising not exactly in the east, but instead just south of east and setting south of west.

December 21
(Shortest day
of the year)

Apparent daily path of the Sun in the sky throughout the year for an observer in the Northern Hemisphere.
 APPARENT PATH OF THE SUN: Northern Hemisphere
Each day after the winter solstice, the Sun begins to rise closer to the east and set
closer to the west until it rises exactly in the east and sets exactly in the west.

March 21 (vernal or
spring equinox,
lasts for 12 hours)

Apparent daily path of the Sun in the sky throughout the year for an observer in the Northern Hemisphere.
 APPARENT PATH OF THE SUN: Northern Hemisphere
After the spring equinox, the Sun still continues to follow a higher path through the sky, with the
days growing longer, until it reaches the highest point in the northern sky on the summer solstice

June 21
(longest day
of the year)

Apparent daily path of the Sun in the sky throughout the year for an observer in the Northern Hemisphere.
 APPARENT PATH OF THE SUN: Northern Hemisphere
After the summer solstice, the Sun follows a lower path through the sky each day until it reaches the
point where it is again in the sky for exactly 12 hours

September 21 (fall
equinox, lasts for
12 hours)

Apparent daily path of the Sun in the sky throughout the year for an observer in the Northern Hemisphere.
 APPARENT PATH OF THE SUN: Northern Hemisphere
After the fall equinox, the Sun will continue to follow a lower path through the sky and the days will grow
shorter until it reaches its lowest path at the winter solstice

December 21
(Shortest day
of the year)

Apparent daily path of the Sun in the sky throughout the year for an observer in the Northern Hemisphere.
 APPARENT PATH OF THE SUN: Southern Hemisphere
The same cycle occurs for the Southern Hemisphere during the year.

June 21
(Shortest day
of the year)

Apparent daily path of the Sun in the sky throughout the year for an observer in the Southern Hemisphere.
 APPARENT PATH OF THE SUN: Southern Hemisphere
The Sun continues to increase its altitude in the sky and on about September 21 the Southern Hemisphere spring
equinox is reached

September 21
(12 hours)

Apparent daily path of the Sun in the sky throughout the year for an observer in the Southern Hemisphere.
 APPARENT PATH OF THE SUN: Southern Hemisphere
Then, around December 21, the highest point in the sky occurs, the longest day of the year for the Southern
Hemisphere
December 21
(Longest day
of the year)

Apparent daily path of the Sun in the sky throughout the year for an observer in the Southern Hemisphere.
 APPARENT PATH OF THE SUN: Southern Hemisphere
Later, the 12-hour day occurs again around March 21

March 21 (Fall
equinox)

Apparent daily path of the Sun in the sky throughout the year for an observer in the Southern Hemisphere.
 APPARENT PATH OF THE SUN: Southern Hemisphere
After this, the Sun continues to follow a lower path through the sky until it closes the cycle for
the Southern winter solstice.

June 21
(Shortest day
of the year)

Apparent daily path of the Sun in the sky throughout the year for an observer in the Southern Hemisphere.
 EARTH AND CELESTIAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Any location on Earth is described by two angles, latitude (φ) and longitude (λ). Figure shown below sketches
the Earth coordinate system indicating the latitude and longitude constant lines.

(Prime Meridian)

(Meridians)
 EARTH AND CELESTIAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS
To determine the amount of solar energy received on any point of the Earth’s surface, more than
latitude and longitude angles are needed. When the Earth coordinate system is extended to the
celestial sphere, it is possible to calculate the exact position of the Sun with respect
to a horizontal surface at any point on Earth.
 EARTH AND CELESTIAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS
The celestial sphere is a hypothetical sphere of infinite radius whose center is the Earth and
on which the stars are projected.

Similarly to the latitude concept on

Earth, the declination δ on the celestial
sphere is measured northward or
southward from the celestial equator
plane

Analogous to the longitude on Earth,

the right ascension angle χ of an
The celestial equator lies in the same
object on the celestial sphere is
plane as the Eath equator does
measured eastward along the
celestial equator
 EARTH AND CELESTIAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS
Several expressions to calculate declination in degrees have been reported. However, for
simplicity, Cooper’s equation is used throughout this course

where n is the day of the year.

 POSITION OF THE SUN WITH RESPECT TO A HORIZONTAL SURFACE
In addition to the fixed celestial coordinate systems on the sky, to describe the Sun’s position with
respect to a horizontal surface on Earth at any time, other angles based on the Earth’s coordinates
need to be understood: solar altitude (αs), zenith (θz), solar azimuth (γs), and hour (ω) angles
 POSITION OF THE SUN WITH RESPECT TO A HORIZONTAL SURFACE
The solar altitude (αs) is measured in degrees from the horizon of the projection of the radiation beam
to the position of the Sun.

