Fuild Mechanics Unit 1 PDF

SASURIE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING 1
UNIT
FLUID PROPERTIES
AND FLUID STATICS
Er.S.Keerthibalan.,PGD(QSV).,ME.(CEM).,MISTE.,AMIE.,CEngg.
Assistant Professor/CIVIL
CHAPTER
• 1.1 INTRODUCTION
Fluid mechanics is that branch of science which deals with the behaviour of the fluids (liquids or
gases) at rest as well as in motion. Thus this branch of science deals with the static, kinematics and
dynamic aspects of fluids. The study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics. The study of fluids in
motion, where pressure forces are not considered, is called fluid kinematics and if the pressure forces
are also considered for the fluids in motion, that branch of science is called fluid dynamics.
• 1.2 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

1.2. 1 Density or Mass Density. Density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the
mass of a fluid to its volume. Thus mass per unit volume of a fluid is called density. It is denoted by the
symbol p (rho). The unit of mass density in SI unit is kg per cubic metre, i.e., kg/m 3 • The density of
liquids may be considered as constant while that of gases changes with the variation of pressure and
temperature.
Mathematically, mass density is written as
Mass of fluid
p=----.
Volume of fluid
The value of density of water is 1 gm/cm 3 or 1000 kg/m 3 .
1.2.2 Specific Weight or Weight Density. Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is the
ratio between the weight of a fluid to its volume. Thus weight per unit volume of a fluid is called
weight density and it is denoted by the symbol w.
Weight of fluid (Mass of fluid) x Acceleration due to gravity

Thus mathematically, w= =--------------'---'-
Volume of fluid Volume of fluid
Mass of fluid x g
= ------'-
Volume of fluid
=pxg { ·: Mass of fluid = p}

Volume of fluid
w= pg ... (1.1)
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FLUID PROPERTIES AND FLUID STATICS
1.1. INTRODUCTION TO FLUIDS
Fluid may be defined as a substance which is capable of/lowing. It has no definite shape
of its own but it confirms to the shape of the containing vessel. A small amount of shear force
exerted on a fluid will cause it to undergo a deformation. It continues as long as the force is to
be applied.
. .
Generally, a matter exists in three states. They are as follows.
(i) Solid
(ii) Liquid and
j
(iii) Gas. '
Although differences in many aspects, liquids and gases have a common characteristic in
which they differ from solids. The liquid and gas together are called by the common term
'fluids'.
r
( 1.2 Fluid Mechanics
A fluid is a substance which defo1ms continuously under the action of shear stress. In
addition, it has the following properties.
(i) It is unable to retain any unsupported shape.
(ii) It flows under its own weight and takes up the shape of an;y solid body with which
it is contained.
(iii) A fluid in equilibrium cannot sustain any shear.
(iv) It cannot regain its original shape on the removal of shear force.
(v) Shear stresses occur in fluids only when they are in motion.
(vi) The rate of strain is directly proportional to the applied stress.
Fluid mechanics is a physical science related to the behaviour of fluid at rest and in
continuous motion. It consists of two approaches such as empirical hydraulics and classical
hydrodynamics. The empirical hydraulics deals t:he motion of water but the classical
hydrodynamics deals the flow analysis based on the concept of an ideal fluid.
1.1.1. Distinction between Solid and Fluid
In nature, the matter exists in any one ofthree forms of states such as solid, liquid or gas
or in a mixture of these forms. The liquid fonn and gaseous form · are usually combined and
they are given a common name of fluid because of the common characteristics exhibited by
liquids and gases.
A solid is generally concerned with a substance that has its own shape and undergoes an
infinitesimal change in volume under pure compressive and tensile load. It offers the
resistance to change in shape without a change in volume under the application of tangential
forces. This force may cause some displacement of one laye~ over the other layer in the
direction of the applied force but the material will not continue to deform indefinitely. When
this force is removed, the produced deformation will disappear and a critical limit has not
been exceeded.
i
The spacing and latitude of motion of molecules are very small in solids, large in liquid
and extremely large in gas. Accordingly, the intem1olecular bonds are very strong in solids,
weak in liquids and very weak in gases. It is due to that the solid is very compact and rigid.
The common materials classified as solids are bricks, steel, diamond, wood, rubber, plastics
etc.
'
Fluid Properties and Fluid Statics ( 1.3
The fluids do not have their own shape and they do not offer any resistance to change in
shape when a defonning tangential force is applied. They continuously deform under the
action of such forces. However, the force may be less.
The continuous deformation under the action of tangential force causes liquids and gases
to flow rather than to remain as solid. The common examples of fluids are water, kerosene, --
milk, gasoline, air, steam etc.
1.2. CONTINUUM CONCEPT
All substances are made up of molecules. Molecules inside the substances are in
constant motion and collide with each other. In gases, the molecules are not closely spaced.
So, the study of motion of individual molecule is described with the help of statistical
methods. But in liquids, the molecules are closely spaced which create strong intennolecular
cohesive forces. Thus, the liquid behaves as a continuous mass. Therefore, the study of
motion of individual molecules is not interested but the overall motion of the fluid is the area
of interest. Therefore, the tm1d is considered as a continuous medium called continuum, i.e.,
there is a continuous distribution of matter with no empty space. In order to consider the
motion of fluid as continuous, it is assumed that the overall motion of the fluid particles is
independent of the motion of individual molecules within the fluid.
•t, \
\
;,.
(-0
E r
c-o I
' q
-___ .:1·.,,.::--f--
. - - ·p
I
,
,
,. ,. ,,
' p
-,
0/' •'Tl
/ ~ i ... ' ov
~ ---·- 8v, .............
!
()V . •
--- ,i
Figure 1.1 Concept of continuum
The properties at" point can be defined from the continuum concept of a view. Consider
a point A of mass 8m and occupying a volume of 8 V as shown in Figure 1.1. Th~ point is
made up of molecules and they are in continuous motion. It is quite possible that the volume
of point may not contain any molecules at a particular time when the chosen volume is
extremely small. If it is so, then the density p will be zero since the density is the ratio of
mass per unit volume.
If the volume of a point contains a couple of molecules, the density may be high or low.
It is depending on whether the number of molecules is above or below the expected average.
So, the value of pin the selected volume will be extremely erratic. The volume below which
there is a large variation in density is called critical volume, 8vc. It may also be defined as the
volume above which the value of density is constant.
Mathematically, the density at a point A can be defined as
p = vV
s: um s:
vVc (8mJ
8v
where 8Vc be the smallest volume about the point A in which the fluid can be considered
as continuum.
1.3. UNITS AND DIMENSIONS
All physical quantities are measured in certain units. There are two types of units.
1. Fundamental units
2. Derived units.
All physical quantities are expressed in terms of the following three fundamental units:
1. Length (L)
2. Mass (M)
3. Time (T)
The units which are expressed in terms or fundamental units are called derived units.
Examples of derived units are area, velocity, acceleration, pressure etc.
System of units: ,.
The following four systems of units are internationally accepted.
1. C.G.S units
2. F.P.S units
3. M.K.S units
'
4 . S.l. units
'
echanics Fluid Properties and Fluid Statics 1.5
e volume 1. C. G.S units:

:olume is
In this system, the fundamental units of length, mass and time are taken as centimeter,
e ratio of gram and second respectively.
2. F.P.S units:
_;b or low .
In this system, the fundamental units of length, mass and time are taken as feet, pound
" average.
and second respectively.
.v which
?d as the 3. M.K.S. units:
In this system, the fundamental units of length, mass and time are taken as meter,
kilogram and second respectively. M.K.S. units are called gravitational units or engineer's
units.
4. S.J. units (/ntemational systems of units):

This system has six basic units, two supplementary units and twenty-seven derived units.
-idered The six basic units are given in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 Basic units of S.L system
Quantity Units Symbol

Length Metre m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electric current Ampere A

Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
Luminous intensity Candala Cd
There are two supplementary units. One supplementary unit is for measuring the plane
angle called radian (rad) and other supplet11entary unit is for solid .angle called steradian (sr).
nits. Some of the derived units are shown in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Derived units of S.I. system

"
Units Symbol
,I
Volume m3
2
Area m
Density (mass) kg!ni3

Discharge ni3!s ,,
I
Weight density N!m 3 I
Surface tension Nim
Momentum kg-mis
mis
Velocity
·-
Acceleration mls2
Angular velocity radls

Angular acceleration radls2
Force N
Pressure N/m2
Dynamic viscosity Nslni2
Kinematic viscosity ni2ls
Power w
Torque, Work, Energy N-m ( or) Joules
Thermal conductivity WlmK
Specific heat JlkgK

Entropy JIK
Frequency Hz
1.4. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
The following physical properties of fluids are of general imp01iance to the study of
fluid mechanics.
1.4.1. Mass Density (p)
Density or mass density is defined as the mass per unit volume i.e., mass of the fluid
contained in lm 3 volume. It is denoted by a Greek symbol p (rho).
Mass _ m 1
i
Density, P = Volume v
The unit of density is kg!ni3. In general, the density of substances decreases with increase
in temperature and vice versa. Also, it increases with increase in pressure. The characteristic
equation pv = mRT is used to estimate the density from the measurement of pressure (1'J),
temperature (1) and volume (v). The density of water is 1000 kg/m 3 at a standal d condition.
Mechanics
Fluid Properties and Fluid Statics r 1.7
1.4.2. Specific Volume ( v)
Specific volunze is defined as the volume of fluid occupied by unit mass.
Volume V
Specific volume, v= Mass
m
The unit used for measuring specific volume is m 3/kg. It is the reciprocal of density.
1.4.3. Specific Weight {w)
Spec(fic weight is defined as the weight possessed per unit vclume. It is denoted by w. It
varies from place to place because of acceleration due to gravity changing from place to
plac1::.
Weight w
Specific weight, w = Volume
V
Specific weight decreases with increase in temperature and increases with increase in
pressure. Mathematically, it can be given by the equation
w=pg W - mg=
[·: w = -;- V
pg]
Specific weight is also known as "weight density".
1.4.4. Specific Gravity ( S)
Specific gravity is the ratio of the specific weight of any fluid to the specific weight of
of
the standard fluid. It can also be defined as the ratio of the mass density of a given fluid to the
mass density of the standard fluid.
. . Specific weight of a given fluid

Specific gravity' S = Speci·fiic weight
· (or)
of th e standard fl u~·d
-• uid
S= Mass density of the given fluid
Mass density of the standard fluid
i
1
For liquids, the standard fluid chosen for comparison is pure water at 4°C. Specific
gravity of water at 4 °C is taken as 1. 0.
For gases, hydrogen or air is chosen.
Specific weight of given liquid= Specific gravity ofliquid x Specific weight of water
= S x 9.81 in N/m 3
Density of the given liquid = Specific gravity of liquid x Density of water

= S x 1000 in kg/m 3
1.4.5. Pressure (p}
Pressure may be defined as the force exerted by a fluid per unit area. It may be called
intensity ofpressure. If F be the total force exerted over an area A, the pressure at any point is
given mathematically by
F
p=-
A
As already explained, fluid is a substance which is capable of flowing when the fluid is
contained in a vessel or any solid boundary. It exerts the force against boundary surfaces.
This force is always at right angle to the contact surface. It is so because a fluid at rest cannot
sustain shear stress. The normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area is called.fluid pressure.
1'he \\nit of pressure in S.l. unit is N/ni2 or Pascal (Pa).
1 bar= 10 5 Nlm 2 = 105 Pa=0.l MPa = l00kPa
I. Atmospheric pressure (p 01,,J:

Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the air on the atmosphere. Its value
taken at mean sea level is l.OBlS bar .
Atmospheric pressure = 1.01325 bar
= 101.325 kN/m2
= 101325 Pa or N/m 2
= 760 mm of Hg = 10.34 m of water
2. Gauge pressure (pg):
.
Gauge pressure is the pressure recorded by the pressure gauge when the pressure gauges
read 'zero' pressure at atmospheric level. Hence, they actually measure the difference
between fluid and atmospheric pressure.
3. Vacuum pressure (pvaJ:

The pressure below the atmospheric pressure is called vacuum pressure. It is also called
\
negative pressure. This pressure is subtracted from gauge pressure for calcrtlating the
- Mechanics Fluid Properties and Fluid Statics [ 1.9
absolute pressure. It is always represented Pvac• The vacuum gauge is used to measure it. The
pressure gauge which is used to measure vacuum pressure is called vacuum gauge.
e called
Gauge pressure
". point is
Absolute pressure
Vacuum pressure
Atmospheric pressure Atmospheric

=fluid is pressure
Absolute pressure
rfaces.
_s-: cannot
Figure;/2 Pressure rdationship
4. Absolute pressure (p 0 b_J:

The pressure measured from the absolute zero pressure is called absolute pressure.
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure

··- value
P abs =Patm + Pg
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure - Vacuum pressure
P abs = P atm - Pvac
5. Pressure /zead:
The ve1iical height of the free surf~ce above any point in a liquid at rest is known as
pressure head.
Consider a cylindrical vessel w~ose cross sectional area A. We know that the liquid will
exert pressure in all surfaces of the vessel.
j
·1
Let w = Specific weight of the liquid
h = Height of the liquid in the cylinder.
The pressure is given by the expression

Force Weight of the liquid in the cylinder
the p= Unit area= Cross sectional area of the cylinder
\
whA
p= -----=wh
A
From above expression, the pressure at any point in a liquid is proportional to the height
,? of the free surface above the point. Therefore, it is convenient to express a fllrid pressure in
terms of pressure head.
Pressure head, h = p
w
From above expression, the pressure can be expressed in terms of height of the
equivalent liquid column.
1.4.6. Temperature
Temperature is defined as a measure of velocity of the fluid particles. This property is

used to determine the degree of hotness or coldness or the level of heat intensity of a body.
1. Absolute temperature:
The zero reading of the Celsius and Fahrenheit scale is chosen arbitrarily. On Celsius
scale, the ice and steam points are assigned the values of 0°C and 100°C respectively. The
corresponding values on the Fahrenheit scale are 32 and 212°F. Absolute zero temperature is
the zero below which the temperature of any substance cannot fall. It is taken as the value of
-273°C. The temperature measured at the absolute zero temperature is called absolute
temperature.
Celsius scale Kelvin scale

100°c 373 K
0° c / / 273 K
-273° C OK
Figure 1.3 Temperature scale
Fluid Mechanics
- "d Properties and Fluid Statics [ 1.11 l
In them1odynamics, it is desirable to have a temperature scale which is independent of
properties of any substance. Such a temperature scale is called a thermodynamic
:perature scale. The temperature unit on this scale is Kelvin which is denoted by K (not
onal to the height · ·. Celsius scale is converted into Kelvin scale as follows.
. fluid pressure in
T=t+273K
wher T- Temperature on Kelvin scale

t - Temperature on Celsius scale.
- · Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP):

[)f height of the
The standard atmospheric conditions are given below:
Standard temperature = 15°C
Standard pressure = 760 mm of Hg= 101.325 kN/m 2
This property is 3. Normal Temperature and Pressure (NTP):

· of a body. The condition of a temperature at 0°C and 760 mm of Hg is called Normal Temperature
d Pressure .
··y. On Celsius
-~..,ectively. The .4.7. Viscosity
emperature is As already explained, fluid is a material which will coutinue to deform with the
2..S the value of
• • lication of shear stress. However, the different fluids deform at different rates when the
:clled absolute
e shear stress is applied .
F ---
-u
\
....._u__., ,
I I / . Plate
h
y
I I
Figure 1.4 Viscosity definition
Viscosity is the property of a fluid which determines the amount of resistance to. a
shearing stress. A real fluid has no viscosity but it is non-existent.
~
d • Diameter of the droplet.
Pressure force exerted on the area -- px -d2

1C
• 4
Surface tension force acting around the circurnference,

= 0 x nd
p
Td 0
(a) Water droplet (b) Pressure forces

1 (c) Surface tension
Figure 1.8 Surface tension in a liquid droplet
Under the equilibrium condition, these forces are equal and opposite.
n: 2 .
I.e. p x -d = cr x nd
4
p= (JXTC d
1C 2
-d
4
p= 40
a
From above relation, it can be concluded that with an increase in size of the droplet, the
pressure intensity decreases.
2. Surfuce tension in a soap bubble:
Soap bubbles are hollow bubbles in which air has two surfaces in contact with bubble in
which one surface is inside and other.. surface is outside.
Pressure inside the soap bubble

n: 2
=px -d
4
Surface tension on both sides of the bubble =2x(crxnd)
Equating above two equation,
1C ?
px - d- = 2 x ( cr x n d)
4
Fluid Mechanics Fluid Properties and Fluid Statics [ 1.21 ]
2and
p= !!:_d2
4
80
p= d
.....
--- Ci
T
~CJ
1 ~CJ
Figure 1.9 Surface tension in a soap bubble
3. Surface tension on a liquid jet:

Consider a liquid jet of diameter 'd' and length ' l' as shown in Figure 1. 10.
Force due to pressure =pxlxd
Surface tension in jet = CJ X 2/ -~
Eq~ting the above two equations,
p x l x d = cr x 2/
2cr
p=-
d
let, the
ble in I
L
,.
-
A ·
-
1 d
(J
I
r
Figure 1.10 Surface tension on a liquid jet
~-~IL
CHAPTER
Dimensional analysis is a method of dimensions. It is a mathematical technique used in research

work for design and for conducting model tests. It deals with the dimensions of the physical quantities
involved in the phenomenon. All physical quantities are measured by comparison, which is made with
respect to an arbitrarily fixed value. Length L, mass Mand time Tare three fixed dimensions which are
of importance in Fluid Mechanics. If in any problem of fluid mechanics, heat is involved then
temperature is also taken as fixed dimension. These fixed dimensions are called fundamental dimen-
sions or fundamental quantity.
• 12.2 SECONDARY OR DERIVED QUANTITIES
Secondary or derived quantities are those quantities which possess more than one fundamental
dimension. For example, velocity is denoted by distance per unit time (LID, density by mass per unit
volume ( ~) and acceleration by distance per second square (LIT2). Then velocity, density and accel-
eration become as secondary or derived quantities. The expressions (LID, ( ~) and ( J 2) are called
the dimensions of velocity, density and acceleration respectively. The dimensions of mostly used
physical quantities in Fluid Mechanics are given in Table 12.l.
Table 12.1
S. No. Physical Quantity Symbol Dimensions
(a) Fundamental
I. Length L L
2. Mass M M
3. Time T T
Con td ...
559
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I 560 Fluid Mechanics
S.No. Physical Qualltity Sylllbol Dimellsions
(b) Geometric
4. Area A L2
5. Volume V L3
(c) Kinematic Quantities
6. Velocity V LT - I
7. Angular Velocity {J) T -1
8. Acceleration a LT - 2
9. Angular Acceleration a T -2
10. Discharge Q L 3T - I
11. Acceleration due to Gravity g LT - 2
12. Kinematic Viscosity V L2T - I
(d) Dynamic Quantities
13. Force F MLT - 2
14. Weight w MLT - 2
15. Density p MC 3
16. Specific Weight w MC 2T - 2
17. Dynamic Viscosity µ MC 1T - I
18. Pressure Intensity p MC 1T - 2
19. Modulus of Elasticity {f MC 1T - 2
20. Surface Tension (J MT - 2

21. Sh ear Stress '[ MC 1T - 2
22. Work, Energy WorE ML 2T - 2
23. Power p ML 2T - 3
24. Torque T ML 2T - 2
25. Momentum M MLT - 1
Problem 12.1 Determine the dimensions of the quantities given below : (i) Angular velocity,
(ii) Angular acceleration, (iii) Discharge, (iv) Kinematic viscosity, (v) Force, (vi) Specific weight, and
(vii) Dynamic viscosity.
So Iut .10n. (1•) Angu 1ar ve 1oc1ty
. Angle covered in radians 1 y - l
= -~-------- = - = .
Time T
2 rad 1 2
(ii) Angular acceleration = rad/sec = - - = y- .
y2=y2
L L3
( iii) Discharge = Area x Velocity= L 2 x - = - = L3 T - 1•
T T
(iv) Kinematic viscosity (v) = µ h . . b du
P w ere µ ts given y t = µ dy
t Shear Stress Force

µ=du= L 1 - Area
- - X - - 1-
dy T L
T
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Dimensional and Model Analysis 561 I
Mass x Acceleration
=
AreaxTime
and p= Mass = M = ML _3
Volume L3
1 1
Kinematic viscosity ( ) _ µ _ ML- T- _ L2T-1
V - p - MC3 -
. Length ML -2
(v) Force = Mass x Accelerat10n = M x 2 = - 2 = MLT .
(Time) T
Weight Force MLr-2

(vi) Specific weight = = - - - = - ~ - = MC 2T- 2 •
Volume Volume L3
(vii) Dynamic viscosity,µ is derived in (iv) asµ= MC 1 r- 1 •
• 12.3 DIMENSIONAL HOMOGENEITY
Dimensional homogeneity means the dimensions of each terms in an equation on both sides are
equal. Thus if the dimensions of each term on both sides of an equation are the same the equation is
known as dimensionally homogeneous equation. The powers of fundamental dimensions (i.e., L, M, n
on both sides of the equation will be identical for a dimensionally homogeneous equation. Such
equations are independent of the system of units.
Let us consider the equation, V = .J2gH
L -1
Dimension of L.H.S. = V= -= LT
T
~ {If L
Dimension of R.H.S. = .J2gH = vr2"' = vr2 =
L = T Lr-1
Dimension of L.H.S. = Dimension of R.H.S. = LT- 1

Equation V = .J2gH is dimensionally homogeneous. So it can be used in any system of units.
• 12.4 METHODS OF DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
If the number of variable involved in a physical phenomenon are known, then the relation among
the variables can be determined by the following two methods :
1. Rayleigh's method, and
2. Buckingham's n-theorem.
12.4. I Rayleigh's Method. This method is used for determining the expression for a variable
which depends upon maximum three or four variables only. If the number of independent variables
becomes more than four, then it is very difficult to find the expression for the dependent variable.
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~I IL

Let Xis a variable, which depends on X1, X2 and X3 variables. Then according to Rayleigh's
method, Xis function of X1, X2 and X3 and mathematically it is written as X = f [X1, X2, X3].
This can also be written as X = KXt. x/.
X/
where K is constant and a, b and c are arbitrary powers.
The values of a, b and c are obtained by comparing the powers of the fundamental dimension on
both sides. Thus the expression is obtained for dependent variable.
Problem 12.2 The time period (t) of a pendulum depends upon the length (L) of the pendulum and
acceleration due to gravity (g). Derive an expression for the time period.
Solution. Time period tis a function of (i) Land (ii) g
t = KL a. l,
where K is a constant ... (i)
Substituting the dimensions on both sides T 1 = KL a • (Lr-2/
Equating the powers of M, L and Ton both sides, we have
Power of T, 1 =- 2b b =- _!_
2
Power of L, O=a+b a=-b=-(-½) =½

Substituting the values of a and bin equation (i),
t=KLl/2 .g-l/2=K f-f-

The value of K is determined from experiments which is given as
K=21t
t=21t i.Ans.
Problem 12.3 Find an expression for the drag force on smooth sphere of diameter D, moving with
a uniform velocity Vin a fluid of density p and dynamic viscosityµ.
Solution. Drag force F is a function of
(i) Diameter, D (ii) Velocity, V (iii) Density, p
(iv) Viscocity, µ
F = KDa . V' . pc . µd ... (i)
where K is non-dimensional factor.
Substituting the dimensions on both sides,
ML12 = KLa. (L1 1/ . (MC3/ . (MC 11 1/
Equating the powers of M, L and Ton both sides,
Power of M, 1= c +d
Power of L, 1 = a + b - 3c - d
Power of T, - 2 = - b - d.
There are four unknowns (a, b, c, d) but equations are three. Hence it is not possible to find the
values of a, b, c and d. But three of them can be expressed in terms of fourth variable which is most
important. Here viscosity is having a vital role and hence a, b, care expressed in terms of d which is the
power to viscosity.
c=l-d
b=2-d
a =1 - b + 3c + d = 1 - 2 + d + 3 (1 - d) + d
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~I IL

=1-2+d+3-3d+d=2-d
Substituting these values of a, band c in (i), we get
µd
F = KD2 - d. v2 - d. P1 - d.
=KD2V2p (D--d. y-d. p-d. µd) = KpD2V2 (~)d

pVD
= KpD 2V 2cl>(__t___) . Ans.

pVD
Problem 12.4 Find the expression for the power P, developed by a pump when P depends upon the
head H, the discharge Q and specific weight w of the fluid.
Solution. Power P is a function of
(i) Head, H (ii) Discharge, Q
(iii) Specific weight, w
... (i)
where K = Non-dimensional constant.
Substituting the dimensions on both sides of equation (z)
ML2r-3 = KL a. (L3r-1/. (MC2r-2t
Equating the powers of M, L and Ton both sides,
Power of M, 1 = c, c=l
Power of L, 2 = a +3b - 2c, a = 2 - 3b + 2c = 2 - 3 + 2 = 1
Power of T, - 3 = - b - 2c b = 3 - 2c = 3 - 2 = 1
Substituting the values of a, band c in (i)
P =KH 1 . Q 1 . w 1 = KHQw. Ans.
Problem 12.5 The efficiency 17 of a fan depends on the density p, the dynamic viscosity µ of the
fluid, the angular velocity ~ diameter D of the rotor and the discharge Q. Express 17 in terms of
dimensionless parameters.
Solution. The efficiency 11 depends on
(i) density, p (ii) viscosity,µ
(iii) angular velocity, co (iv) diameter, D
(v) discharge, Q
11 = Kpa. µb. roe. Dd. Qe ... (i)
Substituting the dimensions on both sides of equation (z)
M°LOfJ = K (MC3t. (MClr-1/. (r-lt. (L/. (L3r-lt
Equating powers of M, L, Ton both sides,
Power of M, 0=a+b
Power of L, 0 = - 3a - b + d + 3e
Power of T, 0 =-b-c-e.
There are five unknowns but equations are three. Express the three unknowns in terms of the other
two unknowns which are more important. Viscosity and discharge are more important in this problem.
Hence expressing a, c and d in terms of b and e, we get
a=-b
c = - (b + e)
d = + 3a + b - 3e = - 3b + b - 3e = - 2b - 3e.
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I s64 Fluid Mechanics
Substituting these values in equation (i), we get
11 = Kp-b. µb. co-(b+e). n-2b-3e. Qe
= K p-b .µ b .co-b .co--e . D-2b . D-3e . Qe
Problem 12.6 The resisting force R of a supersonic plane during flight can be considered as
dependent upon the length of the aircraft l, velocity V, air viscosityµ, air density p and bulk modulus
of air K. Express the functional relationship between these variables and the resisting force.
Solution. The resisting force R depends upon
(i) density, l, (ii) velocity, V,
(iii) viscosity, µ, (iv) density, p,
(v) Bulk modulus, K.
R = Ala . ~ . µc . pd . Ke ... (i)
where A is the non-dimensional constant.
Substituting the dimensions on both sides of the equation (i),
MLr2 = ALa • (Lr 1/ • (MC 1r 1/ . (MC3/ . (MC 1r 2/
Equating the powers of M, L, Ton both sides,
Power of M, 1= c +d+e
Power of L, 1 = a + b - c - 3d - e
Power of T, - 2 = - b - c - 2e.
There are five unknowns but equations are only three. Expressing the three unknowns in terms of
two unknowns(µ and K).
Express the values of a, b and d in terms of c and e.
Solving, d = 1- c - e
b = 2- c- 2e
a= 1 - b + c + 3d + e = 1 - (2 - c - 2e) + c + 3 (1 - c - e) + e
= 1 - 2 + c + 2e + c + 3 - 3c - 3e + e =2 - c.
Substituting these values in (i), we get
R = A p-c. v2--c-2e. µc. pl--c-e. K
= A p . V2 . p(rc v-c µc p-c) . (V-2e . p-e . Ke)
=A t2V2 p (p~LJ {p~2 J

Problem 12. 7 A partially sub-merged body is towed in water. The resistance R to its motion
depends on the density p, the viscosity µ of water, length l of the body, velocity v of the body and the
acceleration due to gravity g. Show that the resistance to the motion can be expressed in the form
R = pL2V2 ¢ [(p~L} (t )].

