Contemporary Issues in Social Sciences

and Humanities
William Sayers (ed.)

AGP
 Contemporary Issues in Social Sciences
and Humanities
William Sayers (ed.)

 AGP SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE

Prof. Dr. Giles Chemla (Imperial College London)

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Prof. Dr. Larissa Clare Pochmann da Silva (Candido Mendes University)
Prof. Dr. Luisa Maria Arvide Cambra (University of Almeria)
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III
Turkish academic scene has experienced remarkable growth since the 1990s.
This volume of AGP is intended as a finger on the pulse of the history and literary
corpus as we enter a new era.
The articles in this volume have been chosen with an eye to giving the reader an
idea of the current state of the mainstream of contemporary Turkish Academia.
Therefore, we have not included any hackwork. We hope that this will be an
important contribution to the growing field of humanities in Turkey and
elsewhere.
The editors’ corrections are limited to the expunction of typos and to changes for
the sake of consistency. Except for these superficial changes, the text is always
that of the author.

William Sayers, London

IV
APPROACHES AND TRENDS IN DIASPORA
STUDIES: A BIBLIOMETRIC ANALYSIS
Associate Prof. Dr. Halil Saim PARLADIR
İzmir Kâtip Çelebi University, Department of Sociology
parladir@hotmail.com

Abstract
The era called as post or late modernity witnesses the inventing of identities in the course of transnational
developments. Diasporas are the perfect facts in order to track down these developments. This paper concentrates
on the literature of diasporas and diasporic identities. In this context the paper takes one of the worlds renowned
scientific data bases WoS (web of science), which scans most popular and effective journals, as the main source of
data. The paper focuses on the articles published between 1990-2016 scanned by WoS by means of keywords
bearing the terms “diaspora”, “diasporic” and “diasporas”. The statistical technique regarding the study is called
co-word analysis. The major aim of the paper is to discuss the changing attitudes towards diasporas and the
concept of diaspora through the analysis. In order to achieve this aim the related literature taken into account in
three sequences marked by phenomenal changes affecting social scientific paradigms...
Keywords: Diaspora, bibliometry, diasporic groups, diasporic identity, network

1. Introduction fields (in this case only social sciences) related

to the usage of the concept diaspora. The
The era which we are in is called as
natural scientific uses of the term are neglected.
post-modernity by some scholars and late-
In the process of scanning the journals
modernity by some others, witnesses the
especially the journals in the fields of botany
recreation and reemergence of identities in the
and biology emerged as the main sources of the
course of transnational developments. Diaspora
usage of the term diaspora in the field of natural
and diasporic identity are among the major
sciences. In order to avoid the intervention of
notions on the intersection of those
irrelevant data from natural scientific journals
developments. This paper concentrates on the
only the journals related to social sciences are
literature consisting on the discussions
taken as the main field of study. The maps that
regarding diasporas and diasporic identities and
occurred in the end of the bibliometric co-word
the change in the trends and peculiarities of this
analysis gave us enough data to be interpreted
literature… In this context the paper takes one
(Börner, Chen and Boyack, 2003). In the
of the worlds renowned scientific data bases
analysis and mapping process the data is
WoS (web of science), which scans most
divided into three parts regarding historical
popular and effective journals, as the main
sequences as 1990-1999, 2000-2009 and 2010-
source of data. The paper focuses on the articles
2016 due to the social and historical
published between 1990-2016 scanned by WoS
developments that dominated the world’s
by means of keywords bearing the terms
political and social scientific agenda. The first
“diaspora”, “diasporic” and “diasporas”. The
period refers to a new era that is marked by the
statistical technique regarding the study is
developments such as the collapse of the Soviet
called co-word analysis (Callon, Courtial &
Union or the iron curtain entailing a scientific
Laville, 1991). The analysis uses computer
agenda related to the transnational
programs in order to display the connectivity
developments but at the same time bearing the
and relationship between the articles which
traces of classical system theories regarding
contain keywords “diaspora”, “diasporic” and
nations and national systems…
“diasporas” along with others. The map of the
The second period is marked by the
relationships displays the most repetitive term
traumatic effects of 9/11 event and world-wide
among the articles and condensation of
terrorist activities which pose another wave of
concepts related to the term diaspora and the
transnational interest towards ethnic and
terms other than diaspora.
religious groups and minorities…
This trait shows the interrelations
between different social scientific interests and