Because the zenith is the point directly

overhead and 90° away from the horizon,
the angle of the Sun relative to a line
perpendicular to the Earth’s surface is
called the zenith angle,
 POSITION OF THE SUN WITH RESPECT TO A HORIZONTAL SURFACE

The zenith angle is given by:

The solar azimuth (γs) is the angle on

the horizontal plane between the
projection of the beam radiation and the
north–south direction line:

The hour angle (ω) is the angular distance

between the Sun’s position at a particular
time and its highest position for that day
when crossing the local meridian at the
solar noon
 POSITION OF THE SUN WITH RESPECT TO A HORIZONTAL SURFACE

The length of the day varies for all latitudes

during the year and, with this, the solar
altitude αs also changes hourly and daily. This
angle can be calculated in terms of
declination δ, latitude φ, and hour ω angles by
using the next equation:
Example 2. Calculate the zenith and solar altitude angles for a latitude
of 32.34° north at (a) 10:30 a.m. and (b) 3:15 p.m. solar time on April
17.
 POSITION OF THE SUN WITH RESPECT TO A HORIZONTAL SURFACE
When δ = 0°, during the equinoxes, the equators of the Sun and the Earth fall in the same
plane (i.e., both rotation axes are parallel)

Direction of incoming solar radiation beam into Earth during the equinoxes with δ = 0°
 POSITION OF THE SUN WITH RESPECT TO A HORIZONTAL SURFACE
For δ = –23.45°, on the December solstice, the North Pole of the Earth points 23.45°
away from being parallel to the Sun’s rotation axis, making the South Pole more exposed to
the solar radiation

Direction of incoming solar radiation beam into Earth during the equinoxes with δ = -23.45°
 POSITION OF THE SUN WITH RESPECT TO A HORIZONTAL SURFACE
When δ = +23.45°, on the June solstice, the North Pole is closer 23.45° to the Sun and the
South Pole is farther by the same angular distance

Direction of incoming solar radiation beam into Earth during the equinoxes with δ = 23.45°
 POSITION OF THE SUN WITH RESPECT TO A HORIZONTAL SURFACE
When δ = 0°, it can be seen that all latitudes on Earth experience a 12-hour solar day

Solar altitude during the day for different latitudes during the equinoxes when δ = 0°
 POSITION OF THE SUN WITH RESPECT TO A HORIZONTAL SURFACE
When δ = –23.45°, the Northern Hemisphere locations with φ = 70…90° are not illuminated at all during the
day; in contrast, the South Pole is fully illuminated

Solar altitude during the day for different latitudes during the December solstice when δ = –23.45°.
 POSITION OF THE SUN WITH RESPECT TO A HORIZONTAL SURFACE
When δ = +23.45°. The Southern Hemisphere locations with φ = –70…–90° are not illuminated at all during the
day and the North Pole is fully illuminated

Solar altitude during the day for different latitudes during the June solstice when δ = +23.45°
 POSITION OF THE SUN WITH RESPECT TO A HORIZONTAL SURFACE
The solar azimuth angle, γs, can be calculated in terms of declination δ, latitude φ, and hour ω
angles following Braun and Mitchell’s (1983) formulation. The next equation for azimuth angle depends
on a pseudo solar azimuth angle, γ’s, and three constants, C1, C2, and C3, which are used to find out
which quadrant the Sun is in at any moment, for any day, and at any location

where γ’s is a pseudo solar azimuth angle, γ’s,

 POSITION OF THE SUN WITH RESPECT TO A HORIZONTAL SURFACE
The calculation of C1 determines whether or not the Sun is within the first or fourth quadrants
and above the horizon:

where ωWE is the hour angle when the Sun is due east or west and can be obtained as

The constant C2 includes the variables of latitude and declination. C2 will take the value of 1
when φ = 0°, φ = δ, or |φ| > |δ| and will become –1 when φ ≠ 0° and |φ| < |δ|.
 POSITION OF THE SUN WITH RESPECT TO A HORIZONTAL SURFACE
Calculation of C3 defines whether or not the Sun has passed the local meridian (i.e., identifies
whether it is morning or afternoon):

Another equation to determine the azimuth angle is given by Duffie and Beckman (2013)

The sign function in the previous equation is equal to +1 if ω is positive and is equal to -1 if
ω is negative
Example 3. Determine the solar azimuth angle on May 1 for a latitude
of 45° at 11:15 a.m.
 POSITION OF THE SUN WITH RESPECT TO A HORIZONTAL SURFACE
To locate the position of the Sun in the sky at any time, for any day, and for any location, a plot of
the solar altitude αs versus azimuth γs at different times throughout the year is commonly used. This
diagram is called a sun chart and it is built for any particular latitude. A sun chart consists of several curves, each of
which represents the Sun’s path for a particular day of each month; each curve works for 2 days of the year.