Solution. The resistance R depends on
-II Er.S.Keerthibalan.,PGD(QSV).,ME.(CEM).,MISTE.,AMIE.,CEngg.
I~
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(i) density, p, (ii) viscosity, µ,
(iii) length, I, (iv) velocity, V,
( v) acceleration, g.
R = Kpa. µb. ZC. yd. ge ... (i)
Substituting the dimensions on both sides of the equation (i),
MLr 2 = K(Mc 3 t.(Mc1r 1/ . Le . (Lr 1/ . (Lr2/
Equating the powers of M, L, Ton both sides
Power of M, 1= a + b
Power of L, 1 = - 3a - b + c + d + e
Power of T, - 2 = - b - d - 2e.
There are five unknowns and equations are only three. Expressing the three unknowns in terms of
two unknowns (µ and g). Hence express a, c and din terms of b and e. Solving, we get
a=l-b
d= 2- b- 2e
c = 1 + 3a + b - d - e = 1 + 3 ( 1 - b) + b - (2 - b - 2e) - e
= 1 + 3 - 3b + b - 2 + b + 2e - e =2 - b + e.
Substituting these values in equation (i), we get
R = KpI-b . µb . [2-b+e . v2-b-2e . ge
= Kpz2. V2. (p-b µbz-b V-b) . (f. v-2e . ge)
= Kpfv' . (:VJ' -( ~ )' = Kpl'V'$ [(:vi}(:,)l An,.
12.4.2 Buckingham's 1t-Theorem. The Rayleigh's method of dimensional analysis becomes

more laborious if the variables are more than the number of fundamental dimensions (M, L, n. This
difficulty is overcame by using Buckingham's 1t-theorem, which states, "If there are n variables (inde-
pendent and dependent variables) in a physical phenomenon and if these variables contain m funda-
mental dimensions (M, L, n, then the variables are arranged into (n - m) dimensionless terms. Each
term is called 1t-term".
Let X1, X2, X3, ... , Xn are the variables involved in a physical problem. Let X1 be the dependent
variable and X2, X3, ... , Xn are the independent variables on which X1 depends. Then X1 is a function of
X2, X3 , ••• , Xn and mathematically it is expressed as
X1 = f(X2, X3, ... , Xn) ... (12.1)
Equation (12.1) can also be written as
/ 1(X1, X2, X3, ... , Xn) = 0. ... (12.2)
Equation (12.2) is a dimensionally homogeneous equation. It contains n variables. If there are m
fundamental dimensions then according to Buckingham's 1t-theorem, equation (12.2) can be written in
terms of number of dimensionless groups or 1t-terms in which number of n-terms is equal to
(n - m). Hence equation (12.2) becomes as
/(1t1, 1t2, ···• 1tn-m) = 0. ... (12.3)
Each of n-terms is dimensionless and is independent of the system. Division or multiplication by a
constant does not change the character of the n-term. Each n-term contains m + 1 variables, where m is
the number of fundamental dimensions and is also called repeating variables. Let in the above case X2,
X3 and X4 are repeating variables if the fundamental dimension m (M, L, T) = 3. Then each n-term is
written as
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n 1 = X/1 . x/1 . X/1 . X1 }

n2 = X/2. x/2. X/2. X 5 ... (12.4)
n,, _,,,: -- X2an-m • X3bn-m • X4cn-m • X,,
Each equation is solved by the principle of dimensional homogeneity and values of a 1, b 1, c 1 etc.,
are obtained. These values are substituted in equation (12.4) and values of1t 1, 1t2, ... , 1t11 _ 111 are obtained.
These values of n's are substituted in equation (12.3). The final equation for the phenomenon is
obtained by expressing any one of the 1t-terms as a function of others as
1t1 = <p [1t2, 1t3, ... , 1t,,_,,,]
or 1t2 = <1>1 [1t1, 1t3, ... ,1t,,_,,,] ... (12.5)
12.4.3 Method of Selecting Repeating Variables. The number of repeating variables are
equal to the number of fundamental dimensions of the problem. The choice of repeating variables is
governed by the following considerations :
1. As far as possible, the dependent variable should not be selected as repeating variable.
2. The repeating variables should be choosen in such a way that one variable contains geometric
property, other variable contains flow property and third variable contains fluid property.
Variables with Geometric Property are
(i) Length, l (ii) d (iii) Height, H etc.
Variables with flow property are
(i) Velocity, V (ii) Acceleration etc.
Variables with fluid property: (i) µ, (ii) p, (iii) co etc.
3. The repeating variables selected should not form a dimensionless group.
4. The repeating variables together must have the same number of fundamental dimensions.
5. No two repeating variables should have the same dimensions.
In most of fluid mechanics problems, the choice of repeating variables may be (i) d, v, p (ii) Z, v, p
or (iii) l, v, µ or (iv) d, v, µ.
12.4.4 Procedure for Solving Problems by Buckingham's n-theorem. The procedure
for solving problems by Buckingham's 1t-theorem is explained by considering the problem 12.6 which
is also solved by the Rayleigh's method. The problem is :
The resisting force R of a supersonic plane during flight can be considered as dependent upon the
length of the aircraft l, velocity V, air viscosity µ, air density p and bulk modulus of air K. Express the
functional relationship between these variables and the resisting force.
Solution. Step 1. The resisting force R depends upon (i) l, (ii) V, (iii)µ, (iv) p and (v) K. Hence R
is a function of l, V, µ, p and K. Mathematically,
R = f(l, V, µ, p, K) ... (i)
or it can be written as / 1 (R, l, V, µ, p, K) = 0 ... (ii)
Total number of variables, n = 6.
Number of fundamental dimensions, m = 3.
[m is obtained by writing dimensions of each variables as R = MLT-2, V = LT-1, µ = MC 1T-1,
p =ML-3 , K =ML- 1r 2 • Thus as fundamental dimensions in the problem are M, L, T and hence m = 3.]
Number of dimensionless 1t-terms = n - m = 6 - 3 = 3.
Thus three 1t-terms say 1t 1, 1t2 and 1t3 are formed. Hence equation (ii) is written as
/1 (1t1, 1t2, 1t3) = 0. . .. (iii)
Step 2. Each 1t term = m + 1 variables, where m is equal to 3 and also called repeating variables.
Out of six variables R, l, V, µ, p and K, three variables are to be selected as repeating variable. R is a
dependent variable and should not be selected as a repeating variable. Out of the five remaining
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variables, one variable should have geometric property, the second variable should have flow property
and third one fluid property. These requirements are fulfilled by selecting l, V and p as repeating
variables. The repeating variables themselves should not form a dimensionless term and should have
themselves fundamental dimensions equal to m, i.e., 3 here. Dimensions of l, V and p are L, Lr1,
MC3 and hence the three fundamental dimensions exist in l, V and p and they themselves do not form
dimensionless group.
Step 3. Each 1t-term is written as according to equation (12.4)
1t1 = /al • vb1 • Pel • R }
1t2 = [a2 . vb2 . PC2 . µ ... (iv)
1t3 = la' . vb, . Pc' . K
Step 4. Each 1t-term is solved by the principle of dimensional homogeneity. For the first 1t-term, we
have
1t1 = Af°LOf! = La1 . (LT-ll1. (MC3t1 . MLT-2.
Equating the powers of M, L, T on both sides, we get
Power of M, 0 = c1 + 1 c1 = - 1
Power of L, 0 = a 1 + b 1 - 3c 1 + 1,
a 1 = - b 1 + 3c 1 - 1 = 2 - 3 - 1 = - 2
Power of T, 0 = - b1- 2 b1= - 2
Substituting the values of a 1, b 1 and c 1 in equation (iv),
n1 = r2 . v-2 . P-1 . R
R R
or 1t - - - - - - ... (v)
1 - l2V2p - pl2V2
Similarly for the 2nd 1t-term, we get 1t2 = M°L0 f! = La2 • (Lr 1l 2 • (MC3t 2 • MC1r 1.
Power of M, 0 = c 2 + 1, c2 = - 1
Power of L, 0 = a2 + b 2 - 3c2 - 1,
a2 = - b 2 + 3c 2 + 1 = 1 - 3 + 1 = - 1
Power of T, 0 = - b2 - 1, b2 = - 1
Substituting the values of a2 b 2 and c2 1t2 of (iv)
, in
1t2= l-1 .
v-1
. p-1 . µ =µ- .
lVp
3rd 1t-term
1t3 = la' . vb3 . PC3 . K
or l
M°L 0 f! = La 3 • (Lr3 3 • (MC3 t 3 • MC 1 r2
Equating the powers of M, L, T on both sides, we have
Power of M, 0 = c3 + 1, c3 = - 1
Power of L, 0 = a 3 + b3 - 3c3 - 1, a 3 = - b3 + 3c3 + 1 = 2 - 3 + 1 = 0
Power of T, 0 = - b3 - 2, b 3 =-2
Substituting the values of a 3, b3 and c3 in 1t3 term
o. 2 -1 K
1t3=l V- .p .K=-2-·
Vp
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Step 5. Substituting the values of n 1, n2 and n 3 in equation (iii), we get
or R = pi2V2cl> [~,
IVp V p
~ l· Ans.
Problem 12.8 (a) State Buckingham's ![-theorem.

(b) The efficiency 17 of a fan depends on density p, dynamic viscosity µ of the fluid, angular velocity
~ diameter D of the rotor and the discharge Q. Express 17 in terms of dimensionless parameters.
Solution. (a) Statement of Buckingham's n-theorem is given in Article 12.4.2.

(b) Given : 11 is a function of p, µ, co, D and Q
11 = ftp, µ, co, D, Q) or f 1 (11, p, µ, co, D, Q) = 0 ... (i)
Hence total number of variables, n = 6.
The value of m, i.e., number of fundamental dimensions for the problem is obtained by writing
dimensions of each variable. Dimensions of each variable are
11 = Dimensionless, p = ML- 3 , µ = ML- 1r1, co= r1, D =Land Q = L3 r 1
m=3
Number of n-terms = n - m = 6 - 3 = 3
Equation (i) is written asf1 (n 1, 1t2 , 1t3) = 0 ... (ii)
Each n-term contains m + 1 variables, where m is equal to three and is also repeating variable.
Choosing D, co and p as repeating variables, we have
1t1 = Dal . cob1 . pct . 11
1t2 = Da2 . cob2 . pc2 . µ
1t3 = Da3 . cob3 . PC3 . Q
First n-term 1t1 = Da 1 • cob 1 . pc 1 . 11
Substituting dimensions on both sides of n 1,
MOLO'fl =Lal. (rll1. (Mc3r. M°LO'fl
Equating the powers of M, L, T on both sides
Power of M, 0 =Cl+ 0,
Power of L, 0 =al+ 0,
Power of T, 0 = - b 1 + 0,
Substituting the values of a 1, b 1 and c 1 in n 1, we get
1t1 = Docoopo . 11 = 11
[If a variable is dimensionless, it itself is a n-term. Here the variable 11 is a dimensionless and hence
11 is a n-term. As it exists in first n-term and hence n 1 = 11· Then there is no need of equating the
powers. Directly the value can be obtained.]
Second n-term 1t2 = Da2 . cob2 . pc2 . µ
Substituting the dimensions on both sides
M°L 0'fl = La2 • (r1l 2 • (MC3l 2 • MC1r 1
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Power of M, 0 = c2 + 1, c2 = - 1
Power of L, 0 = a2 - 3c 2 - 1, a 2 = 3c 2 + 1 =- 3 + 1 = - 2
Power of T, 0 = - b2 - 1, b2 = - 1
Substituting the values of a 2 , b2 and c2 in 1t2,
µ
1t2 =D -2 · CO-I · p-1 · µ = -D2 -
cop
Third 1t-term n 3 = Da 3 • cob 3 • pc3 • Q
M°LO-f! = La3. (r-ll3. (MC3t3. L3r-I
Equating the powers of M, L and Ton both sides
Power of M, 0 = c3 , c3 = 0
Power of L, 0 = a 3 - 3c 3 + 3, a 3 = 3c3 - 3 =- 3
Power of T, 0 = - b3 _ 1 , b3 = - 1
Substituting the values of a 3, b 3 and c3 in 1t3,
1t3 =D-3 · CO-1 · p0 · Q = -D2

Q
-
co
Substituting the values of 1t 1, 1t2 and 1t3 in equation (ii)
f1 +, +)
(11, DcopDco =0or 11 =cl> [+, +] .
DcopDco
Ans.
Problem 12.9 Using Buckingham's ![-theorem, show that the velocity through a circular orifice is
given by V = .J2gH cl> [D, ~J.

H pVH
where His the head causing flow, Dis the diameter of the orifice,
µ is co-efficient of viscosity, pis the mass density and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Solution. Given :
Vis a function of H, D, µ, p and g
V=f(H, D, µ, p, g) orf1 (V, H, D, µ, p, g) = 0
:. Total number of variable, n = 6 ... (i)
Writing dimension of each variable, we have
V = LT- 1 , H = L, D = L, µ = ML- 1T- 1 , p = ML-3 , g = LT-2 •
Thus number of fundamental dimensions, m = 3
:. Number of 1t-terms =n - m =6 - 3 = 3.
Equation (i) can be written as f 1 (1t 1, 1t2 , 1t3) = 0 ... (ii)
Each 1t-term contains m + 1 variables, where m = 3 and is also equal to repeating variables. Here V
is a dependent variable and hence should not be selected as repeating variable. Choosing H, g, p as
repeating variable, we get three 1t-terms as
1t1 = Hal .gbi .pct. V
1t2 = Ha2 • gb2 • pc2 • D
1t3 = H a3 . g b3 . p C3 . µ
First 1t-term 1t1 -- Hal .g bi . pct . V
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Substituting dimensions on both sides
Af°LO-f! = Lal . (LT-2li. (MT-3l1. (LT-I)
Equating the powers of M, L, T on both sides,
Power of M, 0 = c,
1
Power of L, a 1 =- b 1 + 3c 1 - 1 = - - 1 =- -1
2 2
1
Power of T, b1 =- -
2
Substituting the values of a 1, b 1 and c 1 in 1t 1,
-½ o V
1t1 =H _.1
2. g . p . V= Jiii .
Second 1t-term n2 = J{-'2 . l2 . pc2 . D
Af°LO-f! = La2. (Lr-2l2. (MC3l2. L
Equating the powers of M, L, T,
Power of M, 0 = c2 c 2 =0
Power of L, 0 = a 2 + b2 - 3c2 + 1, a 2 = - b2 + 3c 2 - 1 =- 1
Power of T, 0 =- 2b 2 , b2 = 0
Substituting the values of a2 , b 2 , c2 in 1t2 ,
1t2 =H -1 . g opo . D = -D
H
Third n-term l
n 3 = J{-' 3 . 3 . pc 3 . µ
Af°LO-f! = La3. (Lr-2l3. (MC3l3. MCIT-I
Power of M, 0 = c 3 + 1, c3 = - 1
1
Power of L, a 3 =- b3 + 3c3 + 1 = - - 3 + 1 =- -3
2 2
1
Power of T, b3=- -
2
1t _ H-312 g-112 p-1 µ_ µ
3 - • • • - H312 PJi
- µ - µV [Multiply and Divide by V]
- Hp Jiii - HpV Jiii
- ---1:!:_ 1t
- HpV . 1
Substituting the values of 1t 1, 1t2 and 1t3 in equation (ii),
/1 ( ~ ~ , , 1t1 ~ V) =0 or ~ =~ [ ~ , ~ V] 1t1
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or V = .J2gH cl> [ D ,
H pVH
~J. Ans.
Multiplying by a constant does not change the character of 1t-terms.

Problem 12.10 The pressure difference Lip in a pipe of diameter D and length l due to turbulent
flow depends on the velocity V, viscosity µ, density p and roughness k. Using Buckingham's
1!-theorem, obtain an expression for Lip.
Solution. Given :
!ip is a function of D, l, V, µ, p, k
!ip =f(D, l, V, µ, p, k) or f 1(/1p, D, l, V, µ, p, k) = 0 ... (i)
Total number of variables, n = 7.
Writing dimensions of each variable,
Dimension of !ip = Dimension of pressure =MC1r 2
D =L, 1= L, v = Lr1, µ =ML- 1 r 1, p = ML- 3 , k = L
Number of fundamental dimensions, m = 3
Number of 1t-terms =n - m =7 - 3 =4.
Now equation (z) can be grouped in 4 1t-terms as
f1 (1t1, 1t2, 1t3, 1t4) = 0 ... ( ii)
Each 1t-term contains m + 1 or 3 + 1 = 4 variables. Out of four variables, three are repeating
variables. Choosing D, V, p as the repeating variables, we have the four 1t-terms as
1t1 = Dal . vb1 . Pel . /1p
1t2 = Da2 . vb2 . PC2 . l
1t3 = Da, . vb, . Pc' . µ
1t4 = Da· . vb• . pc• . k
First 1t-term 1t1 = Da1 • Vb 1 • pc1 • /1p
Substituting dimensions on both sides,
Af°LO-f! = Lal. (LT-ll1 . (MC3t1 . ML-lT-2
Power of M, 0 = c 1+ 1 c 1 = -1
PowerofL, 0=a 1 +b 1 -3c 1 -l, a 1 =- b 1 + 3c 1 + 1 =2 - 3 + 1 = 0
Power of T, 0 = - b 1 - 2, b 1 =-2
Substituting the values of a 1, b 1 and c 1 in 1t1,
/1p
1t1 = D O · v-2 · P-1 · ilP = -pV
A
-2
Second 1t-term 1t2 = Da2 . Vb 2 . pc 2 • /

Af°LO-f! = La2. (LT-ll2 . (MC3t2. L
Power of M, 0 = c2, C2 = 0
Power of L, 0 = a 2 - b 2 -3c2 + 1, a 2 = b 2 + 3c 2 - 1 =- 1
Power of T, 0 = - b2 , b2 = 0
Substituting the values of a 2 , b 2 , c2 in 1t2,
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o l
1t2 =D-1 . v- ,,0
.p . = Dl
Third 1t-term 1t3 = Da 3 • yb 3 • pc 3 • µ
Af°LOT° = La3. (Lr-ll3. (MC3t3. MClr-1
Power of M, 0 = c 3 + 1, c3 = - 1
Power of L, 0 = a 3 + b3 - 3c3 - 1, a 3 =- b 3 + 3c 3 + 1 = 1 - 3 + 1 =- 1
Power of T, 0 = - b3 - 1, b3 = - 1
Fourth 1t-term
or {Dimension of k = L}
Equating the power of M, L, T on both sides,
Power of M, 0 = c4 , C4 =0
Power of L, 0 = a4 - b4 - 3c4 + 1, a4 =
b4 + 3c4 - 1 =- 1
Power of T, 0 = - b4 , b4 = 0
Substituting the values of a4 , b4 , c4 in 1t4 ,
1t4 = D -1 . V o . po . k = -Dk
Substituting the values of 1t 1, 1t2 , 1t3 and 1t4 in (ii),we get
/1 (pt2 ' ~' :VP ' ; J=0 or pt2 =~ [~ 'D~p ' !]. Ans.
Expression for h1 (Difference of pressure-head). From experiments, it was observed that pressure
difference, /).p is a linear function of ..!__ and hence it is taken out of function
D
pt2= ~ ~ [ :VP ' ; ]

/lp = v2 . ..!__ ~ [___t__ ,~]
p D DVp D
Dividing by g to both sides, we have /lp = V • 1

2
~ [___t_, ~].
pg g.D DVp D
Now ~ [___t__,
DVp D
~] contains two terms. First one is ___t__
DVp
which is 1
Reynolds number
or - 1- and
Re
second one is ~D which is called roughness factor. Now~ [-Re1-, D ~i is put equal to f, where f is the
co-efficient of friction which is a function of Reynolds number and roughness factor.
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/).p
pg
Multiplying or dividing by any constant does not change the character of 1t-terms.
/lp 4f.LV 2
- =h1 = ---.Ans.
pg D x2g
Problem 12.11 The pressure difference Lip in a pipe of diameter D and length l due to viscous flow
depends on the velocity V, viscosity µ and density p. Using Buckingham's 1!-theorem, obtain an
expression for Lip.
Solution. This problem is similar to problem 12.10. The only difference is that !lp is to be calcu-
lated for viscous flow. Then in the repeating variable instead of p, the fluid propertyµ is to be chosen.
Now !lp is a function of D, l, V, µ, p or !lp = j(D, l, V, µ, p)
or f 1 (/lp, D, l, V, µ, p) = 0 ... (i)
Total number of variables, n=6
Number of 1t-terms =n - 3 =6 - 3 = 3
Hence equation (i) is written asf1(1t 1, 1t2 , 1t3) = 0 ... (ii)
Each 1t-term contains m + 1 variables, i.e., 3 + 1 = 4 variables. Out of four variables, three are
repeating variables.
Choosing D, V, µ as repeating variables, we have 1t-terms as
1t1 = Dal . vb1 • µ C1 • /lp
1t2 = va2 • yb2 • µ C2 • l
1t3 = Da3. v~ .µC3 .p
First 1t-term 1t1 = Dal . yb1 • µct . /).p
M°L 0t-i = La 1 • (Lr 1/ 1 • (MC 1r 1l1. MC 1r 2 _
Power of M, 0 = c 1 + 1, c1 = - 1
Power of L, 0 = a 1 + b 1 - c 1 - 1, a 1 =- b 1 + c 1 + 1 = 1 - 1 + 1 = 1
Power of T, 0 = - b 1 - c 1 - 2, b1 =- C1 - 2 = 1 - 2 =- 1
1t1 =D 1 . v-1 . µ-1 . up =-

AD/lp
-.
µV
Second 1t-term 1t2 = na2 . ~2 • µC2 • l
M°L 0fJ = La2 . (LT- 1/ 2 . (MC 1T- 1 2 . L. t
Power of M, 0 = c2 , C2 = 0
Power of L, 0 = a 2 + b 2 - c2 + 1, a 2 =- b 2 + c2 - 1 =- 1
Power of T, 0 = - b2 - c 2 , b2 =- C2 = 0
Substituting the values of a 2 , b 2 and c2 in 1t2,
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n2 = v-1 . v° . µ o . l = _!:_.
D
Third 1t-term 1t3 = Da3 • ybJ . µc3 . p
Substituting the dimension on both sides,
M°L0 'f'J = La 3 • (LT- 1/ 3 • (MC 1 T- 1/ 3 • MC3 •
Power of M, 0 = c3 + 1, c3 = - 1
Power of L, 0 = a 3 + b3 - c3 - 3, a 3 =- b3 + c 3 + 3 = -1 - 1+ 3 = 1
Power of T, 0 = - b3 - c 3, b3 =- C3 = - (- 1) = 1
Substituting the values of a 3, b 3 and c 3 in 1t3,
pDV
1t3 = D 1 . V 1 . µ-1 . p = - -.
µ
Substituting the values of 1t 1, 1t2 and 1t3 in equation (ii),
f1 (:J, ~.p:V)=o or :t = $[~,p:V] or L\p= µ; $[~•p:V]

Experiments show that the pressure difference L\p is a linear function _!:__. Hence _!:__ can be taken
D D
out of the functional as
L\p = µV x _!_$ [pDV]· Ans.

D D µ
Expression for difference of pressure head for viscous flow
fip µV l 1
hf= pg = DX D X pg $ [Re]
µVI
= -- 2 $ [Rel• Ans.
wD
Problem 12.12 Derive on the basis of dimensional analysis suitable parameters to present the
thrust developed by a propeller. Assume that the thrust P depends upon the angular velocity ~ speed
of advance V, diameter D, dynamic viscosity µ, mass density p, elasticity of the fluid medium which
can be denoted by the speed of sound in the medium C.
Solution. Thrust P is a function of co, V, D, µ, p, C
or P = /(co, V, D, µ, p, C)
or f 1 = (P, co, V, D, µ, p, C) = 0 ... (i)
:. Total number of variables, n = 7
Writing dimensions of each variable, we have
P = MLT-2 , co= r-1, V= LT-1, D = L,
µ = MC 1 r-1, p = MC3 , C= LT-1
Number of 1t-terms = n - m = 7 - 3 = 4
Hence, equation (i) can be written as f 1(1t 1, 1t2 , 1t3, 1t4 ) = 0 ... (ii)
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Each 1t-term contains m + 1, i.e., 3 + 1 = 4 variables. Out of four variables, three are repeating
variables.
Choosing D, V, p as repeating variables, we get 1t-terms as
1t1 = Dal . vb1 . Pel . p
1t2 = Da2 . vb2 . PC2 . co
1t3 = Da, . vb, . Pc' . µ
1t4 = Da· . vb• . pc• . C
First 1t-term 1t1 = Da1 • Vb 1 • pc1 • p
Writing dimensions on both sides,
M.°L 0 T° = Lat . (LT- 1/1 . (MC3lt. MLT- 2 •
Power of M, 0 = c 1 + 1, c 1 =- 1
Power of L, 0 = a 1 + b 1 3c 1 + 1,
-
a 1 =- b 1 + 3c 1 - 1 = 2 - 3 - 1 =- 2
Power of T, 0 =- b 1 - 2, b 1 =- 2
1t1 =D-2 · V -2 · P-1 p = D 2pV 2 p •

Second n-term 1t2 = Da2 • v1' 2 • /!{ 2 • co
M°LoTo = La2. (LT-l/2. (MC3t2. r-t
Power of M, 0 = c2 , C2 = 0
Power of L, 0 = a 2 + b2 - 3c2 , a 2 =- b2 + 3c2 = 1 + 0 = 1
Power of T, 0 = - b2 - 1, b2 = - 1
Substituting the values of a 2 , b 2 , c2 in 1t2 ,
1t2 =D 1 . V -1 . po . co= -
Dco
.
V
Third n-term n3 = Da 3 • V' 3 • pc 3 • µ.
t
M°L 0 T° = Da 3 • (LT- 1 / 3 • (MC3 3 • MC 1T- 1
Power of M, 0 = c 3 + 1, c3 = - 1
Power of L, 0 = a 3 + b3 - 3c3 - 1, a 3 =- b3 + 3c3 + 1 = 1 - 3 + 1 =- 1
Power of T, 0 = - b3 - 1 b3 = - 1
1t3 =D-1 • -1
17
V • p
-1
• µ = --.
µ
DVp
Fourth n-term n4 = Da4 • V'4 • pc C.
4

M°L 0 T° = La4 • (LT- 1/ 4 • (MC3l 4 • LT-I
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Power of M, 0 = c4 , C4= 0
Power of L, 0 = a4 + b4 - 3c4 + 1, a4 = - b4 + 3c4 - 1 = 1 + 0 -1 = 0
Power of T, 0 = - a4 - 1, b 4 =- 1
Substituting the values of a4 , b4 and c4 in 1t4 ,
1t4 =D o . V -1 . po . C = -C .
V
Substituting the values of 1t 1, 1t2, 1t3 and 1t4 in equation (ii),
p Dro ___l:__
fi ( D 2 V 2 p ' V 'DVp ' V -
C) -0 or
or p = D2V2p cl> ( Dro ' ~ ' C). Ans.
V DVp V
Problem 12.13 The frictional torque T of a disc of diameter D rotating at a speed N in a fluid of
viscosityµ and density pin a turbulent flow is given by T = D 5N 2 p</J [+].D Np

Prove this by the method of dimensions.
Solution. Given: T =f(D, N, µ, p) or f 1(T, D, N, µ, p) = 0 ... (i)
Dimensions of each variable are expressed as
T= ML 2r- 2, D = L, N = r- 1, µ = ML- 1r-1, p = ML- 3
:. Number of fundamental dimensions, m = 3
Number of 1t-terms = n- m= 5- 3= 2
Hence equation (i) can be written asf1(1t 1, 1t2) = 0 ... (ii)
Each 1t-term contains m + 1 variable, i.e., 3 + 1 = 4 variables. Three variables are repeating variables.
Choosing D, N, p as repeating variables, the 1t-terms are
1t1 = Dal. ~1. pct. T
1t2 = Da2. ~2. pc2 • µ
Dimensional Analysis of 1t 1
1t1 = Dal . ~I • pct • T
M°LOfl = Lal . (T-ll1. (MC3t1 . ML2T-2.
Power of M, 0 = c 1 + 1, c 1 =- 1
Power of L, 0 = a 1 - 3c 1 + 2, a 1 = 3c 1- 2 = - 3 - 2 = - 5
Power of T, 0 = - b 1 - 2, bl =-2
Substituting the values of a 1, b 1, c 1 in 1t,
Dimensional Analysis of 1t2

1t2 = Da2 • ~2 • pC2 • µ
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l
M°L0 fl = La2 • (r- 1 2 • (Mc'Y 2 • MC 1T- 1•
Power of M, 0 = c 2 + 1, c2 = - 1
Power of L, 0 = a2 - 3c 2 - 1, a2 = 3c 2 + 1 =- 3 + 1 =- 2
Power of T, 0 = - b2 - 1, b2 = - 1
Substituting the values of a2 , b2 and c2 in 1t2,
1t2 =D
-2N-I -1
p ·µ = -D2µNp
-.
Substituting the values of 1t 1 and 1t2 in equation (ii),
fi1 ( sT 2 , _2µ
D N p D Np
J= 0 or 5T 2
D N p
= <\l (-2µ
D Np
)
or T= D 5N 2 p cl>[+].D Np
Ans.
Problem 12.14 Using Buckingham's 1!-theorem, show that the discharge Q consumed by an oil
ring is given by
Q - Nd3"'
-
[_l!__ a
.,, pNd 2 'pN 2 d 3 'pN 2 d
_w_]
where d is the internal diameter of the ring, N is rotational speed, p is density, µ is viscosity, a is
surface tension and w is the specific weight of oil.
Solution. Given : Q =f(d, N, p, µ, cr, w) or f 1(Q, d, N, p, µ, cr, w) = 0 ... (i)
Dimensions of each variables are
=
Q L 3 T- 1 , d = L, N = r- 1, p =ML-3, µ =ML- 1r-1, a= Mr-2
and w = ML- 2 2 r
Total number of fundamental dimensions, m = 3
Total number of 1t-terms = n - m = 7 - 3 =4
Equation (i) becomes asf1(7t 1, 1t2, 1t3, 1t4) = 0 ... (ii)
Choosing d, N, p as repeating variables, the 1t-terms are
1t1 = dal . }/1 . pct . Q
7t2 = ~2 • }/2 • pC2 • µ
1t3 = ~3 . }/3 . PC3 . O"
1t4 = ~4. }/4. PC4. w.
First n-term n 1 = ~1. }/1. pc1. Q.
Af°LOfl =Lal. (T-ll1. (MC3t1. L3T-I.
Power of M, 0 = c 1, C1 = 0
Power of L, 0 = a 1 - 3c 1 + 3, a 1 = 3c 1 - 3 = 0- 3 =- 3
Power of T, 0 = - b 1 - 1, b 1 =- 1
. .
Su bstitutmg . 1t , 1t = d-3
a 1, b 1, c 1 m 1 1 . N-I . Po • Q = - Q
3-
dN
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Second 1t-term n 2 = d,°'2 • Nb2 • pc2 • µ.
M°L 0 fl = La2 • (r- 1l 2 • (Mc'Y 2 • MC 1 r- 1
Power of M, 0 =c2 + 1, c2 =- 1
Power of L, 0 = a2 - 3c 2 - 1,
a2 = 3c 2 + 1 = - 3 + 1 = - 2
Power of T, 0 =- b2 - 1, b2 =- 1
Substituting the values of a 2 , b 2 , c2 in 1t2 ,
1t2
µ-
=d -2 . N-I . p-1 . µ = - 2 or µ
d Np pNd 2 .
Third 1t-term 1t3 = d,°'J . ~3 • pc3 • cr.
Af°LOfl = La3. (T-ll3. (MC3l3. MT-2.
Equating the powers of M, L, Ton the sides,
Power of M, 0 = c 3 + 1, c3 = - 1
Power of L, 0 = a 3 - 3c3 , a 3 = 3c 3 =- 3
Power of T, 0 = - b3 - 2, b3 =-2
Substituting the values of a 3, b3, c3 in 1t3,
1t3= d -3 · N-2 .p-1 .O"= 3

O"
2.
d Np
Fourth 1t-term 1t4 = d°'4• ~ 4 • pc4 • w
M°L 0 fl = La4 • (T- 1l 4 • (MC'Y4 • MC 2 T- 2 •
Power of M, 0 = c4 + 1, c4 = - 1
Power of L, 0 = a4 - 3c4 - 2, a4 = 3c4 + 2 = - 3+2= - 1
Power of T, 0 = -b4 -2, b4 =-2
Substituting the values of a4 , b4 and c4 in 1t4 ,
1t4 =d -I · N-2 · p-1 · W = --2-