1
 The third and final one is attributed to namely Mediterranean Greek colonization or
the phenomenal effects of information settlements. The second moment regarding the
technologies as can be seen in the Arab Spring pre-modern usages of the term consists of the
that shook the world by effecting millions of historical experiences of the Jews. In 586 B.C.
lives and the scientific literature alike… These Babylonian conquest of Jerusalem ended in the
demarcation lines also resonate in the change of great historical relocation of Jews also known
the overall perspective regarding the events all as Babylonian Exile in Jewish religious
over the world. For example, handling the discourse. This second usage connotes the term
themes such as citizenship, nation-state, ethnic to a negative meaning and to victim
minorities, diasporic groups etc. effected due to communities (Cohen, 1996: 508).
the change through these boundaries.
This view was also used in the modern
In this context, in the following part the
period for non-Jewish communities or ethnic
description of the term diaspora and discussions
groups in the context of traumatic displacement
regarding its description is being held.
experiences (Vertovec, 1996: 100). The concept
of diaspora has also been used for the African
2. Diaspora and Diasporic Communities: Diaspora, the Armenian diaspora, and finally
Descriptions (ironically) for the experience of the Palestinian
people (Cohen, 1996: 513). In addition to those
Topics such as nations, nation-states
the last moment of the literature attributes to the
and national integration emerged as the
immigrant-minority groups who have been
mainstream in social scientific literature
exposed to such traumatic experiences, and that
through the 20th century. In this, the emergence
emerge as a result of the immigration
and some peculiarities of ethnic groups mostly
movements that have occurred since the second
are not taken into account scientifically (Barth,
half of the twentieth century, due to the
1969: 9) However, the rising trend in
progress in transportation and information
international and transnational processes began
technologies.
to undermine nation-states and related
The efforts of various authors to
institutions starting from the 2nd half of the
identify the changes regarding the uses of the
century. (Cohen, 1996: 508).
concept diaspora also pose parallelisms with
This trend can be seen in the growing these aforementioned periods. It is also possible
attention regarding sub-national groups and to find these definitions in the relationship maps
organizations, ethnic groups and minority regarding the diaspora literature.... For example,
groups which were neglected and assimilated one of the earliest definitions used for the
under the concepts such as nationhood... The concept of diaspora belongs to William Safran.
term diaspora which is formerly used mostly by He uses 6 criterias in order to differentiate
biology transferred to the field of social diasporic communities from non-diasporic
sciences through these developments. For, as a ones. According to this, if a displaced
portmanteau “diaspora” consists of Greek word community is dispersed in at least two
for dia meaning “by, through” and speirõ 'environments' from an original homeland (1); if
meaning “to diffuse, to plant, or to spill”... a community keeps memories, visions and
(Vertovec, 1996: 99) It is possible to see the myths about their original homeland (2); if
botanical nature of the term reflecting the members of a community feel that they are not
reproduction of plants by pollination. The term fully accepted by the host community (3); in the
also refers to a ruptured ethnic minority or end, if they think they will return to the land
group which is forced to live in different social- they see as homeland (4); if they participate in
cultural contexts and environments far off its the maintenance or restoration of this homeland
original homeland or autochthonous lands. The (5); if the consciousness and solidarity of the
term can be best generalized in this fashion but group is defined by the relationship with this
there is a complex debate regarding the exact homeland (6); then the group in question can be
boundaries of the term diaspora, or which called as a diasporic one (Safran 1991: 83-84).
communities can be called as diasporic and
There are some limitations and
which are not…
disadvantages regarding this definition, since
The term is known before the late the concept of the diaspora is attached only to
modern period in special reference to Antique victim groups as can be seen in the experiences
Greek settlements outside Greek homeland, of Jews, and reducing the term to a negative