This exhibits the longest

day of the year during the
During the equinoxes
summer solstice, with a
(March 21 and September
23.45° declination,
21) the Sun rises at an
reaching the maximum αs
azimuth angle of -90° at 6
value of 68.45° at solar
a.m. and sets at 90° at 6
noon.
p.m., predicting the 12-
hour days

The shortest path or

shortest day in such a sun
chart occurs on December
21, with a maximum αs
of 21.5°.
Sun chart for latitude 45° north
 POSITION OF THE SUN WITH RESPECT TO A TILTED SURFACE
When the solar incident radiation on a horizontal-solar collector is calculated, three new angles should be
defined. The slope-surface angle (β) indicates how inclined the collector is from the horizontal; on a
horizontal collector, β = 0°. The allowed range for β goes from 0 to 180°

Solar angles for a horizontal solar surface facing south (left) and for a tilted surface facing south with an arbitrary surface
azimuth angle.
 POSITION OF THE SUN WITH RESPECT TO A TILTED SURFACE
The other relevant angle for calculations corresponds to the surface-azimuth angle (γ), which indicates
how far the solar collector deviates from the north–south axis. This angle is measured between the
horizontal projection of the surface normal and the north–south direction line, with 0 due south and
negative values to the east of such an axis; –180° ≤ γ ≤ –180°.

Solar angles for a horizontal solar surface facing south (left) and for a tilted surface facing south with an arbitrary surface
azimuth angle.
 POSITION OF THE SUN WITH RESPECT TO A TILTED SURFACE
The last angle to be defined, which completely relates the solar radiation to a surface, is the solar
incidence angle (θ). This is the angle between the solar radiation beam incident on a surface and the
imaginary line normal to such a surface. At θ = 0°, the Sun’s rays are perpendicular to the surface
and, when θ = 90°, the Sun’s rays are parallel to the surface. Maximum solar gain for any solar
intensity is achieved when the incidence angle is zero

Solar angles for a horizontal solar surface facing south (left) and for a tilted surface facing south with an arbitrary surface
azimuth angle.
 POSITION OF THE SUN WITH RESPECT TO A TILTED SURFACE
The angle of incidence can be calculated by any of the following equations:

For horizontal surfaces β = 0°, the angle of incidence becomes the zenith angle θ = θz. For this particular case, the
first equation is reduced to equation ; then, the sunset hour angle (ωsunset)
can be derived when θz = 90°:

Because 1 hour equals 15° of the Sun traveling through the sky, the number of daylight hours (N) can be determined
by solving the previous for ωsunset and converting the resultant degrees into hours
 POSITION OF THE SUN WITH RESPECT TO A TILTED SURFACE
For vertical surfaces with β = 90°, the first equation for the solar incidence becomes:

For tilted surfaces, other than β = 0° or β = 90°, toward exactly south or north with γ = 0° or γ = 180°, respectively,
the last term of the first equation for the angle of incidence is zero.

When a solar collector is installed, if there is not a physical obstruction, such as buildings or any other object that
cannot be removed, the collector must be aligned on the true north–south axis in order to capture effectively the
solar energy during the day. The south- or north-pointing direction of the surface will depend on the difference
between latitude and declination.
 POSITION OF THE SUN WITH RESPECT TO A TILTED SURFACE
The amount of solar energy incoming
in collectors depends strongly on the β
values. The different declinations,
experienced during the year, affect the
optimum slope for surfaces. The next
figures show the geometrical analysis
to select the best surface slope along
the year for both hemispheres. For
collectors with such slopes, the solar
incidence angle θ is zero at solar noon
because the Sun’s rays are normal to
the surface. The slopes for maximizing
energy capture for Northern
Hemisphere latitudes when (φ – δ) > 0
are as follows
 POSITION OF THE SUN WITH RESPECT TO A TILTED SURFACE
For the Southern Hemisphere latitudes,
when (φ – δ) < 0, the surface must be
oriented toward the north and the best
slope is the following:
 POSITION OF THE SUN WITH RESPECT TO A TILTED SURFACE
For zero declination
Example 4. Calculate the solar incidence and zenith angles on a solar collector
located at El Paso, Texas (31.8° north; 106.4° west), at 11:30 a.m. on March 3, if
the surface is (a) 30° tilted from the horizontal and pointed 10° west south, (b) β =
40° and γ = 10°, (c) β = 30° and γ = 0°, (d) β = 40° and γ = 0°
 SOLAR TIME
Solar time is the time used in all of the sun-angle relationships; it does not coincide with
local clock time. It is necessary to convert standard time to solar time by applying two
corrections.
First, there is a constant correction for the difference in longitude between the observer’s
meridian (longitude) and the meridian on which the local standard time is based. The sun takes
4 min to transverse 1 degree of longitude.
The second correction is from the equation of time, which takes into account the perturbations
in the earth’s rate of rotation which affect the time the sun crosses the observer’s meridian. The
difference in minutes between solar time and standard time is

where is the standard meridian for the local time zone, is the longitude of the
location in question, and longitudes are in degrees west, that is, 0 < < 360
 SOLAR TIME
Where Et is known as the equation of time as function of the daily angle