W
dN p
·
Now substituting the values of 1t 1, 1t2 , 1t3, 1t4 in (ii),
t(d~N' p:d2 'd3;2p 'd;2p) =0 or d~N =/1 [p:d2 'd3;2p' d;2p]

or Q = d3Ncl> [ ~ , ~ ,
pNd d Nd dN p
-;-J. Ans.
• 12.S MODEL ANALYSIS
For predicting the performance of the hydraulic structures (such as dams, spillways etc.) or
hydraualic machines (such as turbines, pumps etc.), before actually constructing or manufacturing,
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CHAPTER
Fluid mechanics is that branch of science which deals with the behaviour of the fluids (liquids or
gases) at rest as well as in motion. Thus this branch of science deals with the static, kinematics and
dynamic aspects of fluids. The study of fluids at rest is called fluid statics. The study of fluids in
motion, where pressure forces are not considered, is called fluid kinematics and if the pressure forces
are also considered for the fluids in motion, that branch of science is called fluid dynamics.
• 1.2 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

1.2. 1 Density or Mass Density. Density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the ratio of the
mass of a fluid to its volume. Thus mass per unit volume of a fluid is called density. It is denoted by the
symbol p (rho). The unit of mass density in SI unit is kg per cubic metre, i.e., kg/m 3 • The density of
liquids may be considered as constant while that of gases changes with the variation of pressure and
temperature.
Mathematically, mass density is written as
Mass of fluid
p=----.
Volume of fluid
The value of density of water is 1 gm/cm 3 or 1000 kg/m 3 .
1.2.2 Specific Weight or Weight Density. Specific weight or weight density of a fluid is the
ratio between the weight of a fluid to its volume. Thus weight per unit volume of a fluid is called
weight density and it is denoted by the symbol w.
Weight of fluid (Mass of fluid) x Acceleration due to gravity

Thus mathematically, w= =--------------'---'-
Volume of fluid Volume of fluid
Mass of fluid x g
= ------'-
Volume of fluid
=pxg { ·: Mass of fluid = p}

Volume of fluid
w= pg ... (1.1)
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I 2 Fluid Mechanics
The value of specific weight or weight density (w) for water is 9.81 x 1000 Newton/m 3 in SI units.
1.2.3 Specific Volume. Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume of a fluid occupied
by a unit mass or volume per unit mass of a fluid is called specific volume. Mathematically, it is
expressed as
Volume of fluid 1 1
Specific volume =------=��-��= Mass of fluid
Mass of fluid p
Volume of fluid
Thus specific volume is the reciprocal of mass density. It is expressed as m 3/kg. It is commonly
applied to gases.
1.2.4 Specific Gravity. Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the weight density (or density)
of a fluid to the weight density (or density) of a standard fluid. For liquids, the standard fluid is taken
water and for gases, the standard fluid is taken air. Specific gravity is also called relative density. It is
dimensionless quantity and is denoted by the symbol S.
Weight density (density) of liquid
Mathematically, S(for liquids) =
Weight density (density) of water
Weight density (density) of gas
S(for gases) = ----------
Weight density (density) of air
Thus weight density of a liquid=S x Weight density of water
=S X 1000 X 9.81 N/m 3
The density of a liquid =S x Density of water
=S X 1000 kg/m 3. ... (l.lA)
If the specific gravity of a fluid is known, then the density of the fluid will be equal to specific
gravity of fluid multiplied by the density of water. For example, the specific gravity of mercury is 13.6,
hence density of mercury = 13.6 x 1000= 136 00 kg/m 3.
Problem 1.1 Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of one litre of a liquid
which weighs 7 N.
Solution. Given :
1 1
Volume= I litre= m3 (·: llitre=- -m or llitre = 1000cm )
3 3
1000 1000
Weight=7 N
Weight 7N
(i) Specific weight (w) = --- = ---- = 7000 N/m . Ans.
3
Volume
m3
(10�0)
7000
= - = - - kg/m 3=713.5 kg/m 3 . Ans.
w
(ii) Density (p)
g 9.81
Density of liquid 713.5
(iii) Specific gravity = { ·: Density of water= 1000 kg/m 3 }
Density of water 1000
= 0.7135. Ans.
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Properties of Fluids 31
Problem 1.2 Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of one litre of petrol of specific
gravity= 0.7
. 1000
Solution. Given : Volume= 1 htre = 1 x 1000 cm 3 = - 6- m 3 = 0.001 m 3
10
Sp. gravity S= 0.7
(i) Density (p)
Using equation (l.lA),
Density (p) =S X 1000 kg/m 3 = 0.7 x 1000 = 700 kg/m 3 • Ans.
(ii) Specific weight (w)
Using equation (1.1), w = p x g = 700 x 9.81 N/m 3 = 6867 N/m3. Ans.
(iii) Weight (W)
Weight
We know that specific weight= - - -
Volume
or
w
w= --or6867 = - -
w
0.001 0.001
W = 6867 X 0.001 = 6.867 N. Ans.
• 1.3 VISCOSITY
Viscosity is defined as the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one layer
of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid. When two layers of a fluid, a distance 'dy' apart, move
one over the other at different velocities, say u and u + du as shown in Fig. 1.1, the viscosity together
with relative velocity causes a shear stress acting between the fluid layers.
The top layer causes a shear stress on the
adjacent lower layer while the lower layer causes
a shear stress on the adjacent top layer. This shear
stress is proportional to the rate of change of ve-
locity with respect toy. It is denoted by symbol
't (Tau).
du
Mathematically, 't oc - - u
dy
Fig. 1.1 Velocity variation near a solid boundary.
du
or 't=µ- ... (1.2)
dy
where µ (called mu) is the constant of proportionality and is known as the co-efficient of dynamic viscosity
or only viscosity. du represents the rate of shear strain or rate of shear deformation or velocity gradient.
dy
From equation (1.2), we have µ = ( :':) ... (1.3)
Thus viscosity is also defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate of shear strain.
1.3. 1 Units of Viscosity. The units of viscosity is obtained by putting the dimensions of the
quantities in equation (1.3)
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14 Fluid Mechanics
Shear stress Force/ Area

µ=-------=--------
Change of velocity (Length) 1
Change of distance Time x Length
Force/(Length) 2 Force x Time
=------
1 (Length) 2
Time
In MKS system, force is represented by kgf and length by metre (m), in CGS system, force is
represented by dyne and length by cm and in SI system force is represented by Newton (N) and length
by metre (m).
kgf-sec
MKS unit of viscosity =
m2
dyne-sec
CGS unit of viscosity =
cm 2
In the above expression N/m 2 is also known as Pascal which is represented by Pa. Hence N/m 2 = Pa
= Pascal
SI unit of viscosity= Ns/m 2 =Pas.
Newton-sec Ns
SI unit of viscosity = =
dyne-sec
The unit of viscosity in CGS is also called Poise which is equal to - - - -
cm2
The numerical conversion of the unit of viscosity from MKS unit to CGS unit is given below :
one kgf-sec 9.81 N-sec
--..C...,---= { ·: 1 kgf = 9.81 Newton}
m2 m2
But one Newton= one kg (mass) x one (se: 2 ) (acceleration)
= (1000 gm) x (100 cm) = 1000 x 100 gm-cm

sec 2 sec 2
= 1000 x 100 dyne {·: dyne= gm x cm}
sec 2
one kgf-sec = 9.81 x 100000 dyne-sec = 9.81 x 100000 dyne-sec
cm 2 100 x 100 x cm2
dyne-sec . { dyne-sec p . }
= 98.1 2 = 98.1 potse ·: 2 01se
cm cm
Thus for solving numerical problems, if viscosity is given in poise, it must be divided by 98.1 to get
its equivalent numerical value in MKS.
one kgf-sec 9.81 Ns 98 1 .
But ----- = 2 = . poise
m2 m
oneNs 98.1 . = 10 potse
. . 1 Ns
=- - potse or 0 ne potse = - -2.
m2 9.81 10m
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Properties of Fluids sI
. dyne x s
Alternate Method. One p01se = 2 ( lgmxlcm)
2 X
_s_
2
cm s cm
1cm
But dyne = 1 gm X - 2-
s
1 k
One poise
lgm WOO g
= scm = 1
s--m
100
= l X 100 kg=_!_~ or 1 ~ = 10 poise.
1000 sm 10 sm sm
Note. (i) In SI units second is represented by 's' and not by 'sec'.
(ii) If viscosity is given in poise, it must be divided by 10 to get its equivalent numerical value in SI units.
Sometimes a unit of viscosity as centipoise is used where
. . = - 1pmse
1 cent1p01se . or lP c = - lp [cP = Centipoise, P = Poise]
100 100
The viscosity of water at 20°C is 0.01 poise or 1.0 centipoise.
1.3.2 Kinematic Viscosity. It is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density
of fluid. It is denoted by the Greek symbol (v) called 'nu'. Thus, mathematically,
Viscosity µ
V= - - - - = ... (1.4)
Density p
The units of kinematic viscosity is obtained as
Units ofµ Force x Time Force x Time
v--------'--------~~-- Mass
- Units of p - (Length)2 x Mass
(Length)3 Length
Length .
Mass x 2 x Ttme ·: Force= Mass x Acc. }
(Time) {
=--------- Length
= M assx
(L~:;:) Time
2
(Length/
=
Time
In MKS and SI, the unit of kinematic viscosity is metre 2/sec or m 2/sec while in CGS units it is
written as cm2/s. In CGS units, kinematic viscosity is also known as stoke.
2
Thus, one stoke = cm 2/s = ( -1-) m 2/s = 10- 4 m 2/s
100
1
Centistoke means = stoke.
100
1.3.3 Newton's law of Viscosity. It states that the shear stress (t) on a fluid element layer is
directly proportional to the rate of shear strain. The constant of proportionality is called the co-
efficient of viscosity. Mathematically, it is expressed as given by equation (1.2) or as
du
't = µ - .
dy
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16 Fluid Mechanics
Fluids which obey the above relation are known as Newtonian fluids and the fluids which do not
obey the above relation are called Non-Newtonian fluids.
1.3.4 Variation of Viscosity with Temperature. Temperature affects the viscosity. The
viscosity of liquids decreases with the increase of temperature while the viscosity of gases increases
with the increase of temperature. This is due to reason that the viscous forces in a fluid are due to
cohesive forces and molecular momentum transfer. In liquids, the cohesive forces predominates
the molecular momentum transfer, due to closely packed molecules and with the increase in
temperature, the cohesive forces decreases with the result of decreasing viscosity. But in case of
gases the cohesive forces are small and molecular momentum transfer predominates. With the
increase in temperature, molecular momentum transfer increases and hence viscosity increases. The
relation between viscosity and temperature for liquids and gases are:
(i) For liquids,µ= µ 0 (

1 ... (1.4A)
2)
l+at+~t
where µ=Viscosity of liquid at t°C, in poise
µ 0 = Viscosity of liquid at 0°C, in poise
a, ~ = Constants for the liquid
For water, µ 0 = 1.79 x 10- 3 poise, a= 0.03368 and ~ = 0.000221.
Equation (1.4A) shows that with the increase of temperature, the viscosity decreases.
(ii) For a gas, µ = µ0 + at - ~ t2 .. . (1.4B)
where for air µ 0 = 0.000017, a = 0.000000056, ~ = 0.1189 x 10- • 9
Equation (1.4B) shows that with the increase of temperature, the viscosity increases.
1.3.S Types of Fluids. The fluids may be classified into the following five types:
1. Ideal fluid, 2. Real fluid,
3. Newtonian fluid, 4. Non-Newtonian fluid, and
5. Ideal plastic fluid.
1. Ideal Fluid. A fluid, which is incompressible and is
having no viscosity, is known as an ideal fluid. Ideal fluid is
only an imaginary fluid as all the fluids, which exist, have
some viscosity.
2. Real Fluid. A fluid, which possesses viscosity, is
known as real fluid. All the fluids, in actual practice, are real
fluids.
3. Newtonian Fluid. A real fluid, in which the shear
stress is directly proportional to the rate of shear strain (or
t / DEAL FLUID
velocity gradient), is known as a Newtonian fluid. - VELOCITY GRADIENT ( ~~)

4. Non-Newtonian Fluid. A real fluid, in which the
shear stress is not proportional to the rate of shear strain (or Fig. 1.2 Types of fluids.
velocity gradient), known as a Non-Newtonian fluid.
S. Ideal Plastic Fluid. A fluid, in which shear stress is more than the yield value and shear
stress is proportional to the rate of shear strain (or velocity gradient), is known as ideal plastic fluid.
Problem 1.3 If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by u = l._ y -

3
l in which u is the
velocity in metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate, determine the shear stress at
y = 0 and y = 0.15 m. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 8.63 poises.
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2 2 du 2
Solution. Given : u=-y-y - = - -2y
3 dy 3
(dduJy aty=O
or (duJ
d
y y=O
= 32- 2(0) = 32 = 0.667
Also (dduJ
Y at y = 0.15
or (duJ
d
Y y = 0.15
= 32- 2 x .15 = .667 - .30 = 0.367
. 8.63 2
Value ofµ= 8.6 3 potse = - - SI units= 0.863 N s/m
10
du
Now shear stress is given by equation (1.2) as 't = µ - .
dy
(i) Shear stress at y = 0 is given by
t0 = µ (:u) y y=O
= 0.863 x 0.667 = 0.5756 N/m 2• Ans.
(ii) Shear stress at y = 0.15 mis given by
(t)y = 0 _15 =µ (:u J

y y=0.15
=0.863 x 0.367 =0.3167 N/m 2• Ans.
Problem 1.4 A plate 0.025 mm distant from a fixed plate, moves at 60 emfs and requires a force of
2 N per unit area i.e., 2 Nlm 2 to maintain this speed. Determine the fluid viscosity between the plates.
Solution. Given :
Distance between plates, dy = .025 mm 1 __________
=====
dy = .025 mm
~
u = 60 cm/s
Velocity of upper plate,

= .025 X 10-3 m
u = 60 emfs= 0.6 mis
T ;/mmm
----------
N FIXED PLATE
Force on upper plate, F = 2.0 - 2 •
m Fig. 1.3
This is the value of shear stress i.e., 't
Let the fluid viscosity between the plates is µ.
. . du
Usmg the equation (1.2), we have 't =µ - .
dy
where du = Change of velocity = u - 0 = u = 0.60 mis
dy = Change of distance = .025 x 10-3 m
't = Force per unit area = 2.0 N2

m
20_ 0.60 µ = 2.0 X .025 X 10- 3 = 8_33 X 10_5 Ns
· - µ .025x10- 3 0.60 m2
= 8.33 x 10-5 x 10 poise = 8.33 x 10- 4 poise. Ans.
Problem 1.5 A flat plate of area 1.5 x 106 mm 2 is pulled with a speed of 0.4 mis relative to
another plate located at a distance of0.15 mm from it. Find the force and power required to maintain
this speed, if the fluid separating them is having viscosity as 1 poise.
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1 s Fluid Mechanics
Solution. Given :
Area of the plate, A = 1.5 x 106 mm 2 = 1.5 m2
Speed of plate relative to another plate, du = 0.4 mis
Distance between the plates, dy = 0.15 mm= 0.15 x 10- 3 m
1 Ns
Viscosity µ = 1 poise = - - .
10 m 2
du 1 0.4 N
Using equation (1.2) we havet = µ - = - x - - - - = 266.66 - 2
dy 10 .15xl0 - 3 m
(i) :. Shear force, F = t x area= 266.66 x 1.5 = 400 N. Ans.
(ii) Power* required to move the plate at the speed 0.4 mlsec
= F x u = 400 x 0.4 = 160 w. Ans.
Problem 1.6 Determine the intensity of shear of an oil having viscosity = I poise. The oil is used
for lubricating the clearance between a shaft of diameter JO cm and its journal bearing. The clearance
is 1.5 mm and the shaft rotates at 150 r.p.m.
Solution. Given : µ = 1 poise = _!_ N s

10 m 2
Dia. of shaft, D = 10 cm = 0.1 m
Distance between shaft and journal bearing,
dy = 1.5 mm = 1.5 x 10- 3 m
Speed of shaft, N = 150 r.p.m.
Tangential speed of shaft is given by
u = rr,DN = Tr, X 0.1 X 150 =0.785 mis
60 60
Using equation (1.2),
where du = change of velocity between shaft and bearing = u - 0 = u

1 0.785 2
= - x 3 = 52.33 Nim . Ans.
10 l.5x 10-
Problem 1.7 Calculate the dynamic viscosity of an oil, which is used for lubrication between a
square plate of size 0.8 m x 0.8 m and an inclined plane with angle of inclination 30° as shown in
Fig. 1.4. The weight of the square plate is 300 N and it slides down the inclined plane with a uniform
velocity of 0.3 mis. The thickness of oil film is 1.5 mm. ~
\~~
Solution. Given : ,~\
Area of plate, A =0.8 X 0.8 =0.64 m2 i t'.·
() ~
Angle of plane, 0 = 30° \} ~ . : :-·
Weight of plate, W= 300 N

Velocity of plate, u = 0.3 mis
Fig. 1.4
* Power=FxuNmls=FxuW(·: Nm/s=Watt)
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Thickness of oil film, t = dy = 1.5 mm = 1.5 x 10-3 m
Let the viscosity of fluid between plate and inclined plane is µ.
Component of weight W, along the plane= W cos 60° = 300 cos 60° = 150 N
Thus the shear force, F, on the bottom surface of the plate= 150 N
and shear stress, t = _!_ = 150 N/m2

Area 0.64
Now using equation (1.2), we have
du
t=µ-
dy
where du = change of velocity = u - 0 = u = 0.3 mis
dy = t = 1.5 X 10-3 m
150 0.3
0.64 = µ 15 X 10- 3
150 X 15 Xl0- 3
µ= = 1.17 N s/m 2 = 1.17 x 10 = 11.7 poise. Ans.
0.64x0.3
Problem 1.8 Two horiwntal plates are placed 1.25 cm apart, the space between them being filled
with oil of viscosity 14 poises. Calculate the shear stress in oil if upper plate is moved with a velocity
of2.5 mis.
Solution. Given :
Distance between plates, dy = 1.25 cm= 0.0125 m
Viscosity, µ = 14 poise= 14 N s/m2

10
Velocity of upper plate, u = 2.5 m/sec.
Shear stress is given by equation (1.2) as, t = µ du

dy
where du = Change of velocity between plates = u - 0 = u = 2.5 m/sec.
dy = 0.0125 m.
14 2.5
t =- x - - =280 N/m2• Ans.
10 .0125
Problem 1.9 The space between two square flat parallel plates is filled with oil. Each side of the
plate is 60 cm. The thickness of the oil film is 12.5 mm. The upper plate, which moves at 2.5 metre per
sec requires a force of98.l N to maintain the speed. Determine:
(i) the dynamic viscosity of the oil in poise, and
(ii) the kinematic viscosity of the oil in stokes if the specific gravity of the oil is 0.95.
Solution. Given :
Each side of a square plate = 60 cm = 0.60 m
:. Area, A = 0.6 x 0.6 = 0.36 m 2
Thickness of oil film, dy = 12.5 mm = 12.5 x 10-3 m
Velocity of upper plate, u = 2.5 m/sec
-II Er.S.Keerthibalan.,PGD(QSV).,ME.(CEM).,MISTE.,AMIE.,CEngg.
I~
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I to Fluid Mechanics
Change of velocity between plates, du = 2.5 m/sec
Force required on upper plate, F = 98.1 N
Force F 98.l N
Shear stress, 't = - - = - = - - -
Area A 0.36m 2
(i) Letµ= Dynamic viscosity of oil
du 98.l 2.5
Using equation (1.2),
't = µ d y or 0.36 = µ x 12.5 x 10- 3
_ 98.l 12.5 X 10-3 _ l 3635 Ns

µ- X - • 2 (·: l;s = 10 poise)
0.36 2.5 m
= 1.3635 x 10 = 13.635 poise. Ans.
(ii) Sp. gr. of oil, S = 0.95
Let v = kinematic viscosity of oil
Using equation (l.lA),
Mass density of oil, p=S X 1000 = 0.95 X 1000 = 950 kg/m 3
1.3635 ( N~)
Using the relation, v = µ , we get v = m = .001435 m 2/sec = .001435 x 104 cm 2/s
p 950
= 14.35 stokes. Ans. (·: cm2/s = stoke)
Problem 1.10 Find the kinematic viscosity of an oil having density 981 kglm3• The shear stress at
a point in oil is 0.2452 Nlm 2 and velocity gradient at that point is 0.2 per second.
Solution. Given :
Mass density, p = 981 kg/m 3
Shear stress, t = 0.2452 N/m 2
du
Velocity gradient, - = 0.2 s
dy
du
Using the equation (1.2), 't = µ - or 0.2452 = µ x 0.2
dy
µ = 0.2452 = 1.226 Ns/m2
0.200
Kinematic viscosity v is given by
v = µ = l. 226 = .125 x 10- 2 m 2/sec

p 981
= 0.125 x 10-2 x 104 cm2/s = 0.125 x 102 cm 2/s
= 12.5 cm2/s = 12.5 stoke. Ans. (·: cm2/s = stoke)
Problem 1.11 Determine the specific gravity of a fluid having viscosity 0.05 poise and kinematic
viscosity 0.035 stokes.
Solution. Given :
Viscosity,µ= 0.05 poise= 0.05 N s/m2

10
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Properties of Fluids 11 I
Kinematic viscosity, v = 0.035 stokes
= 0.035 cm2/s { ·: Stoke = cm2/s}
= 0.035 x 10- 4 m 2/s
Using the relation v = µ, we get 0.035 x 10- 4 = 0.0 5 x _!_

p 10 p
0.05 l = 1428.5 kg/m 3

p= ill X 0.035 X 10--4
_ Density of liquid _ 14285 _ 1 428 ~ 143 A

Sp. gr. of liquid - ------ - - . 5 _ • • • ns.
Problem 1.12 Determine the viscosity of a liquid having kinematic viscosity 6 stokes and specific
gravity 1.9.
Solution. Given :
Kinematic viscosity v = 6 stokes= 6 cm2/s = 6 x 10- 4 m 2/s
Sp. gr. of liquid = 1.9
Let the viscosity of liquid =µ
Density of the liquid
Now sp. gr. of a liquid =
Density of water
Density of liquid
or l.9=-----
1000
kg
Density of liquid = 1000 X 1.9 = 1900 - 3
m
Using the relation v = µ, we get

p
6 X 10- 4 = ___!:_
1900
or µ = 6 x 10- 4 x 1900 = 1.14 Ns/m 2
= 1.14 x 10 = 11.40 poise. Ans.
Problem 1.13 The velocity distribution for flow over a flat plate is given by u = -¼ y - l in which
u is the velocity in metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate. Determine the shear stress
at y = 0.15 m. Take dynamic viscosity offluid as 8.6 poise.
3 2
Solution. Given : u=4y-y
du 3
- = - -2y
dy 4
du 3
At y = 0.15, - = - - 2 X 0.15 = 0.75 - 0.30 = 0.45
dy 4
Viscosity, µ = 85
.
. p01se =
8.5Ns
10 m2 (-.- 10 poise= 1 =~)
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I t2 Fluid Mechanics
du 8.5 N N
Using equation (1.2), t = µ - = - x 0.45 - 2 = 0.3825 - 2 • Ans .
dy 10 m m
Problem 1.14 The dynamic viscosity of an oil, used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve is
6 poise. The shaft is of diameter 0.4 m and rotates at 190 r.p.m. Calculate the power lost in the bearing
for a sleeve length of 90 mm. The thickness of the oil film is 1.5 mm.
Solution. Given : 1.5 mm
Viscosity µ = 6 poise
_ 6 Ns _ 06 Ns T
0.4m
-10 m2 - • m2
Dia. of shaft, D = 0.4 m c,,,,,,,,,:J _j_
/ 90mm SHAFT
Speed of shaft, N= 190 r.p.m
SLEEVE
Sleeve length, L = 90 mm = 90 x 10- 3 m
Thickness of oil film, t = 1.5 mm = 1.5 x 10- 3 m Fig. 1.5
. . nDN rr,x0.4x190
Tangential velocity of shaft, u = - - =- - - - - = 3.98 mis
60 60
du
Using the relation t=µ-
dy
where du = Change of velocity = u - 0 = u = 3.98 mis
dy = Change of distance = t = 1.5 x 10- 3 m
't = 10 X 3·98 = 1592 N/m 2

l.5x 10- 3
This is shear stress on shaft
Shear force on the shaft, F = Shear stress x Area
= 1592 X rr,D XL= 1592 X rr, X .4 X 90 X 10- 3 = 180.05 N
D 0.4
Torque on the shaft, T = Force x - = 180.05 x - = 36.01 Nm
2 2
*Power lost = 2nNT = 2rr, x 190 x 36.01 = 716.48 w. Ans.
60 60
Problem 1.15 If the velocity profile of a fluid over a plate is parabolic with the vertex 20 cm from
the plate, where the velocity is 120 cm/sec. Calculate the velocity gradients and shear stresses at a
distance of 0, 10 and 20 cm from the plate, if the viscosity of the fluid is 8.5 poise.
Solution. Given : y
Distance of vertex from plate = 20 cm

Velocity at vertex, u = 120 cm/sec u = 120 cm/sec
Viscosity,
. 8.5 N s
µ = 8.5 poise= - - 2 = 0.85. I
20cm
10 m
L u
Fig. 1.6
* Power in S.I. unit= T * ro = T x 2 1tN Watt= 2 1tNT Watt
60 60
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The velocity profile is given parabolic and equation of velocity profile is
u = ay2 + by + c ... (i)
where a, b and c are constants. Their values are determined from boundary conditions as :
(a) at y = 0, u = 0
(b) at y = 20 cm, u = 120 cm/sec
du
(c) at y = 20 cm, - = 0.
dy
Substituting boundary condition (a) in equation (i), we get
C = 0.
Boundary condition (b) on substitution in (i) gives

120 = a(20) 2 + b(20) = 400a + 20b ... (ii)
Boundary condition (c) on substitution in equation (i) gives
du
- =2ay+b ... (iii)
dy
or 0=2xax20+b=40a+b
Solving equations (ii) and (iii) for a and b
From equation (iii), b = - 40a
Substituting this value in equation (ii), we get
120 = 400a + 20 x (- 40a) = 400a - 800a = - 400a
120
a= - - =- -3 =- 0.3
-400 10
b = - 40 X (- 0.3) = 12.0
Substituting the values of a, band c in equation (i),
u = - 0.3y2 + 12y.
Velocity Gradient
du
- = - 0.3 X 2y + 12 = - 0.6y + 12
dy
aty = 0, Velocity gradient,(;uJ = - 0.6 x O + 12 = 12/s. Ans.

y y=O
at y = 10 cm, ( ;uJ =-0.6x 10+ 12=-6+ 12=6/s.Ans.

y y=IO
at y = 20 cm, ( ;uJ = - 0.6 x 20 + 12 = - 12 + 12 = O. Ans.

y y=20
Shear Stresses
du
Shear stress is given by, t=µ-
dy
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(i) Shear stress at y = 0, t = µ (d

duJ = 0.85 x 12.0 = 10.2 Nim 2.
y y=O
(ii) Shear stress at y = 10, t = µ(;u)

y y=IO
= 0.85 x 6.0 = 5.1 N/m 2 •
(iii) Shear stress at y = 20, 't = µ (;uJ = 0.85 x 0 = O. Ans.

y y=20
Problem 1.16 A Newtonian fluid is filled in the clearance between a shaft and a concentric sleeve.
The sleeve attains a speed of 50 emfs, when a force of40 N is applied to the sleeve parallel to the shaft.
Determine the speed if a force of 200 N is applied.
Solution. Given : Speed of sleeve, u 1 = 50 emfs
when force, F 1 = 40 N.
Let speed of sleeve is u 2 when force, F 2 = 200 N.
du
Using relation 't =µ -
dy
Force F
where 't = Shear stress = - - = -
Area A
du = Change of velocity = u - 0 = u
dy = Clearance = y
F u
-=µ-
A y
F= Aµu ocu { ·: A,µ and y are constant}

y
F; F2
-=-
u1 u2
. .
Subst1tutmg al 40 200
v ues, we get - = - -
50 u2
50x200
u2 = - - - = 50 x 5 = 250 emfs. Ans.
40
Problem 1.17 A 15 cm diameter vertical cylinder rotates concentrically inside another cylinder of
diameter 15.10 cm. Both cylinders are 25 cm high. The space between the cylinders is filled with a
liquid whose viscosity is unknown. if a torque of 12.0 Nm is required to rotate the inner cylinder at
JOO r.p.m., determine the viscosity of the fluid.
Solution. Given :
Diameter of cylinder = 15 cm = 0.15 m
Dia. of outer cylinder = 15.10 cm = 0.151 m
Length of cylinders, L = 25 cm= 0.25 m
Torque, T = 12.0 Nm
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Properties of Fluids ts I
Speed, N = 100 r.p.m.
Let the viscosity =µ
nDN n X 0.15 X 100
Tangential velocity of cylinder, u = - - = - - - - - = 0.7854 mis
60 60
Surface area of cylinder, A= nD x L = n x 0.15 x 0.25 = .1178 m 2
du
Now using relation t=µ-
dy
where du= u - 0 = u = .7854 mis
0.151- 0.150
dy =- -- m = .0005 m
2
µ X .7854
't= - - - -
.0005
Shear force, F = Shear stress x Area= µ x ·7854 x .1178

.0005
D
Torque, T=FX-
2
12.0 = µ X •7854 X .1178 X ~

.0005 2
µ = _12_.0_x_.00_05_x_2_= 0 _864 N s/m 2
.7854 X .1178 X .15
= 0.864 x 10 = 8.64 poise. Ans.
Problem 1.18 Two large plane surfaces are 2.4 cm apart. The space between the surfaces is filled
with glycerine. What force is required to drag a very thin plate of surface area 0.5 square metre
between the two large plane surfaces at a speed of 0.6 mis, if:
(i) the thin plate is in the middle of the two plane surfaces, and
(ii) the thin plate is at a distance of 0.8 cm from one of the plane surfaces ? Take the dynamic
viscosity of glycerine = 8.10 x 10- 1 N s/m 2•
Solution. Given :
I ////l/////////////f///1//I /1//111//111//1 I11//1 ///(I
Distance between two large surfaces = 2.4 cm
Area of thin plate, A = 0.5 m 2 1.2 cm
Velocity of thin plate,
Viscosity of glycerine,
u = 0.6 mis
µ = 8.10 x 10- 1 N s/m2
2.4 cm t -----+ F
Case I. When the thin plate is in the middle of the two plane
surfaces [Refer to Fig. 1.7 (a)] ,l,,,~1~,mmn,nn,>m,nnmm
Let F 1 = Shear force on the upper side of the thin plate Fig. 1.7 (a)
F2 = Shear force on the lower side of the thin plate
F = Total force required to drag the plate
Then F= F 1 + F2
The shear stress (t 1) on the upper side of the thin plate is given by equation,
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t, = µ(~;)
where du = Relative velocity between thin plate and upper large plane surface
= 0.6 m/sec
dy = Distance between thin plate and upper large plane surface
= 1.2 cm= 0.012 m (plate is a thin one and hence thickness of plate is neglected)
t, = 8.10 X 10- 1 X ( 0 ·6 ) =40.5 N/m 2