2
meaning... The emphasis on the return to When the relationship given in Image 1.
original homeland has been criticized by taken into account it is possible to say that the
numerous scholars and it is argued by some that term ethnicity which is neglected before 1990's
there is no ethnic group in the world that has occupy the most important place in diaspora
fulfill all these criteria at the same time. Cohen, literature. The terms gender, class, racism,
trying to exclude these limitations and Asians, Black, whiteness, intersectionality can
disadvantages, makes a different kind of be found in the same cluster with ethnicity and
definition: According to this, if a community is also they pose strong relationship reciprocally.
distributed from an original homeland to two or These relationships display the American type
more regions traumatically (1); if a group of of racial classification when compared to other
people is separated from their homeland to parts of the world. The intellectual
work, to trade or by other colonial aspirations accumulation regarding the concept gender in
(2); if the members of a group have collective feminist theories throughout 1980's also can be
myths and memories about their country, its recognized in the relationships map. The strong
location, history and achievements (3); if relationship between the term class within
members of a group contributes to idealization, diaspora literature also can be taken as the
sustenance, restoration, security, welfare and remnant of intellectual traits of pre-1990's
even creation of an imaginary homeland which fashion regarding ethnicity through class
is attached to the ancestors (4); if a group relations. It is possible to find details regarding
supports a collective return to the original the sub clusters also can be seen in changing
homeland (5); if there is a strong ethnic colors and in size:
consciousness depending on a longstanding
feeling of being different, a common history
and destiny... (6); if there is a problematic
relationship with the host society in relation to a
feeling emanating from lack of acceptance, or if
there is a traumatic experience regarding the
relocation (7); if there is empathy and solidarity
with other members of the ethnic group (8); if a
group can develop a tolerant, diverse, creative
and enriching life in the host country (9) then it
is possible to call the group in question as a Image 2. 1990-1999 Period. Detail 1
diasporic one (1996: 514-515).
This sub-group of conceptual cluster
3. Findings shows a dense relationship between the
3.1. 1990-1999 Period concepts of culture, essentialism, borders,
hybridity and ethnography. The relationship
between these concepts relates ethnographical
studies with border studies and essentialism in
one strong and dense relationship as a cluster.
In addition to this, culture is the main concept
determining the cluster by relating this cluster
to the adjacent main cluster shown in red via
the term intersectionality. Lastly the term
hybridity also can be seen as a new and
important concept with lesser intensity with
other concepts...

Image 1. 1990-1999 Period Conceptual Network Map. Image 3. 1990-1999 Period. Detail 2
General

3
 In this cluster there is a strong and
dense relationship between the concepts
religion, holocaust and Jews bears a victim
diaspora approach in special reference to the
term ethnicity and it is evident that in that
period the discussion seems related to the
traumatic experience of Jews… Shown in same
red color another cluster relates these concepts
(with a relatively weak relationship) to the
terms such as anti-Semitism, cosmopolitanism
and Malaysia… This cluster poses strong Image 5. 1990-1999 Period. Detail 4
relationship with the term Israel (can be seen in
the center in yellow color)… Although Israel
Another trait in the map can be seen in
emerges as a homogenous social entity, her
the cluster shown in Image 5. which relates
social structure includes heterogeneous and
cultural identity, Croatia, nationalism and
somewhat contradictory elements resembling
Australia. It is reasonable to link Australia with
Malaysia in special reference to
Croatia since in Australia there is a significant
cosmopolitanism. Malaysia as an ethnic and
Croatian diasporic minority. Also Croatia
religious mosaic of course gives a very different
emerges as an independent and sovereign
view when compared to Israel but the related
country after 1990’s. (Winland, 2007) But the
literature links them in some respect. In the end
term nationalism and cultural identity resembles
it is evident that the term ethnicity is related to
the Balkanization (Meštrović, 1996) and Balkan
religion, Jews and Holocaust links this cluster
conflicts in regard to post-soviet political-ethnic
with Jewish history…
relations. But it is surprising that there are no
mentions other than this cluster regarding
Balkan armed conflicts throughout 1990’s…