The daily angle is given by:

Where n is the day of the year

Example 5. What is the solar time in El Paso, Texas (31.8° north; 106.4° west), at
11 a.m. mountain time on March 3?
 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
Electromagnetic radiation is self-propagated in wave form through space with electric and
magnetic components.
These components oscillate at right angles to each other and to the direction of propagation
and are in phase with each other.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
An electromagnetic wave is characterized by its wavelength (λ) and frequency (ƒ)

The wavelength is the distance between two identical adjacent points in the repeating cycles
of the propagating wave, and the frequency is defined as the number of cycles per unit of time

The electromagnetic wave spectrum covers energy having wavelengths from thousands of
meters, such as the very long radio waves, to fractions of the size of an atom, such as the very
short gamma ray waves.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
The units for wavelength vary from picometers (pm) to megameters (Mm); for the
frequency, the most common unit is the hertz (Hz), which is the inverse of time (1/seconds).
Frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength according to

where ν is the speed of the wave; in vacuum ν = c = 299,792,458 m/s—the speed of the light
is less in other media.

As waves cross boundaries between different media, their speed and wavelength change but
their frequencies remain constant. The high-frequency electromagnetic waves have a short
wavelength and high energy; low-frequency waves have a long wavelength and low energy
 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
Because the energy of an electromagnetic wave is quantized as well, a wave consists of
discrete packets of energy called photons. Its energy (E) depends on the frequency (ƒ) of the
electromagnetic radiation according to Planck’s equation:

where h is the constant of Planck (h ≈ 6.626069 × 10-34 J-s or 4.13527 µeV/GHz).

Electromagnetic radiation is classified by wavelength or frequency ranges
 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
All objects at temperatures greater than 0 K emit energy as electromagnetic radiation due to
the movement of the electrons. A blackbody is an ideal concept and refers to a perfect
absorbing body of thermal radiation, with no reflection and transmission involved

For a blackbody, the spectral absorption factor (αλ) is equal to the emissivity (ελ); this relation
is known as Kirchhoff’s law of thermal radiation. Then, for all wavelengths, the next equation
applies:

The emissivity of a material, other than a blackbody, is the ratio of the energy radiated by the
material to the energy radiated by a blackbody at the same temperature. It is a measure of a
material’s ability to absorb and radiate energy. Any real object would have ελ < 1
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL RADIATION ON A HORIZONTAL
SURFACE
Several types of radiation calculations are most conveniently done using normalized radiation
levels, that is, the ratio of radiation level to the theoretically possible radiation
that would be available if there were no atmosphere.
At any point in time, the solar radiation incident on a horizontal plane outside of the
atmosphere is

where Gsc is the solar constant and n is the day of the year. Combining previous Equation with
equation for cos θz gives Go for a horizontal surface at any time between sunrise
and sunset:
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL RADIATION ON A HORIZONTAL
SURFACE
It is often necessary for calculation of daily solar radiation to have the integrated
daily extraterrestrial radiation on a horizontal surface, Ho. This is obtained by integrating the
previous Equation over the period from sunrise to sunset. If Gsc is in watts per square meter,
Ho in daily joules per square meter per day is

Where where ωs is the sunset hour angle, in degrees

 EXTRATERRESTRIAL RADIATION ON A HORIZONTAL
SURFACE
The monthly mean daily extraterrestrial radiation Ho is a useful quantity. For latitudes in the
range +60 to -60 it can be calculated with previous Equation using n and δ for the mean day of
the month from next Table
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL RADIATION ON A HORIZONTAL
SURFACE
Mean radiation Ho is plotted as a function of latitude for the northern and southern
hemispheres in Figure. The curves are for dates that give the mean radiation for the month and
thus show Ho.
 EXTRATERRESTRIAL RADIATION ON A HORIZONTAL
SURFACE
Exact values of Ho for all latitudes are given in the next Table
Example 6. What is Ho, the day’s solar radiation on a horizontal surface in the
absence of the atmosphere, at latitude 43˚ N on April 15?