.012
Now shear force, F 1 = Shear stress x Area
= t 1 xA = 40.5 X 0.5 = 20.25 N
Similarly shear stress (t2) on the lower side of the thin plate is given by
t 2 =µ(du)
dy 2
= 8.10 X 10- 1 X (___2£)
on12
= 40.5 N/m 2
Shear force, F2 = t 2 x A = 40.5 x 0.5 = 20.25 N

Total force, F = F 1 + F 2 = 20.25 + 20.25 = 40.5 N. Ans.
Case II. When the thin plate is at a distance of 0.8 cm from one of
the plane surfaces [Refer to Fig. 1.7 (b)]. r
1111111f 1111111111111111 1111111111111111111111111
Let the thin plate is at a distance 0.8 cm from the lower plane I
surface. 1.6 cm
Then distance of the plate from the upper plane surface
= 2.4 - 0.8 = 1.6 cm= .016 m
2.4cm
- .... _.-----. F
i
0.8cm
(Neglecting thickness of the plate) /Ill 11111////1////1//1/,~///1///l/1/Jl/ 1/J// 1/J// 1/J
The shear force on the upper side of the thin plate,
F 1 = Shear stress x Area= t 1 x A
Fig. 1.7 (b)
=µ (du)
dy
A= 8.10
1
X X 10- 1 X (___2£)
0.016
X 0.5 = 15.18 N
The shear force on the lower side of the thin plate,
F2 =t 2 X A = µ (du)
dy 2
X A
= 8.10 X 10- 1 X ( 0 ·6 ) X 0.5 = 30.36 N

0.8/100
Total force required= F 1 + F 2 = 15.18 + 30.36 = 45.54 N. Ans.
Problem 1.19 A vertical gap 2.2 cm wide of infinite extent contains a fluid of viscosity 2.0 N slm 2
and specific gravity 0.9. A metallic plate 1.2 m x 1.2 m x0.2 cm is to be lifted up with a constant
velocity of 0.15 m/sec, through the gap. If the plate is in the middle of the gap, find the force required.
The weight of the plate is 40 N.
Solution. Given :
Width of gap = 2.2 cm, viscosity,µ= 2.0 N s/m2
Sq. gr. of fluid = 0.9
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Weight density of fluid F
= 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kgf/m 3 = 900 x 9.81 N/m 3

(-: 1 kgf = 9.81 N)
f
Volume of plate = 1.2 m x 1.2 m x 0.2 cm
= 1.2 x 1.2 x .002 m 3 = .00288 m 3 1.0
cm
1.0
cm
Thickness of plate = 0.2 cm ->I~
Velocity of plate = 0.15 m/sec 0.2 cm
Weight of plate = 40 N.
When plate is in the middle of the gap, the distance of the plate
from vertical surface of the gap Fig. 1.8
= ( Width of gap- T;ickness of plate)
(2.2 - 0.2)
= - - - - = 1 cm= .01 m.
2
Now the shear force on the left side of the metallic plate,
Fi = Shear stress x Area
=µ (du)
dy 1
X Area= 2.0 X (0.1 5 )
.01
X 1.2 X 1.2 N
(·:Area= 1.2 x 1.2 m 2)

= 43.2 N.
Similarly, the shear force on the right side of the metallic plate,
0.15)
F 2 = Shear stress x Area= 2.0 x ( - - x 1.2 x 1.2 = 43.2 N
.01
Total shear force =Fi+ F 2 = 43.2 + 43.2 = 86.4 N.
In this case the weight of plate (which is acting vertically downward) and upward thrust is also to be
taken into account.
The upward thrust= Weight of fluid displaced
= (Weight density of fluid) x Volume of fluid displaced
= 9.81 X 900 X .00288 N
(·: Volume of fluid displaced= Volume of plate= .00288)
= 25.43 N.
The net force acting in the downward direction due to weight of the plate and upward thrust
= Weight of plate - Upward thrust= 40 - 25.43 = 14.57 N
Total force required to lift the plate up
= Total shear force + 14.57 = 86.4 + 14.57 = 100.97 N. Ans.
• I .4 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
Fluids consist of liquids or gases. But gases are compressible fluids and hence thermodynamic
properties play an important role. With the change of pressure and temperature, the gases undergo
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Pressure and its Measurement
41 I
Dia. of large piston, D = 10 cm
Area of larger piston, A = p x (10) 2 = 78.54 cm 2
4
Force on small piston, F = 80 N
Let the load lifted = W.
(a) When the pistons are at the same level
Pressure intensity on small piston SMALL
PISTON
= � N/cm2
F
a 7.068
This is transmitted equally on the large piston.
Pressure intensity on the large piston
80
Fig. 2.5
7.068
Force on the large piston = Pressure x Area
80
= -- x 78.54 N = 888.96 N. Ans.
7.068
(b) When the small piston is 40 cm above the large piston
Pressure intensity on the small piston
F 80 N
Pressure intensity at section A-A

= - +Pressure intensity due to height of 40 cm of liquid.
F
a
But pressure intensity due to 40 cm of liquid
= p X g X h = 1000 X 9.81 X 0.4 N/m2
1000 x 9.81 x.40
= N/cm 2 = 0.3924 N/cm2
104
Pressure intensity at section A-A Fig. 2.6
= � +0.3924
7.068
= 11.32 + 0.3924 = 11.71 N/cm 2
Pressure intensity transmitted to the large piston = 11.71 N/cm 2
Force on the large piston = Pressure x Area of the large piston
=11.71 x A= 11.71 X 78.54 = 919.7 N.
► 2.4 ABSOLUTE, GAUGE, ATMOSPHERIC AND VACUUM PRESSURES
The pressure on a fluid is measured in two different systems. In one system, it is measured above
the absolute zero or complete vacuum and it is called the absolute pressure and in other system,
pressure is measured above the atmospheric pressure and it is called gauge pressure. Thus :
1. Absolute pressure is defined as the pressure which is measured with reference to absolute
vacuum pressure.
2. Gauge pressure is defined as the pressure which is measured with the help of a pressure mea
suring instrument, in which the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum. The atmospheric pressure on
the scale is marked as zero.
�I IL
142 Fluid Mechanics
3. Vacuum pressure is defined as the pres- w
sure below the atmospheric pressure. �
The relationship between the absolute pressure, <fJ (f)
-· A
GAUGE PRESSURE
ATMOSPHERIC
w PRESSURE
gauge pressure and vacuum pressure are shown in 8:
l
Fig. 2.7.
Mathematically : 'ABSOLUTE VACUUM PRESSURE
(i) Absolute pressure PRESSURE

=Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure
or Pab =Patm + Pgauge ABSOLUTE ZERO PRESSURE
(ii) Vacuum pressure
Fig. 2.7 Relationship between pressures.
=Atmospheric pressure - Absolute pressure.
Note. (i) The atmospheric pressure at sea level at l5 ° C is 101.3 kN/m 2 or 10.13 N/cm2 in SI unit. In case of
MKS units, it is equal to 1.033 kgf/cm2 .
(ii) The atmospheric pressure head is 760 mm of mercury or 10.33 m of water.
Problem 2.8 What are the gauge pressure and absolute pressure at a point 3 m below the free
surface of a liquid having a density of 1.53 x 103 kglm 3 if the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to
750 mm of mercury ? The specific gravity of mercury is 13.6 and density of water = 1000 kglm 3.
Solution. Given :
Depth of liquid, Z 1 =3 m
Density of liquid, p 1 = 1.53 X 10 3 kg/m 3
Atmospheric pressure head, Z0 =750 mm of Hg
750
= -- =0.75 m of Hg
1000
Atmospheric pressure, p atm = Po x g x Z0
where p 0 = Density of Hg = Sp. gr. of mercury x Density of water = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m 3
and Z0 = Pressure head in terms of mercury.
Patm = (13.6 X 1000) X 9.81 X 0.75 N/m (·: Z0 = 0.75)
2
= 100062 N/m 2
Pressure at a point, which is at a depth of 3 m from the free surface of the liquid is given by,
p = P, X g X z,
= (1.53 X 1000) X 9.81 X 3 = 45028 N/m 2
Gauge pressure, p =45028 N/m 2• Ans.
Now absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure
= 45028 + 100062 = 145090 N/m 2 • Ans.
► 2.S MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
The pressure of a fluid is measured by the following devices :

1. Manometers 2. Mechanical Gauges.
2.S. I Manometers. Manometers are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure at
a point in a fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of the fluid. They are
classified as :
(a) Simple Manometers, (b) Differential Manometers.
�I IL
142 Fluid Mechanics
3. Vacuum pressure is defined as the pres- w
sure below the atmospheric pressure. �
The relationship between the absolute pressure, <fJ (f)
-· A
GAUGE PRESSURE
ATMOSPHERIC
w PRESSURE
gauge pressure and vacuum pressure are shown in 8:
l
Fig. 2.7.
Mathematically : 'ABSOLUTE VACUUM PRESSURE
(i) Absolute pressure PRESSURE

=Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure
or Pab =Patm + Pgauge ABSOLUTE ZERO PRESSURE
(ii) Vacuum pressure
Fig. 2.7 Relationship between pressures.
=Atmospheric pressure - Absolute pressure.
Note. (i) The atmospheric pressure at sea level at l5 ° C is 101.3 kN/m 2 or 10.13 N/cm2 in SI unit. In case of
MKS units, it is equal to 1.033 kgf/cm2 .
(ii) The atmospheric pressure head is 760 mm of mercury or 10.33 m of water.
Problem 2.8 What are the gauge pressure and absolute pressure at a point 3 m below the free
surface of a liquid having a density of 1.53 x 103 kglm 3 if the atmospheric pressure is equivalent to
750 mm of mercury ? The specific gravity of mercury is 13.6 and density of water = 1000 kglm 3.
Solution. Given :
Depth of liquid, Z 1 =3 m
Density of liquid, p 1 = 1.53 X 10 3 kg/m 3
Atmospheric pressure head, Z0 =750 mm of Hg
750
= -- =0.75 m of Hg
1000
Atmospheric pressure, p atm = Po x g x Z0
where p 0 = Density of Hg = Sp. gr. of mercury x Density of water = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m 3
and Z0 = Pressure head in terms of mercury.
Patm = (13.6 X 1000) X 9.81 X 0.75 N/m (·: Z0 = 0.75)
2
= 100062 N/m 2
Pressure at a point, which is at a depth of 3 m from the free surface of the liquid is given by,
p = P, X g X z,
= (1.53 X 1000) X 9.81 X 3 = 45028 N/m 2
Gauge pressure, p =45028 N/m 2• Ans.
Now absolute pressure = Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure
= 45028 + 100062 = 145090 N/m 2 • Ans.
► 2.S MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
The pressure of a fluid is measured by the following devices :

1. Manometers 2. Mechanical Gauges.
2.S. I Manometers. Manometers are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure at
a point in a fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of the fluid. They are
classified as :
(a) Simple Manometers, (b) Differential Manometers.
~I IL
Pressure and its Measurement 43 I

2.S.2 Mechanical Gauges. Mechanical gauges are defined as the devices used for measuring
the pressure by balancing the fluid column by the spring or dead weight. The commonly used mechani-
cal pressure gauges are :
(a) Diaphragm pressure gauge, (b) Bourdon tube pressure gauge,
(c) Dead-weight pressure gauge, and (d) Bellows pressure gauge.
• 2.6 SIMPLE MANOMETERS
A simple manometer consists of a glass tube having one of its ends connected to a point where
pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to atmosphere. Common types of simple ma-
nometers are :
1. Piezometer,'
2. U-tube Manometer, and
3. Single Column Manometer.
2.6.1 Piezometer. It is the simplest form of manometer used for
measuring gauge pressures. One end of this manometer is connected to
the point where pressure is to be measured and other end is open to the
atmosphere as shown in Fig. 2.8. The rise of liquid gives the pressure
head at that point. If at a point A, the height of liquid say water is h in
piezometer tube, then pressure at A
N
=pxgxh-
2 •
m
Fig. 2.8 Piezometer.
2.6.2 U-tube Manometer. It consists of glass tube bent in U-shape, one end of which is
connected to a point at which pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to the
atmosphere as shown in Fig. 2.9. The tube generally contains mercury or any other liquid whose
specific gravity is greater than the specific gravity of the liquid whose pressure is to be measured.
T
h2
A
lA A
(a) For gauge pressure (b) For vacuum pressure
Fig. 2.9 U-tube Manometer.

(a) For Gauge Pressure. Let B is the point at which pressure is to be measured, whose value is p.
The datum line is A-A.
Let h 1 = Height of light liquid above the datum line
h 2 = Height of heavy liquid above the datum line
S 1 = Sp. gr. of light liquid
p 1 = Density of light liquid= 1000 x S 1
S2 = Sp. gr. of heavy liquid
p 2 = Density of heavy liquid = 1000 x S2
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144 Fluid Mechanics

As the pressure is the same for the horizontal surface. Hence pressure above the horizontal datum
line A-A in the left column and in the right column of U-tube manometer should be same.
Pressure above A-A in the left column = p + p1 x g x h 1
Pressure above A-A in the right column = p2 x g x h 2
Hence equating the two pressures p + p 1gh 1 = p 2gh 2
p = (p2gh2 - P1 X g X h1)- ... (2.7)
(b) For Vacuum Pressure. For measuring vacuum pressure, the level of the heavy liquid in the
manometer will be as shown in Fig. 2.9 (b). Then
Pressure above A-A in the left column = p 2gh 2 + p 1gh 1 + p
Pressure head in the right column above A-A =0
P2gh2 + P1gh1 + P = 0
P = - (P2gh2 + P1gh1)- ... (2.8)
Problem 2.9 The right limb of a simple U-tube manometer containing mercury is open to the
atmosphere while the left limb is connected to a pipe in which a fluid of sp. gr. 0.9 is flowing. The
centre of the pipe is 12 cm below the level of mercury in the right limb. Find the pressure of fluid in
the pipe if the difference of mercury level in the two limbs is 20 cm.
Solution. Given :
Sp. gr. of fluid, SI= 0.9
Density of fluid, P1 = S1 x 1000 = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m 3 r
Sp. gr. of mercury,
Density of mercury,
S2 = 13.6
p 2 = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m 3
12
j T
20cm
Difference of mercury level,
Height of fluid from A-A,
h 2 = 20 cm = 0.2 m
h 1 = 20 - 12 = 8 cm = 0.08 m A A
1
Let p = Pressure of fluid in pipe
Equating the pressure above A-A, we get
P + P1gh1 = P2gh2
Fig. 2.10
or p + 900 x 9.81 x 0.08 = 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x .2
p = 13.6 X 1000 X 9.81 X .2 - 900 X 9.81 X 0.08
= 26683 - 706 = 25977 N/m 2 = 2.597 N/cm 2• Ans.
Problem 2.10 A simple U-tube manometer containing mercury is connected to a pipe in which a
fluid of sp. gr. 0.8 and having vacuum pressure is flowing . The other end of the manometer is open to
atmosphere. Find the vacuum pressure in pipe, if the difference of mercury level in the two limbs is
40 cm and the height of fluid in the left from the centre of pipe is 15 cm below.
Solution. Given :
Sp. gr. of fluid, SI= 0.8
Sp. gr. of mercury, S2 = 13.6
Density of fluid, p 1 = 800
Density of mercury, p2 = 13.6 x 1000
Difference of mercury level, h 2 = 40 cm= 0.4 m. Height of liquid in left lim b, h 1 A
= 15 cm= 0.15 m. Let the pressure in pipe= p. Equating pressure above datum
line A-A, we get Fig. 2.11
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P = - [ P2gh2 + P1ghi]
= - [13.6 X 1000 X 9.81 X 0.4 + 800 X 9.81 X 0.15]
= - [53366.4 + 1177.2] = - 54543.6 N/m 2 = - 5.454 N/cm 2 • Ans.
Problem 2.11 A U-Tube manometer is used to measure the pressure of water in a pipe line, which
is in excess of atmospheric pressure. The right limb of the manometer contains mercury and is open to
atmosphere. The contact between water and mercury is in the left limb. Determine the pressure of
water in the main line, if the difference in level of mercury in the limbs of U-tube is JO cm and the
free surface of mercury is in level with the centre of the pipe. If the pressure of water in pipe line is
reduced to 9810 N/m 2 , calculate the new difference in the level of mercury. Sketch the arrangements
in both cases.
Solution. Given :
Difference of mercury = 10 cm = 0.1 m
The arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.11 (a)
1st Part
Let PA= (pressure of water in pipe line (i.e., at point A)
The points B and C lie on the same horizontal line. Hence pressure at B should be equal to pressure
at C. But pressure at B
= Pressure at A+ Pressure due to 10 cm (or 0.1 m)
RIGHT LIM B -
of water
=PA+ p X g X h WATER
where p = 1000 kg/m 3 and h = 0.1 m

D
=PA+ 1000 X 9.81 X 0.1
= PA + 981 N/m 2 ... (i)
LEFT LI MB-
r
10 cm
Pressure at C = Pressure at D + Pressure due to 10 cm of mercury
= 0 + p0 x g x h0 C
B
where Po for mercury= 13.6 x 1000 kg/m 3
and h 0 = 10 cm= 0.1 m MERCURY
Pressure at C = 0 + (13.6 x 1000) x 9.81 x 0.1
= 13341.6 N ... (ii)
But pressure at Bis equal to pressure at C. Hence equating the equa-
tions (i) and (ii), we get
PA + 981 = 13341.6 Fig. 2.11 (a)
PA= 13341.6 - 981
N
= 12360.6 - 2 • Ans.
m
Ilnd Part
Given, PA= 9810 N/m 2
Find new difference of mercury level. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.11 (b ). In this case the
pressure at A is 9810 N/m 2 which is less than the 12360.6 N/m 2• Hence mercury in left limb will rise.
The rise of mercury in left limb will be equal to the fall of mercury in right limb as the total volume of
mercury remains same.
Let x = Rise of mercury in left limb in cm
Then fall of mercury in right limb = x cm
The points B, C and D show the initial conditions whereas points B*, C* and D* show the
final conditions.
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The pressure at B* = Pressure at C*
or Pressure at A + Pressure due to (10 - x) cm of water
= Pressure at D* + Pressure due to
(10 - 2x) cm of mercury
or p A + p I x g x h 1 = p D * + p2 x g x h 2 X
or 1910 + 1000 x 9.81 x (lO-x) 10 - X

o·T
1O cm I ( 10 - 2 x )
100
= 0 + (13.6 X 1000) X 9.81 X ( 10-2x)

100
~ •~ -='.=_ ~-L
Dividing by 9.81, we get
or 1000 + 100 - lOx = 1360 - 272x
or 272x - lOx = 1360 - 1100
or 262x = 260
260
= 0.992 cm
x= -
262
Fig. 2.11 (b)
New difference of mercury= 10 - 2x cm =10 - 2 x 0.992
= 8.016 cm. Ans.
Problem 2.12 Fig. 2.12 shows a conical vessel having its outlet at A to which a U-tube manometer
is connected. The reading of the manometer given in the figure shows when the vessel is empty. Find the
reading of the manometer when the vessel is completely filled with water.
Solution. Vessel is empty. Given:
Difference of mercury level h2 = 20 cm
Let h 1 = Height of water above X-X
Sp. gr. of mercury, S2 = 13.6
Sp. gr. of water, S1 = 1.0
Density of mercury, p2 = 13.6 x 1000
Density of water, p 1 = 1000
Equating the pressure above datum line X-X, we have
P2 X g X h2 = Pt X g X h1 x- X
l
or 13.6 x 1000 x 9.81 x 0.2 = 1000 x 9.81 x h1
h 1 = 2.72 m of water.
Vessel is full of water. When vessel is full of water, the Fig. 2.12
pressure in the right limb will increase and mercury level in the right limb will go down. Let the
distance through which mercury goes down in the right limb be, y cm as shown in Fig. 2.13. The
mercury will rise in the left by a distance of y cm. Now the datum line is Z-Z. Equating the pressure
above the datum line Z-Z.
Pressure in left limb = Pressure in right limb
13.6 X 1000 X 9.81 X (0.2 + 2y/100)
= 1000 X 9.81 X (3 + h 1 + y/100)
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or 13.6 x (0.2 + 2y/100) = (3 + 2.72 + y/100) (·: h 1 = 2.72 cm)
or 2.72 + 27.2y/100 = 3 + 2.72 + y/100
or (27.2y - y)/100 = 3.0
or 26.2y = 3 X 100 = 300
300
y = -- = 11.45 cm
26.2
The difference of mercury level in two limbs 1 y
= (20 + 2y) cm of mercury
= 20 + 2 X 11.45 = 20 + 22.90
x_1
Z- ·
= 42.90 cm of mercury
Reading of manometer = 42.90 cm. Ans. Fig . 2.13
Problem 2.13 A pressure gauge consists of two cylindrical bulbs B and C each of IO sq. cm cross-
sectional area, which are connected by a U-tube with vertical limbs each of 0.25 sq. cm cross-sectional
area. A red liquid of specific gravity 0.9 is filled into C and clear water is filled into B, the surface of
separation being in the limb attached to C. Find the displacement of the surface of separation when the
pressure on the surface in C is greater than that in B by an amount equal to I cm head of water.
Solution. Given :
Area of each bulb B and C, A= 10 cm 2
Area of each vertical limb, a= 0.25 cm 2
Sp. gr. of red liquid = 0.9 Its density = 900 kg/m 3
Let X-X = Initial separation level
he= Height of red liquid above X-X
h8 = Height of water above X-X
Pressure above X-X in the left limb= 1000 x 9.81 x h8
Pressure above X-X in the right limb= 900 x 9.81 x he
Equating the two pressure, we get
1000 X 9.81 X h8 = 900 X 9.81 X he
h8 = 0.9 he ... (i)
Z/40 Z/40
B C
When the pressure head over the surface in C is
increased by 1 cm of water, let the separation level
falls by an amount equal to Z. Then Y-Y becomes the
final separation level.
1he
Now fall in surface level of C multiplied by cross-
sectional area of bulb C must be equal to the fall in
separation level multiplied by cross-sectional area of _ l _ lNITIAL
limb. FINAL
- X z SEPARATED
SEPARATION _ __,......,_ LEVEL
Fall in surface level of C LEVEL
Fall in separation level x a

=---------- Fig. 2.14
A
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148 Fluid Mechanics

Zxa Zx0.25 Z
= = =
A 10 40
Also fall in surface level of C
= Rise in surface level of B
=
z
40
The pressure of 1 cm (or 0.01 m) of water= pgh = 1000 x 9.81 x 0.01= 98.1 N/m 2
Consider final separation level Y-Y
Pressure above Y-Yin the left limb= 1000 x 9.81 ( Z + hB + :0)

Pressure above Y-Yin the right limb= 900 x 9.81( Z + he - !) + 98.1
1000x9.81 (z+hB+ !) =(Z+he- !)900x9.81+98.l
Dividing by 9.81, we get
1000 ( Z + hB + :a) = 900 ( Z + he - ! ) + 10
Dividing by 1000, we get Z + hB +

40
.3._ = 0.9 (z + he - ..!:_) + 0.01
40
But from equation (i), hB = 0.9 he
Z 39Z
Z + 0.9 he+ - = - - X 0.9 + 0.9 he+ 0.01
40 40
41Z _ 39 0l
or - X. 92 +.
40 40
or z(:~ - 39 ~ ·9 ) = .01
4 or z( ~;s.1)
41 = .01
40x 0.01
Z =- - - =0.0678 m = 6.78 cm. Ans.
5.9
2.6.3 Single Column Manometer. Single column manometer is a modified form of a U-tube
manometer in which a reservoir, having a large cross-sectional area (about 100 times) as compared to
the area of the tube is connected to one of the limbs (say left limb) of the manometer as shown in Fig. 2.15.
Due to large cross-sectional area of the reservoir, for any variation in pressure, the change in the liquid
level in the reservoir will be very small which may be neglected and hence the pressure is given by the
height of liquid in the other limb. The other limb may be vertical or inclined. Thus there are two types
of single column manometer as :
1. Vertical Single Column Manometer.
2. Inclined Single Column Manometer.
I. Vertical Single Column Manometer
Fig. 2.15 shows the vertical single column manometer. Let X-X be the datum line in the reservoir
and in the right limb of the manometer, when it is not connected to the pipe. When the manometer is
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connected to the pipe, due to high pressure at A, the heavy liquid in the reservoir will be pushed
downward and will rise in the right limb.
Let !J.h = Fall of heavy liquid in reservoir
h2 = Rise of heavy liquid in right limb
h 1 = Height of centre of pipe above X-X
p A = Pressure at A, which is to be measured
A = Cross-sectional area of the reservoir
a = Cross-sectional area of the right limb
y
S 1 =Sp.gr. of liquid in pipe
S2 = Sp. gr. of heavy liquid in reservoir and right limb
p 1 = Density of liquid in pipe Fig. 2.15 Vertical single column
manometer.
p 2 = Density of liquid in reservoir
Fall of heavy liquid in reservoir will cause a rise of heavy liquid level in the right limb.
A x !J.h = a x h 2
!J.h = ax hz ... (i)

A
Now consider the datum line Y-Y as shown in Fig. 2.15. Then pressure in the right limb above Y-Y.
= P2 Xg X (!J.h + h2)
Pressure in the left limb above Y-Y = p 1 x g x (!J.h + h 1) + PA
Equating these pressures, we have
P2 X g X (!J.h + h2) = Pt X g X (!J.h + h1) + PA
or PA= P2g (!J.h + h2) - P1g(!J.h + h1)
= t:ih[p2g - Pig] + h2P2g - h1P1g
But from equation (i), !J.h = ax h2

A
ax h2
PA= - - [p2g - Pig]+ h2P2g - h1P1g ... (2.9)
A
As the area A is very large as compared to a, hence ratio !!_ becomes very small and can be
A
neglected.
Then PA= h2 p 2g - h 1p1g ... (2.10)
From equation (2.10), it is clear that as h 1 is known T
and hence by knowing h 2 or rise of heavy liquid in the
right limb, the pressure at A can be calculated.
1~h
2. Inclined Single Column Manometer f
Fig. 2.16 shows the inclined single column manom-
eter. This manometer is more sensitive. Due to inclina-
tion the distance moved by the heavy liquid in the right Fig. 2.16 Inclined single column
limb will be more. manometer.
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I so Fluid Mechanics
Let L = Length of heavy liquid moved in right limb from X-X
0 = Inclination of right limb with horizontal
h2 = Vertical rise of heavy liquid in right limb from X-X = L x sin 0
From equation (2.10), the pressure at A is
PA= h2P2g - h1P1g.
Substituting the value of h2, we get
PA= sin 0 x p2g - h 1p 1g. . .. (2.11)
Problem 2.14 A single column manometer is connected to a pipe containing a liquid of sp. gr. 0.9
as shown in Fig. 2. 17. Find the pressure in the pipe if the area of the reservoir is JOO times the area
of the tube for the manometer reading shown in Fig. 2.17. The specific gravity of mercury is 13.6.
Solution. Given :
Sp. gr. of liquid in pipe, SI= 0.9
Density p 1 = 900 kg/m 3
Sp. gr. of heavy liquid, S2 = 13.6
Density, P2 = 13.6 x 1000
Area of reservoir = A = 100
l
Area of right limb a
Height of liquid, h 1 = 20 cm= 0.2 m
Rise of mercury in right limb, Fig. 2.17
h 2 = 40 cm = 0.4 m
Let p A = Pressure in pipe
Using equation (2.9), we get
a
PA= A hJp2g - Pig]+ h2P2g - h1P1g
1
= - X 0.4[13.6 X 1000 X 9.81 - 900 X 9.81] + 0.4 X 13.6 X 1000 X 9.81 - 0.2 X 900 X 9.81
100
= 0.4 [133416 - 8829] + 53366.4 - 1765.8
100
= 533.664 + 53366.4 - 1765.8 N/m 2 = 52134 N/m 2 = 5.21 N/cm 2• Ans.
• 2. 7 DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETERS
Differential manometers are the devices used for measuring the difference of pressures between
two points in a pipe or in two different pipes. A differential manometer consists of a U-tube, contain-
ing a heavy liquid, whose two ends are connected to the points, whose difference of pressure is to be
measured. Most commonly types of differential manometers are :
l. U-tube differential manometer and
2. Inverted U-tube differential manometer.
2.7.1 U-tube Differential Manometer. Fig. 2.18 shows the differential manometers of
U-tube type.
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T
X
(a)Two pipes at different levels (b) A and Bare at the same level
Fig. 2.18 U-tube differential manometers.
In Fig. 2.18 (a), the two points A and B are at different level and also contains liquids of different
sp. gr. These points are connected to the U-tube differential manometer. Let the pressure at A and B
are PA and PB·
Let h = Difference of mercury level in the U-tube.
y = Distance of the centre of B, from the mercury level in the right limb.
x = Distance of the centre of A, from the mercury level in the right limb.
pi = Density of liquid at A.
p 2 = Density of liquid at B.
pg = Density of heavy liquid or mercury.
Taking datum line at X-X.
Pressure above X-X in the left limb= Pig(h + x) + PA
where pA = pressure at A.
Pressure above X-X in the right limb= Pg x g x h + p 2 x g x y + PB
where PB= Pressure at B.
Equating the two pressure, we have
Pig(h + x) +PA= Pg X g X h + P2gy + PB
PA - PB= Pg X g X h + P2gy - Pig(h + x)
=h X g(pg- Pi)+ P2gy- Pigx ... (2.12)
Difference of pressure at A and B = h x g(pg - Pi) + p 2gy - Pigx
In Fig. 2.18 (b), the two points A and Bare at the same level and contains the same liquid of density
Pi· Then
Pressure above X-X in right limb = Pg x g x h + Pi x g xx+ PB
Pressure above X-X in left limb =Pix g x (h + x) + PA
Equating the two pressure
Pg X g X h + Pigx +PB= Pi X g X (h + x) + PA
PA - PB= Pg X g X h + Pigx - Pig(h + x)
= g x h(pg- Pi). . .. (2.13)
Problem 2.15 A pipe contains an oil of sp. gr. 0.9. A differential manometer connected at the two
points A and B shows a difference in mercury level as 15 cm. Find the difference of pressure at the two
points.
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Solution. Given :
Sp. gr. of oil, SI= 0.9 Density, p 1 = 0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m 3
Difference in mercury level, h = 15 cm= 0.15 m
Sp. gr. of mercury, S8 = 13.6 Density, p8 = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m 3
The difference of pressure is given by equation (2.13)
or PA-PB=gxh(p 8 -P1)
= 9.81 x 0.15 (13600 - 900) = 18688 N/m 2• Ans.
Problem 2.16 A differential manometer is connected at the two points A and B of two pipes as
shown in Fig. 2.19. The pipe A contains a liquid of sp. gr. = 1.5 while pipe B contains a liquid of
sp. gr. = 0.9. The pressures at A and B are 1 kgflcm 2 and 1.80 kgflcm 2 respectively. Find the
difference in mercury level in the differential manometer. Sp . gr.= 1.5 2
Solution. Given : PA =1 kgf fem
Sp. gr. of liquid at A, S 1 = 1.5 p 1 = 1500

Sp. gr. of liquid at B, S2 = 0.9 p 2 = 900
Pressure at A, PA = 1 kgf/cm 2 = 1 x 104 kgf/m 2
= 104 x 9.81 N/m 2 (· : 1 kgf = 9.81 N)
Ps = 1.8 kgf /cm 2
Pressure at B, PB= 1.8 kgf/cm 2
= 1.8 X 104 kgf/m 2
4 2
- -
-x
= 1.8 X 10 X 9.81 N/m ( ·: 1 kgf = 9.81 N) X
Density of mercury = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m 3
Taking X-X as datum line.
Fig. 2.19
Pressure above X-X in the left limb
= 13.6 X 1000 X 9.81 X h + 1500 X 9.81 X (2 + 3) + PA
= 13.6 X 1000 X 9.81 X h + 7500 X 9.81 + 9.81 X 104
Pressure above X-X in the right limb= 900 x 9.81 x (h + 2) + PB
= 900 X 9.81 X (h + 2) + 1.8 X 104 X 9.81
13.6 X 1000 X 9.81h + 7500 X 9.81 + 9.81 X 104
= 900 X 9.81 X (h + 2) + 1.8 X 104 X 9.81
Dividing by 1000 x 9.81, we get
13.6h + 7.5 + 10 = (h + 2.0) x .9 + 18
or 13.6h + 17.5 = 0.9h + 1.8 + 18 = 0.9h + 19.8
or (13.6 - 0.9)h = 19.8 - 17.5 or 12.7h = 2.3
h = 23 = 0.181 m = 18.1 cm. Ans.