Image 4. 1990-1999 Period. Detail 3

In this separate and seemingly

independent cluster the strongly and densely
related concepts of citizenship, Latvia, Russian-
Image 6. 1990-1999 Period. Detail 5
Diaspora, Homeland and Estonia clearly
resonates the newly established situation
regarding the fall of Soviet-Block. Baltic States The term globalization also became
with intense Russian minority determines the evident in this period when compared to former
related literature with strong and dense periods regarding social-scientific literature in
relationship between each other in the period of special reference to transnational developments
1990-1999… These states that have been after the collapse of Soviet Union… It is
occupied by Soviet Russia since the end of the evident that this period also strongly relates the
Second World War, designates the interest terms globalization and identity. Globalization
toward post-Soviet era citizenship and diaspora as the central concept also poses complex
studies. relationship between the terms trans-
nationalism, feminism, postcolonial and
migration. This setting gives a hint regarding
the future pattern of discussion in the related

4
literature as can be seen in the evaluations of 3.2. 2000-2009 Period
later periods.

Image 7. 1990-1999 Period. Detail 6

Another trend occurred in 1990’s can

be seen in the Image 7. which relates digital
media, internationalization, internet and
linguistics. This relationship reflects the
emergence of information technologies in Image 8. 2000-2009 Period Conceptual Network Map.
1990’s. The new generation of diaspora General
literature takes diasporic communities into
account in special reference to the term
"invention of tradition". This concept reflects The turning point for this period is the
the importance of cyber networks as the main 9/11 New York trade center terror attacks.
means of post-modern (or late modern) identity These attacks marked the era because of its
creation processes. Modernity undermined and implications occurred in several fields such as
neglected the ethnic, religious differences of immigration policies, diasporic and ethnic
diasporic-minority groups for the sake of an minorities, Muslim minorities and political and
established national identity. In late modern public attitudes toward immigration. These
period the monopoly over the identity politics attacks also display the emergence of a
faced great challenges especially stemming transnational terror network that is using
from information technologies. These information technologies as a means of
technological advancements broke the cultural communication and propaganda in addition to
monopoly and paved the way for international transnational corporations and organizations.
and transnational networks established in and These events also triggered new discussions
via cyber space. The progress in regarding nation-state, national identity and an
communication and transportation technologies increasing tendency towards sub-national and
made once upon a time fantastic, imaginary transnational processes. The era between 2000-
homelands and cognates accessible and real 2009 also characterized by the emergence of
(Clifford, 1994: 306). In this process, the Islamic fundamentalism, terror, war on terror,
forgotten cultural traits (ie. language, folk American intervention to Afghanistan and
dances, cuisine, traditions etc.) are remembered, Iraq... These years also can be characterized by
if dead then recreated or invented… The the popularization of information technologies
progress in the information technologies can be via internet and personal computers which was
traced back to 1970’s but especially it is with only a luxury for most of the world's population
1990’s that the emergence of the PC revolution before. Especially internet (world wide web)
contributed to this process of invention of technology emerges as a mass communication
tradition. It is possible to see that in 1990-1999 means (Kaya, 2011: 29). These developments
period the concepts related to this process have contributed to transnationalism as can be seen
become evident (see Image 7). in the decreasing density of the term
globalization.

5
 Image 9. 2000-2009 Period. Detail 1

The most repetitive term in the map is

identity. This term also pose relationship with
migration which is the second most repetitive
term in the map. This relationship also connects
the terms citizenship, exile, culture, negotiation,
Irish and place. The second degree relationship
between the terms identity and hybridity,
British-Asian and Arab-American displays the
increasing scientific attitude towards double
identities (for other examples for double
identities see Kaya, 2011: 41). The term Image 11. 2000-2009 Period. Detail 3
migration poses a set of dispersed relations with
the terms brain-drain, development, human Another cluster (shown in dark blue)
capital, home etc. occurs around the term race. The term race is
related to the terms Caribbean, United States,
African diaspora, Brazil, immigration, Pan-
Africanism, South Africa. As can be seen in the
related terms the term race is considered to be
in relation with blackness or people of African
descent. Another distant relation with the term
race is with the term gender. This relationship
can be understood within the genre of race and
gender studies.

Image 10. 2000-2009 Period. Detail 2

The term transnationalism becomes

evident as a major term in the map.
Transnationalism also poses relations with
nationalism, networks, national identity,
Chinese-diaspora, international migration,
London, Haiti, Africa, ethnography and Turkey.