12.7
Problem 2.17 A differential manometer is connected at the two points A and B as shown in
Fig. 2.20. At B air pressure is 9.81 N/cm 2 (abs), find the absolute pressure at A.
Solution. Given :
Air pressure at B = 9.81 N/cm 2
or PB= 9.81 X 104 N/m 2
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Density of oil = 0.9 X 1000 = 900 kg/m 3
Density of mercury = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m 3
Let the pressure at A is pA
Taking datum line at X-X
Pressure above X-X in the right limb
= 1000 X 9.81 X 0.6 + PB
= 5886 + 98100 = 103986
Pressure above X-X in the left limb
= 13.6 X 1000 X 9.81 X 0.1 + 900
X 9.81 X 0.2 + PA
= 13341.6+ 1765.8+pA
Equating the two pressure heads
103986 = 13341.6 + 1765.8 + PA
PA= 103986- 15107.4 = 88876.8 Fig. 2.20
2 88876.8N N
p A = 88876.8 N/m = 2 = 8.887 - -2 •
10000cm cm
Absolute pressure at A = 8.887 N/cm 2 • Ans.
2.7.2 Inverted U-tube Differential Manometer. It consists of an inverted U-tube,
containing a light liquid. The two ends of the tube are connected to the points whose difference of
pressure is to be measured. It is used for measuring difference of low pressures. Fig. 2.21 shows an
inverted U-tube differential manometer connected to the two points A and B. Let the pressure at A is
more than the pressure at B.
Let h 1 = Height of liquid in left limb below the datum line X-X
h 2 = Height of liquid in right limb
h = Difference of light liquid
p 1 = Density of liquid at A
p 2 = Density of liquid at B
Ps = Density of light liquid
p A = Pressure at A
p B = Pressure at B.
Taking X-X as datum line. Then pressure in the left limb below X-X
=pA-P1 xgxh1· 2.21
Pressure in the right limb below X-X
= PB - P2 X g X h2 - Ps X g X h
Equating the two pressure
PA-Pi xgxh1 =pB-P2XgXh2-Psxgxh
or PA - PB= p 1 X g X h 1- p 2 X g X h2 - Ps X g X h. ... (2.14)
Problem 2.18 Water is flowing through two different pipes to which an inverted differential
manometer having an oil of sp. gr. 0.8 is connected. The pressure head in the pipe A is 2 m of water,
find the pressure in the pipe B for the manometer readings as shown in Fig. 2.22.
Solution. Given :
Pressure head at A = p A = 2 m of water
pg
PA= p X g X 2 = 1000 X 9.81 X 2 = 19620 N/m 2
Fig. 2.22 shows the arrangement. Taking X-X as datum line.
Pressure below X-X in the left limb = PA - p 1 x g x h 1
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154 Fluid Mechanics

= 19620 - 1000 X 9.81 X 0.3 = 16677 N/m 2 •
Pressure below X-X in the right limb
= PB - 1000 X 9.81 X 0.1 - 800 X 9.81 X 0.12
= PB - 981 - 941.76 = PB - 1922.76
16677 = PB - 1922.76
or PB= 16677 + 1922.76 = 18599.76 N/m 2
or PB = 1.8599 N/cm 2 • Ans.
Problem 2.19 In Fig. 2.23, an inverted differential manometer is connected to two pipes A and B
which convey water. The fluid in manometer is oil of sp. gr. 0.8. For the manometer readings shown in
the figure, find the pressure difference between A and B. OIL of
Solution. Given : Sp. gr. 0.8
Sp. gr. of oil = 0.8 Ps = 800 kg/m 3

Difference of oil in the two limbs
= (30 + 20) - 30 = 20 cm
Taking datum line at X-X
Pressure in the left limb below X-X
=pA-1000X9.81 XO Fig . 2.23
= PA - 2943
Pressure in the right limb below X-X
= PB - 1000 X 9.81 X 0.3 - 800 X 9.81 X 0.2
= PB - 2943 - 1569.6 = PB - 4512.6
Equating the two pressure PA - 2943 = PB - 4512.6
PB- PA= 4512.6 - 2943 = 1569.6 N/m 2• Ans.
Problem 2.20 Find out the differential reading 'h' of an inverted U-tube manometer containing oil of
specific gravity 0. 7 as the manometric fluid when connected across pipes A and B as shown in Fig. 2.24
below, conveying liquids of specific gravities 1.2 and 1.0 and immiscible with manometric fluid. Pipes A
and B are located at the same level and assume the pressures at A and B to be equal.
Solution. Given :
Fig. 2.24 shows the arrangement. Taking X-X as datum line.
- X
Let pA = Pressure at A
p B = Pressure at B
Density of liquid in pipe A =Sp.gr. X 1000
= 1.2 X 1000
= 1200 kg/m 2
Density of liquid in pipe B = 1 X 1000 = 1000 kg/m 3
Density of oil = 0.7 X 1000 = 700 kg/m 3 PIPE A PIPE B
Fig. 2.24
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Pressure and its Measurement ss 1
Now pressure below X-X in the left limb

= PA - 1200 X 9.81 X 0.3 - 700 X 9.81 X h
Pressure below X-X in the right limb
= PB - 1000 X 9.81 X (h + 0.3)
PA - 1200 X 9.81 X 0.3 - 700 X 9.81 X h = PB - 1000 X 9.81 (h + 0.3)
~ ~=h~~aj
- 1200 X 9.81 X 0.3 - 700 X 9.81 = - 1000 X 9.81 (h + 0.3)
X h
Dividing by 1000 x 9.81

- 1.2 x 0.3 - 0.7h = - (h + 0.3)
or 0.3 x 1.2 + 0.7h = h + 0.3 or 0.36 - 0.3 = h - 0.7h = 0.3h
h = 0.36 - 0.30 = 0.06 m
0.30 0.30
1 1
= - m = - x 100 = 20 cm. Ans.
5 5
Problem 2.21 An inverted U-tube manometer is connected to two horiwntal pipes A and B
through which water is flowing. The vertical distance between the axes of these pipes is 30 cm. When
an oil of specific gravity 0.8 is used as a gauge fluid, the vertical heights of water columns in the two
limbs of the inverted manometer (when measured from the respective centre lines of the pipes) are
found to be same and equal to 35 cm. Determine the difference of pressure between the pipes.
Solution. Given :
Specific gravity of measuring liquid = 0.8 Sp. gr. =0.8
The arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.24 (a).

Let pA = pressure at A
p B = pressure at B.
The points C and D lie on the same horizontal line.
Hence pressure at C should be equal to pressure at D.
A
But pressure at C = PA - pg h
35 cm
= PA - 1000 X 9.81 X (0.35)
And pressure at D = PB - P1gh1 - P2gh2
= PB - 1000 X 9.81 X (0.35) - 800 X 9.81 X 0.3
But pressure at C = pressure at D B WATER
PA - 1000 X 9.81 X .35 Fig. 2.24 (a)
= PB - 1000 X 9.81 X 0.35 - 800 X 9.81 X 0.3
or 800 X 9.81 X 0.3 =PB-PA
N
or PB - PA= 800 x 9.81 x 0.3 = 2354.4-2. Ans.
m
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Hydrostatic Forces on Surfaces 85 I

Intensity of pressure at A, PA = 0
Intensity of pressure at D,Pv = Pig x h = 900 x 9.81 x 0.9 = 7946.1 N/m 2
Intensity of pressure at B, PB= Pighi + p2gh 2 = 900 x 9.81 x 0.9 + 1000 x 9.81 x 0.6
= 7946.1 + 5886 = 13832.1 N/m 2
Hence in pressure diagram :
DE= 7946.1 N/m 2, BC= 13832.1 N/m 2, FC = 5886 N/m 2
The pressure diagram is split into triangle ADE, rectangle BDEF and triangle EFC. The total pres-
sure force consists of the following components :
(i) Force Fi= Area of triangle ADE x Width of tank
=(½ x ADx DE) x 1.5 (·: Width= 1.5 m)
= (½ X 0.9 X 7946.1) X 1.5 N = 5363.6 N
This force will be acting at the C.G. of the triangle ADE, i.e., at a distance of~ x 0.9 = 0.6 m below A
3
(ii) Force F 2 = Area of rectangle BDEF x Width of tank
= (BD X DE) X 1.5 = (0.6 X 7946.1) X 1.5 = 7151.5
This force will be acting at the C.G. of the rectangle BDEF i.e., at a distance of 0.9 + 0·6 = 1.2 m
2
below A.
(iii) Force F 3 = Area of triangle EFC x Width of tank
= (½ x EFx FC) x 1.5 = (½ x 0.6x 5886) x 1.5 = 2648.7 N
This force will be acting at the C.G. of the triangle EFC, i.e., at a distance of0.9 + ~ x 0.6 = 1.30 m
3
below A.
Total pressure force on one vertical face of the tank,
F =Fi+ F 2 + F 3
= 5363.6 + 7151.5 + 2648.7 = 15163.8 N. Ans.
(b) Position of centre of pressure
Let the total force F is acting at a depth of h* from the free surface of liquid, i.e., from A.
Taking the moments of all forces about A, we get
F X h* = Fi X 0.6 + F 2 X 1.2 + F 3 X 1.3
F; X 0.6 + Ji; X 12 + Ji; X 13
or h* = - - - - - - - - - -
F
53616 X 0.6 + 7151.5 X 1.2 + 2648. 7 X 1.3
=--------------
151618
= 1.005 m from A. Ans.
• 3.4 HORIZONTAL PLANE SURFACE SUBMERGED IN LIQUID
Consider a plane horizontal surface immersed in a static fluid. As every point of the surface is at the
same depth from the free surface of the liquid, the pressure intensity will be equal on the entire surface
and equal to, p = pgh, where h is depth of surface.
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Let A = Total area of surface FREE SURFACE
Then total force, F, on the surface :--r-------------------------------f --
- ~---+--~ h*
h I
= p x Area = pg x h x A = pgAh •
where h = Depth of C.G. from free surface of liquid= h
also h* = Depth of centre of pressure from free surface= h.
Problem 3.13 Fig. 3.17 shows a tank full of water. Find:
(i) Total pressure on the bottom of tank. Fig. 3.16
(ii) Weight of water in the tank.
(iii) Hydrostatic paradox between the results of (i) and (ii). Width of tank is 2 m.
Solution. Given :
Depth of water on bottom of tank
h 1 = 3 + 0.6 = 3.6 m
0.4m
--- ~
--
- I
Width of tank =2m 3m
Length of tank at bottom =4m
Area at the bottom, A= 4 x 2 = 8 m 2 _ _ _ ____ _ _ ',-__~-~-~- ..L..-
__ ~l
(i) Total pressure F, on the bottom is - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.6 m
- - - ---- - - - - - ----
- - - ---- - - - - - ----
F = pg Ah= 1000 x 9.81 x 8 x 3.6 .__ _ _ 4 m---..af
= 282528 N. Ans. Fig. 3.17
(ii) Weight of water in tank= pg x Volume of tank
= 1000 X 9.81 X [3 X 0.4 X 2 + 4 X .6 X 2]
= 1000 X 9.81 [2.4 + 4.8] = 70632 N. Ans.
(iii) From the results of (i) and (ii), it is observed that the total weight of water in the tank is much
less than the total pressure at the bottom of the tank. This is known as Hydrostatic paradox.
• 3.5 INCLINED PLANE SURFACE SUBMERGED IN LIQUID
Consider a plane surface of arbitrary shape immersed in a liquid in such a way that the plane of the
surface makes an angle 0 with the free surface of the liquid as shown in Fig. 3.18.
FREE LIQUID SURFACE
-------
------ -------
------
h*
~ 0
} ~ AREAdA
0~
Fig. 3.18 Inclined immersed surface.
Let A = Total area of inclined surface
h = Depth of C.G. of inclined area from free surface
h* = Distance of centre of pressure from free surface of liquid
0 = Angle made by the plane of the surface with free liquid surface.
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Let the plane of the surface, if produced meet the free liquid surface at 0. Then 0-0 is the axis
perpendicular to the plane of the surface.
Let y = distance of the C.G. of the inclined surface from 0-0
y* = distance of the centre of pressure from 0-0.
Consider a small strip of area dA at a depth 'h' from free surface and at a distance y from the axis
0-0 as shown in Fig. 3.18.
Pressure intensity on the strip, p = pgh
Pressure force, dF, on the strip, dF = p x Area of strip = pgh x dA
Total pressure force on the whole area, F = fdF fpghdA

=
h h h*
But from Fig. 3.18, - =-=-=sin 0
y y y*
h = y sin 0
F= fpg X J
y X sin 0 X dA = pg sin 0 ydA
But fydA =Ay

where y = Distance of C.G. from axis 0-0
F = pg sin 0 y x A
= pgAh (·: h = y sin 0) ... (3.6)
Centre of Pressure (h*)
Pressure force on the strip,dF = pghdA
= pgy sin 0 dA [h = y sin 0]
Moment of the force, dF, about axis 0-0
= dF x y = pgy sin 0 dA x y = pg sin 0 y2dA
Sum of moments of all such forces about 0-0
= fpg J
sin 0 y2 dA = pg sin 0 y2 dA
But fy2 dA = M.O.1. of the surface about 0-0 = I 0

Sum of moments of all forces about 0-0 = pg sin 0 I0 ... (3.7)
Moment of the total force, F, about 0-0 is also given by
= Fxy* ... (3.8)
where y* = Distance of centre of pressure from 0-0.
Equating the two values given by equations (3.7) and (3.8)
F X y* = pg sin 0 I0
pg sin 0 I0
or y* = ... (3.9)
F
h* -
Now y* = -.-, F= pgAh
sm0
and I 0 by the theorem of parallel axis= I 0 + Ay 2 •
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Substituting these values in equation (3.9), we get
~ = pg sin 0 [le+ Ay2 ]
sm 0 pgAh
. 20
h* = sm - Uc+ Ay2]
Ah
h - h
But = = sin 0 or y =- -
l
y sin0
* _ sin 2 0 [ h
-2
h - ---- 10 + A x-.-2-
Ah sm 0
sin 2 0 -
10
or h* = +h
~---=,--- ... (3.10)
Ah
If 0 = 90°, equation (3.10) becomes same as equation (3.5) which is applicable to vertically plane
submerged surfaces.
In equation (3.10), 10 = M.0.1. of inclined surfaces about an axis passing through G and parallel to 0-0.
Problem 3.14 (a) A rectangular plane surface 2 m wide and 3 m deep lies in water in such a way
that its plane makes an angle of 30° with the free surface of water. Determine the total pressure and
position of centre of pressure when the upper edge is 1.5 m below the free water surface.
Solution. Given : FREE WATER SURFACE
A D
Width of plane surface, b = 2 m ------- - - -
-- - ---
e _-_-_-_-_. ,_ -
--- --- - - - ---
--- ----
---
D~ili. d=3m
Angle, 0 = 30°
Distance of upper edge from free water surface = 1.5 m
(i) Total pressure force is given by equation (3.6) as
F= pgAh
where p = 1000 kg/m 3
A= bx d = 3 x 2 =6 m 2
h = Depth of C.G. from free water surface
= 1.5 + 1.5 sin 30° Fig. 3.19
{ ·: h =AE +EB= 1.5 + BC sin 30° = 1.5 + 1.5 sin 30°}
= 1.5 + 1.5 X ½= 2.25 m
F = 1000 X 9.81 X 6 X 2.25 = 132435 N. Ans.
(ii) Centre of pressure (h*)
Using equation (3.10), we have

sin 2 0+-h bd 32x3 3
h* = l 0 Ah , where 10 =12 =12 =4.5 m4
1
2 4.5 X -
h * = 4.5 x sin 30°
- - - - + 2.25 = - - ~ 4
+ 2.25
6 X 2.25 6 X 2.25
=0.0833 + 2.25 =2.3333 m. Ans.
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Problem 3.14 (b) A rectangular plane surface 3 m wide and 4 m deep lies in water in such a way
that its plane makes an angle of 30° with the free surface of water. Determine the total pressure force
and position of centre of pressure, when the upper edge is 2 m below the free surface.
Solution. Given : Free surface of water
b = 3 m , d =4 m, 0 = 30° A D
30°
Distance of upper edge from free surface of water = 2 m
(i) Total pressure force is given by equation (3.6) as
F= pgAh
View norm al
where p = 1000 kg/m 3, to plate
A= bx d = 3 x 4 = 12 m 2
and h = Depth of C.G. of plate from
free water surface
=2 + BE =2 + BC sin 0
=2 + 2 sin 30° =2 + 2 x .!_2 =3 m Fig. 3.19 (a)
F = 1000 X 9.81 X 12 X 3 = 353167 N =353.167 kN. Ans.
JG sin 2 0
Using equation (3.10), we have h* = ~----==--- + h
Ah
bd 3 3 X 4 3 4
where JG=--=--= 16 m
12 12
1
16 x sin 2 30° 16 x 4
h* = - - - - - + 3 = --- + 3 = 3.111 m. Ans.
12 X 3 36
Problem 3.15 (a) A circular plate 3.0 m diameter is immersed in water in such a way that its
greatest and least depth below the free surface are 4 m and 1.5 m respectively. Determine the total
pressure on one face of the plate and position of the centre of pressure.
Solution. Given : FREE WATER SURFACE
Dia. of plate, d = 3.0 m ______ I
E _ D
0
_
-
Area, A=~ d 2 = ~ (3.0)2 = 7.0685 m 2
4 4
Distance DC = 1.5 m, BE =4 m
Distance of C.G. from free surface
= h = CD + GC sin 0 = 1.5 + 1.5 sin 0

But sin e = AB = BE - AE = 4.0 - DC = 4.0 - 1.5
BC BC 3.0 3.0
25 = 0.8333
= 3.0
h = 1.5 + 1.5 X .8333 = 1.5 + 1.249 =2.749 m Fig. 3.20
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(i) Total pressure (F)
F = pgAh
= 1000 X 9.81 X 7.0685 X 2.749 = 190621 N. Ans.
. equation
U smg . (3 . 10) , we h ave h* -- le sin20 +-h
Ah
7t,4 7t 4 4
where le = - a = - (3) = 3.976 m
64 64
h* = 3.976 X (.8333) X .8333 + 2.749 = 0.1420 + 2.749

7.0685 X 2.749
= 2.891 m. Ans.
Problem 3.15 (b) If in the above problem, the given circular plate is having a concentric circular
hole of diameter 1.5 m, then calculate the total pressure and position of the centre of pressure on one
face of the plate. E o
Solution. Given : [Refer to Fig. 3.20 (a)] 0
4m h 1.5 m
Dia. of plate, d = 3.0 m
Area of solid plate= ~ d 2 = ~ (3)2 = 7.0685 m 2

4 4
Dia. of hole in the plate, d 0 = 1.5 m B
Area of hole =~ d/ = ~4 (l.5) 2 = l.7671 m 2

4
Area of the given plate, A = Area of solid plate - Area of hole
= 7.0685 - 1.767 1 = 5.3014 m 2
Distance CD = 1.5, BE = 4 m
Distance of C.G. from the free surface, Fig. 3.20 (a)
h = CD + GC sin 0
= 1.5 + 1.5 sin 0
But sin e= AB = BE - AE = 4 - 1.5 = 2.5

BC BC 3 3
- 2.5
h = 1.5 + 1.5 X - = 1.5 + 1.25 = 2.75 m
3
(i) Total pressure force (F)
F= pgA h
= 1000 X 9.81 X 5.3014 X 2.75
= 143018 N = 143.018 kN. Ans.
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(ii) Position of centre of pressure (h*)
Using equation (3.10), we have
h * = JG sin 2 0 + h,
Ah
where 10 =~ [d 4 - dt] =~ [3 4 - 1.54 ] m4

64 64
A =~ [d 2 - d/] =~ [3 2 - 1.5 2] m 2
4 4
sin 0 = 25 and h = 2.75
3
~ [3 -1.5 X ( \54
h* = - - - - - ~ - ~ + 2.75
4
] r
~ [3 2 -1.5 2] X 2.75
1 16 [32 + 1.52] X (23.5)2

= ________ + 2_75 = 1 X 11.25 X 6.25 + 2_75
2.75 16 X 2.75 X9
= 0.177 + 2.75 = 2.927 m. Ans.
Problem 3.16 A circular plate 3 metre diameter is submerged in water as shown in Fig. 3.21. Its
greatest and least depths are below the surfaces being 2 metre and 1 metre respectively. Find: (i) the
total pressure on front face of the plate, and (ii) the position of centre of pressure.
Solution. Given : Water surface
Dia. of plate, d= 3.0 m D V E
' ,e,
Area, n 2
A= - (3.0) = 7.0685 m
2
4
Distance, DC = 1 m, BE = 2 m
In MBC, . e =AB
sm -=
BE-AE BE-DC 2.0- 1.0 1
= =-
AC BC BC 3.0 3
The centre of gravity of the plate is at the middle of BC, i.e., at a distance 1.5 m from C.
The distance of centre of gravity from the free surface of the water is given by
- ·
h = CD + CG sm 0 = 1.0 + 1.5 x 31 ( ·: sin 0 = I
3)
= 1.5m.
(i) Total pressure on the front face of the plate is given by
F= pgAh
= 1000 X 9.81 X 7.0685 X 1.5 = 104013 N. Ans.
(ii) Let the distance of the centre of pressure from the free surface of the water be h*. Then using
equation (3.10), we have
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where le= ~ cf= ~ (3) 4 , A = ~ d 2, h = 1.5 m and sin 0 = ½

64 64 4
Substituting the values, we get
.!!:_d 4 X
h * = 64
(!)
3
2
2
+ 1.5 = !!:___ X _1_ + 1.5
~d 2 x1.s 16 9xl.5
4
32
= - - - - + 1.5 = .0416 + 1.5 = 1.5416 m. Ans.
16x9xl.5
Problem 3.17 A rectangular gate 5 m x2 mis hinged at its base and inclined at 60° to the horizon-
tal as shown in Fig. 3.22. To keep the gate in a stable position, a counter weight of 5000 kgf is attached
at the upper end of the gate as shown in figure. Find the depth of water at which the gate begins to fall.
Neglect the weight of the gate and friction at the hinge and pulley.
Solution. Given :
Length of gate =Sm
Width of gate =2m
0= 60°
Weight, W= 5000 kgf
h
= 5000 X 9.81 N
= 49050 N ( ·: 1 kgf = 9.81 N)
As the pulley is frictionless, the force acting at B = 49050 N. First
HIN GE
find the total force F acting on the gate AB for a given depth of
water. Fig. 3.22
From figure,
2h 4h
Area of gate immersed in water, A= AD x Width x J3 x2= J3 m2
Also depth of the C.G. of the immersed area = -h =-h =0.5 h

2
- 4h h 19620 2
Total force Fis given by F = pgAh = 1000 x 9.81 x J3 x Jz = J3 h N
The centre of pressure of the immersed surface, h* is given by
h* = le sin 2 0 +h
Ah
where le= M.0.1. of the immersed area
b x(AD)3 3
= 2-x(2h )
12 12 J3
16h 3 4h 3
- - - - ~ - - - - m4
- 12 X 3 X ,/3 - 9 X ,/3
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2h
Now in the !).CHD, CH= h* = - , LCDH= 60°
3
CH = sin 60°
CD
CH h* 2h 4h
CD=---=---=---=
sin 60° sin 60° 3 x ,J3 3 x -J3
2
AC= AD - CD= .3!!_ _ ~ = 6 h - 4 h =-3.!!_ m

-J3 3,J3 3-J3 3,J3
Taking the moments about hinge, we get
49050 X 5.0 = F X AC= l 9 ~0 h 2 X 2 ~

-v3 3-v3
or .245250 = 39240 h3
3x3
h3 = 9 X 245250 = 56 _25
39240
h = (56.25) 113 = 3.83 m. Ans.
Problem 3.18 An inclined rectangular sluice gate AB, 1.2 m by 5 m size as shown in Fig. 3.23 is
installed to control the discharge of water. The end A is hinged. Determine the force normal to the gate
applied at B to open it.
Solution. Given :
A= Area of gate= 1.2 x 5.0 = 6.0 m 2
Depth of C.G. of the gate from free surface of the water= h
=DG = BC - BE FREE WATER SURFACE O C D
= 5.0 - BG sin 45°
1 h
=5.0 - 0.6 X J2 =4.576 m
The total pressure force (F) acting on the gate,
F= pgAh
= 1000 X 9.81 X 6.0 X 4 .576
= 269343 N
This force is acting at H, where the depth of H from Fig. 3.23
free surface is given by
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Fluid Mechanics
where le= M.0.1. of gate = -- 5.0 X 1.23 = 0.72 m

bd3 = ----
12 12
2
0.72 x sin 45°
Depth of centre of pressure h* = ------ + 4.576 = .013 + 4.576 = 4.589 m
6 x4.576
h*
But from Fig. 3.23 (a), - = sin45°
OH
h* 4.589
Distance, OH= - - = -1- =4.589 x ✓2 =6.489 m
sin 45°
✓2
5
Distance, BO= - - = 5 x ✓2 =7.071 m
sin 45°
Distance, BH = BO - OH= 7.071 - 6.489 = 0.582 m
Distance AH= AB - BH = 1.2 - 0.582 = 0.618 m
Taking the moments about the hinge A
P x AB = F x (AH)
where P is the force normal to the gate applied at B
P X 1.2 = 269343 X 0.618
p = 269343 x 0.618 = 138708 N. Ans.

1.2
Problem 3.19 A gate supporting water is shown in Fig. 3.24. Find the height h of the water so that
the gate tips about the hinge. Take the width of the gate as unity.
Solution. Given : 0 = 60°
Distance, AC= h 2h
sin 60° - ../3
where h = Depth of water.
The gate will start tipping about hinge B if the resultant pressure force acts at B. If the resultant
pressure force passes through a point which is lying from B to C anywhere on the gate, the gate will tip
over the hinge. Hence limiting case is when the resultant force passes through B. But the resultant force
passes through the centre of pressure. Hence for the given position, point B becomes the centre of
pressure. Hence depth of centre of pressure,
h* = (h - 3) m FREE WATER SURFACE
Buth* is also given by

Taking width of gate unity. Then h
2h - h
Area, A =AC x 1 = J3 x 1; h =2
l X( 2:3 )3 Fig. 3.24
bd 3 1 x AC 3 v:l 8h 3 2h 3
le=--=---=----= =-~=
12 12 12 12 X 3 X ../3 9 X ../3
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3 3
2h 3 sin 2 60° h 2h x 4 h h h 2h
h* = - ~ = X - - - + - = - ~ - + - = - + - = -
9 X J3 3!!_ X !!_ 2 9h 2 2 6 2 3
J3 2
Equating the two values of h*,
2h
h- 3 = 2h or h- - =3 or !!_ = 3
3 3 3
h=3X3=9m
Height of water for tipping the gate = 9 m. Ans.
Problem 3.20 A rectangular sluice gate AB, 2 m wide and 3 m long is hinged at A as shown in
Fig. 3.25. It is kept closed by a weight fixed to the gate. The total weight of the gate and weight fixed to
the gate is 343350 N. Find the height of the water 'h' which will just cause the gate to open. The centre
of gravity of the weight and gate is at G.
Solution. Given :
Width of gate, b = 2 m ; Length of gate L = 3 m
:. Area, A= 2 x 3 = 6 m 2
Weight of gate and W= 343350 N
Angle of inclination, 0 = 45°
Leth is the required height of water.
Depth of C.G. of the gate and weight = h
From Fig. 3.25 (a),
h =h - ED =h - (AD - AE)
= h - (AB sin 0 - EG tan 0) {-: tan0= :a :.AE=EGtane}
= h - (3 sin 45° - 0.6 tan 45°)

= h - (2.121 - 0.6) = (h - 1.521) m
The total pressure force, F is given by
F = pgAh = 1000 X 9.81 X 6 X (h - 1.521)
= 58860 (h - 1.521) N.
The total force Fis acting at the centre of pressure as shown in Fig. 3.25 (b) at H. The depth of H
from free surface is given by h* which is equal to
_ 10 sin 2 0 -h h
h* - _ bd 3 _ 2 X 33 _ 54 _ 4 5 4
- ~ - + ,were / 0 - ------- . m
Ah 12 12 12
h* = 4.5 xsin 2 45° + (h _ 1. 520 = 0.375 + (h _ 1. 520 m

6 X (h - 1.521) (h-1.521)
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FREE WATER SURFACE
-
h
HINGE
h
•
i
h* A 0.6
e = 45°
(b) (a)
Fig. 3.25
Now taking moments about hinge A, we get
343350 x EG = F x AH
AK
or 343350 x 0.6 = F x - -
sin 45°
[ From t:.AKH, Fig. 3.25 (b) AK= AH sin 0 = AH sin 45° :. AH= .AK ]
sm 45°
58860 (h -1.521) x AK
=
sin 45°
343350 X 0.6 X sin 45° 0.3535 X 7
AK=------- ... (i)
58860 (h - 1.521) (h -1.521)
But AK= h* -AC= 375 + (h - 1.521) - AC ... (ii)

(h - 1.521)
But AC= CD -AD= h -AB sin 45° =h - 3 x sin 45° =h - 2.121
Substituting this value in (ii), we get
AK= 375 + (h - 1.521) - (h - 2.121)

h -1.521
.375 .375
= - - - + 2.121 - 1.521 = - - - + 0.6 ... ( iii)
h - 1.521 h - 1.521
Equating the two values of AK from (i) and (iii)
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0.3535 X 7 0.375
- - - - = - - - + 0.6
h- 1.521 h -1.521
or 0.3535 x 7 =0.375 + 0.6 (h - 1.521) = 0.375 + 0.6 h - 0.6 x 1.521
or 0.6h = 2.4745 - .375 + 0.6 x 1.521 = 2.0995 + 0.9126 = 3.0121
3.0121
h =- - = 5.02 m. Ans.
0.6
Problem 3.21 Find the total pressure and position of centre of pressure on a triangular plate of
base 2 m and height 3 m which is immersed in water in such a way that the plane of the plate makes an
angle of60° with the free surface of the water. The base of the plate is parallel to water surface and at
a depth of 2.5 mfrom water surface. FREE WATER SURFACE
Solution. Given :
Base of plate, b =2m J
l
- -=-~~3-f-:c-- t60~'
h 2.5,'
Height of plate, h=3m h*l_ ~
Area, A = bxh =2 x 3 = 3 m2 - ' - -- - '1 <0 )1

2 2
Inclination, 0 = 60°
Depth of centre of gravity from free surface of water,
h = 2.5 + AG sin 60° Fig. 3.26
1 ,./3
= 2.5+ - x3 x - {·: AG=½ of height of triangle}
3 2
=2.5 + .866 m = 3.366 m
(i) Total pressure force (F)
F = pgAh = 1000 X 9.81 X 3 X 3.366 = 99061.38 N. Ans.
(ii) Centre of pressure (h*). Depth of centre of pressure from free surface of water is given by
h* = JG sin28 +h
Ah
I _ bh 3 _ 2 x 33 _ _l _ l 5 4
where G - 36 - 36 - 2 - . m
1.5 x sin 2 60°

h* = - - - - + 3.366 = 0.111 + 3.366 = 3.477 m. Ans.
3 x3.366
• 3.6 CURVED SURFACE SUB-MERGED IN LIQUID
Consider a curved surface AB, sub-merged in a static fluid as shown in Fig. 3.27. Let dA is the area
of a small strip at a depth of h from water surface.
Then pressure intensity on the area dA is = pgh
and pressure force, dF = p x Area= pgh x dA ... (3.11)
This force dF acts normal to the surface.
Hence total pressure force on the curved surface should be
F= f pghdA ... (3.12)
-11
CHAPTER
This chapter deals with the fluids (i.e., liquids and gases) at rest. This means that there will be no
relative motion between adjacent or neighbouring fluid layers. The velocity gradient, which is equal to
the change of velocity between two adjacent fluid layers divided by the distance between the layers,
will be zero or du = 0. The shear stress which is equal toµ du will also be zero. Then the forces acting
dy dy
on the fluid particles will be :
1. due to pressure of fluid normal to the surface,
2. due to gravity (or self-weight of fluid particles).
• 3.2 TOTAL PRESSURE AND CENTRE OF PRESSURE

Total pressure is defined as the force exerted by a static fluid on a surface either plane or curved
when the fluid comes in contact with the surfaces. This force always acts normal to the surface.
Centre of pressure is defined as the point of application of the total pressure on the surface. There
are four cases of submerged surfaces on which the total pressure force and centre of pressure is to be
determined. The submerged surfaces may be :
1. Vertical plane surface,
2. Horizontal plane surface,
3. Inclined plane surface, and
4. Curved surface.
• 3.3 VERTICAL PLANE SURFACE SUBMERGED IN LIQUID

Consider a plane vertical surface of arbitrary shape immersed in a liquid as shown in Fig. 3.1.
Let A = Total area of the surface
h = Distance of C.G. of the area from free surface of liquid
G = Centre of gravity of plane surface
P = Centre of pressure
h* = Distance of centre of pressure from free surface of liquid.
69
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(a) Total Pressure (F). The total pressure on the surface
may be determined by dividing the entire surface into a number --- - -l---f-
--r------------
FREE SURFACE OF LIQUID
--- --
------------
----------------- -
of small parallel strips. The force on small strip is then calcu-
lated and the total pressure force on the whole area is calculated
by integrating the force on small strip.
Consider a strip of thickness dh and width b at a depth of h dh
Lr b~ "h:
from free surface of liquid as shown in Fig. 3.1
Pressure intensity on the strip, p = pgh
f
B
(See equation 2.5)
Area of the strip, dA =bx dh Fig. 3.1
Total pressure force on strip, dF=p x Area

= pgh x bx dh
Total pressure force on the whole surface,
f f f
F = dF = pgh x bx dh = pg bx h x dh
But f bxhxdh =f hxdA
= Moment of surface area about the free surface of liquid

= Area of surface x Distance of C.G. from free surface
=Axh
F = pgAh ... (3.1)
For water the value of p = 1000 kg/m 3and g = 9.81 m/s 2•
The force will be in Newton.
(b) Centre of Pressure (h*). Centre of pressure is calculated by using the "Principle of Moments",
which states that the moment of the resultant force about an axis is equal to the sum of moments of the
components about the same axis.
The resultant force F is acting at P, at a distance h* from free surface of the liquid as shown in
Fig. 3.1. Hence moment of the force F about free surface of the liquid= F x h* ... (3 .2)
Moment of force dF, acting on a strip about free surface of liquid
=dF x h { ·: dF = pgh x b x dh}
= pgh x b x dh x h
Sum of moments of all such forces about free surface of liquid
= f
pgh x b x dh x h = pg f bx h x hdh
f f
= pg bh 2 dh = pg h 2 dA (·: bdh = dA)
But f h 2 dA = f
bh 2 dh
= Moment of Inertia of the surface about free surface of liquid

= Io
Sum of moments about free surface
= pglo ... (3.3)
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Equating (3.2) and (3.3), we get
F x h* = pg/0
But F = pgAh
pgAh x h* = pglo
or h* = pglo_ = Io_ ... (3 .4)

pgAh Ah
By the theorem of parallel axis, we have
where Ia = Moment of Inertia of area about an axis passing through the C.G. of the area and parallel
to the free surface of liquid.
Substituting / 0 in equation (3.4), we get
h* = Ia + Ahz = le;_ + h .. .(3 .5)

Ah Ah
In equation (3.5), h is the distance of C.G. of the area of the vertical surface from free surface of
the liquid. Hence from equation (3.5), it is clear that :
(i) Centre of pressure (i.e., h*) lies below the centre of gravity of the vertical surface.
(ii) The distance of centre of pressure from free surface of liquid is independent of the density of the
liquid.
Table 3.1 The moments of inertia and other geometric properties of some important plane surfaces
Moment of inertia Moment of

about an axis passing inertia about
Plane surface C. G. f ram the Area through C. G. and base (/ 0 )
base parallel to base (I a)
I. Rectang le
I
T
I
I
f ---k--- >- d
d bd 3 bd 3
l x=- bd - -
I
X 2 12 3
l. I
~ ~- i
2. Triangle
;ti
:1
t' I
!\ l0
I b -J
h
x=-
3
bh
-
2
bh 3
-
36
bh 3
-
12
Co ntd...
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Moment of inertia Moment of

Plane surface C.G.from the Area about an axis passing inertia about
base through C. G. and base (/0 )
parallel to base (/ 0 )
3. Circle
!( +\
l~ G )! x=-
2
d rr.d2
-
4
-
rr.d4
64
-
4. Trapezium
[Z~jG
I
~ b :f
x = ( 2a+b
a+b
J~3
(a+b) xh
2 36(a + b)
J
[ a 2 + 4ab + b 2 x h3 -
Problem 3.1 A rectangular plane surface is 2 m wide and 3 m deep. It lies in vertical plane in
water. Determine the total pressure and position of centre of pressure on the plane surface when its
upper edge is horizontal and (a) coincides with water surface, (b) 2.5 m below the free water surface.
Solution. Given :
Width of plane surface, b=2m
Depth of plane surface, d=3m
(a) Upper edge coincides with water surface (Fig. 3.2). Total pressure is given by equation (3.1)
as
F = pgAh
FREE WATER SURFACE
where p = 1000 kg/m 3 , g = 9.81 m/s 2
A = 3 x 2 = 6 m2, -h = -1 (3) = 1.5 m. h

2
l Ge_l
1
h* 3m
F = 1000
9.81 X 6 X 1.5 X
= 88290 N. Ans.
Depth of centre of pressure is given by equation (3.5) as Pe
I -
h* = ~ +h ~
Ah
where la= M.0.1. about C.G. of the area of surface
Fig. 3.2
= bd = 2 x 3 = 4 _5 m4
3 3
12 12
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~I IL
h* = ~ + 1.5 = 0.5 + 1.5 = 2.0 m. Ans.

6 xl.5
(b) Upper edge is 2.5 m below water surface (Fig. 3.3). Total pressure (F) is given by (3.1)
F = pgAh WATER SURFACE

--------
where h= Distance of C.G. from free surface of water 11---------- 1-------
------
= 2.5 + -23 = 4.0 m 2.Sm
h* ti i
Centre of pressure is given by h*=
F = 1000 X 9.81 X 6
= 235440 N. Ans.
1
~ +h
-
X 4.0
' •G
13.0m
where le = 4.5, A = 6.0, h = 4.0

Ah
/ -2m- l
•P
J
4.5 Fig. 3.3
h*= - - - +4.0
6.0x4.0
= 0.1875 + 4.0 = 4.1875 = 4.1875 m. Ans.

Problem 3.2 Determine the total pressure on a circular plate of diameter 1.5 m which is placed
vertically in water in such a way that the centre of the plate is 3 m below the free surface of water. Find
the position of centre of pressure also. FREE SURFACE
Solution. Given : Dia. of plate, d = 1.5 m 1-----__-_:_- _- .:_- _- _- _- .: -- -1

:. Area, A =~ (1.5)2 = 1.767 m 2
4
3.0 m
h = 3.0 m h*
Total pressure is given by equation (3.1),

F = pgAh
= 1000 X 9.81 X 1.767 X 3.0 N
= 52002.81 N. Ans.
Position of centre of pressure (h*) is given by equation (3.5),
l-1.sm-l
1 -
h* = ~ +h Fig. 3.4
Ah
rr,d 4 Tr, X 1.5 4

where le=--=---= 0.2485 m4
64 64
0.2485
h* = + 3.0 = 0.0468 + 3.0
1.767 X 3.0
= 3.0468 m. Ans.
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174 Fluid Mechanics

Problem 3.3 A rectangular sluice gate is situated on the vertical wall of a lock. The vertical side
of the sluice is 'd' metres in length and depth of centroid of the area is 'p' m below the water surface.
d2 ) FREE SURFACE
Prove that the depth of pressure is equal to ( p + - - • - =-=' -=:.-=:.-=:.-=:.-=:.-=:.-='-=' =- f f
lr Ii--- b I'
12p --1
Solution. Given : h!*
Depth of vertical gate =dm Ge---+-:_,_i _
Let the width of gate =bm P•
Area, A = b x d m2
Fig. 3.5
Depth of C.G. from free surface
h =pm.
Let h* is the depth of centre of pressure from free surface, which is given by equation (3.5) as
I - bd 3
h* = ~ + h, where le= -
Ah 12
2
d2
h* = ( -bd123 / bX d X p) + p = --
d +p
12p
or p + - - . Ans.
12p
Problem 3.4 A circular opening, 3 m diameter, in a vertical side of a tank is closed by a disc of
3 m diameter which can rotate about a horizontal diameter. Calculate :
(i) the force on the disc, and
(ii) the torque required to maintain the disc in equilibrium in the vertical position when the head
of water above the horizontal diameter is 4 m.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of opening, d= 3m
Area, A= 1t x 32 = 7.0685 m 2
4
Depth of C.G., h=4m
(i) Force on the disc is given by equation (3.1) as
F = pgAh = 1000 x 9.81 x 7.0685 x 4.0

= 277368 N = 277.368 kN. Ans.
(ii) To find the torque required to maintain the disc in equilibrium, first calculate the point of
application of force acting on the disc, i.e., centre of pressure of the force F. The depth of centre of
pressure (h*) is given by equation (3.5) as
!!_ d4
h* = I~ + h = 64 + 4.0
Ah ~ d 2 x4.0
4
d2 32
= + 4.0 = - - - + 4.0 = 0.14 + 4.0 = 4.14 m
16 X 4.0 16 X 4.0
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Fig. 3.6
The force F is acting at a distance of 4.14 m from free surface. Moment of this force about
horizontal diameter X-X
= F x (h *-h) = 277368 (4.14-4.0) = 38831 Nm. Ans.
Hence a torque of 38831 Nm must be applied on the disc in the clockwise direction.
Problem 3.5 A pipe line which is 4 m in diameter contains a gate valve. The pressure at the centre
of the pipe is 19.6 N/cm 2• If the pipe is filled with oil of sp. gr. 0.87, find the force exerted by the oil
upon the gate and position of centre of pressure.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of pipe, d =4m
~ J__
S = 0.87
1~--6 _ 2
Nlc_m_,,
I
....__ _ _ _ _
"- GATE VALVE

Fig. 3.7
J_
j
0·}
Area, A = ~ x 42 =4n m 2
4
Sp. gr. of oil, S = 0.87
Density of oil, Po =0.87 x 1000 = 870 kg/m 3
Weight density of oil, w 0 =Pox g = 870 x 9.81 N/m 3
Pressure at the centre of pipe, p = 19.6 N/cm 2 = 19.6 x 104 N/m 2
p 19.6 X 10 4
Pressure head at the centre = - = - - - - = 22.988 m
W0 870 X 9.81
The height of equivalent free oil surface from the centre of pipe = 22.988 m.
The depth of C.G. of the gate valve from free oil surface h = 22.988 m.
(i) Now the force exerted by the oil on the gate is given by
F = pgAh
where p =density of oil =870 kg/m 3
F = 870 X 9.81 X 41t X 22.988 = 2465500 N = 2.465 MN. Ans.
(ii) Position of centre of pressure (h*) is given by (3.5) as
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!!:_ d4
I - 64 - d2 - 42
h* = ~ +h=~~- + h= -----=+h=---- + 22.988
Ah ~ d2 x h 16 h 16 x 22.988
4
= 0.043 + 22.988 = 23.031 m. Ans.
Or centre of pressure is below the centre of the pipe by a distance of 0.043 m. Ans.
Problem 3.6 Determine the total pressure and centre of pressure on an isosceles triangular plate
of base 4 m and altitude 4 m when it is immersed vertically in an oil of sp. gr. 0.9. The base of the plate
coincides with the free surface of oil.
=
~-~:~~l:~-~w
p.
FREE OIL 4
:~~~:;;.-a~~ven : b=4m l-::4l:m

:::
Height of plate, h=4m •
Area, A = bx h = 4 x 4 = 8.0 m2
2 2
I J_
Sp. gr. of oil, S= 0.9 Fig. 3.8
Density of oil, p = 900 kg/m3.
The distance of C.G. from free surface of oil,
-
h = -1 x h = -1 x 4 = 1.33 m.
3 3
Total pressure (F) is given by F = pgAh
=900 X 9.81 X 8.0 X 1.33 N = 9597.6. N. Ans.
Centre of pressure (h*) from free surface of oil is given by
I -
h* = ~ +h
Ah
where Ia= M.O.1. of triangular section about its C.G.
= bh3 = 4x43 = 7.11 m4

36 36
h* =- 7.11
- - + 1.33 =0.6667 + 1.33 = 1.99 m. Ans.
8.0 X 1.33
Problem 3.7 A vertical sluice gate is used to cover an opening in a dam. The opening is 2 m wide
and 1.2 m high. On the upstream of the gate, the liquid of sp. gr. 1.45, lies upto a height of 1.5 m
above the top of the gate, whereas on the downstream side the water is available upto a height touch-
ing the top of the gate. Find the resultant force acting on the gate and position of centre of pressure.
Find also the force acting horizontally at the top of the gate which is capable of opening it. Assume
that the gate is hinged at the bottom.
Solution. Given :
Width of gate, b=2m
Depth of gate, d = 1.2 m
Area, A = b x d = 2 x 1.2 = 2.4 m 2
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~I IL

Density of liquid, pi = 1.45 X
1000 = 1450 kg/m 3
Let Fi = Force exerted by the fluid of sp. gr. 1.45 on gate
F 2 = Force exerted by water on the gate.
The force Fi is given by Fi= Pig x Ax h,

where pi = 1.45 x 1000 = 1450 kg/m 2
h, = Depth of C.G. of gate from free surface of liquid
= 1.5 + -12 = 2.1 m.

2
FREE SURFACE OF LIQUID
LIQUID OF
1.5 m
Sp . gr.=1.45 FREE SURFACE
UPSTREAM l F OF WATER
t
DOWNSTREAM
HINGE
Fig. 3.9
Fi= 1450 X 9.81 X 2.4 X 2.1 = 71691 N
Similarly, F 2 = p2g.Ah2
where p 2 = 1,000 kg/m 3
h2 = Depth of C.G. of gate from free surface of water
= -1 X 1.2 = 0.6 m
2
F 2 = 1000 X 9.81 X 2.4 X 0.6 = 14126 N
(i) Resultant force on the gate= Fi - F 2 = 71691 - 14126 = 57565 N. Ans.
(ii) Position of centre of pressure of resultant force. The force Fi will be acting at a depth of
hi * from free surface of liquid, given by the relation
JG -
hi * = -=+hi
Ah1
where JG= _bd_3 = 2 x 1.23 = 0.288 m4

12 12
hi
*
=-.288
- - + 2.1 =0.0571 + 2.1 = 2.1571 m
2.4 X 2.1
Distance of Fi from hinge
=(1.5 + 1.2) - hi * = 2.7 - 2.1571 =0.5429 m
The force F 2 will be acting at a depth of h 2 * from free surface of water and is given by
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~I IL
4 - 2
where le = 0.288 m , h 2 = 0.6 m, A = 2.4 m ,
h2 * = 0·288 + 0.6 = 0.2 + 0.6 = 0.8 m

2.4 x0.6
Distance of F2 from hinge = 1.2 - 0.8 = 0.4 m
The resultant force 57565 N will be acting at a distance given by
71691 X .5429 -14126 X 0.4
=----------
57565
38921- 5650.4 b h"
= - - - - - - m a ove mge
57565
= 0.578 m above the hinge. Ans.
(iii) Force at the top of gate which is capable of opening the gate. Let Fis the force required
on the top of the gate to open it as shown in Fig. 3.9. Taking the moments of F, Fi and F2 about the
hinge, we get
F X 1.2 + F2 X 0.4 = Fi X .5429
F; X .5429 - F;_ X 0.4
or F = ----=-------=-----
1.2
71691 X.5429-14126 X 0.4 38921- 5650.4
= =------
12 12
= 27725.5 N. Ans.
Problem 3.8 A caisson for closing the entrance to a dry dock is of trapezoidal form 16 m wide at the
top and JO m wide at the bottom and 6 m deep. Find the total pressure and centre of pressure on the
caisson if the water on the outside is just level with the top and dock is empty.
Solution. Given :
WATER SURFACE~
Width at top = 16m ~---16m
Width at bottom = 10m
A F E D
Depth, d=6m
Area of trapezoidal ABCD,
(BC+AD)
A=----xd
2
(10 + 16) 2
= - - - X6=78m Fig. 3.10
2
Depth of C.G. of trapezoidal area ABCD from free surface of water,
10 X6 x3+-(1_6 _-_l0_) X6 x _!_ x 6

h=-----~2~--~3~_
78
180+36
= - - - = 2.769 m from water surface.
78
(i) Total Pressure (F). Total pressure, Fis given by
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~I IL

F = pgAh = 1000 x 9.81 x 78 x 2.769 N
= 2118783 N = 2.118783 MN. Ans.
(ii) Centre of Pressure (h*). Centre of pressure is given by equation (3.5) as
l -
~ +h
h* =
Ah
where le= M.0.1. of trapezoidal ABCD about its C.G.
Let le, = M.0.1. of rectangle FBCE about its C.G.
le 2 = M.0.1. of two Lis ABF and ECD about its C.G.
Then l = bd3 = 10 x 63 = 180 m4

e, 12 12
leI is the M .0.1. of the rectangle about the axis passing through G 1•
M.0.1. of the rectangle about the axis passing through the C.G. of the trapezoidal leI + Area of
rectangle xx/
where x 1 is distance between the C.G. of rectangle and C.G. of trapezoidal
=(3.0 - 2.769) =0.231 m
M.0.1. of FBCE passing through C.G. of trapezoidal
= 180 + 10 X 6 X (0.231) 2 = 180 + 3.20 = 183.20 m4
3
Now le =M.0.1. of MBD in Fig. 3.11 about G2 = bd
2 36
= (16-10)x6 3 =36 m4
36
The distance between the C.G. of triangle and C.G. of trapezoidal
= (2.769 - 2.0) =0.769
M.0.1. of the two Lis about an axis passing through C.G. of trapezoidal
= le + Area of triangles x (.769) 2 D
A
~ - - -F,-E - - ~
2
6x6 2
= 36.0 + - - X (.769)
2
=36.0 + 10.64 =46.64 --- ~
le= M.0.1. of trapezoidal about its C.G.
= M.0.1. of rectangle about the C.G. of trapezoidal 6m
+ M.0.1. of triangles about the C.G. of the trapezoidal
= 183.20 + 46.64 =229.84 m4
h* =
l
~
-
+h
B,C
l
Ah Fig. 3.11
where A= 78, h = 2.769
h* = -229.84
- - - + 2.769 = 1.064 + 2.769 = 3.833 m. Ans.
78 x2.769
Alternate Method
The distance of the C.G. of the trapezoidal channel from surface AD is given by (refer to Table 3.1
on page 71)
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I BO Fluid Mechanics
(2a+b) h
x=---x-
(a+b) 3
(2 X 10 + 16) 6
=----x- (·: a= 10,b= 16andh=6)
(10+16) 3
= 36 X 2 = 2.769 m
26
This is also equal to the distance of the C.G. of the trapezoidal from free surface of water.
h = 2.769 m
Total pressure, F = pgAh ( ·: A = 78)
= 1000 X 9.81 X 78 X 2.769 N = 2118783 N. Ans.
I -
Centre of Pressure, (h*) = C!.... +h
Ah
Now le from Table 3.1 is given by,
(a 2 +4ab+b 2 ) (10 2 +4x10x16+16 2 )
I = ~---~ x h 3 = ~-------~ x 63
c 36(a+b) 36(10+16)
= (lOO + 640 + 256) X 216 = 229.846 m 4

36x26
h* = 229.846 + 2 _769 (·: A= 78 m 2)