Image 12. 2000-2009 Period. Detail 4

6
 The main difference of this era (2000- by the development of information technologies
2009) from others is as taken above 9/11 and digital revolution as the constituent element
terrorist attacks... In close relation with this fact of Arab Spring. Arab Spring mass protest
the map shows strong and dense relationships movements started with great hopes and
between Globalization, Islam, secularization, expectations ended in great frustration ranging
Islam, Muslim, Muslim, Religion women, from political instability, political conflicts, and
refugees, slavery and authority. The terms clashes to civil war and mass killings.
Muslim, religion, slavery and secularization Especially the events occurred in the Middle
although are not directly related to 9/11 attacks, East ended in mass relocations, immigrant
can be interpreted as the increasing interest floods towards Europe. These new
towards Islam related issues emanating from developments challenged the idea of
9/11 attacks and Al-qaeda terror organization's multiculturalism and fueled xenophobic
so called Islamic identity. There is also a new tendencies and racist political parties all over
concept emerges: slavery. Global inequalities the world. These events also triggered debates
and post-modern consumption culture regarding immigration, multiculturalism, multi-
undermines the idea of human dignity that religious political agendas and public
characterizes modernity. In this context it is decisions... Although the major concepts can be
possible to see post-modern slaves in some seen as transnationalism, immigration and
parts of the world. identity there are other concepts in complex
relation with each other...

Image 13. 2000-2009 Period. Detail 5

Image 15. 2010-2016 Period. Detail 1
Another cluster emerges around the
term ethnicity. The concepts in relation with the As stated above the term
term are Albanians, Burundi, nation-states, transnationalism poses relationship with a great
Kosovo etc. draw the attention to the NATO variety of concepts as Arab-Spring, Egypt and
intervention in order to stop Serbian aggression etc. The term also has a strong relationship with
against Kosovo Albanians. This conflict also the term immigration.
reflects a post-modern type of ethnic, sub-
national conflict...

3.3. 2010-2016 Period

Image 16. 2010-2016 Period. Detail 2

The term race is related to the concepts

such as gender, sexuality, New York City,
The period
Image in question
14. 2010-2016 is Conceptual
Period characterized Puerto Rico and immigrant. Again the term race
Relationship Map. General attributes to an American cultural space. The

7
racial relations in a mixed society of America
generally occupy the related literature...

Image 19. 2010-2016 Period. Detail 5

In this period, economically based

Image 17. 2010-2016 Period. Detail 3 Pacific region emerges as a new theme. The
terms academic mobility, Taiwan, Japan and
In this cluster the terms Norway, ethnic with greater emphasize China, constitutes this
minorities, European Union, foreign policy, cluster. The economic boom of China as a
social movements, Armenians are related. regional power in this time period is the major
European Union and Norway as political factor of this development. But also there are
entities including large immigrant population some political tensions between regional
faced many problems in this period. There are powers between China and Japan... Taiwan-
also several social movements regarding anti- China problem continues and sometimes blazes
immigration and pro-immigration policies up. This cluster might have included North and
throughout the world fueled by the South Korea due to North Korean missile
characteristics of this period. threats to the countries of the region in the last
year... When these actual and political
circumstances combined with the reality of
ethnically Chinese community of Taiwan then
it can be understood in terms of diaspora
studies. There are also many Chinese Diasporas
in the countries of the region such as Malaysia,
Singapore, and Australia etc. making clear the
repetition of the term China in the cluster...