78x2 769
= 3.833 m. Ans.
Problem 3.9 A trapezoidal channel 2 m wide at the bottom and 1 m deep has side slopes 1 : 1.
Determine:
(i) the total pressure, and
(ii) the centre of pressure on the vertical gate closing the channel when it is full of water.
Solution. Given :
Width at bottom =2m
----4m---
~~\J v~
~~~ d=lm
Side slopes = 1: 1 A WATER SURFACE D
:. Top width, AD= 2 + 1 + 1 = 4 m
Area of rectangle FBEC, Ai = 2 x 1 = 2 m 2
Area of two triangles ABF and ECD, A 2 = (4 - 2 ) x 1 = 1 m 2

2
.L s'-------'C
j-2m-l
:. Area of trapezoidal ABCD, A = Ai + A 2 = 2 + 1 = 3 m 2
Depth of C.G. of rectangle FBEC from water surface, Fig. 3.12
- 1
hi= - = 0.5 m
2
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Depth of C.G. of two triangles ABF and ECD from water surface,
- 1 1
h2 = - x 1 = - m
3 3
Depth of C.G. of trapezoidal ABCD from free surface of water
- -
h = Ai x hi+ A2 x h2 = 2 x 0.5 + 1 x 0.33333 = .44444
(Ai+A 2 ) (2+1)
(i) Total Pressure (F). Total pressure Fis given by
F= pgAh
= 1000 X 9.81 X 3.0 X 0.44444 = 13079.9 N. Ans.
(ii) Centre of Pressure (h*). M.O.1. of rectangle FBCE about its C.G.,
bd 3 2xl 3 1 4
l -------m
el - 12 - 12 - 6
M.O.1. of FBCE about an axis passing through the C.G. of trapezoidal
or le/ = le 1 + Ai x [Distance between C.G. of rectangle and C.G.
of trapezoidal] 2
= ¾+ 2 [hi - h]
X 2
= -1 + 2 X [0.5 - .4444]
2
= .1666 + .006182 =0.1727
6
M.O.1. of the two triangles ABF and ECD about their C.G.,
bd 3 (l+l)xl 3 2 1 4
1e2 = 36 = 36 = 36 =18 m ·
M.O.1. of the two triangles about the C.G. of trapezoidal,
le 2* = le 1 + A 2 x [Distance between C.G. of triangles and C.G.
of trapezoidal] 2
1 2 2
=18 + (.1111) =0.0555 + (.1111)
= .0555 + 0.01234 =0.06789 m4

M.O.1. of the trapezoidal about its C.G.
le= leI *+ le2 * = .1727 + .06789 =0.24059 m 4
Then centre of pressure (h*) on the vertical trapezoidal,
* _ le - _ 0.24059 _ _
h - ---=+h - - - - + .4444- 0.18046 + .4444- 0.6248
Ah 3x.4444
= 0.625 m. Ans.
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Alternate Method
The distance of the C.G. of the trapezoidal channel from surface AD is given by (refer to Table 3.1
on page 71).
(2a+b) h (2x2+4) 1
x=---x-=----x- (·: a=2,b=4andh= 1)
(a+b) 3 (2+4) 3
= 0.444 m
h = x = 0.444 m
Total pressure, F = pgAh = 1000 X 9.81 X 3.0 X .444 (·: A= 3.0)
= 13079 N. Ans.
l
Centre of pressure, h* = G_ + -h
Ah
where la from Table 3.1 is given by
(a 2 +4ab+b 2 ) 2 2
3 (2 +4x2x4+4 ) 3 52 4
la= 36(a+b) xh = 36(2+4) xl = 36x6 =0.2407 m
0.2407
h* = - - - - + .444 = 0.625 m. Ans.
3.0 x.444
Problem 3.10 A square aperture in the vertical side of a tank has one diagonal vertical and is
completely covered by a plane plate hinged along one of the upper sides of the aperture. The diagonals
of the aperture are 2 m long and the tank contains a liquid of specific gravity 1.15. The centre of
aperture is 1.5 m below the free surface. Calculate the thrust exerted on the plate by the liquid and
position of its centre of pressure.
Solution. Given: Diagonals of aperture, AC= BD = 2 m
:. Area of square aperture, A= Area of MCB + Area of MCD
= ACxBO+ACxOD=2xl + 2xl =l+l= 2 .0m2
2 2 2 2
Density of liquid, p = 1.15 X 1000 = 1150 kg/m 3
Depth of centre of aperture from free surface,
h = 1.5 m.
B SQUARE
APERTURE
1.5m
Sp. gr.=1 .15
Fig. 3.13
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(i) The thrust on the plate is given by
F = pgAh = 1150 x 9.81 x 2 x 1.5 = 33844.5. Ans.
(ii) Centre of pressure (h*) is given by
I -
h* = ~ +h
Ah
where / 0 = M.O.1. of ABCD about diagonal AC
= M.O.1. of triangle ABC about AC+ M.O.1. of triangle ACD about AC
ACxOB 3 ACxOD 3 bh 3 )
=----+---- ( ·: M.O. I.of a triangle about its base =12
12 12
2xi3 2x1 3 1 1 1 4
= --+--=-+-=- m
12 12 6 6 3
1
h* =- 3- + 1.5 = 1 + 1.5 = 1.611 m. Ans.
2 X 1.5 3 X 2 X 1.5
Problem 3.11 A tank contains water upto a height of 0.5 m above the base. An immiscible liquid of
sp. gr. 0.8 is filled on the top of water upto 1 m height. Calculate :
(i) total pressure on one side of the tank,
(ii) the position of centre of pressure for one side of the tank, which is 2 m wide.
Solution. Given :
Depth of water = 0.5 m
Depth of liquid =lm
Density of liquid, P1 =0.8 x 1000 = 800 kg/m 3
Density of water, p2 = 1000 kg/m 3
Width of tank =2m
(i) Total pressure on one side is calculated by drawing pressure diagram, which is shown in Fig. 3.14.
Intensity of pressure on top, PA = 0
Intensity of pressure on D (or DE), PD= p 1g.h 1
= 800 X 9.81 X 1.0 = 7848 N/m 2
A
E
F D
2
Fig. 3.14
Intensity of pressure on base (or BC),p 8 = p 1gh 1 + p 2g x 0.5
=7848 + 1000 X 9.81 X 0.5 = 7848 + 4905 = 12753 N/m 2
Now force F 1 = Area of MDE x Width of tank
= -1 X AD X DE X 2.0 = -1 X 1 X 7848 X 2.0 =7848 N

2 2
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Force F 2 = Area of rectangle DBFE x Width of tank
= 0.5 X 7848 X 2 = 7848 N
F 3 = Area of MFC x Width of tank
= -1 x EF x FC x 2.0 = -1 x 0.5 x 4905 x 2.0 = 2452.5 N

2 2
:. Total pressure, F =Fi+ F 2 + F 3
= 7848 + 7848 + 2452.5 = 18148.5 N. Ans.
(ii) Centre of Pressure (h*). Taking the moments of all force about A, we get
F x h* = Fi x ~ AD + F 2 (AD + .!_ BD) + F 3 [AD + ~ BD]

3 2 3
18148.5 X h* = 7848 X ½ 1 + 7848 (1.0 + 0/ ) + 2452.5 (1.0 + ½ .5)

X X
= 5232 + 9810 + 3270 = 18312

h
*
= -18312
- - = 1.009 m from top. Ans.
18148.5
Problem 3.12 A cubical tank has sides of 1.5 m. It contains water for the lower 0.6 m depth. The
upper remaining part is filled with oil of specific gravity 0.9. Calculate for one vertical side of the tank:
( a) total pressure, and
(b) position of centre of pressure.
Solution. Given :
Cubical tank of sides 1.5 m means the dimensions of the tank are 1.5 m x 1.5 m x 1.5 m.
Depth of water = 0.6 m
Depth of liquid = 1.5 - 0.6 =0.9 m
Density of liquid, Pi =0.9 x 1000 = 900 kg/m 3
Density of water, p 2 = 1000 kg/m 3
(a) Total pressure on one vertical side is calculated by drawing pressure diagram, which is shown
in Fig. 3.15.
A
. . . . . . ··
. . .- .- -·--
. . ··· · · · ·
OIL OF SP. GR .=0.9 .:_::

-- •
D 1--- - -~ E
---
_________ .
1_. I
B~---___.._--~. C
7946.1 F 5886
13832.1
Fig. 3.15
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Intensity of pressure at A, PA = 0
Intensity of pressure at D,Pv = Pig x h = 900 x 9.81 x 0.9 = 7946.1 N/m 2
Intensity of pressure at B, PB= Pighi + p2gh 2 = 900 x 9.81 x 0.9 + 1000 x 9.81 x 0.6
= 7946.1 + 5886 = 13832.1 N/m 2
Hence in pressure diagram :
DE= 7946.1 N/m 2, BC= 13832.1 N/m 2, FC = 5886 N/m 2
The pressure diagram is split into triangle ADE, rectangle BDEF and triangle EFC. The total pres-
sure force consists of the following components :
(i) Force Fi= Area of triangle ADE x Width of tank
=(½ x ADx DE) x 1.5 (·: Width= 1.5 m)
= (½ X 0.9 X 7946.1) X 1.5 N = 5363.6 N
This force will be acting at the C.G. of the triangle ADE, i.e., at a distance of~ x 0.9 = 0.6 m below A
3
(ii) Force F 2 = Area of rectangle BDEF x Width of tank
= (BD X DE) X 1.5 = (0.6 X 7946.1) X 1.5 = 7151.5
This force will be acting at the C.G. of the rectangle BDEF i.e., at a distance of 0.9 + 0·6 = 1.2 m
2
below A.
(iii) Force F 3 = Area of triangle EFC x Width of tank
= (½ x EFx FC) x 1.5 = (½ x 0.6x 5886) x 1.5 = 2648.7 N
This force will be acting at the C.G. of the triangle EFC, i.e., at a distance of0.9 + ~ x 0.6 = 1.30 m
3
below A.
Total pressure force on one vertical face of the tank,
F =Fi+ F 2 + F 3
= 5363.6 + 7151.5 + 2648.7 = 15163.8 N. Ans.
(b) Position of centre of pressure
Let the total force F is acting at a depth of h* from the free surface of liquid, i.e., from A.
Taking the moments of all forces about A, we get
F X h* = Fi X 0.6 + F 2 X 1.2 + F 3 X 1.3
F; X 0.6 + Ji; X 12 + Ji; X 13
or h* = - - - - - - - - - -
F
53616 X 0.6 + 7151.5 X 1.2 + 2648. 7 X 1.3
=--------------
151618
= 1.005 m from A. Ans.
• 3.4 HORIZONTAL PLANE SURFACE SUBMERGED IN LIQUID
Consider a plane horizontal surface immersed in a static fluid. As every point of the surface is at the
same depth from the free surface of the liquid, the pressure intensity will be equal on the entire surface
and equal to, p = pgh, where h is depth of surface.
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CHAPTER
In this chapter, the equilibrium of the floating and sub-merged bodies will be considered. Thus the
chapter will include : l. Buoyancy, 2. Centre of buoyancy, 3. Metacentre, 4. Metacentric height,
5. Analytical method for determining metacentric height, 6. Conditions of equilibrium of a floating
and sub-merged body, and 7. Experimental method for metacentric height.
• 4.2 BUOYANCY
When a body is immersed in a fluid, an upward force is exerted by the fluid on the body. This
upward force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body and is called the force of
buoyancy or simply buoyancy.
• 4.3 CENTRE OF BUOYANCY
It is defined as the point, through which the force of buoyancy is supposed to act. As the force of
buoyancy is a vertical force and is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body, the centre of
buoyancy will be the centre of gravity of the fluid displaced.
Problem 4.1 Find the volume of the water displaced and position of centre of buoyancy for a
wooden block of width 2.5 m and of depth 1.5 m, when it floats horizontally in water. The density of
wooden block is 650 kg/m 3 and its length 6.0 m.
Solution. Given :
Width = 2.5 m WATER
Depth = 1.5m SURFACE
Length =6.0m
Volume of the block = 2.5 X 1.5 X 6.0 = 22.50 m 3
Density of wood, p = 650 kg/m 3
Weight of block = p x g x Volume 1 - 2.sm - 1
= 650 X 9.81 X 22.50 N = 143471 N Fig. 4.1
131
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For equilibrium the weight of water displaced = Weight of wooden block
= 143471 N
Volume of water displaced
= Weight of water displaced = 143471 = 14_625 m 3 • Ans.
Weight density of water 1000 x 9.81
(·: Weight density of water= 1000 x 9.81 N/m 3)
Position of Centre of Buoyancy. Volume of wooden block in water
= Volume of water displaced
or 2.5 x h x 6.0 = 14.625 m 3, where h is depth of wooden block in water
h= 14·625 = 0.975 m
2.5 x6.0
0.975
Centre of Buoyancy = - - = 0.4875 m from base. Ans.
2
Problem 4.2 A wooden log of 0.6 m diameter and 5 m length is floating in river water. Find the
depth of the wooden log in water when the sp. gravity of the log is 0. 7.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of log =0.6m
Length, L=5m
Sp. gr., S = 0.7
Density of log = 0.7 x 1000 = 700 kg/m 3
D
Weight density of log, w = pxg
= 700 X 9.81 N/m 3 Fig. 4.2
Find depth of immersion or h

Weight of wooden log = Weight density x Volume of log
= 700 X 9.81 X ~ (D)2 XL

4
7t 2
= 700 X 9.81 X - (.6) X 5 N = 989.6 X 9.81 N
4
For equilibrium,
Weight of wooden log = Weight of water displaced
= Weight density of water x Volume of water displaced
Volume of water displaced = 989·6 x 9·81 = 0.9896 m 3

1000 X 9.81
(·: Weight density of water= 1000 x 9.81 N/m 3)
Let h is the depth of immersion
Volume of log inside water= Area of ADCA x Length
= Area of ADCA x 5.0
But volume of log inside water = Volume of water displaced= 0.9896 m 3
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Buoyancy and Floatation 133 I

0.9896 = Area of ADCA x 5.0
:. Area of ADCA = 0.9896 = 0.1979 m2

5.0
But area of ADCA = Area of curved surface ADCOA + Area of MOC
360°-20] 1
= 1tr2 [ 360 + 2 r COS 0
0 X 2r sin 0
= nr2 [1 - _i__] + r2 cos e sin e

180°
0.1979 = 1t (.3) 2 [1-_i__J + (.3) 2 cos 0 sin 0

180°
0.1979 = .2827 - .00157 0 + 0.9 cos 0 sin 0
or .00157 0 - .09 cos 0 sin 0 = .2827 - .1979 = 0.0848
e --- .o9 . .0848

c o s 0 sm 0 = - -
.00157 .00157
or 0 - 57.32 cos 0 sin 0 = 54.01.
or 0 - 57.32 cos 0 sin 0 - 54.01 = 0
For 0 = 60°, 60 - 57.32 X 0.5 X .866 - 54.01 = 60 - 24.81 - 54.01 = - 18.82
For 0 = 70°, 70 - 57.32 X .342 X 0.9396 - 54.01 = 70 - = - 2.41
18.4 - 54.01
For 0 = 72°, 72 - 57.32 X .309 X .951 - 54.01 = 72 - 16.84 - 54.01 = + 1.14
For 0 = 71°, 71 - 57.32 X .325 X .9455 - 54.01 = 71 - 17.61 - 54.01 = - 0.376
e = 11.5°, 71.5 - 57.32 X .3173 X .948 - 54.01 = 71.5 - 17.24 - 54.01 = + .248
Then h = r + r cos 71.5°
= 0.3 + 0.3 x 0.3173 = 0.395 m. Ans.
Problem 4.3 A stone weighs 392.4 Nin air and 196.2 Nin water. Compute the volume of stone
and its specific gravity.
Solution. Given :
Weight of stone in air = 392.4 N
Weight of stone in water = 196.2 N
For equilibrium,
Weight in air - Weight of stone in water= Weight of water displaced
or 392.4 - 196.2 = 196.2 = 1000 x 9.81 x Volume of water displaced
:. Volume of water displaced
= 196·2 = _l_ m 3 = - 1-x 106 cm3 = 2 x 104 cm 3 • Ans.

1000 X 9.81 50 50
= Volume of stone
Volume of stone = 2 x 104 cm 3 • Ans.
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Specific Gravity of Stone
= Weight in air = 392.4 = 40 k
Mass of stone
g 9.81 g
Density of stone = Mass in air = 40.0 kg = 40 x 50 = 2000 kg

Volume -m1 3 m3
50
Sp. gr. of stone = Density of stone = 2000 = l.O. Ans.
Problem 4.4 A body of dimensions 1.5 m x 1.0 m x 2 m, weighs 1962 N in water. Find its weight
in air. What will be its specific gravity ?
Solution. Given :
Volume of body = 1.50 x 1.0 x 2.0 = 3.0 m 3
Weight of body in water = 1962 N
Volume of the water displaced= Volume of the body= 3.0 m 3
:. Weight of water displaced= 1000 x 9.81 x 3.0 = 29430 N
For the equilibrium of the body
Weight of body in air - Weight of water displaced = Weight in water
Wair - 29430 = 1962
Wair= 29430 + 1962 = 31392 N
Mass of body = Weight in air = 31392 = 3200 kg
g 9.81
Density of the body = Mass = 3200 = 1066.67
Volume 3.0
Sp. gravity of the body = 1066·67 = 1.067. Ans.
1000
Problem 4.5 Find the density of a metallic body which floats at the interface of mercury of
sp. gr. 13.6 and water such that 40% of its volume is sub-merged in mercury and 60% in water.
Solution. Let the volume of the body = V m 3
Then volume of body sub-merged in mercury
-:-:wATER:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-
= 4 0 V= 0.4 Vm 3
100
Volume of body sub-merged in water
----g-------
--------
-
-------
-------
------
------
-----
-----
----
-----
----------------
------------
----------
-----------
---------
---------
--------
--------
--------
---- --------- --------
-------
MERCURY
=60 x V = 0.6 V m 3
100
Fig. 4.3
For the equilibrium of the body
Total buoyant force (upward force)= Weight of the body
But total buoyant force= Force of buoyancy due to water+ Force of buoyancy due to mercury
Force of buoyancy due to water = Weight of water displaced by body
= Density of water x g x Volume of water displaced
= 1000 x g x Volume of body in water
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= 1000 x g x 0.6 x V N
and Force of buoyancy due to mercury = Weight of mercury displaced by body
= g x Density of mercury x Volume of mercury displaced
= g x 13.6 x 1000 x Volume of body in mercury
= g x 13.6 x 1000 x 0.4 V N
Weight of the body =Density x g x Volume of body = p x g x V
where p is the density of the body
For equilibrium, we have
Total buoyant force = Weight of the body
1000 X g X 0.6 X V + 13.6 X 1000 X g X .4 V = p X g X V
or p =600 + 13600 x .4 = 600 + 54400 =6040.00 kg/m 3
Density of the body = 6040.00 kg/m 3 . Ans.
Problem 4.6 Afloat valve regulates the flow of oil of sp. gr. 0.8 into a cistern. The spherical float
is 15 cm in diameter. AOB is a weightless link carrying the float at one end, and a valve at the other
end which closes the pipe through which oil flows into the cistern. The link is mounted in a frictionless
hinge at O and the angle AOB is 135°. The length of OA is 20 cm, and the distance between the centre
of the float and the hinge is 50 cm. When the flow is stopped AO will be vertical. The valve is to be
pressed on to the seat with a force of 9.81 N to completely stop the flow of oil into the cistern. It was
observed that the flow of oil is stopped when the free surface of oil in the cistern is 35 cm below the
hinge. Determine the weight of the float.
Solution. Given : OIL
SUPPLY
Sp. gr. of oil = 0.8
:. Density of oil, Po = 0.8 x 1000
OIL
= 800 kg/m 3 35 h
SURFACE
f-----'--''--~--r+----'-f
Dia. of float, D = 15 cm
LAOB = 135°
::- ::-Sp.gr.= 0.8::: ======:-
OA = 20 cm
Fig. 4.4
Force, P = 9.81 N
OB= 50 cm
Find the weight of the float. Let it is equal to W.
When the flow of oil is stopped, the centre of float is shown in Fig. 4.4
The level of oil is also shown. The centre of float is below the level of oil, by a depth 'h'.
From MJOD, sin 450 = OD = OC + CD = 35 + h
OB OB 50
50 x sin 45° = 35 + h
1
or h =50 x J2 - 35 = 35.355 - 35 =0.355 cm = .00355 m.
The weight of float is acting through B, but the upward buoyant force is acting through the centre
of weight of oil displaced.
~ = 1: = 7.5 cm }
2
Volume of oil displaced = - nr3 + h x nr2 { r=
3
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=t X 1t X (.075)3 + .00355 X 1t X (.075)2 = 0.000945 m3

:. Buoyant force = Weight of oil displaced
=Pox g x Volume of oil
= 800 X 9.81 X .000945 = 7.416 N
The buoyant force and weight of the float passes through the same vertical line, passing through B.
Let the weight of float is W. Then net vertical force on float
= Buoyant force - Weight of float = (7.416 - W)
Taking moments about the hinge 0, we get
PX 20 = (7.416 - W) X BD = (7.416 - W) X 50 X cos 45°
or 9.81 x 20 = (7.416 - W) x 35.355
20 X 9.81
W = 7.416- - - - = 7.416- 5.55 = 1.866 N. Ans.
35.355
• 4.4 META-CENTRE
It is defined as the point about which a body starts oscillating when the body is tilted by a small
angle. The meta-centre may also be defined as the point at which the line of action of the force of
buoyancy will meet the normal axis of the body when the body is given a small angular displacement.
Consider a body floating in a liquid as shown in Fig. 4.5 (a). Let the body is in equilibrium and G is
the centre of gravity and B the centre of buoyancy. For equilibrium, both the points lie on the normal
axis, which is vertical.
NORMAL AXIS ANGULAR
DISPLACEMENT
t
'
,B
G
NORMAL AXIS
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.5 Meta-centre
Let the body is given a small angular displacement in the clockwise direction as shown in Fig. 4.5 (b ).
The centre of buoyancy, which is the centre of gravity of the displaced liquid or centre of gravity of the
portion of the body sub-merged in liquid, will now be shifted towards right from the normal axis. Let
it is at B I as shown in Fig. 4.5 ( b ). The line of action of the force of buoyancy in this new position, will
intersect the normal axis of the body at some point say M. This point M is called Meta-centre.
• 4.5 META-CENTRIC HEIGHT
The distance MG, i.e., the distance between the meta-centre of a floating body and the centre of
gravity of the body is called meta-centric height.
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• 4.6 ANALYTICAL METHOD FOR META-CENTRE HEIGHT
Fig. 4.6 (a) shows the position of a floating body in equilibrium. The location of centre of gravity
and centre of buoyancy in this position is at G and B. The floating body is given a small angular
displacement in the clockwise direction. This is shown in Fig. 4.6 (b). The new centre of buoyancy is
at B 1• The vertical line through B 1 cuts the normal axis at M. Hence Mis the meta-centre and GM is
meta-centric height.
T
1 L
c) PLAN OF BODY AT WATER LINE
dx
Fig. 4.6 Meta-centre height of floating body .

The angular displacement of the body in the clockwise direction causes the wedge-shaped prism
BOB' on the right of the axis to go inside the water while the identical wedge-shaped prism represented
by AOA' emerges out of the water on the left of the axis. These wedges represent a gain in buoyant
force on the right side and a corresponding loss of buoyant force on the left side. The gain is
represented by a vertical force dF8 acting through the C.G. of the prism BOB' while the loss is
represented by an equal and opposite force dF8 acting vertically downward through the centroid of
AOA'. The couple due to these buoyant forces dF8 tends to rotate the ship in the counterclockwise
direction. Also the moment caused by the displacement of the centre of buoyancy from B to B I is also
in the counterclockwise direction. Thus these two couples must be equal.
Couple Due to Wedges. Consider towards the right of the axis a small strip of thickness dx at a
distance x from Oas shown in Fig. 4.5 (b). The height of strip xx LBOB' =xx 0.
{ ·: LBOB' = LAOA' = BMB 1' = 0}
Area of strip = Height x Thickness = x x 0 x dx
If Lis the length of the floating body, then
Volume of strip = Area x L
=xx0xLxdx
Weight of strip = pg x Volume= pgx 0L dx
Similarly, if a small strip of thickness dx at a distance x from O towards the left of the axis is
considered, the weight of strip will be pgx0 L dx. The two weights are acting in the opposite direction
and hence constitute a couple.
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Moment of this couple = Weight of each strip x Distance between these two weights
= pgx 0L dx [x + x]
= pgx 0L dx x 2x = 2pgx2 0L dx
Moment of the couple for the whole wedge
= J 2pgx2 0L dx ... (4.1)
Moment of couple due to shifting of centre of buoyancy from B to B 1
= FB X BBi
= FBX BMx e { ·: BB 1 = BM x 0 if 0 is very small}
= WxBMxe { ·: FB = W} ... (4.2)
But these two couples are the same. Hence equating equations (4.1) and (4.2), we get
Wx BMx 0 = J 2pgx2 0 Ldx
W x BM x 0 = 2pg0 Jx2 Ldx
Wx BM= 2pg Jx 2Ldx
Now Ldx = Elemental area on the water line shown in Fig. 4.6 (c) and= dA
Wx BM= 2pg J x2dA.
But from Fig. 4.5 (c) it is clear that 2 Jx 2 dA is the second moment of area of the plan of the body
at water surface about the axis Y-Y. Therefore
WxBM= pg/ {where I= 2 J x2 dA}
BM= pg/
w
But W = Weight of the body
= Weight of the fluid displaced by the body
= pg x Volume of the fluid displaced by the body
= pg x Volume of the body sub-merged in water
= pg x V
BM= pgx I I ... (4.3)
pgxV V
I
GM= BM-BG= - -BG
V
I
Meta-centric height = GM=--BG. ... (4.4)
V
Problem 4. 7 A rectangular pontoon is 5 m long, 3 m wide and 1.20 m high. The depth of
immersion of the pontoon is 0.80 m in sea water. If the centre of gravity is 0.6 m above the bottom of
the pontoon, determine the meta-centric height. The density for sea water= 1025 kg/m 3•
Solution. Given :
Dimension of pontoon = 5 m x 3 m x 1.20 m
Depth of immersion = 0.8 m
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Distance AG= 0.6 m I- 3m -I
Distance AB = -½- x Depth of immersion
= -½- X .8 = 0.4 m
Density for sea water = 1025 kg/m 3
Meta-centre height GM, given by equation (4.4) is
GM=--BG
I
"i/
where I= M.O. Inertia of the plan of the pontoon about Y-Y axis
T
5.0m
= -1 x 5 x 33 m4 = -45 m4
12 4
"ii= Volume of the body sub-merged in water
= 3 X 0.8 X 5.0 = 12.0 m3
y
l
PLAN AT WATER SURFACE
BG = AG - AB = 0.6 - 0.4 = 0.2 m Fig. 4.7
45 1 45
GM= - x - - 0.2 = - - 0.2 = 0.9375 - 0.2 = 0.7375 m. Ans.
4 12.0 48
Problem 4.8 A uniform body of size 3 m long x 2 m wide x 1 m deep floats in water. What is the
weight of the body if depth of immersion is 0.8 m ? Determine the meta-centric height also.
Solution. Given :
Dimension of body =3x2xl
Depth of immersion = 0.8 m
Find (i)Weight of body, W
(ii) Meta-centric height, GM
(i) Weight of Body, W
= Weight of water displaced T
1. m
= pg x Volume of water displaced
= 1000 x 9.81 x Volume of body in water
= 1000 X 9.81 X 3 X 2 X 0.8 N
A
= 47088 N. Ans. ELEVATION
(ii) Meta-centric Height, GM Fig. 4.8

I
GM=--BG
"i/
where I= M.O.1 about Y-Y axis of the plan of the body
1 3 3 X 23 4
= - X 3 X 2 = - - = 2.0 m
12 12
"ii = Volume of body in water
= 3 X 2 X 0.8 = 4.8 m3
1.0 0.8
BG = AG - AB = - - - = 0.5 - 0.4 = 0.1
2 2
2.0
GM= - - 0.1 = 0.4167 - 0.1 = 0.3167 m. Ans.
4.8
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Problem 4.9 A block of wood of specific gravity 0. 7 floats in water. Determine the meta-centric
height of the block if its size is 2 m x 1 m x 0.8 m. y
Solution. Given :
Dimension of block
Let depth of immersion
= 2 X 1 X 0.8
=hm
1
2.0 m
Sp. gr. of wood

Weight of wooden piece
= 0.7
= Weight density of wood* x Volume
PLAN
y
1
= 0.7 X 1000 X 9.81 X 2 X 1 X 0.8 N -- -- -- -- --
Weight of water displaced = Weight density of water 0.8- m h
x Volume of the wood sub-merged in water

A
l .:t
= 1000 X 9.81 X 2 X 1X h N 1- 1.0--I

For equilibrium, Fig. 4.9
Weight of wooden piece = Weight of water displaced
700 X 9.81 X 2 X 1 X 0.8 = 1000 X 9.81 X 2 X 1X h
h = 700 X 9.81 X 2 X 1X 0.8 =0 _7 X 0 _8 =0 _56 m
1000 X 9.81 X 2X 1
Distance of centre of Buoyancy from bottom, i.e.,
AB = !!:._ = 0.5 6 =0.28 m

2 2
and AG= 0.8/2.0 = 0.4 m
BG= AG -AB= 0.4 - 0.28 = 0.12 m
The meta-centric height is given by equation (4.4) or
I
GM=--BG
"d
1 3 1 4
where I= - x 2 x 1.0 = - m
12 6
"d = Volume of wood in water
= 2 X 1 X h = 2 X 1 X .56 = 1.12 m3
1 1
GM= - x - - 0.12 =0.1488- 0.12 = 0.0288 m. Ans.
6 1.12
Problem 4.10 A solid cylinder of diameter 4.0 m has a height of 3 metres. Find the meta-centric
height of the cylinder when it is floating in water with its axis vertical. The sp. gr. of the cylinder
= 0.6.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of cylinder, D= 4.0 m
Height of cylinder, h = 3.0 m
* Weight density of wood = p x g, where p = density of wood

= 0.7 x 1000 = 700 kg/m 3 . Hence w for wood= 700 x 9.81 N/m 3 .
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Sp. gr. of cylinder = 0.6
Depth of immersion of cylinder
= 0.6 X 3.0 = 1.8 m
AB=~= 0.9 m
2
and AG= i2 = 1.5 m

BG= AG-AB
= 1.5 - 0.9 = 0.6 m
Fig. 4.10
Now the meta-centric height GM is given by equation (4.4)
I
GM=--BG
"if
But I= M.0.1. about Y-Y axis of the plan of the body
= ~ D4 = ~ X (4.0) 4
64 64
and "if= Volume of cylinder in water
= ~ D 2 x Depth of immersion
4
= ~ (4) 2 X 1.8 m3
4
~x(4.0)4
GM= 64 - 0.6
~x(4.0)2 xl.8
4
1 4.0 2 1
= - x - - - 0.6 = - - 0.6 = 0.55 - 0.6 = - 0.05 m. Ans.
16 1.8 1.8
- ve sign means that meta-centre, (M) is below the centre of gravity (G).
Problem 4.11 A body has the cylindrical upper portion of 3 m diameter and 1.8 m deep. The lower
portion is a curved one, which displaces a volume of 0.6 m3 of water. The centre of buoyancy of the
curved portion is at a distance of 1.95 m below the top of the cylinder. The centre of gravity of the
whole body is 1.20 m below the top of the cylinder. The total displacement of water is 3.9 tonnes. Find
the meta-centric height of the body.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of body = 3.0m
Depth of body = 1.8 m
Volume displaced by curved portion
= 0.6 m 3 of water.
Let B I is the centre of buoyancy of the curved surface and G is the centre of gravity of the whole
body.
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Then CB 1 = 1.95 m
CG= 1.20 m
Total weight of water displaced by body = 3.9 tonnes
= 3.9 x 1000 = 3900 kgf
= 3900 x 9.81 N = 38259 N
Find meta-centric height of the body.
Let the height of the body above the water surface x m. Total
weight of water displaced by body
= Weight density of water x [Volume of water displaced]
= 1000 x 9.81 x [Volume of the body in water] A
ELEVATION
= 9810 [Volume of cylindrical part in water+ Volume
Fig. 4.11
of curved portion]
= 9810 [ ~ x D 2 x Depth of cylindrical part in water

+ Volume displaced by curved portion]
or 38259 = 9810 [: (3) 2 X (1.8- X) + 0.6]
n 2 38259
- (3) X (1.8 - x) + 0.6 = - - = 3.9
4 9810
n z
- X 3 X (1.8 - x) = 3.9 - 0.6 = 3.3
4
or 1.8 - X = 3.3 X 4 = 0.4668

nx3x3
= 1.8 -
.4668 = 1.33 m
X
Let B2 is the centre of buoyancy of cylindrical part and B is the centre of buoyancy of the whole
body.
Then depth of cylindrical part in water= 1.8 - x = 0.467 m
.467
CB 2 = x + - = 1.33 + .2335 = 1.5635 m.
2
The distance of the centre of buoyancy of the whole body from the top of the cylindrical part is
given as
CB = (Volume of curved portion x CB 1 + Volume of cylindrical part in water x CB 2)
+ (Total volume of water displaced)
= 0.6 X 1.95 + 3.3 X 1.5635 = 1.17 + 5.159 = 1_623 m.

(0.6 + 3.3) 3.9
Then BG= CB- CG= 1.623 - 1.20 = .423 m.
Meta-centric height, GM, is given by
I
GM=--BG
"d
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where I= M.0.1. of the plan of the body at water surface about Y-Y axis
= ~ x D 4 = ~ x 34 m 4
64 64
"i/ = Volume of the body in water= 3.9 m 3
1t 34
GM= -x- - .423 = 1.019 - .423 = 0.596 m. Ans.
64 3.9
• 4, 7 CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM OF A FLOATING AND SUB-MERGED

BODIES
A sub-merged or a floating body is said to be stable if it comes back to its original position after a