Image 18. 2010-2016 Period. Detail 4

In this period African Diaspora with

strong emphasis emerge as a central concept.
There is a strong relationship between the terms
such as lead, motivation, diaspora Africaine -
French African Studies-, leadership. In the
Image 20. 2010-2016 Period. Detail 6
cluster (shown in red) there are some dispersed
concepts related with African Diaspora such as
African cultural studies, African Studies,
Major themes in the diaspora literature
Central Africa, slavery, stigma, AIDS,
is of course religion, Jews and Israel can be
HIV/AIDS etc. These concepts resemble some
seen in the cluster with strong relationship
social, political and medical conditions of
between some other concepts such as Palestine,
Africa, especially Sub-Saharan or Black Africa
Judaism, Islam, human rights, Zionism etc. In
as can be understood from the repeating terms
this time period, the political tension in the
of slavery, leadership and HIV/AIDS... This
region increased and especially Israel's
situation displays that same themes continue to
interventions and operations towards Lebanon
be emphasized as can be seen in former periods
and occupied Palestinian territories worsened
alike.
the situation of Palestinian diaspora living

8
outside Palestine and inside Palestine... For attributes to the civil war between Tamil Tigers,
example although the inhabitants of Gaza strip depending on Tamil ethnicity of Sri Lanka and
can be seen as a non-diasporic community, the Sinhala majority or the government. The
shortages of resources and being in a politically clashes between Sinhala majority and Tamil
surrounded situation they can be taken as a minority had ended in the military defeat of
diaspora on their own territory... Another Tamil Tigers on the island in this period
important point in the cluster can be seen in the marked the cluster. Muslim minority of Sri
repetition of the term domestic care-work in Lanka also happens to be related in the cluster
which Philipino women who poses a labor as a concept as Muslims…
diaspora situation.

Image 23. 2010-2016 Period. Detail 9

Image 21. 2010-2016 Period. Detail 7 Another cluster can be differentiated

through the map can be shown between the
The era as mentioned before is concepts as hybridity, diasporic identity, post-
characterized by the events called Arab Spring. colonialism, ambivalence and mimicry. This
The outcome of these events in the related cluster shows the decreasing interest on the
literature is the growing interest on the Islamic politically informed issues such as colonialism
terrorism, Islamism and radical Islamic views. and post-colonialism… The actual problems of
The cluster that occurred in relation to these the world pushed these themes aside in the
interests can be seen in orange color and display conceptual relationship map of the diaspora
dense relationship between the concepts such as literature.
jihad, Islamism, terrorism, radicalism, and
especially foreign fighters that linked to ISIS
terror organization that emerged after the Syrian
civil war… This cluster is a novelty in diaspora
studies that can be traced in later periods as
jihadist diaspora concept…

Image 24. 2010-2016 Period. Detail 10

Another important but not central

concept cluster occurs around the term
globalization which poses relationship between
cosmopolitanism, nationalism and mobility.
Again it is possible to state that the term
globalization loses its importance when
compared other conceptual relationship clusters
and other periods… It seems right to say that
globalization which is characterized by liberal
economy and capitalism in the literature loses
Tablo 22. 2010-2016 Period. Detail 8. its importance to security and global conflicts
stemming from refugee crises around the world.
The term memory (in blue color) poses
4. Conclusion
some links to the concepts as museums,
Looking at all these associational
monuments, ethnography and violence…
patterns and the visualizations of the
Violence is attached to Sri-Lanka which

9
relationships of the concepts, it is seen that the Bibliography
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differences in diaspora literature. It seems right and Boundaries the Social Organization of
to group literature in three periods seem Culture Difference. Ed. Fredrik Barth. Little
reasonable when the related maps compared… Brown and Company. Boston. 9-38.
In this context the first period which is
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(2003). Visualizing Knowledge Domains.
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Annual Review of Information Science and
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same time some new ones especially related to
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The second group which is between Basic and Technological Research:
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[4] Clifford, J. (1994) Diasporas. Cultural
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religion and other concepts related to religious
Cashmore. Routledge. London. 99-101.
agenda turned back to the diaspora literature in
the guise of political issues rather than [10] Winland, D. N. (2007). Locating Croatia in
sociological necessities… Diaspora. We Are Now a Nation: Croats
between Home and Homeland. University of
Acknowledgements
Toronto Press, 30–54.
This study depends on the findings of a
project (Analysis of Conceptual Structure of
Sociology: A Web of Science Based
Scientometrics Study- 2017-GAP- SBBF-0002)
which is supported by Izmir Kâtip Çelebi
University Scientific Research Projects
Coordination Unit.
It is possible to find detailed
visualizations of the images 1., 8., and 14. on
http://uzgoru.ikc.edu.tr/S/16000/diaspora

10