slight disturbance . The relative position of the centre of gravity (G) and centre of buoyancy (B 1) of a
body determines the stability of a sub-merged body.
4, 7.1 Stability of a Sub-merged Body. The position of centre of gravity and centre of buoy-
ancy in case of a completely sub-merged body are fixed. Consider a balloon, which is completely sub-
merged in air. Let the lower portion of the balloon contains heavier material, so that its centre of
gravity is lower than its centre of buoyancy as shown in Fig. 4.12 (a). Let the weight of the balloon is
W. The weight Wis acting through G, vertically in the downward direction, while the buoyant force F8
is acting vertically up, through B. For the equilibrium of the balloon W = F 8 . If the balloon is given an
angular displacement in the clockwise direction as shown in Fig. 4.12 (a), then Wand F 8 constitute a
couple acting in the anti-clockwise direction and brings the balloon in the original position. Thus the
balloon in the position, shown by Fig. 4.12 (a) is in stable equilibrium.
(a)
lJiJ
(b)
G (c)
STABLE EQUILIBRIUM UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM NEUTRAL EQUILIBRIUM
Fig. 4.12 Stabilities ofsub-merged bodies.
(a) Stable Equilibrium. When W = F 8 and point B is above G, the body is said to be in stable
equilibrium.
(b) Unstable Equilibrium. If W = F8 , but the centre of buoyancy (B) is below centre of gravity (G),
the body is in unstable equilibrium as shown in Fig. 4.12 (b). A slight displacement to the body, in the
clockwise direction, gives the couple due to W and F8 also in the clockwise direction. Thus the body
does not return to its original position and hence the body is in unstable equilibrium.
(c) Neutral Equilibrium. If F 8 =Wand Band Gare at the same point, as shown in Fig. 4.12 (c), the
body is said to be in neutral equilibrium.
4, 7.2 Stability of Floating Body. The stability of a floating body is determined from the posi-
tion of Meta-centre (M). In case of floating body, the weight of the body is equal to the weight of liquid
displaced.
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(a) Stable Equilibrium. If the point Mis above G, the floating body will be in stable equilibrium as
shown in Fig. 4.13 (a). If a slight angular displacement is given to the floating body in the clockwise
direction, the centre of buoyancy shifts from B to B I such that the vertical line through B I cuts at M.
Then the buoyant force F8 through B I and weight W through G constitute a couple acting in the anti-
clockwise direction and thus bringing the floating body in the original position.
(i)
(a) Stable equilibrium Mis above G (b) Unstable equilibrium Mis below G.
Fig. 4.13 Stability offloating bodies.
(b) Unstable Equilibrium. If the point Mis below G, the floating body will be in unstable equilib-
rium as shown in Fig. 4.13 (b). The disturbing couple is acting in the clockwise direction. The couple
due to buoyant force F8 and W is also acting in the clockwise direction and thus overturning the
floating body.
(c) Neutral Equilibrium. If the point Mis at the centre of gravity of the body, the floating body will
be in neutral equilibrium.
Problem 4.12 A solid cylinder of diameter 4.0 m has a height of 4.0 m. Find the meta-centric height
of the cylinder if the specific gravity of the material of cylinder= 0.6 and it is floating in water with its
axis vertical. State whether the equilibrium is stable or unstable.
Solution. Given : D=4m 1- 4 ·0y -1
Height, h=4m
Sp.gr. = 0.6
Depth of cylinder in water =Sp.gr. x h
=0.6 X 4.0 = 2.4 m PLAN y
Distance of centre of buoyancy (B) from A
or AB = 2.4 = 1.2 m ,G
2
B
Distance of centre of gravity ( G) from A 4.0 m 2.4 m
_i_ i
h
= -4.0
A
or AG= - = 2.0 m
2 2 Fig. 4.14
BG = AG - AB = 2.0 - 1.2 = 0.8 m
Now the meta-centric height GM is given by
I
GM= "if -BG
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where I= M.0.1. of the plan of the body about Y-Y axis
= ~ D 4 = ~ x(4.0)4
64 64
ti= Volume of cylinder in water
= ~ x D 2 x Depth of cylinder in water= 1t x 4 2 x 2.4 m 3

4.0 4
1t 44
I -x 1 42 1
= 64 =- X - =- = 0.4167 m
ti 1t x 4 2 x 2 .4 16 2.4 2.4
4
I
GM= - - BG = 0.4167 - 0.8 = - 0.3833 m. Ans.
ti
-ve sign means that the meta-centre (M) is below the centre of gravity (G). Thus the cylinder is in
unstable equilibrium. Ans.
Problem 4.13 A solid cylinder of 10 cm diameter and 40 cm long, consists of two parts made of
different materials. The first part at the base is 1.0 cm long and of specific gravity = 6.0. The other part
of the cylinder is made of the material having specific gravity 0.6. State, if it can float vertically in
water.
Solution. Given : D = 10 cm
Length, L=40cm
Length of 1st part, 11 = 1.0 cm
Sp. gr., S1 = 6.0
Density of 1st part, P1 = 6 x 1000 = 6000 kg/m 3
Length of 2nd part,
Sp. gr.,
12 = 40 - 1.0 = 39.0 cm
S2 = 0.6
Sp.gr.
=0.6 .....
T
40cm
Density of 2nd part, P2 = 0.6 x 1000 = 600 kg/m 3
1
The cylinder will float vertically in water if its meta-centric height GM is
1.0 cm
positive. To find meta-centric height, find the location of centre of gravity
( G) and centre of buoyancy (B) of the combined solid cylinder. The distance
u_
of the centre of gravity of the solid cylinder from A is given as
AG= [(Weight of 1st part x Distance of C.G. of 1st part from A)
T A
Sp.gr= 6.0
Fig. 4.15
+ (Weight of 2nd part of cylinder
x Distance of C.G. of 2nd part from A)]
+ [Weight of 1st part+ weight of 2nd part]
(: D 2 xl.Ox6.0xO.s)+(: D 2 x39.0x0.6x(l.Ox39/2))
=----~------------~----
(: D 2 X 1.0 X 6.0 + : D 2 X 39 X 0.6)
1.0 X 6.0 X 0.5 + 39.0 X .6 X (20.5)

=
1.0 X 6.0 + 39.0 X 0.6
1t 2 3.0 + 479.7 482.7
Cancel - D in the Numerator and Denominator=----= - - = 16.42.
4 6.0 + 23.4 29.4
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To find the centre of buoyancy of the combined two parts or of the cylinder, determine the depth
of immersion of the cylinder. Let the depth of immersion of the cylinder is h. Then
Weight of the cylinder= Weight of water displaced
~ X (.1)2 X 39 ·0 X 600 X 9.81 + ~ (.1)2 X LO X 6000 X 9.81 = ~ (.1)2 X ...!!__ X 1000 X 9.81
4 100 4 100 4 100
[·: his in cm]
or cance ll mg 1000
. -7t ( . l) 2 x - -X-9.81
- th roug hout, we get
4 100
39.0 x 0.6 + 1.0 x 6.0 = h or h = 23.4 + 6.0 = 29.4
The distance of the centre of the buoyancy B, of the cylinder from A is
AB= h/2 = 29.4 = 14.7

2
BG= AG - AB = 16.42 - 14.70 = 1.72 cm.
Meta-centric height GM is given by
I
GM=--BG
"d
where I= M.0.1. of plan of the body about Y-Y axis
= ~ D4 = ~ (10) 4 cm4
64 .64
"d = Volume of cylinder in water
= ~ D 2 X h = ~ (10)2 X 29.4 m3
4 4
.!_ =
\;/
~
64
oo) 4 /~oo)2 x 29.4 = _!_ x 102
4 16 29.4
= 100
19 X 29.4
= 0.212
GM= 0.212 - 1.72 = - 1.508 cm

As GM is - ve, it means that the Meta-centre M is below the centre of gravity (G). Thus the
cylinder is in unstable equilibrium and so it cannot float vertically in water. Ans.
Problem 4.14 A rectangular pontoon 10.0 m long, 7 m broad and 2.5 m deep weighs 686.7 kN. It
carries on its upper deck an empty boiler of 5.0 m diameter weighing 588.6 kN. The centre of gravity
of the boiler and the pontoon are at their respective centres along a vertical line. Find the meta-centric
height. Weight density of sea water is 10.104 kN/m 3 •
Solution. Given : Dimension of pontoon = 10 x 7 x 2.5
Weight of pontoon, W1 = 686.7 kN
T
5.0 m
Dia. of boiler, D = 5.0 m
Weight of boiler, W2 = 588.6 kN
w for sea water = 10.104 kN/m 3
To find the meta-centric height, first determine the common cen- IA
tre of gravity G and common centre of buoyancy B of the boiler and • - - 1.0 m-1
,....I
pontoon. Let G 1 and G2 are the centre of gravities of pontoon and Fig. 4.16
boiler respectively. Then
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2.5 y
AG 1 = - = 1.25 m
2
5.0
AG 2 = 2.5 + - = 2.5 + 2.5 = 5.0 m
2
The distance of common centre of gravity G from A is given as
Wi
AG= - - - - - - - -
xAG, + W2 xAG2
Wi + Wz
I
10.0 m
686.7 X 1.25 + 588.6 X 5.0

= - - - - - - - - - = 2.98 m.
Let h is the depth of immersion. Then

(686.7 + 588.6)
Total weight of pontoon and boiler= Weight of sea water displaced

j
or (686.7 + 588.6) = w x Volume of the pontoon in water
I• 7.o~ --l
Fig. 4.17 Plan of the body
= 10.104 x L x b x Depth of immersion at water-line
1275.3 = 10.104 X 10 X 7 X h
1275.3
h = - - - - - = 1.803m
10 X 7 X 10.104
The distance of the common centre of buoyancy B from A is
AB=!!:_= l. 30 3 = .9015 m
2 2
BG= AG -AB= 2.98 - .9015 = 2.0785 m"" 2.078 m
Meta-centric height is given by GM = .!_ - BG

rt
where I= M.O.1. of the plan of the body at the water level along Y-Y
= _1_ X 10.0 X 73 = 10 X 49 X 7 m4
12 12
rt = Volume of the body in water
=L X b X h = 10.0 X 7 X 1.857
/ 10 X 49 X 7 49
= - - - - - - = - - - = 2.198 m
rt 12x10x7xl.857 12xl.857
I
GM= - - BG= 2.198 - 2.078 = 0.12 m.
rt
Meta-centric height of both the pontoon and boiler = 0.12 m. Ans.
Problem 4.15 A wooden cylinder of sp. gr. = 0.6 and circular in cross-section is required to float
in oil (sp. gr. = 0.90). Find the LID ratio for the cylinder to float with its longitudinal axis vertical
in oil, where L is the height of cylinder and D is its diameter.
Solution. Given :
Dia. of cylinder =D
Height of cylinder =L
Sp. gr. of cylinder, S1 = 0.6
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Sp. gr. of oil S2 = 0.9
Let the depth of cylinder immersed in oil = h
t
For the principle of buoyancy
Weight of cylinder = wt. of oil displaced - - -
L
~ D2 XL X 0.6 X 1000 X 9.81= ~ D 2 X h X 0.9 X 1000 X 9.81 h
l
B
4 4
or L X 0.6 = h
h
X 0.9
= 0.6 X L = ~ L. D
A
1
0.9 3
Fig. 4.18
The distance of centre of gravity G from A, AG = L
2
The distance of centre of buoyancy B from A,
AB=~=½ [½L] = ~
BG =AG _ AB = L _ L = 3L - 2L =L
2 3 6 6
The meta-centric height GM is given by
I
GM=--BG
"d
where I = ~ D 4 and "d = Volume of cylinder in oil=~ D 2 x h

64 4
3D 2 L
GM=---.
32L 6
For stable equilibrium, GM should be +ve or
3D 2 L
GM> 0 or ->0
32L 6
3D 2 L 3x6 L2
or -->- or -->-
32L 6 32 D2
L2 18 9
or -<- or
D2 32 16
~ <Hi=¾
LID < 3/4. Ans.
Problem 4.16 Show that a cylindrical buoy of 1 m diameter and 2.0 m height weighing 7.848 kN
will not float vertically in sea water of density 1030 kg/m 3 • Find the force necessary in a vertical
chain attached at the centre of base of the buoy that will keep it vertical.
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Solution. Given: Dia. of buoy, D = 1 m
Height , H = 2.0 m
Weight, W = 7 .848 kN
= 7.848 x 1000 = 7848 N
Density, p = 1030 kg/m 3
(i) Show the cylinder will not float vertically.
(ii) Find the force in the chain.
Part I. The cylinder will not float if meta-centric height is -ve.
Let the depth of immersion be h 2.0 h
Then for equilibrium, Weight of cylinder
= Weight of water displaced
A
-11
= Density x g x Volume of cylinder in water
l-1.0-I
7848 = 1030 X 9.81 X ~ D2 X h Fig. 4.19
4
= 10104.3 X ~ (1)2 X h
4
h =
4 X 7848 = 0.989 m.
10104.3 X 7t
The distance of centre of buoyancy B from A,
AB= !!:_ = 0 ·989 =0.494 m.

2 2
And the distance of centre of gravity G, from A is AG = 2 ·0 = 1.0 m

2
BG = AG - AB = 1.0 - .494 = .506 m.
I
Now meta-centric height GM is given by GM=--BG
"d
and "d = Volume of cylinder in water= ~ D 2 x h = ~ 12 x .989

4 4
- 7t X 14 -7t x 14
I
- = 64 64
"d ~D 2 xh ~ X 12 X .989
4 4
= _!_ X t2 X _l_ = __l__ = 0.063 m
16 .989 16 X .989
GM = .063 -
.506 =- 0.443 m. Ans.
As the meta-centric height is -ve, the point M lies below G and hence the cylinder will be in
unstable equilibrium and hence cylinder will not float vertically.
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Part II. Let the force applied in a vertical chain attached at the centre
of the base of the buoy is T to keep the buoy vertical.
Now find the combined position of centre of gravity (G') and centre of - : : =: ·
buoyancy (B'). For the combined centre of buoyancy, let
J
h' = depth of immersion when the force Tis applied. Then G' h'
Total downward force= Weight of water displaced
or (7848 + D = Density of water x g x Volume of cylinder in water B'
= 1030 x 9 .81 x ~ D' x h' [ where h' = depth of immersion ] '-------+------

A
4
T
7848 + T 7848 + T 10104.3 + T Fig . 4.20
W= = =----m
10104.3 X ~ X D2 10104.3 X ~ X i2 7935.9
4 4
= _!_ [7848 + T] = 7848 + T m.
AB'= h'
2 2 7935.9 15871.8
The combined centre of gravity ( G') due to weight of cylinder and due to tension T in the chain
from A is
AG'= [Wt. of cylinder x Distance of C.G. of cylinder from A
+ T x Distance of C.G. of T from A] + [Weight of cylinder+ T]
2
= ( 7848x-+Tx0 )
+ [7848 + T] = -7848
-- m
2 n48+T
B'G' = AG' -AB'= 7848 (7848 + T)

(7848 + T) 15871.8
The meta-centric height GM is given by GM= .!_ - B'G'

"d
where = ~ x D4 = ~ x 14 = ~ m4
64 64 64
and "d = ~ D2 X h' = ~ X l 2 X (7848 + T) =~ X 7848 + T

4 4 7935.9 4 7935.9
7t
I
=
64 = _!_ X 7935.9
"d 1t (7848 + T) 16 (7848 + T)
4 7935.9
7935.9 [ 7848 (7848 + T)l
GM= 16 (7848 + T) - (7848 + T) - 15871.8
For stable equilibrium GM should be positive
or GM> 0
7935.9 [ 7848 (7848 + T)l

or
16 (7848 + T) - (7848 + T) - 15871.8 > O
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7935.9 7848 7848 + T 0
or ----+--->
16(7848+T) (7848+T) 15871.8
7935.9 - 16 X 7848 (7848 + T) O
or -------+---->
16 (7848 + T) 15871.8
-117632 (7848+T) O
or -----+---->
16 (7848 + T) 15871.8
(7848 + T) 117632
or ---->-----
15871.8 16 (7848 + T)
or (7848 + D2 > 117632 X 15871.8
16.0
> 116689473.5
> (10802.3) 2
7848 + T > 10802.3
T > 10802.3 - 7848
> 2954.3 N. Ans.
The force in the chain must be at least 2954.3 N so that the cylindrical buoy can be kept in
vertical position. Ans.
Problem 4.17 A solid cone floats in water with its apex downwards. Determine the least apex angle
of cone for stable equilibrium. The specific gravity of the material of the cone is given 0.8.
Solution. Given :
Sp. gr. of cone = 0.8
Density of cone, p = 0.8 X 1000 = 800 kg/m 3
Let D = Dia. of the cone
d = Dia. of cone at water level
20 = Apex angle of cone
H = Height of cone
h = Depth of cone in water d-1
E
G = Centre of gravity of the cone
B = Centre of buoyancy of the cone
For the cone, the distance of centre of gravity from the apex A is
AC= ¾height of cone = ¾H
G
C
B l H
also AB = ¾depth of cone in water = ¾h
Volume of water displaced = ½nr2 x h A
j_J
Volume of cone = ½x nR 2 x h Fig. 4.21
:. Weight of cone = 800 X g X 1 X nR 2 XH

EF R
Now from MEF, tan 0 = - = -
EA H
R=Htan0
Similarly, r=htan0
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3 2
:. Weight of cone -_ 800 x g x 1
3 x 1t x (H tan 0)2 x H- 800XgX7tXH
- _____ 3_ _tan
__ 0
Weight of water displaced = 1000 x g x ½x nr2 x h

1000 X g X 1t X h 3 tan 2 0
= 1000 X g X ½X 1t(h tan 0)2 X h = ------"-------
3.0
For equilibrium
Weight of cone = Weight of water displaced
800 X g X 1t X H 3 tan 2 0 _ 1000 X 9.81 X 1t X h 3 X tan 2 0
or
io io
or 800 X H3 = 1000 X h3
113
H 3 = 1000 x h3 or H = (1000)
800 h 800
For stable equilibrium, Meta-centric height GM should be positive. But GM is given by
I
GM= --BG
'if
where I= M.0.1. of cone at water-line= ~ ct"
64
'if= Volume of cone in water=_!_~ d 2 x h
34
_!_ = !!:_ d 4 /_!_ X 1t d 2 X h
'if 64 34
= lx3 x£= 3d 2 =_i_x(2r)2 =le
16 h 16h 16h 4 h
3 (htan0) 2
= { ·: r = h tan 0}
4 h
= ¾h tan2 0
and BG= AG-AB= ¾H-¾h = ¾(H-h)
GM = ¾h tan2 0 - ¾(H - h)
For stable equilibrium GM should be positive or
¾h tan 2 0 - ¾(H - h) > 0 or h tan2 0 - (H - h) > 0
or h tan 2 0 > (H - h) or h tan2 0 + h > H
H
or h[tan2 0 + l] > H or 1 + tan 2 0 > H/h or sec2 0 > -
h
113
But -H -_ (1000)
-- -_ 1.077
h 800
1
sec2 0 > 1.077 or cos 2 0 > - - = 0.9285
1.077
cos 0 > 0.9635
0> 15° 30' or 20 > 31°
Apex angle (20) should be at least 31°. Ans.
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Problem 4.18 A cone of specific gravity S, is floating in water with its apex downwards. It has a
diameter D and vertical height H. Show that for stable equilibrium of the cone H < .!_ [ D •
2 2-S
2
s;;; ] 112
Solution. Given : ~ d ------.1

Dia. of cone =D
Height of cone = H
PLAN OF
Sp. gr. of cone = S CONE AT
WATER LINE
Let G = Centre of gravity of cone
B = Centre of buoyancy
i- 0 - 1
20 = Apex angle
A = Apex of the cone
h = Depth of immersion
yT -
H
l
d = Dia. of cone at water surface h
Then AG= l
4
H
A
1
Fig. 4.22
AB= l h
4
Also weight of cone =Weight of water displaced.
1
1000 s X g X t rcR 2 X H = 1000 X g X -rcr2 X h
3
or SR 2 H = r2h
SR 2 H
h= --2-
r
R r
But tan0=-=-
H h
R = H tan 0, r = h tan 0
sx(Htan0)2 xH
h=----~--
(h tan 0)2
SxH xtan 0xH 2 2 3
h =- - h-2 tan - SH
- 2-0 - - - 7 or h 3 = SH 3
or h = (SH3)113 = 5 113 H ... (1)

Distance, BG=AG-AB
= l H- l h= l (H- h) = l (H- s 113 H) { ·: h = 5113 H}

4 4 4 4
= l
H[l - 5113] ... (2)
4
Also I= M.O. Inertia of the plan of body at water surface
= _!!_ d4
64
"ii= Volume of cone in water= _!_ x ~ x d 2 x h = _!_~ d 2 [H.S 113]
3 4 34
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~I IL
~d4
I = 64 3d 2 _
\;;/ !_ x ~d2 H.S"3 - 16.H.S" 3
3 4
Now Meta-centric height GM is given as
GM =.!_ - BG =3d 2 - 3H [l - S"3 ]

\;;/ 16.H.S 113 4
GM should be +ve for stable equilibrium or GM> 0
3d 2 3H
or --...,....,.,... - - (1 - Sl/3) > 0
16.H.S 113 4
2
3d ~
or -- > _3H (1 _ Sl/3) ... (3)
16.H.S 113 4
Also we know R = H tan 0 and r = h tan 0
R H D
=-=-
r h d
d = Dh = D X HSl/3 = DSl/3
H H
Substituting the value of d in equation (3), we get
3 (vs1'3)2 v2 .s113
-----,-,-,,.- > 3H (1 - Sl/3) or - - - > H (1 - Sl/3)
16.H.S 113 4 4.H
v2 .s113 v2 .s113
or - - - - >H2 or H2< 4(1-Sl/3)
4(1-S 112 )
or H < 1-_ [ D2 .Si~: ]112. Ans.

2 1-S
• 4.8 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD OF DETERMINATION OF META-CENTRIC

HEIGHT
The meta-centric height of a floating vessel can be determined, provided we know the centre of
gravity of the floating vessel. Let w 1 is a known weight placed over the centre of the vessel as shown in
Fig. 4.23 (a) and the vessel is floating .
(a) Floating body (b) Tilted body
Fig. 4.23 Meta-centric height.
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~I IL

Let W = Weight of vessel including w 1
G = Centre of gravity of the vessel
B = Centre of buoyancy of the vessel
The weight w 1 is moved across the vessel towards right through a distance x as shown in Fig. 4.23 (b).
The vessel will be tilted. The angle of heel 0 is measured by means of a plumbline and a protractor
attached on the vessel. The new centre of gravity of the vessel will shift to G 1 as the weight w 1 has been
moved towards the right. Also the centre of buoyancy will change to B 1 as the vessel has tilted. Under
equilibrium, the moment caused by the movement of the load w 1 through a distance x must be equal to
the moment caused by the shift of the centre of gravity from G to G 1• Thus
The moment due to change of G = GG 1 x W = W x GM tan 0
The moment due to movement of w 1 = w 1 xx
w 1x = WGM tan 0
Hence GM= ... (4.5)
Problem 4.19 A ship 70 m long and 10 m broad has a displacement of 19620 kN. A weight of
343.35 kN is moved across the deck through a distance of 6 m. The ship is tilted through 6°. The
moment of inertia of the ship at water-line about its fore and aft axis is 75% of M.O.I. of the
circumscribing rectangle. The centre of buoyancy is 2.25 m below water-line. Find the meta-centric
height and position of centre of gravity of ship. Specific weight of sea water is 10104 N/m 3•
Solution. Given :
Length of ship, L=70m
Breadth of ship, b = 10m
Displacement, W= 19620 kN
Angle of heel, 0 = 6°
M.0.1. of ship at water-line = 75% of M.0.1. of circumscribing rectangle
w for sea-water = 10104 N/m3 = 10.104 kN/m3
Movable weight, W1 = 343.35 kN
Distance moved by w 1, x=6m

Centre of buoyancy = 2.25 m below water surface
Find (i) Meta-centric height, GM
(ii) Position of centre of gravity, G.
(i) Meta-centric height, GM is given by equation (4.5)
w 1X 343.35 kN X 6.0
GM= ----'-- =- - - - - - -
W tan 0 19620 kN x tan6°
= 343.35 kN x 6.0 = 0 _999 m. Ans.
19620 kN X .1051
(ii) Position of Centre of Gravity, G
I
GM=--BG
';;/
where I= M.0.1. of the ship at water-line about Y-Y
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~I IL

y
r--
I
?Om
WATER LINE
2.25
y
__ j
i-10m-i
Fig.4.24 Fig.4.25
= 75% of _l x 70 x 103 = .75 x _l x 70 x 103 = 4375 m4

12 12
. . Weight of ship 19620 3
and "i/ = Volume of ship m water= - - - - - - - - - = - - = 1941.74 m
Weight density of water 10.104
.!_ = 4375
= 2.253 m
"i/
1941.74
GM= 2.253 - BG or .999 = 2.253 - BG
BG = 2.253 -
.999 = 1.254 m.
From Fig. 4.25, it is clear that the distance of G from free surface of the water = distance of B
from water surface - BG
= 2.25 - 1.254 = 0.996 m. Ans.
Problem 4.20 A pontoon of 15696 kN displacement is floating in water. A weight of 245.25 kN is
moved through a distance of 8 m across the deck of pontoon, which tilts the pontoon through an angle
4°. Find meta-centric height of the pontoon.
Solution. Given :
Weight of pontoon = Displacement
or W= 15696 kN
Movable weight, W1 = 245.25 kN
Distance moved by weight w 1, x = 8 m

Angle of heel, 0 = 4°
The meta-centric height, GM is given by equation (4.5)
W1 x 245.25 kN x 8
or GM=-~-=-------
W tan 0 15696 kN x tan 4°
1962
= - - - - - - = 1.788 m. Ans.
15696 X 0.0699
• 4.9 OSCILLATION (ROLLING) OF A FLOATING BODY

Consider a floating body, which is tilted through an angle by an overturning couple as shown in
Fig. 4.26. Let the overturning couple is suddenly removed. The body will start oscillating. Thus, the
-11
~I IL

body will be in a state of oscillation as if suspended at the meta-centre M. This is similar to the case of
a pendulum. The only force acting on the body is due to the restoring couple due to the weight W of
the body force of buoyancy FB ·
y
-~1~
Z '
w <(
0:: t-=
0 ,U.
u. <(
=--==-=-=:_-:--:---
Fig.4.26
Restoring couple = W x Distance GA
= W x GM sin 0 ... (i)
This couple tries to decrease the angle
d 20
Angular acceleration of the body, a= - - - 2.
dt
-ve sign has been introduced as the restoring couple tries to decrease the angle 0.
Torque due to inertia = Moment of Inertia about Y-Y x Angular acceleration
= ly.y X ( ddt20)
-
2
But ly.y =
w K2
g
where W = Weight of body, K = Radius of gyration about Y-Y
Inertia torque = W K2 (- d 20 ) =- W K 2 d 28 ... ( ii)
g dt 2 g dt 2
Equating (i) and (ii), we get
. W 2 d 20 K 2 d 20
W x GMsm 0= - - K - 2- or GM sin 0 = - - - -
g dt g dt 2
For small angle 0, sin 0 = 0
K 2 d 20 K 2 d 20
GM x 0 = - - -- or --+GMx0=O
g dt 2 g dt 2
K2 2
. .d.mg by - , we get
D 1v1 0 GM x g x 0 = O
-d 2-+ 2
g dt K
The above equation is a differential equation of second degree. The solution is
0 = C 1 sm
. ✓K2
GM.g x t + C2 cos
✓ GM.g
K
xt
2 ... ( iii)
-11
~I IL

where C 1 and C2 are constants of integration.
The values of C 1 and C2 are obtained from boundary conditions which are
(i) att = 0, 0 = 0
(ii) att = T, 0 = 0
2
where T is the time period of one complete oscillation.
Substituting the 1st boundary condition in (iii), we get
0 = C1 X O + C2 X 1 { ·: sin 0 = 0, cos 0 = 1}
C2 = 0
Substituting 2nd boundary conditions in (iii), we get
0 = C sin {GX1.g X T
l V~ 2
But C 1 cannot be equal to zero and so the other alternative is
. ✓ GM.g T
sm ~ x 2 =0=sin1t {·: sin 7t = O}
{GX1.g X T
V~ 2
= 1t or T = 21t ✓ GM.g
K
2
... (4.6)
Time period of oscillation is given by equation (4.6).

Problem 4.21 The least radius of gyration of a ship is 8 m and meta-centric height 70 cm. Calcu-
late the time period of oscillation of the ship.
Solution. Given :
Least radius of gyration, K = 8 m
Meta-centric height, GM= 70 cm= 0.70 m
The time period of oscillation is given by equation (4.6).
8x8
, - - - - = 19.18 sec. Ans.
0.7 X 9.81
Problem 4.22 The time period of rolling of a ship of weight 29430 kN in sea water is 10 seconds.
The centre of buoyancy of the ship is 1.5 m below the centre of gravity. Find the radius of gyration of
the ship if the moment of inertia of the ship at the water line about fore and aft axis is 1000 m4• Take
specific weight of sea water as= 10100 N/m 3•
Solution. Given :
Time period, T = 10 sec
Distance between centre of buoyancy and centre of gravity, BG = 1.5 m
Moment of Inertia, / = 10000 m 4
Weight, W = 29430 kN = 29430 x 1000 N
Let the radius of gyration = K
First calculate the meta-centric height GM, which is given as
I
GM= BM-BG= - -BG
';;/
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~I IL

where I= M.O. Inertia
and V = Volume of water displaced
= Weight of ship = 29430 x 1000 = 2912 _6 m3
Sp. weight of sea water 10104
10000
GM= - - - 1.5 = 3.433 - 1.5 = 1.933 m.
2912.6
21tK
or 10 = 27t ,_ _ _ _ _ =----;:=====
1.933 X 9 .81 .Jl.933 X 9.81
10 X .Jl.933 X 9.81
or K =- - - - - - - = 6.93 m. Ans.
27t
HIGHLIGHTS
1. The upward force exerted by a liquid on a body when the body is immersed in the liquid is known as
buoyancy or force of buoyancy.
2. The point through which force of buoyancy is supposed to act is called centre of buoyancy.
3. The point about which a body starts oscillating when the body is tilted is known as meta-centre.
4. The distance between the meta-centre and centre of gravity is known as meta-centric height.
I
5. The meta-centric height (GM) is given by GM= \::/ - BG
where I = Moment of Inertia of the floating body (in plan) at water surface about the axis Y-Y
V = Volume of the body sub-merged in water
BG = Distance between centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy.
6. Conditions of equilibrium of a floating and sub-merged body are :
Equilibrium Floating Body Sub-merged Body

(i) Stable Equilibrium Mis above G Bis above G
(ii) Unstable Equilibrium Mis below G Bis below G
(iii) Neutral Equilibrium M and G coincide B and G coincide
W1X
7. The value of meta-centric height GM, experimentally is given as GM= - - ' - -
W tan 0
where w 1 = Movable weight
x = Distance through which w 1 is moved
W = Weight of the ship or floating body including w 1
0 = Angle through the ship or floating body is tilted due to the movement of w 1 •
8. The time period of oscillation or rolling of a floating body is given by T = 2rc
where K = Radius of gyration, GM= Meta-centric height

v~
~
T = Time of one complete oscillation.
-11

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SASURIE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING 1

• 1.2 PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Weight of fluid (Mass of fluid) x Acceleration due to gravity

=pxg { ·: Mass of fluid = p}

1.1. INTRODUCTION TO FLUIDS

(i) It is unable to retain any unsupported shape.

(iii) A fluid in equilibrium cannot sustain any shear.

(vi) The rate of strain is directly proportional to the applied stress.

1.1.1. Distinction between Solid and Fluid

Fluid Properties and Fluid Statics ( 1.3

1.2. CONTINUUM CONCEPT

Figure 1.1 Concept of continuum

( 1.4 Fluid Mechanics

Mathematically, the density at a point A can be defined as

1.3. UNITS AND DIMENSIONS

echanics Fluid Properties and Fluid Statics 1.5

e volume 1. C. G.S units:

4. S.J. units (/ntemational systems of units):

Table 1.1 Basic units of S.L system

Quantity Units Symbol

Electric current Ampere A

Table 1.2 Derived units of S.I. system

Density (mass) kg!ni3

( 1.6 Fluid Mechanics

Surface tension Nim

Angular velocity radls

Dynamic viscosity Nslni2

Kinematic viscosity ni2ls

Thermal conductivity WlmK

Specific heat JlkgK

1.4. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

1.4.1. Mass Density (p)

Specific volunze is defined as the volume of fluid occupied by unit mass.

1.4.3. Specific Weight {w)

Specific weight is also known as "weight density".

1.4.4. Specific Gravity ( S)

. . Specific weight of a given fluid

For gases, hydrogen or air is chosen.

( 1.8 Fluid Mechanics

Density of the given liquid = Specific gravity of liquid x Density of water

1.4.5. Pressure (p}

1'he \\nit of pressure in S.l. unit is N/ni2 or Pascal (Pa).

1 bar= 10 5 Nlm 2 = 105 Pa=0.l MPa = l00kPa

I. Atmospheric pressure (p 01,,J:

3. Vacuum pressure (pvaJ:

- Mechanics Fluid Properties and Fluid Statics [ 1.9

Atmospheric pressure Atmospheric

Figure;/2 Pressure rdationship

4. Absolute pressure (p 0 b_J:

Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure

P abs = P atm - Pvac

h = Height of the liquid in the cylinder.

The pressure is given by the expression

( 1.10 Fluid Mechanics

Temperature is defined as a measure of velocity of the fluid particles. This property is

Celsius scale Kelvin scale

Figure 1.3 Temperature scale

wher T- Temperature on Kelvin scale

- · Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP):

= KpD 2V 2cl>(t_) . Ans.